Dialectology

DIALECTOLOGY

WILLEM A. GROOTAERS

I. BIBLIOGRAPHY

For linguists who are not specialists in Japanese dialectology, there are three English language bibliographies. Robert H. Brower's A Bibliography of Japanese dialects, 75 pages (Ann Arbor, The University of Michigan Press, 1950), compiled mainly from secondary sources, gives 995 items, practically all dating from the prewar period. This work does not attempt a selective listing. Although favorably reviewed by Shibata Takeshi, in Kokugogaku 12. 25-38 (June, 1953), "Kore kara no hogen-kenkyu" [Dialect studies from now on], certain Japanese scholars have resented the patronizing attitude of its "Author's Intro- duction". A more valuable tool is the chapter on dialects contributed by Kindaichi Haruhiko (pages 117 to 133) to Japanese Language Studies in the Showa Period, edited by JosephK. Yamagiwa, 153 pages (Ann Arbor, The University of Michigan Press, 1961). Kindaichi lists 187 items of which 88 belong to the postwar period. The works are well selected and constitute a handy reference list for a linguist who wishes to be introduced to Japanese scholarship in this field. Kindaichi's list was closed approximately in 1957 and his description of recent trends in Japanese dialectology does not mention the surge of dialect geographical studies that started around 1955. We will therefore give a relatively large place in our summary to this branch of dialectal studies. A third work is explicitly meant for the foreign scholar who is engaged in the study of Japanese linguistics: Bibliography of Standard Reference Books for Japanese Studies, with Descriptive Notes, Vol. VI (A): Language, 155 pages (Tokyo, The Society for International Cultural Relations, 1961). It lists twenty-two works on dialectology with a detailed description of each. The last work constitutes the first stepping stone toward direct contact with Japa- nese language bibliographies of which we will describe only the most recent and exhaustive ones. The first is the authoritative Kokugo nenkan (Linguistic Year-book) 586 WILLEM A. GROOTAERS

Tokyo, Shuei Shuppan, Vol. I (1954), Annual. Compiled by the members of the Kokuritsu Kokugo Kenkyujo or National Language Research Institute of the Ministry of Education (see below), this work covers the whole range of linguistic studies. If we limit ourselves to the dialectal studies and if we take as an example Vol. XI (1964) covering the year 1963, we find a short summary of dialectal studies under the year in review (pp. 12-3), a list of all books on dialects (24 books listed on pp. 42-3), a list of all articles on dialects (120 articles listed on pp. 88-92), a list of all newspaper features on dialects from the twelve leading newspapers of the country (pp. 144-51), a who's who of 4000 Japanese scholars in the field of language (pp. 193-274), a list of journals, etc. A less exhaustive list, but one which stresses comment rather than enumeration is given each year or every second year by Kokugogaku, the official quarterly journal of the Kokugo Gakkai or Society for the Study of the Japanese Language. For instance, the June 1964 issue presents four reports on publications on dialectology for the years 1962-1963 (pp. 55-78), under the headings: General Dialectology, Phonemes and Accents, Grammar, and Vocabulary. The two publications last mentioned will continue to furnish information on future publications in dialectology. A recent book has gathered in one list all postwar publications on dialects; this general dialect bibliography lists 500 books and 4000 articles and has been appended at the end of the book Nihon no hogefi kukaku [Dialect divisions in Japan], a volume presented to Professor Tojo Misao in November 1964 (pp. 541-684). The foreign linguist who is able to make use of the above bibliographies will of course need to progress to the basic introduction to all Japanese linguistic studies written for the young Japanese scholar. Called Kokugogaku [Japanese linguistics] 824 pages (Tokyo, Sanseido, 1961), one of its eighteen chapters is headed Dialec- tology. Written by Hino Sukezumi, it gives successively a survey of the history of dialectal studies (pp. 440-5), a program for future dialect research (pp. 446-7), and a detailed discussion of the contents of thirty-nine important books among which nineteen are from the postwar period (pp. 448-89). Japanese linguistics is also one of the few fields to possess a complete encyclopedia compiled by specialists and for specialists. This work is the Kokugogaku jitefi [Diction- ary of Japanese linguistics], 1289 pages (Tokyo, Tokyodo, 1955), published by the Kokugo Gakkai. Finally, a word must be said about the Ryukyu (Okinawa) dialects which by their archaism and their variety constitute a treasure-house of Japanese dialectology. Kokugogaku (the book and not the journal) has an appendix on the Okinawa dialects with commentary on nine works. But a more recent work is the basic tool for Ryukyu dialect research: Bibliography of the Ryukyus, 120 + 118 pages (University of the Ryukyus, 1962), a work which is in both Japanese and English, in which dialectology occupies pages 43-53, with 194 books and articles listed; this is an exhaustive listing but unfortunately without commentary. DIALECTOLOGY 587

II. THE LANDSCAPE OF JAPANESE DIALECTOLOGY: AN APPRAISAL The word "landscape" is meant to convey the special flavor of Japanese dialect studies and the atmosphere in which they are carried out in Japan. This landscape is not without influence on the methodology of science and has therefore to be briefly sketched. 1. Japan broke down the barriers between the feudal domains into which the country was divided in 1866, a few years before Germany or Italy, and, as in these two countries, the economic and administrative barriers which kept local political units apart for many centuries have helped in creating dialectal diversity. However, unlike Germany and Italy, Japan has been and is still a country which is strongly centralized linguistically, through the unity that comes from its standard spoken and written language. This language was the Kyoto language from 794 to 1868, and is now the Tokyo language. Japan is not unlike France, with innovations in language and culture originating at the capital. A throwback to the day when the Kyoto-Osaka area was culturally active is found up to the present day in the use of its dialect for literary purposes, in many movies, and in the popular performing arts. 2. Japan's language, without any kinship with Chinese, has not only taken up loanwords from China, as Britain did with Roman words; a recent statistic shows that 47.5 per cent of all words in ninety popular magazines are of Chinese origin. Japan also found in China its writing system. The KANJI or Chinese ideograms, by their nature, do not allow us to reconstruct ancient Japanese sounds. This is of course even more true for Japanese than was the case with the reconstruction of ancient Chinese; in Japan the system of ideograms is completely alien to the spoken language system. The KANA, being a phonetic syllabary, gives some idea of the sound system; but again, all through history it was used mainly for the language of the capital city, first Kyoto, now Tokyo. The KANA were used by local dialectologists all over the country up to World War II as the only tool to transcribe the sound of dialects; it has many defects when it tries to represent sounds and it influences un- consciously many dialectologists who continue to think in terms of syllables as re- presented by the KANA, so that for instance they are not ready to accept the possibility of a phonetic change from [he] to [e], because the KANA has two different signs for these sounds. Because of the centralization and the written language, we find linguistic science in Japan centered upon philological disquisitions to a degree unknown even to nine- teenth century Europe. The interest in dialects could only be for the purpose of proving the survival of ancient literary words. This left the field of dialectology before the war in the hands of amateurs of folklore, who gathered "curious" local words, that is, words not found in the standard language. Until recently phonetic descriptions of dialects would describe only the "curious" sounds of the local language, and not its total phonological system. A recent trend in dialect studies is towards the investiga- tion of the linguistic structure of the dialects, although large dialect vocabularies in 588 WILLEM A. GROOTAERS dictionary form are still being published. Strangely enough, the field of dialectal accent shows the contrary tendency; a strong feeling for the structural types of accent has impeded the recognition of individual changes in accent. A general inferiority complex felt by dialect speakers gave strong roots to the belief that local languages are only corruptions or derivations of the capital's language. To the fact that a privileged position is given to the standard language user, with a subservient position taken by the local speakers, we must add another psychological factor, namely, the traditional Confucian ethic. Even when it is reduced to mere unconscious motivation, the conviction remains that the "ruler" is responsible for the conduct of the "ruled", and that the latter should be moulded on the former. This mentality brings forth in linguistic terms a strong pedagogical trend in dialect investigations. The dialects are studied in order to find ways to "correct" them, to replace them by the standard language. Of course, the scholars in Japan who are occupied in linguistic research are often free of this quirk; but they have to pay hp service to this point of view in order to obtain public support, or, which is still more important, to secure grants from the Ministry of Education. 3. It would be a grave mistake to evaluate Japanese dialectology only in terms of Western dialectology. It is necessary to point out the influence of Germany's Wenker and of France's Gillieron on Japanese dialectology. But one must keep in mind the fact that a "native" dialectology already existed (although with some of the defects sketched above), and that this dialectology has continued to grow, while foreign influence added some eddies to a mainstream of scholarship. Several works on general linguistics, and especially on comparative linguistics, were introduced in Japan in the 1880's in connection with the teaching of foreign languages. Hence in the Japanese academic world an almost complete split exists between the several kinds of GAIKOKUGO, "foreign languages" (by which are usually meant the principal languages of Europe), GENGOGAKU, "linguistics" (general linguistics and the study of foreign languages other than the commoner ones of Europe), and KOKUGOGAKU, "national linguistics" (the science of the study of Japanese). The members of the several foreign language departments, the linguists, and the scholars of Japanese language are each joined in their separate societies as well as in their separate departments in the Universities. The scholars of the second group, that is, the linguists, hardly ever study their own language, with the exceptions explained in next paragraph; and the scholars of the third group, students of Japanese, cannot read any foreign language, living as they do in the conviction that nothing is to be learned from linguistic methods applied in other linguistic fields, because of the "absolutely unique and exceptional nature" of the Japanese language. But, paradoxically, they are often excessively willing in their acceptance of new theories from abroad, a quite natural consequence of their inability to check in the original sources the factual basis of such theories. The lack of communication between the scholars of these last two related fields is only partly compensated when scholars of "linguistics" venture into the field of DIALECTOLOGY 589

"national linguistics". Often a revolutionary impact results because of the fresh insight they bring along. Some well known examples are: the geographical survey inspired by Wenker, through which Ueda Mannen (1867-1937) established the whole theory of dialect units; the grammatical system of the Japanese language erected by Hashi- moto Shinkichi (1882-1945), which is followed everywhere in the schools; and the phonological analyses of Japanese launched by Arisaka Hideyo (1908-52), who discovered a kind of vowel harmony in Ancient Japanese. In more recent years, Hattori Shiro (born 1908), an Altaist, introduced phonemics and glottochronology, and Shibata Takeshi (born 1918), a Turcologist, directed for nine years the Nihon Gengo Chizu or National Linguistic Atlas project. All these scholars were trained as "linguists", and their background explains their extraordinary impact on "national linguistics". Although English is taught at high school level, the scholars in "national linguistics" cannot easily read it, and a work written in a foreign language exercises practically no influence in their work. We speak not only of studies by foreigners (who could be suspected of an insufficient linguistic background), but two recent examples of new work done by Japanese scholars and published in English escaped the attention of all reviewers: Fujiwara Yoichi's Dialect-geographical study of the Japanese dialects, {Folklore Studies XV) (Tokyo, 1956) and Mieko Shimizu Han's Japanese phonology (Tokyo, Kenkyusha, 1962), both printed in Japan. Furthermore, supposing that a scholar should build for himself a sufficient practical knowledge of English to read foreign publications, it will serve him little in the field of dialectology. Very few importants works in this field are written in English, the dialectal studies in both Britain and the United States being definitely not ahead of Japanese dialectology. The languages necessary for dialectologists are German, French, Italian, and Dutch in that order. Few scholars of the "national linguistics" field now alive can consult works in these languages with any proficiency. 4. The phenomenon of a long tenure of one master stifling independent research on the part of his immediate associates can of course be found in the academic world of every country. In Japan we need also to recognize a society in which feudal attitudes are considered a virtue. The lack of critical appraisal between scholars, except if they are personal enemies, and the impossibility of voicing divergent opinions in front of one's "master" are traits of a recent past which still linger on. The hierarchical organi- zation of the academic world has especially deplorable effects when scholars are sent to international congresses or to study abroad. The trip was considered (until foreign travel was released from postwar restrictions) a remuneration for seniority, so that only those who were hardly amenable to new convictions were among the elected. The general tenor of dialectology is determined by the compartmentalization of scholars described above and by the insularity of the training. But dialectology does have a large number of practitioners, either grouped in Tokyo, or (having been trained there) wishing to go back to Tokyo. Their scholarly standards are very high, their production is large, and they count among them a number of extremely gifted 590 WILLEM A. GROOTAERS and imaginative researchers. They are the heirs (sometimes tradition-bound) of an old scholarship's lineage. Looking now at the conditions under which they work, theirs is the fate of scholars practicing humanistic sciences in modern countries (Scandinavia excepted); government grants are scarce and the National Linguistic Atlas of Japan is in the same dire straits when it comes to publishing its materials as the Linguistic Atlas of the United States. Moreover, in Japan, grants from private foundations are practically non- existent because of the ways in which taxes are levied. This situation pushes the scholars into making group surveys and collective publications in greater number than in other countries. This is all to the good when the group is small and strongly cohesive, as dialect atlas surveys abroad and in Japan have proved. But loosely grouped scholars, allied only because of a grant, will produce bulky volumes in which no single aspect of a problem is thoroughly treated in relation with the others. This seems to be too often the case in the Kyugakkai Rengo or "Nine Societies" surveys described below. A favorable situation exists in Japan for the scholar who produces small scholarly articles. The periodicals in linguistic science are numerous, either published by national associations, by university faculties, or by regional groups. Such articles are, however, difficult to trace, hence the importance of the Linguistic Yearbook in which articles from 242 journals are listed. A scholar will often be deterred from writing a large book on his own; it takes a long time to prepare, his publication list does not grow fast enough, and the chances of being seen in print are slim. In Japan the remedy to this situation is the collective volume, resembling in shape and contents the Festschrifts found in Europe; such publications are numerous in the dialectal field. The editors find that a broad range of subjects in a single volume opens greater possibilities for its sale. 5. A last word on dialect societies and their journals. At the end of World War II, with the problems of housing and food only partly solved, the students of the Japa- nese language (we exclude here the general linguists) took up the threads of their scientific activities and reorganized the Kokugo Gakkai, or Society for the Study of the Japanese Language. This society had been established in Tokyo in 1944 by the members of the Nihon Hogen Gakkai, or Japanese Dialect Society; the latter had been formed in 1940 from five local dialect societies: three in Tokyo, one in Kyoto, and one in Hiroshima, all started between 1928 and 1931. The new Kokugo Gakkai started to publish its quarterly journal Kokugogaku in 1948. Born from a lineage of dialect groups, the journal and the biannual congresses (alternating between Tokyo and West Japan) give a good share of their space and their time to the study of dialect problems. The Japan Dialect Society had published before the war eleven volumes of the journal, Hogen kenkyu [Dialect Studies], and with the progress of dialect studies in the 1960's some scholars are thinking of res- urrecting such a journal devoted exclusively to dialect articles. But two reasons have kept them from making such a move: first, the fact that many active members of the DIALECTOLOGY 591 present Kokugo Gakkai, by diverting their contributions to the new organ, would fatally weaken the general journal; second, the fact that many scholars who contrib- ute to the half dozen local dialect magazines would not think themselves qualified to publish in a national scientific periodical. Meanwhile, the active dialectologist of Hiroshima University, Fujiwara Yoichi, has started in 1958 the offset printing of Hogefi kenkyu nenpo [Dialect yearbook], in which valuable analytical and generalized studies are published together with local surveys. Because of the abundance of excellent bibliographies, the following pages will summarize the main currents of dialectal studies, without quoting all the publications involved. For the linguist who cannot read Japanese sources, articles written in Western languages will, however, be given some preference.

III. THE PRESENT TASKS OF JAPANESE DIALECTOLOGY

After the War, two problems stood foremost in the minds of the Japanese dialectologists: a) how to determine the existence and the nature of the dialects, and b) the history and the nature of the dialectal tones.

A. The problem of dialect units The background and the methodology of the first scientific survey of the Japanese dialects has been described by Grootaers in "Les débuts de la géographie linguistique au Japon", Orbis 342-52 (1957). The main result of this survey, performed in 1905- 1906, was to furnish a rough idea of the main dialectal divisions existing in Japan, from the points of view of phonetics and grammar. The principal characteristics of these dialectal divisions have been listed by Shibata in "Eastern dialect and Western dialect in Japan", Zeitschrift fiir Mundartforschung 27. 97-100 (1960). The leading Japanese dialectologist Tôjô Misao (born 1884-1966), by means of later surveys, built upon the dual division of phonetics and grammar a complete system of geographical distribution of dialect units (1927). After World War II, the problem was tackled from different sides. Between 1949 and 1962 six new divisions were proposed; these show the following characteristics: 1. The number of independent dialect units varies between ten and sixteen, according to the criteria used in differentiating dialects. The discussion has recently centered around the problem of "weighing" the several dialect characteristics against each other in order to determine their respective roles in shaping a dialect unit. 2. Most authors use geographical names to indicate the dialect units; the Shikoku dialect, for instance, is so named after the island of Shikoku; only very recently does one find one or two proposals to use linguistic characteristics in naming the dialects, as for instance the -nai dialect and the -n dialect, from the ending of the negative verbs. An instructive parallel can be found in earlier discussions held in 592 WILLEM A. GROOTAERS

Germany concerning this problem; they are summarized by V. M. Schirmunski, Deutsche Mundartkunde 132-3 (Berlin, 1962). In addition, we must note that in Japan one finds the scholars inclined to favor one class of criteria above the other: phonemic systems (Shibata), phonetic characteristics or tones (Kindaichi Haruhiko), or grammatical particles (Fujiwara). The last named scholar is presently completing a survey of the grammar of fifty local dialects so chosen as to present the characteristics of each main region in the country. The importance attached to the problem of dialect units is shown by the fact that the most recent collective work published for Tôjô's eightieth birthday is centered on this problem; see above. The studies published (pp. 5-538) in this volume testify to the variety of points of view; especially to be noted is a reappraisal of the theoretical basis for dialect divisions. The problem of the existence and of the nature itself of a dialect is now taking the center of the stage. This is due to two different (but com- plementary) trends in recent dialectal studies : 1. Under the influence of structural linguistics, dialect descriptions have become studies of linguistic systems rather than studies of the separate elements of language. When more and more descriptions of this type become available, the problem of the number of the dialects will take on a new aspect (see below under dialect geography). For instance, the National Language Research Institute has published descriptions of fifteen dialects, strictly localized and along structural lines, in Nihon hôgen no kijutsuteki kenkyû [Descriptive studies in Japanese dialectology] 368 pages (Tokyo, Meiji Shoin, 1959), and is preparing by means of taped interviews a description of a typical dialect of three important localities: Kagoshima, Kyoto, and Akita. 2. A lively discussion has started on the nature of the "subjective dialect" ; whereas Tôjô and his first disciples took as their starting point "the spontaneous concept of the dialect unit as it is naturally shaped in the consciousness of the speakers' community", Shibata and Grootaers have proved in their Itoigawa survey that this subjective unity is based on extralinguistic elements, with the influence of the political units, to which the hamlets were sucessively incorporated through recent history, shown to play a leading role in the shaping of their linguistic consciousness. A recent survey done in another province by Mase Yoshio has found that the school districts are the most influential factor. The whole question has recently been summarized and put into focus with the use of new material by Grootaers in "La discussion autour des frontières dialectales subjectives", Orbis 13.369-85 (1964).

B. The dialectal tones and their history

The musical tones or pitch of the Japanese language are called AKUSENTO (accent) by the Japanese scholars. The great number of their dialectal variety has been investi- gated, their system described, and their history reconstructed in first-rate works. Hirayama Teruo's Nihorigo onchô no kenkyû [Studies in Japanese tonology] 694 pages (Tokyo, Meiji Shoin, 1957), besides being the first volume of a synthetic work DIALECTOLOGY 593

on the subject, lists more than 700 studies bearing on it in its bibliography. Of these studies 293 date from the postwar period. Hattori Shiro was the first to discover the broad lines of dialect distribution of the tones. The work initiated by him in 1930 is now practically completed for the whole country through the surveys of Kindaichi and Hirayama, the two great successors of Hattori in this field. Kindaichi has done especially valuable work in determining the historical groupings of dialect tones in the medieval Kyoto language. He made his reconstructions by means of the SHOTEN or "tone signs" used in ancient literary texts and BOKUFU or "musical signs" used in texts of Buddhist hymns by which the pitch of each syllable was indicated. This scholar's painstaking description of many local tone systems has led to the discovery of important laws of evolution; for instance, he has shown the influence of the vowel's aperture on the tone shape: a broad vowel in the second syllable has a tendency to preserve the tone height of the first syllable; this causes a gradual shift of the tone peak towards the end of the word. Hirayama's numerous tone surveys (he has visited more than 3000 localities) have allowed him to prove the existence of tone-less areas which prefigure a possible trend in the Japanese language towards a future loss of tone distinctions; besides his tone studies, one has to make special mention of his tone dictionary Zenkoku akuseiito jiten [A tone dictionary for Japan] 1042 pages (Tokyo, Toykodo, 1960). There are some recent dictionaries of the standard Tokyo language in which the tone of each word is indicated, as for instance Kindaichi's Meikai kokugo jiten [Detailed dictionary of the Japanese language], but Hirayama's work is the first to give the tone pattern of each word in the Kagoshima, Kyoto, and Toky5 dialects. The field of tone studies in Japan presents special problems, not the least of which is the numerous existing tone patterns as found in nouns of one, two, three, and four syllables to which a particle is added, and in the forms of the adjectives and verbs. The influence of various particles on pitch-position needs study. On the other hand, the linguistic consciousness of the speaker groups the words into a fixed number of possible patterns; this number in the case of nouns in the Tokyo dialect is determined by the formula: n + 1. in which n indicates the number of syllables of the noun. This means that two-syllable nouns in Tokyo occur in three patterns, three syllable nouns in four patterns, etc. This formula differs widely according to dialects, and their genetic relationship is one of the greatest problems of historical dialectology. Thanks to the work of many scholars, mainly of course of Kindaichi and Hira- yama, we possess maps of the dialect distribution of tone types. These are for the time being limited to the tones of two-syllable nouns because of the too large variety of tones in the longer words. But here a couple of methodological remarks are in order. Dialect maps of the tones often show the tone pattern not as it was given by the speaker in his first spontaneous answer (PAROLE), but as it was given after eliciting the conscious tone patterns (LANGUE). This method, which Hirayama specially calls his own, has paradoxically produced two opposite effects on the genealogical study of tone patterns. It facilitates the reconstruction of the historical process by which 594 WILLEM A. GROOTAHRS

each modern tone group has evolved from the medieval groups; in other words, it makes for a tidy genealogical tree. On the other hand, however, it makes it difficult to relate genetically two patterns in neighboring dialects. Surveys done following the above described method hardly ever reveal any of the individual exceptions existing in word-tone; the transition stages are wiped out. The result is that a discussion of the relationship between two dialect tone systems is apt to move on a formal and theoretical plane; one may hope to find new results coming from recent attempts to apply dialect geographical methods to dialect tones. Since the article by Grootaers, "A dialect geographical study of the Japanese accents in Chiba prefecture", Monu- menta Nipponica 14:3/4.1-30 (1958-59), has proved that maps for individual words show intermediate steps in the changes occurring in tone patterns, a few young scholars have tried the same method with good results: we may mention here the Itoigawa Linguistic Atlas, 1957-61 (see below), and the work of Kobayashi Shigeko in the Tokyo suburbs, 1961, and of Mase Yoshioand Hokari Kiyokoin Nagano, 1964. Between the two kinds of work sketched above, that is, the setting up of general tone types and analyzing the individual tone changes, a third kind of effort looking toward a synthesis of the two has begun to show itself. Okada in his Tajima tone studies (north of Hyogo prefecture), Mushiaki Kichijiro in his study of the island dialects of the Inland Sea, and the Mase-Hokari studies (see above) try to combine the static and the dynamic points of view. This road shows great promise when a greater number of tone maps of individual words become available. In summary: one finds Japanese dialectology confronted with the difficult task of relating the conclusions so far reached in the two fields of dialectal units and of dialect tones. The tone distribution maps seem to group the main dialects into several families which do not coincide with the main divisions so far recognized of dialect units. A road has yet to be found to interrelate the divergent findings; this will prob- ably come from the erection of broader structural systems of dialects.

IV. TWO NEW METHODS: GLOTTOCHRONOLOGY AND DIALECT GEOGRAPHY

While the studies described above continue in many ways the dialectology existing before the war, we must now turn to two fields which developed only after the war.

A. Glottochronology The comparative method in linguistics as it was practiced in Europe was introduced in Japan in the very early years after the Meiji restoration in 1868. The glottochronological method, originated by Morris Swadesh in the United States, was introduced in Japan by Hattori Shiro in 1954, and at once met opposition from the scholars trained in comparative linguistics. They thought that the criteria and formulas used in the glottochronological method in the case of the North American Indian languages could not fit into the pattern of linguistic changes as they are known from Japanese dialectological investigations. Working with glottochronological formulas, Swadesh DIALECTOLOGY 595 and Lees had suggested that the Shuri (Okinawa) dialect and the Kyoto dialect show a time-depth of divergent development of 1029 years. This is clearly impossible; Hattori therefore moved his ground and tried out formulas known from the Indo- European field, to reach conclusions which seem to accord better with known facts from Japan's history. The above dialects show then a divergent development that started 1453 years ago. To many scholars of general linguistics and of the Japanese language, these findings are still unconvincing in the light of known history, and Hattori's studies were received with less than complete enthusiasm. It seems to this writer that a thorough survey of all dialects must first be completed before such theories can be tried in Japan. Hattori is currently engaged in determining with more exactitude the contents of the basic vocabulary of the Japanese dialects in order to establish glottochronology on a firmer basis.

B. Dialect geography Dialect geography in Japan had two early starts which petered out rather quickly. One was the phonetic and grammatical survey done at the instigation of Ueda Mannen. This work resulted in the publication of Onin chosa hokokusho; onin bunpuzu [Report on a survey of phonology; maps showing the distribution of phonological features] and Kogoho chosa hokokusho; kogoho bunpuzu [Report on investigations into the grammar of the spoken language; maps showing the distribution of grammar items in the spoken language]. These two works, credited to the Kokugo Chosa Iinkai [Committee for Investigations into the Japanese Language], were published in 1905 and 1906, and became the basis of all subsequent work on dialect divisions; but further work planned in extension of this survey was cut off by the destruction wrought by the 1923 earthquake and never resumed. A second start was made when Yanagita Kunio (1875-1962) published his famous "Kagyu-ko (On the words for snail)", in Jinruigaku zasshi 42.4 (April, 1927), also, separately, in Gengoshi sokan [A collection of linguistic records] (Tokyo, Toko Shoin, 1930). This ingenious monograph proved that a new name born in Kyoto, the political center of the country, invades the area of distribution of an earlier name; the farther one goes from Kyoto, successively older and older names are disposed in concentric circles. The map furnished by Yanagita remained for many years the only accepted explanation of lexical phenomena in Japanese dialects. Yanagita had no followers, either. After World War II, dialect geographical surveys and theoretical discussions on the results showed great advances. We must give here a greater number of details, since the latest English language bibliography prepared by Kindaichi as a chapter in Japanese Language Studies in the Showa Period (see above) does not mention the subject of dialect geography.

1. Studies of the period after World War II: the first stage One of the leading prewer dialectologist prewar, Tachibana Shoichi, once exhorted his students: "I do not tell you to make dialect maps; instead of one map, I'd rather 596 WILLEM A. GROOTAERS have ten wordlists or sets of statistics". It took more than a generation for the dialectologists to see the relationship between language history and language analysis, or, to speak in geographical terms, to look at language from the point of view of spatial distribution and chronological sequence, that is, from the point of view of human geography. Two scholars, however, showed a remarkable insight into the possibilities of the dialect geographical method: Kobayashi Yoshiharu (1886-1948), professor at Sen- dai's Tohoku University whose teachings were published posthumously in Hogen goigakuteki kenkyu [Studies in dialect lexicography] 240 pages (Tokyo, Iwanami), and Tsuchikawa Masao (nothing is known about him), who wrote Nihon hogo no rekishi chirigakuteki kenkyu [Linguistic geography: historico-geographical study of the local languages of Japan] 233 pages (Nagano, 1948). They both had more than a superficial knowledge of the Gillieron school of dialectology; in their books, they use French dialectal maps and publish parallel maps of their own dialects, Kobayashi for the northeastern provinces, Tsuchikawa for the area of Nagano and Yamanashi provinces. Their work remained without visible influence. Although limited in scope and based on imperfect surveys, these two works take a resolutely new historical stance by trying to interpret dynamically the maps they publish. This genetic approach, however, is practically absent in the case of three large "geographical" studies published after the war, and which put their linguistic data on maps, without interpretation. This feature explains their lack of effect on later linguistic studies of dialects. Here are the three works. Ishiguro Takeaki, Tottori- ken hogen bunpu no jittai [Word distribution in the Tottori dialect] 1957, surveys 185 localities on the basis of personal interviews and deals with 311 lexical items, 213 phonetic items, 76 points of grammar, and a total of 600 words; 100 maps and 500 lists are given, with all notations in KANA writing. Takeuchi Masato, Ehime no hogen goho to goi [Dialect of Ehime, its grammar and its lexicon] (Matsuyama, Ehime University Press, 1957) covers 78 localities on the basis of correspondence and deals with 454 grammatical and 6233 lexical items, all arranged in lists with notations in KANA. Fujiwara Yoichi, Dialect geographical study of the Japanese dialects (in English) 254 pages (Tokyo, Kenkyusha, 1956), surveys, on the basis of correspondence exchanged in 1933-34, a total of 833 localities in Shikoku Island and five western prefectures of the main island, giving 118 word maps and 51 distribution sketches, all in phonetic notation. Fujiwara's work has remained practically unknown in Japan because it was written in English; furthermore, the author did not try to interpret his maps. We wish also to mention here the personal survey conducted by Hiroto Atsushi of Matsue University. This survey covers the five westernmost prefectures of Japan's main island and promises to furnish valuable material even though the author seems not to risk himself on the interpretation of his maps. The work came out in May 1965, and shows a marked progress in mapping technique. DIALECTOLOGY 597

2. The Linguistic Atlas of Japan One of the unique features of the Japanese linguistic world is the Kokuritsu Kokugo Kenkyujo, or National Language Research Institute, started in 1948, a center for scientific research on all aspects of the Japanese language. One of its sections is the Dialect Bureau where four scholars have a free hand in pursuing dialect studies. One must first mention the socio-linguistic studies centered around the problem: how far has a common language succeeded in replacing the use of the dialect in the urban centers of the countryside. One volume each has been published for Shirakawa (Fukushima prefecture) and Tsuruoka (Yamagata prefecture), and shorter reports on similar surveys for Iida (Nagano prefecture), Nagaoka (Niigata prefecture), and the third generation of immigrants in the northern island of Hokkaido. The activities of the National Language Research Institute are detailed in the Nenpo or yearly reports of which eighteen have been published (1949-67); an exhaustive description in a Western language is found in G. Wenck, "Das japanische Staats- institut fur die Erforschung der japanischen Sprache", Orientalische Literatur Zeitung 55.11/12 cols. 565-597 (1960). The enterprise which is of the greatest importance in the dialectal field is the Nihon gefigo chizu or Linguistic Atlas of Japan. Its preparation has been described in English by Grootaers in "Japanese Linguistic Atlas, end of the preliminary work", Orbis 6.68-84 (1957). The yearly report of the Institute for the year 1957, no. 9, published in 1958, gives the full questionnaire (230 items), the list of the 323 localities covered during the first survey year, and the names of the 46 local workers. Note- worthy is the concept of a basic map which is planned for all future dialect surveys of Japan. It furnishes a system by which the geographical coordinates of every locality on the map are shown by a set of figures; this does away with cumbersome place- names, and places at once the location of every surveyed locality. Based on an idea proposed first in 1926 by the Dutch dialectologist G. G. Kloeke, and used by all linguistic work in Northern Belgium and Holland, this system will give the Japanese dialectal world a great unity of method not found in other national atlases (in France, Germany, Italy). The survey for the Linguistic Atlas of Japan was concluded in the summer of 1964 after eight years of work; it has covered a total of 2,400 localities (Okinawa included), or approximately one locality for 31,000 inhabitants each. But since the informants are all male and above sixty, one can also say that this survey has interrogated one out of 1,200 inhabitants of this age group. (Japan had in 19642,800,000 males above sixty in a total population of 93 millions). The survey sheets at first comprised 230 questions; after the first three years, eleven questions were eliminated about which more detailed material was not desired. As a test of their practical usefulness, twenty-seven new questions were added in the 1960 survey, and twenty-eight other questions were tried during the 1961 survey. During the last three years of the survey (1962,1963,1964), some of these items were incorporated into the survey sheets. These changes were intended to have the greatest 598 WILLEM A. GROOTAERS possible number of questions asked in those places where the dialect distribution maps showed that important linguistic changes were to be expected. During all these eight years, the dialect material was processed as it came in and put on provisional maps by means of which the interpretation of the material could proceed apace with the survey. The changes in the question sheets have resulted in a total of 219 items being asked in all 2,400 localities, 11 items in 975 localities (1957-59), 27 items in 1,019 localities (1960, 1962-64) and 28 items in 1037 localities (1961-64). This extreme exertion to extract from the material every possible result comes from the simple fact that the Ministry of Education was never wholeheartedly behind the Linguistic Atlas project; the funds never allowed for a survey done completely by a few trained field-workers, and the Institute had to use one worker for each prefecture, forty-six in all, half of whom had only a minimum of dialect training and only a quarter could use the phonetic alphabet with ease. For the same reason, the questionnaire had to be kept short (European dialect atlases vary between 2,000 and 5,000 questions), and the contents of the questions centered around lexical problems; these are easier to handle by less well trained investigators. The four members of the Dialect Bureau of the Institute, Shibata Takeshi, Tokugawa Munemasa, Nomoto Kikuo, and Uemura Yukio took upon themselves about a tenth of the survey; this furnishes a loose net of completely trustworthy material which serves as a check on the material sent in by the field-workers. As was noted above, many provisional maps were drawn during the course of the survey and some were interpreted in academic gatherings or at the National Institute seminars. This exercise in "public relations" was aimed at convincing a larger number of Japanese linguists (especially the leaders of the Institute itself) of the importance of the work. As was the case with the maps of the Atlas Linguistique of France, the explanation of each map brought up a host of linguistic problems unfamiliar to traditionally trained linguists. A few of these problems may be listed here as an indication of the direction in which future dialect work may be moving: the exiguity of the area covered by words used in the standard language, and which prove to be of pure Tokyo dialect origin; the tracing of all intermediary steps of some linguistic changes which are not attested in written sources; the reconstructing of a stage of the language when tones had a morphological function, based on similarities to be found in the distribution of certain tone patterns and in the areas of absence of the V particle of the verbal complement; the reconstructing of some adjectival endings which point to a possible relationship with adjectival endings in Korean, which would open up an unexpected vista in the field of morphological comparison. Espe- cially with respect to the two last items, the Japanese linguists who were introduced to the geographical evidence refused even to discuss the possibility of such relation- ships. One must, however, note that because of the shortness of the questionnaire, the morphological material of the Atlas is extremely thin. A time-table has had to be established for the publication of the Linguistic Atlas of Japan. The financial problems, however, are staggering. If a single researcher DIALECTOLOGY 599 were to be designated to the job of preparing all the maps, at the rate of two weeks for each map (the minimum of time needed for drawing and interpreting the data to be presented in the light of historical sources), at least ten years would be needed before the manuscript is made ready. The subsequent printing in the shape of an atlas will then be another, not less formidable hurdle. Since April 1965, official approval has been given to proceed with a six year publication program; each year will see the publication of a fifty-map volume, with commentary. Shibata, who headed the Dialect Center during the eight years covered by the survey for the Atlas, accepted, at the end of 1964, a teaching appointment at the new Ajia-Afurika Gengo Bunka Kenkyujo (Institute for the Study of the Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa). This will give him more time to complete another dialectal work of which we must speak now.

3. The Linguistic Atlas of Itoigawa To introduce the dialect geographical method in a convincing way to the traditional linguists and to accomplish the separation of dialect investigations from the folkloristic point of view, a group of dialectologists decided in 1957 to launch a model survey, a kind of pilot project, for later investigations. The history of dialect studies in Germany, Switzerland, and France shows that small scale atlases, Kleinraumatlanten, allow for deeper probing into the linguistic and extralinguistic elements of dialect change. Shibata, Grootaers, Tokugawa, and, after the third field trip, Mase undertook a seventy-five day survey of the western part of Niigata prefecture. One hundred and eighty localities were visited around the city of Itoigawa, which means that every single hamlet in the area was covered with the same thoroughness. The survey was divided over three periods (1957, 1959, 1961) to allow for complete evaluation of the maps from an earlier survey before preparing the work sheets of the next. As we are personally involved, we quote here with some diffidence the judgment of the Osaka dialectologist Umegaki Minora in Kokugogaku 54.56 (June, 1964): "One of the noteworthy developments in the field of Japanese dialectology during recent years is the introduction of the dialect geographical method. This is due in the first place to the arrival in Japan of Father W. A. Grootaers after his successful practising of this method at Fujen University in Peking. Performed in collaboration with Shibata and others this scientific enterprise has become an epochal event in dialect research in Japan. The authors have already published part of their findings in more than forty publications." Among the characteristics of the Itoigawa survey, we must first note the pertinent choice of the area, which straddles the boundary between Japan's eastern and western dialect groups. Then the survey covered every locality in the region, and each locality was personally visited by the authors, who followed a well prepared plan. The survey was repeated during three different years. This dialectal survey is the nearest thing to an ideal model for dialect research, and its many-sided results will exercise great influence on all future dialect studies. 600 WILLEM A. GROOTAERS

As an example, we may quote the problem of dialect units which has been discussed in Japan with vigor for many years. We see now from the point of view of dialect geography how the problem had been formulated in an exaggeratedly abstract and subjective form. After the Itoigawa research, even if it is too early to say that all former solutions will have to be rejected, at least they will have to pass through a complete methodological revision. The whole field of Japanese linguistics is under- going a quick and fundamental revision, at least in its methods." Because of the limited size of its territory, the Itoigawa survey has given the linguist a chance to probe in depth. And instead of losing itself in microscopical research that would be only of local import, the analysis of the dialectal facts have brought to light basic theoretical problems. Besides the problem of the dialect units, for which a recent theoretical analysis was published by Grootaers (see above), we may quote here a few of the problems about which new formulations or new solutions have been proposed as a result of the Itoigawa survey: the interaction of the language of different generations in the same village, the creative process at work in the closed world of the schoolchildren outside all influence of the teachers' common language education, and the lexical system born from variations in the semantic field of related concepts (for instance, icicle/river ice/frost on the paddy fields). The results of the survey are now being prepared for publication in the shape of an atlas of about 600 maps, with linguistic commentary. There will be 220 phonetic maps, 55 grammatical maps, 245 lexical maps, 50 tone maps, 27 folklore maps, and 40 methodological maps. The whole survey comprised only 385 questions, to assure that the results would be published in their entirety as quickly as possible. Finally, one must note that dialect geography as an academic science was unknown until recently. Three of the authors of the Itoigawa survey have been asked to give regular courses on the subject, Grootaers, in the Graduate School at Tokyo Metro- politan University in 1957-66, Shibata at Tokyo University in 1963-1966, and Toku- gawa at Gakushuin University in 1964-66.

4. Recent dialect geographical surveys One may consider Japanese dialectal geography as definitely liberated from its amateur heredity. This is proved by half a dozen or more regional surveys started since 1960; they show soundness in their method and they try to explore the genetic and structural characteristics of the Japanese dialects. a) The largest of these surveys is the Inland Sea Survey, directed by Fujiwara, working with his disciples. Started in 1960, it was completed in 1964; worksheets containing 240 questions were used in 900 localities, that is, in all the inhabited islands of the Inland Sea, and every village along the periphery of the coasts surrounding the Inland Sea. This body of water has a unique conformation: its length is 220 kilometers, its width varies between 20 and 40 kilometers; open on both ends towards the Pacific Ocean, its hundreds of islands have been inhabitated since prehistoric times by separate agricultural and fishing populations; the northern coast has the dialects DIALECTOLOGY 601 of Honshu, the main island of Japan, and the southern coast has the Shikoku Island dialects. The Inland Sea survey promises to open many new vistas on dialect migra- tion and dialect mixture. Fujiwara, a direct disciple of Töjö, adds his personal knowledge of the terrain (he was born on one of the islands) ; and he has published the only extant dialect grammar of a single village : Nihongo högen bunpö no kenkyü [A study in dialect grammar in Japan] (Tokyo, Iwanami, 1949) 600 pages. With long experience in many dialect surveys (see above for his dialect geographical study), Fujiwara has exposed at length his theoretical point of view in a rather arid work, Högengaku [Dialectology] (Tokyo, Sanseido, 1962) 672 pages, 35 maps. The aim and the preparation of the Inland Sea Dialect Survey have been described in Vol. IV of The Dialect Annual of Hiroshima University (1961). Noteworthy is the choice of the informants: for each locality, one woman above sixty and one junior high school girl; according to the socio-linguistic surveys done by the National Language Research Institute these are the two age groups in a dialect community who show respectively the most and the least resistance to the adoption of the standard language. b) The Survey of Nagano-Gifu Borderland (Shinpi Kokkyö), directed by Mase, with his wife and two colleagues, Kobayashi Shigekö and Shimizu Yukiko. The survey was conducted in 1962 and 1963, with a last period in 1966. One hundred forty localities are included, that is, all villages inside an area of 70 km. long and 40 km. wide, straddling the highest peaks of the Japanese Alps and the boundary between Nagano and Gifu prefectures: this region is very similar to that covered by the linguistic atlases of Switzerland. In a few published maps, Mase has already tackled in an original way the problem of Wörter und Sachen in this territory; he has also contributed new light on the dispute about subjective dialect boundaries; see Mase, "Une nouvelle tentative pour tracer les frontières subjectives des dialectes", Orbis 13.358-69, 14 maps (1964). The same scholar has meanwhile completed in 1964 another important survey, called the Zenköji Plain Survey. Covering a square of 50 kms. by 50 kms, north and south of the city of Nagano, the survey includes 350 localities (all in the mountains, one out of four in the densely populated plain near the city). The worksheets comprise 100 questions on word tones and 150 questions on other dialectal items. For most of the questions, that is, questions not having to do with tone, Mase was responsible for covering a fourth of the localities and his students under his direction for the remainder. For the tone questionnaire, because of its special problems, the survey was divided equally between Mase and Hokari, both trained dialectologists. In all localities, two male informants were interrogated, one over sixty and one of fifteen years of age. This survey will bring new answers in the field of word tones, especially on the relationship between tone systems and individual tone changes. c) The Island of Sado Survey, a survey of the large island of Sado, off the coast of Niigata prefecture, begun by Katö Masanobu and his wife in 1959, with further 602 WILLEM A. GROOTAERS surveys in the years 1960, 1962 and 1964. Two hundred localities have been visited with worksheets containing seventy questions. Judging from his first detailed map study, "Sado ni okeru nekoyanagi no gengo chirigakuteki kosatsu" [Dialect geographical study of the names of the willow catkin in the Sado Dialect], Gengo kenkyu, 42.31-45, 6 maps (1962), this young scholar shows great perspicacity in combining philological history with the influence of cultural factors to interpret the geographical distribution and evolution of words. This island community furnishes a closed laboratory for the study of language changes. d) The same young scholars, with the addition of Kawamoto Eiichiro, were the collaborators chosen by Shibata for his 1963 and 1964 surveys of the Shima Kita peninsula in Aomori prefecture, at the extreme northern end of the main island of Japan. This work was meant as the linguistic part of the joint investigations carried on by the Kyugakkai Rengo or Association of Nine Scholarly Societies. Until now the collective surveys conducted under the auspices of this association have rarely produced outstanding linguistic results because of the subsidiary place given to linguistic work in their overall plans. This time, however, Shibata organized his part of the cooperative endeavor as an integral dialect geographical survey of all the 120 localities of the area. He emphasized the problems of general linguistics about which not enough trustworthy Japanese material is available, paying attention to such matters as linguistic and social unity in each village, maritime communications and their influence on isolated dialects, and the problem of the subjective dialect boundaries. e) The last survey of note is the Basic Survey of the Dialect of Kyushu, which shows how the winds of change blow on the Japanese dialectal world. The island of Kyushu, the westernmost of the four main islands of Japan, has an area of 42,000 square kms. (approximately the size of Denmark or Switzerland) and 13 million inhabitants (approximately as many as Czechoslovakia); with its seven prefectures it has more than seven national universities, each with its own Kokugoka or National Language Department. After eight years of participation in the Linguistic Atlas of Japan (see above), the local scholars have become convinced of the need of a systematic dialect survey done by the scholars of the regions themselves. The Ministry of Education, having made a grant of about 3,000 U.S. dollars, they started a dialect survey covering 200 localities only (the National Atlas has 348 localities for the same area), with thirteen field- workers using a questionnaire with 210 items covering subjects outside the National Atlas worksheets. In addition, five other field-workers visit ten localities where they spend two weeks recording free conversation. Further, two scholars are concentrating on printed sources about the Kyushu dialect, one taking the Japanese sources, the other the foreign sources, mainly sixteenth century Spanish and Portugese missionary material. A central bureau with five members coordinates, the material; this center is directed by Ishizaka Shozo, professor at Kumamoto University. This is the first time that we find a cooperative project in which independent prefectural departments have agreed to merge their efforts. DIALECTOLOGY 603

All the above surveys are either completed or far advanced in their execution. In several other parts of Japan, scholars, usually young scholars, are planning further geographical surveys, showing how this part of dialectological science is on the up- surge. When in 1929 the then fifty-four year old Yanagita Kunio published for the first time a commentary on a word map, it remained an unattainable ideal for thirty years. When we read now, for instance, the commentary on the 'willow catkin' map published in 1962 by the then twenty-nine year old Kato (see c) above), we are struck by his much higher level of linguistic and historical sophistication, and yet Kato has already made several other notable contributions to dialectology.

V. GENERAL WORKS

The bibliographical introduction has made clear that because of their great number the postwar publications cannot possibly be summarized here. Only the main trends in the dialectal field could be indicated. In conclusion, we must point out that there is as yet no monograph in which the dialect of a single small community has been analyzed in all its aspects, together with its complete lexicon. We wish, however, to note a few grammars and dictionaries. On the subject of dialectal grammars, we may quote a relevant paragraph in the chapter on dialectology written by Hino Sukezumi in the collective work Kokugogaku referred to in section I: Three main methods are followed by the students of dialect grammar: A. The most frequently used follows the descriptive pattern of school grammars as established by Hashimoto Shinkichi for the standard language; for instance, Umegaki Minoru's Miyako-kotoba [The Kyoto language] 32 pages (Kyoto, Takakiri, 2nd edition 1949). B. The second method is to investigate and to describe the main patterns of expressiveness in the dialect; passive forms, negative forms, etc., following the model set up by Tojo; as an example we have Aoki Chiyokichi's Shirishu hogefi dokuhon gohohen [A grammatical reader of the Nagano dialect] 172 pages (Shinano Kyoikukai, 1948). C. The third method describes the phraseology of the dialect in its living expressiveness, as was done by Fujiwara Yoichi (see above, IV. 4 a). Each method has its good and bad points. From the practical point of view, we would like to see more grammatical studies follow the model found in Tsuzuku Tsuneo's studies which combine methods A and B; see his "Hogefi bunporcm no hoho" [On the method of dialect grammar], Kokugogaku 12.1-14 (1953). Turning now to the field of dialectal dictionaries, the main trend is still to gather the "extraordinary" words, that is, that part of the local language which differs from the Tokyo standard. When a great number of prewar dialect vocabularies were 604 WILLEM A. GROOTAERS collated in one volume by Tojo in Zenkoku hogen jiten [General Japanese dialect dictionary] 895 pages (Tokyo, Tokyodo, 1951), the book met with such success that more than fifty thousand copies have been sold. A companion work is Tojo's Bunrui hogen jiten [A dictionary of dialect words, classified under the standard language forms] 810 pages (Tokyo, Tokyodo, 1954). Since the publication of this work, a great number of more or less voluminous word lists have been issued by local scholars. They can be found entered in the general bibliographies. One work, however, marks a departure from the old type of dictionary; it is the exhaustive Okinawago jiten [Dictionary of the Okinawa language (Shuri dialect)] 854 pages (Tokyo, Gouvernment Publications Office, 1963), by Uemura Yukio of the National Language Research Institute. Covering the whole range of the vocabulary, words both common and uncommon are given in scientific notation, accompanied by living language examples. The book starts with an eighty page analysis of the dialect grammar. May we hope that this model may be followed even where the local dialect is less difficult to understand?

BASIC BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Periodicals Gengo kenkyu "a n§ ¥f [Journal of the Linguistic Society of Japan], Tokyo, Linguistic Society, Tokyo University (1948—). Hogeii kenkyu nenpo 77 W W [Annual Report on Dialectology], Hiro- shima, National University (1958-). Kokugogaku HI go ^ [Studies in the Japanese Language], Tokyo, Musashino Shoin (1948—). Kokugo nenkan HI S& ^f [Linguistic Year Book], Tokyo, Shuei Shuppan (1954-).

2. Collective Works Högengaku gaisetsu W ^ IS [General dialectology] 414 pages (Tokyo, Musa- shino Shoin, 1962). Högengaku köza 77 W iPMIf J3l [Dialect symposium] Vol. I, 422 pages ; Vol. II, 472 pages; Vol. Ill, 482 pages; Vol. IV, 470 pages (Tökyö, Tökyödö, 1961). Kokugogaku Pü W> ^ [Japanese linguistics], = Kokugo kokubungaku kenkyüshi taisei SI So [S W & [An anthology of the history of studies in Japa- nese language and literature], XV, edited by Saeki Umetomo fë. ÎÙ Wi Na- kata Norio 41 IB M and Hayashi Öki W h, 824 pages (Tokyo, Sanseido, 1961). Kokugogaku jiten §§ Ig- ^ üf jft [Dictionary of Japanese linguistics] 1289 pages (Tokyo, Tokyodo, 1953). DIALECTOLOGY 605

National Language Research Institute Reports: Hachijöshima no gengo chösa A 3t Êh © W fo Iii S [Linguistic survey of the dialect of the island of Hachijö] 420 pages (Report 1) (Tokyo, Shüei Shuppan, 1950). Gengo seikatsu no jittai, Shirakawa-shi oyobifukin no nöson ni okeru W Mi ife © Ä tâo S M rfï i? X Cß Ft ÌS. © & tì" K i? tt s [Language survey of Shira- kawa city and neighboring villages], 355 pages (Report 2) (Tokyo, Shüei Shuppan, 1951). Chiiki shakai no gengo seikatsu: Tsuruoka ni okeru jittai chösa W. jfii fi" © a m 4 îl§ [S] If h % P it [Linguistic life in an areally limited society: an actual survey in Tsuruoka], 310 pages (Report 5) (Tokyo, Shüei Shuppan, 1953). Keigo to keigo ishiki So L ia M ÎÊ [Honorific forms and consciousness of honorific forms] 460 pages (Report 11) (Tokyo, 1957). Nihon högen no kijutsuteki kenkyû H ^ 73 W © gE à|C fi'] W % [Descriptive studies in Japanese dialectology] 368 pages (Report 16) (Tokyo, Meiji Shoin, 1959). Nihon högen chizu H ^ W ÛË W [Dialect maps of Japan] 50 pages; includes 21 maps of the 1905-1906 atlas (Tokyo, Yoshikawa Köbunkan, 1956). Nihon högengaku B f f [Japanese dialectology] 460 pages (Tokyo, Yoshi- kawa Köbunkan, 1954). Nihon no högen kukaku 0 ^ © 7? W IK 31: [Dialect divisions in Japan] 684 pages (Tokyo, Tökyödö, 1964). Sögö Nihon minzoku goiWr.'fe B ^fii&nnÄ [General vocabulary of Japanese folklore] 4 Vols., 1760 pages; Index (1956) 440 pages, (Tokyo, Heibunsha, 1955-1956).

3. Individual Works Fujiwara Yoichi $$ M —-, Högengaku Î g f [Dialectology] 680 pages, 35 maps (Tokyo, Sanseido, 1962). , A dialect geographical study of the Japanese dialects, (Folklore Studies, XV), 300 pages (Tokyo, 1956). , Nihongo högen bunpö no kenkyû H $ gg- ~H ~S ~3C © W % [A study in Japanese dialect grammar] 600 pages [Tokyo, Iwanami Shoten, 1949]. , Högen kenkyühö 77 W W % (Methods in dialectology) 350 pages (Tokyo, Tökyödö, 1964). Hattori Shirö M nft H ß|5, Nihongo no keitö H fn © ^ [Japanese language affinity], 410 pages (Tokyo, Iwanami Shoten, 1959). , Gengogaku no höhö W to ^ © Ûè [Linguistic methodology] 838 pages (Tokyo, Iwanami Shoten, 1960). Hirayama Teruo ¿P LU M J?, Nihongo onchö no kenkyû H im ïr 11 © W [Studies in Japanese tonology] 694 pages (Tokyo, Meiji Shoin, 1957). 606 WILLEM A. GROOTAERS

Hirayama Teruo 4s Ui W- Zenkoku akusentofiten £ UK T ? -fe v h ^ [Ja- panese tone dictionary] 1042 pages (Tokyo, Tokyödö, 1960). , Ryûkyû Yonaguni högen no kenkyü Sl^ÄSß^'^HOW^S [The dialect of Yonaguni in the Ryükyüs] 220 pages (Tokyo, Tokyödö, 1964). (With Nakamoto Masachi ^ IE -u). , Izu shotö högen kenkyü [The dialect of the Izu islands] 316 pages (Tokyo, Meiji Shoin, 1965). Hiroto Atsushi M. ft Chügoku chihö goken gengochizu [Ü ift 77 fê W im ±È (H [Dialect geography of the five prefectures of the Chügoku region] 380 pages [Tokyo, Kazama Shobö, 1965). Ishiguro Takeaki iü ül, Tottori-ken högen bunpu no jittai Js ® B77 "g fr ^fj © Ä fis [The actual state of distribution in the Tottori dialect] 375 pages (Tottori, author's edition, 1957). Kagami Kanji M Bk TC Nihon chimeigaku H ^ itil & Jfl [Japanese toponymy] Vol. 1, text, 400 pages; Vol. 2, atlas, 327 pages (Kyoto, Japanese Toponymical Society, 1957-1958). , Nihon no chimei Fl ^ © iÉ ^ [The place names of Japan] 235 pages (Tokyo, Kadokawa, 1964). Kindaichi Kyösuke 4k IB — M $7, Meikai kokugo fiten HI So ff M [Detailed Japanese dictionary] 102nd printing, 975 pages (Tokyo, Sanseidö, 1963). Kobayashi Yoshiharu 'bfäffi E3 , Högen goigakuteki kenkyü 77 "g iß" ilfi ^ ^ W [Studies in dialect lexicography] 241 pages (Tokyo, Iwanami Shoten, 1950). Shibata Takeshi i+l IB Nihon no högen H ^ © ~H H [The dialects of Japan] 191 pages (Tokyo, Iwanami Shoten, 1958). , 'Kore kara no högen-kenkyü Z. jjT. B 0 ^ g fF?Ê [Dialect studies from now on],' Kokugogaku, no. 12 (June, 1953). 15-38. Takeuchi Masato jK, IE A, Ehime no högen: gohö to goi © 77 "It - go i. wÉ [The dialects of Ehime: grammar and lexicon] 313 pages (Matsuyama, Ehime University Press, 1957). Töjö Misao M fä Högen no kenkyü Jï M <£> ¥f [The study of dialects] 232 pages (Tokyo, Tökö Shoin, 1951). , Zenkoku högen fiten & Hü "ff ^ [General Japanese dialect dictionary] 895 pages (Tökyö, Tokyödö, 1951). , Bunrui högen fiten fr Ü 77 H (Analytical dialect dictionary] 810 pages (Tökyö, Tokyödö, 1954). , Saikin no kokugogaku to högengaku iè jfi. © Hü !§" ^ h 77 W ^ [Present state of hnguistics and dialectology in Japan] 155 pages (Tökyö, Chikuma Shobö, 1960). Tsuchikawa Masao j; Jl| TF , Gengo chirigaku: Nihon högo no rekishi chirigakuteki kenkyü W f& S * B ^ 77 ^ © M ife ±4 Jl ^ W P % [Linguistic geography : a geographical and historical study of the Japanese dialects] 233 pages (Okaya, Ashikabi Shobö, 1948). DIALECTOLOGY 607

Uemura Yukio Okinawago jiten ity sin Jft [Dictionary of the Okinawa language (Shuri dialect)] 854 pages (Tokyo, Government Publications Office, 1963). Umegaki Minoru is fif, Miyako-kotoba gf 1 [The Kyoto language] 302 pages (Kyoto, Takakiri, 1949). , Kiriki hôgeri no sôgôteki kéhkyû [General dialectology of the Kinki area] 656 pages (Tokyo, Sanseido, 1962).