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Micro and Macro Approaches to Environmental Education

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Micro and Macro Approaches to Environmental Education MICRO AND MACRO APPROACHES TO ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION MORGAN HOPE PHILLIPS FRANCIS CLOSE HALL LEARNING CENTRE UNIVERSITY OF GLOUCESTERSHIRE Swindon Road, Cheltenham GLSO 4Al Tel: 01242 714600 A thesis submitted to The University of Gloucestershire In accordance with the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy In the Faculty of Education, Humanities and Social Sciences April2008 FOR REFERENCE ONLY Paginated blank pages are scanned as found in original thesis No information • • • IS missing Abstract The root cause of the majority of environmental problems lies not in surface manifestations such as carbon dioxide and ozone, but with social and cultural factors that encourage people to consume far more than they need. Environmental education can be divided into two main kinds: micro approaches, which the majority of current approaches fall under, and macro approaches, which are currently emerging. Micro environmental education considers environmental problems in terms of surface manifestations, and proposes micro-changes such as recycling to address them, without questioning the possibility of a cultural shift away from consumerism. This form of environmental education typically seeks to change the behaviour of social actors by building and appealing to their environmental consciousness in the expectation that they will act rationally. It is argued here that this expectation fails to recognise that social actors are subject to plural rationalities and that their behaviour is driven by complex interrelationships with other social actors. As a result, micro environmental education, despite its best intentions, often fails to adequately address and change the environmentally unsustainable behaviour of the social actors it targets. This thesis firstly aims to uncover why micro approaches to environmental education exist and persist. Primary qualitative research with environmental educators drawn from formal, free-choice and accidental channels of environmental education was conducted and is presented alongside a review of the historical development of environmental education. The second aim of this thesis is to argue against a reliance on micro approaches to environmental education and environmentalism in general and propose instead that environmental education becomes embedded within a wider macro approach. Macro approaches seek to change behaviour through the development of a critical understanding of interrelationships among social actors, leading ultimately to environmentally positive changes in them. Findings from the primary research also help reveal the conditions necessary for macro approaches to emerge from the current environmental education infrastructure. The thesis concludes that macro environmental education is both necessary and possible and calls for further research into its development and practice. 11 I declare that the work in this thesis was carried out in accordance with the regulations of the University of Gloucestershire and is original except where indicated by specific reference in the text. No part of this thesis has been submitted as part of any other academic award. The thesis has not been presented to any other education institution in the United Kingdom or overseas Any views expressed in the thesis are those of the author and in no way represent those of the University. Signed Date201~N.lN~ 100.1 111 Acknowledgements I would like to thank the following for their invaluable support, advice and inspiration: Dr Mike Littledyke, Dr Arran Stibbe, Dr Chris Oulton, Miss Emma McQuillan, Mr Richard Phillips, Mrs Ann Phillips, Mrs Ellen Winfield, Mr Oafydd Winfield, Mr Glyn Phillips, Mr Chris Guest, Mrs Rachel Guest, Dr Hessom Ravazi, Mr James Pope and everyone at Ten 4 design. IV Contents Page Abstract II Declaration III Acknowledgements IV Contents V List of boxes IX List of figures IX List of tables IX Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Thesis Introduction 1 l.l.1 The origins of this thesis 1 1.1.2 Micro and Macro approaches to environmental 3 education - a brief introduction 1.1.3 Aims and Research Questions 7 1.1.4 Thesis outline 8 1.2 The Knowledge-Action gap 8 1.2.1 A Simple linear model? 8 1.2.2 The dangers of using an information deficit model 13 1.3 The Macro Approach 20 1.3.1 Macromarketing 20 1.3.2 Complexity 21 1.3.3 From micro to macro 23 1.4 Conclusion 24 ~bBl!l~r 2 CODsum~rgm and the Ro!!l of Environmental 26 Problems - a macro perspective 2.1 Consumerism is built on sand 26 2.2 Consumption and the Environment 26 2.2.1 Population, technology and social interrelationships 27 2.2.2 The root of environmental problems 30 2.3 The Consumer culture 32 2.3.1 Entering the age of Afl1uenza 33 2.3.1.1 The Commodity-sign relationship 35 2.3.1.2 Consumerism and spiritual impoverishment 36 2.3.1.3 The birth of a project - striving for happiness 38 2.4 An ongoing project - sustaining economic growth 45 2.4.1 Demand Creation 46 2.4.2 Endless cycle of self-deception 50 2.4.3 Buying an identity 51 2.4.4 Luxury fever 51 2.4.5 Oniomania 52 2.5 Conclusion 53 v Chanter 3 The Human-Environment relationshin and the 55 Environmental movement 3.1 The Human-Environment relationship 56 3.2 Dualism, nature loving and the environmental 56 movement 3.3 Environmentalism and consumerism: Happy 57 together? 3.4 Can we go a bit deeper? 59 Chanter 4 Environmental Education in the 211tCentury 63 4.1 A brief history of Environmental Education 63 4.1.1 The birth of Environmental Education 63 4.1.2 Education for Sustainable Development 71 4.2 Formal Environmental Education 76 4.2.1 Rhetoric and action? 78 4.2.2 Sustainable Education? 84 4.3 Informal, Non-formal, Free choice and Accidental 91 Environmental Education 4.3.1 The Environmental Education Infrastructure 91 4.3.2 Education for and against the environment 93 4.3.3 An expanding environmental education infrastructure 100 4.3.4 Issues in an expanding environmental education 104 infrastructure 4.3.4.1 The Alarmist repertoire 104 4.3.4.2 Optimistic Repertoire 1:It'll be alright 107 4.3.4.3 Optimistic Repertoire 2: It'll be alright if we do 109 something 4.4 Conclusion 114 Chanter 5 Methodology 116 5.1 Quantitative or Qualitative research? 117 5.2 The Semi-structured interview 119 5.2.1 The nature of semi-structured interviews 121 5.3 The Case Study in Environmental Education 123 5.3.1 The Qualitative Case Study 123 5.3.2 The use of case study in Environmental Education 127 5.3.3 Issues in case study design 130 5.4 Interview design and conduct 132 5.4.1 Accessing and selecting a sample of environmental 132 educators 5.4.2 Initial Contact and Pre-Interview communications 134 5.4.3 The interviewer - interviewee relationship 136 5.4.4 Interview preamble 137 5.4.5 The Interview schedule 139 5.4.6 Interview transcript and amendments 141 5.4.7 Coding the data in preparation for analysis 142 VI 5.5 Participant profiles 142 5.5.1 Cam Paine 143 5.5.2 Clare Parks 143 5.5.3 Dev Sustain 144 5.5.4 Ed Townsend 144 5.5.5 George Teacher 144 5.5.6 Georgina Young-Teach 145 5.5.7 Laura Green-Schools 145 5.5.8 Nat Charity 146 5.5.9 Phil Maker 146 5.5.10 Rhian Cycler 146 5.5.11 Simon Chat 147 5.5.12 Sundae Reader 147 5.5.13 WaIter Native 148 5.5.l4 Woody Leamer 148 5.5.15 Artie Pilot 148 5.5.16 Conner Sultan 148 5.6 Conclusion 149 Chal!ier 6 EXl!lorinKthe fagors shal!inK micro !!l!l!roaches 150 Bnd the l!S!tentialfS!rma~ro BI!I!r2Bchests!emerKe -I!art 1 6.1 Re-cap of Sample studied 151 6.2 Internal (actors influencing design and delivery of 152 Environmental Education 6.2.1 The impact of educators' beliefs 152 6.2.2 Coping with the knowledge action gap 157 6.2.2.1 Settle for awareness raising approaches and/or carry 159 on regardless 6.2.2.2 Environmental education on issues for which 162 increased knowledge can lead to observable behaviour change 6.3 External Factors influencing design and delivery 166 of Environmental Education 6.3.1 Funding 167 6.3.1.1 Entrepreneurial Environmental Education? 170 6.3.2 The National Curriculum 172 6.3.2.1 National Curriculum and formal educators 178 6.3.3 The influence of natural resources on issues covered 183 and approach taken 6.3.4 The effect of audiences on the design and delivery of 185 environmental education 6.3.4.1 Attracting, engaging and retaining an audience 185 6.3.4.2 The impact of audience's perceptions of the 188 environmental educator 6.4 Identifying the potential for macro approaches 192 6.5 Conclusion 200 VII Chanter 7 ExulorinK the factors ~hauinK micro auuroaches 201 and the I!otential for macro aunroa£hes to emerKe - I!art 2 7.1 Artie Pilot 201 7.1.1 Designing 'Sustainability and the Arts' 203 7.1.2 Delivering 'Sustainability and the Arts' 207 7.2 Conner Sultan 210 7.2.1 A macro approach to environmental education - 211 Exploring the detail 7.2.2 Delivering macro approaches to environmental 217 education 7.3 Conclusion 220 ChanterS On tbe I!gssibili!l: of macro environm~ntal 221 edu£ation S.l Tbe Emergence of Macro Environmental 223 Education? S.I.1 Edward Bemays and The Hidden Persuaders 223 8.1.2 Happiness as Feeling or Happiness as Authenticity? 227 8.1.3 Recent evidence of macro environmental education 230 8.1.3.1 Downshifting 231 8.1.3.2 The Idler 232 8.1.3.3 Do good lives have to cost the Earth? 233 8.1.3.4 Enough 233 S.2 The Big Question - if not growth tben what? 235 Chanter9 Conelustons and recgmmendations 238 9.1 Limitations 239 9.2 Recommendations 240 References 242 Anoendices Page Appendix 1.1 Initial approach to participants 256 Appendix 1.2 Follow up letter 258 Appendix 1.3 Informed consent form 263 Vlll List of boxes Box Page 5.1 Interview Schedule 139-140 List of figures Figure Page 1.1 A rationalistic model of action for sustainable development 9 1.2 The Knowledge-Action gap 9 1.3 Barriers between environmental concern and action II 2.1 Journey of one unit of natural resource 30 2.2 Maslow's Hierarchy of needs 39 2.3 The relationship between income and happiness in the United States 40 2.4 Life satisfaction and income growth in Japan, 1958-1992 41 2.5 'Shopping is Cheaper than a Psychiatrist' Photo of shopping bag 52 taken by M.
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