Studying the Ottomans:

Section 2: Ottomans in the Modern World (19th -early 20th C.)

Revolution in the Caliphate: Intellectuals and Islam - which way forward?

Nov. 14-16 Young Ottomans

Implementation of Tanzimat Reforms:

- largely unsuccessful

- too ‘radical’ for many (traditional groups, older elite classes)

- too moderate for those shaped by early 19th c. reforms (even later ‘rescript’ 1856)

1865: gathered secretly, formed Young Ottoman Society (‘Patriotic Alliance’) in Istanbul Young Ottomans

Young Ottomans: - wanted to be distinguished from ‘Tanzimat’ reformers

- wanted more than ‘reformed’ Ottoman Empire --- wanted ‘Ottoman Nation’: constitution, democracy

- strongly influenced ideologically by European (especially French) ideals ‘democracy’

- but also tied to closely to ‘conservative’ Islam Young Ottomans

Disagreed on ‘methods’: - some in favour of ‘terrorist’ tactics

- some in favour of ‘working from within’ government

- some in favour of converting Sultan to new ideas

BUT: all agreed on ‘principles’ and need to overturn current regime Young Ottomans

Established newspaper ‘ Hurriyet’ (freedom, liberation):

- published articles, editorials on the ‘Muslim Ottoman’

- identified with non-ethnic based notion of ‘state’ (Ottoman) that was simultaneously ‘Islamic’

- understood that this would alienate non-Muslims in the ‘empire’ but many were already in rebellion…. Young Ottomans

Attracted distrust of ulama and government: - succeeded in having ministers appointed, influential journalists, some clerics: helped bring Abdul Hamid II to power 1876 [following two depositions]

- critical moment : ‘Eyes of Europe’ in Istanbul to discuss future of Balkans

- used ‘moment’ to push through first Ottoman Constitution

- Sultan succeeded in appearance as ‘western’, ‘modern’ Young Ottomans

Abdul Hamid II: - autocrat attracting much criticism (from Young Ottomans)

- also astute politician: -put constitution in place when it served his purpose (1876) - revoked it when it did not (1878) - political group divided; some stayed but most went into exile

- by 1878, movement had ceased to have influence Young Ottomans

[Armajani & Ricks, 170-2]

“The Young Ottomans were perhaps the first ideologists of Islam in modern times who tried to take the ‘best of the West’ and graft it onto Islam.

They failed because their picture of the purity of the Medina Caliphate was a figment of their imaginations”

…. Young Ottomans

… In Islam the principle of paying allegiance to a newly elected caliph was a prerogative of only a few, and the idea of consultation was to strengthen the government for the people and not by them…. Government is most certainly of God and not of the people.” Young Ottomans

Who was the typical Young Ottoman? - son of highly placed family

- educated in new, secular schools

- frustrated in attempts to advance to highest government circles

- party’s opposition reflected both personal self-interest and genuine philosophy . Young Ottomans

While in exile (Europe, many in Paris): - mainly supported by personal, family money

- political parties associated with Young Ottomans as well as several, sympathetic newspapers funded by Egyptian Prince, Mustafa Fazil

- both (parties, papers) reflected his convictions

- also his desire to blackmail Ottoman government into making him governor Young Ottomans

Young Ottomans: - writings had great effect on those who wished change

- many ‘Young Turks’ had origins in this intellectual movement Young Ottomans (19th C) Young Turks c.1907-8 Young Turks

Abdulhamid II: - immediately introduced restrictive policies, soon revoked first constitution; developed ‘spy’ system

- led to new political objectors: - Jewish intellectuals, secret societies, publications - other ‘heirs’ to Young Ottomans

1889: - students Imperial Medical Academy instigated conspiracy - plot uncovered; most fled to Paris “Three Policies” (1904)

(Editor’s Introduction, slightly modified): - Akcura's Uc Tarz-i Siyaset appeared in newspaper TURK, 1904 (Nos. 24-34) Cairo (British ‘Protectorate’)

- result of censorship in Istanbul

- work reprinted 1912 in Istanbul as pamphlet [important point in analyzing impact of work] Yusuf Akcura (1876-1935)

Document gives political view from ‘the margin’: - Ackura originally from Russian territory

- grew up, schooled Military College Istanbul

- Attended Erkan-i Harbiye (General Staff Course)

- prestigious, necessary to climb military ladder Yusuf Akcura (1876-1935)

Accused of belonging to secret society opposed to government: - exiled Libya (Fezzan – desert oases)

- 1899: escaped

- spent next four years in Paris

- 1903: returned to Russia, wrote ‘Three Policies’ Yusuf Akcura, 1900 … and c. 1931 Yusuf Akcura (1876-1935)

Three ‘visions’ for future:

- Ottoman Nationalism - Pan-Islamism -Turkish Nationalism

Drew on 19th c. roots: - critiqued each in terms of identity issues, domestic politics, international/imperial agenda

[for Discussion, Friday Nov. 16] Young Turks

1906: - Discontented army corps officers formed secret society ‘vatan’ (in Macedonia): Mustapha Kemal (future ‘Ataturk’) among them

1907: - Young Turks merged with other groups (including vatan): founded Committee of Union and Progress (CUP)

- stood for strong central government, exclusion foreign influence Mustapha Kemal, 1906 Young Turks

- army corps joining with CUP: ‘key development’

- ‘real power’ joined ‘ideological fervor’ to achieve common goal

‘Young Turk’ revolution ultimately generated from practical, not intellectual stimulus Young Turks

Principal aim: - restoration Constitution 1876-8 (revoked by Abdul Hamid II)

- 1908: led coup d'état against Sultan

- responded by reinstituting Constitution

- launched ‘counter revolution’: supremacy of Sultan and sharia (Islamic law)

- army supported CUP: Abdul Hamid II deposed, replaced by Mehmed V Young Turks

Opposition: - other exiled radicals formed “League of Private Initiative and Decentralization”

- favoured more European assistance, decentralized government

Both Groups Influential Public Demonstration, Istanbul 1908 Young Turks

“Proclamation” of 1908:

- announced the revolution

[see “The Young Turks: Proclamation for the Ottoman Empire, 1908” in ‘Additional Readings’.

How ‘different’ was this from earlier- generation radicals? Compare with 1904 analysis, ‘Three Policies’…[discussion document] . How do you think different nationalities would react… and why?] Declaration of Young Turk Revolution (by leaders of Ottoman ‘millets’) Postcard Commemorating Constitution of 1908 Young Turks

Initial problem: expediency of coalition - army corps’ desire for power not supportive of ideological goals of revolution

Exacerbated by: - Arab nationalists ‘flourishing’ in European exile (two distinct groups, each with newspapers, wanting Arab-Turkish government) [lecture Nov. 26] - consolidation further delayed by Balkan Wars (1912-13) which cost state all European lands (except between Edirne and Istanbul) [lecture Nov. 19] Government not under ‘Young Turk’ control until 1913 Young Turks

New Government in 1913: Domestic front - positive, progressive reforms

- provincial administration (more centralized)

- improved education (all groups, including women)

- fully secularized legal-system

- industrialization Young Turks

Domestic Policy:

- Forward looking

- Responding to long-standing ‘issues’

So… in short term, was revolution successful? [reference: in-class discussion of Proclamation 1908] Young Turks

Final Answer Lies with Examination Foreign policy: - alliance with Germany in WWI proved disastrous - brought a real end to empire

- on the other hand, created conditions for rise of ‘Ataturk’, and Birth of Modern Turkey: - is this how we should measure ‘long-term’ success of Revolution of 1908?