Air Quality Management Guidebook

Air Quality Management 1 Guidebook Air Quality Management Guidebook

Project leader: Leicester City Council-

Written by Acknowledgments : Nick Hodges C Eng Christine Bourbon Dr Jolanta Obszynska Sylke Davison Dr Chetan Lad Sef van den Elshout Ronald Swaton Veronique Ghersi David Hutchinson Maria Kazmukova Karine Leger Felix van der Meijden Fabio Nussio Andy Salkeld Andrew Whittles Civitas Initiative INTEGAIRE project MOST Project and FGM Graz

Air Quality Management 2 Guidebook FOREWORD

Welcome to the (Common Information to European Air) Project and it’s Products.

The project was conceived to support Cities and Regions in developing their responses to the Air Quality Reporting and Air Quality Action Planning requirements of the European Union’s Air Quality Directives, and to encourage the recognition of the Local Authorities roles in the forthcoming Directive.

The Products cover: - City Annual Air Quality Reports; Comparing Urban Air Quality across Borders; Common Operational Website (COW); Air Quality Management; Communicating Air Quality; Transferring a traffic-environmental models chain

They focus on: - • the assessment of comparable data • the impact of traffic on air quality in urban areas • Signposting measures for Air Quality Action Planning • Information for the public, local authority and professional users The materials in each of the CITEAIR Products have been assembled and developed, using the experiences of the 14 Project Partners enhanced by contributions from a User Group together with complementary European and National projects, in response to two successful workshops, an external review and a Conference.

Publishing the documents in electronic format ensures that additional contributions may be added during 2007. Additional Funding has been provided by the INTERREG 3C programme to promote further workshops; to recruit further cities to the COW; to develop the Forecast Index for use with the Media; to involve the Members of the European Parliament, the Department Generale Environment and the European Environment Agency more closely with the CITEAIR initiative to strengthen the role of the Cities and Regions and encourage the embedding of the concept within the European Air Quality Management mechanisms.

Nick Hodges Citeair Project Partners C.Eng. MICE MCIMgt

Technical Manager

Lead Partner

Leicester City Council

Air Quality Management 3 Guidebook Table of Contents

FOREWORD 3 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 6 1 AIR QUALITY OVERVIEW 8

1.1 INTRODUCTION 8 1.1.1 The context of the Air Quality management guidebook 8 2 CHOOSING MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 13

2.1 SUITABILITY OF MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 14 2.1.1 Policies, Plans and Programs 15

2.2 ASSESSMENT OF MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 16

2.3 EXAMPLES OF INTEGRATED ACTION PLANS 18 3 MANAGING AIR QUALITY – AIMS AND IMPLEMENTATION OF STRATEGIES 24

3.1 ACCESS CONTROL,CAPACITY REDUCTION AND TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT 24 3.1.1 Traffic Management 24 3.1.2 Access Control and Capacity Reduction 27 3.1.3 Parking Control and Restrictions Information 32

3.2 IMPROVING TRANSPORT FLEETS 34 3.2.1 Vehicle and Fuel Improvements 34 3.2.2 Private Fleet 38 3.2.3 Public Fleet 39 3.2.4 Public Transport 44

3.3 INTEGRATED TRANSPORT AND TRAVELLING PLANING 46 3.3.1 Intermodal Interchange 47 3.3.2 Operational Improvements 48 3.3.3 Travel Planning to provide Sustainable Transport Options 52

3.4 INDUSTRIAL AND DOMESTIC POLLUTION SOURCES 55 3.4.1 Regulations and Legisation 56 3.4.2 Tackling Industrial Pollution 56 3.4.3 Tackling Domestic Pollution 56 4 APPENDICES 63

A. CITEAIR PROJECT OVERVIEW 64

B. AIR QUALITY ACTION PLAN OPTIONS FOR LEICESTER 67

C. AIR QUALITY ACTION PLAN IN PRAGUE 71

D. AIR QUALITY ACTION PLAN FOR PARIS 80

E. RIJNMOND REGIONAL AIR QUALITY ACTION PROGRAMME 81

F. CASE STUDY 1: ACCESS CONTROL (ACS) & ROAD PRICING (RP) IN ROME 99

G. CASE STUDY 2: QUEUE RELOCATION IN LEICESTER 110

H. CASE STUDY 3 CONGESTION CHARGING IN LONDON 114

I. CASE STUDY 4: 80 KM/H SPEED LIMIT ON A13 MOTORWAY IN OVERSCHIE, ROTTERDAM 120

Air Quality Management 4 Guidebook J. CASE STUDY 5: USE OF SECTION 106 BUILDING REGULATIONS IN GREENWICH 126

K. CASE STUDY 6: ATMOSPHERIC PROTECTION PLAN FOR ILLE DE FRANCE 132

L. CASE STUDY 7: AIR CLIMATE PLAN FOR BRUSSELS 138

M. CASE STUDY 7: SHORE POWER FISHING PORT OF SCHEVENINGEN 145 GLOSSARY 152

Air Quality Management 5 Guidebook EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The increasing importance of the state of the environment encouraged the European Commission to introduce a series of Directives on Ambient Air Quality (AQD) covering a range of pollutants and Air Quality Review and Assessments (AQRA). With over 80% of the European Population living in Urban Areas, the National Governments have used the derogation rules to introduce Regulations requiring Cities and Regions to monitor air quality and prepare Air Quality Action Plans (AQAP) setting out the measures they are adopting to reduce pollution levels to achieve the relevant Limit Value Objectives (LV), within the designated timetables. Against this background the Partners in the CITEAIR (Common Information for European Air) project resolved to develop a range of products aimed at supporting Cities and Regions in meeting these new obligations.

A CITEAIR survey of European Cities revealed that many did not expect to achieve the AQD Objectives for several pollutants.

+ SO2 Pb CO C6H6 PM10 NO2 O3 City 1h 24h 1yr 1yr 8h 1yr 24h 1yr 1h 1yr 8h* Bologna 99999922 2 Bratislava 99 9 9 9 9 Brussels 999999229 ? 2 Coventry 9999999992 9 Leicester 9999999922? Paris 9999992 9/2 9/2 9/2 2 Parma 99999922 2 Prague 999999/2 9/2 9/2 9/2 9/2 9 Rome 9999992 ? 22? Rotterdam 9999992 9/2 9 9/2 2 The Hague 999999229 2 9

Table 1: Expected compliance of EU Air Quality directives for 2005 and 2010 (assessed in 2004) Key: 9 = objective will met, 2 = objective unlikely to be met, 9/2 = objective will generally be met but hotspots remain + Refers to 2005 PM10 objective, * 8 hour maximum for ozone

In general the partner cities are confident in meeting the limit values for sulphur dioxide, lead, carbon monoxide and benzene. However all partners perceive some problems with at least one objective for PM10, NO2 and Ozone.

The main pollution sources and the problems (Table 2) that the cities have to tackle have been identified as:

Pollution Sources City Transport Industrial Domestic Background Bologna 99 9 Bratislava 99 9 Brussels 99 Coventry 9 Leicester 9 Munich 99 Paris 999 Parma 99 9 Prague 9 Rome 9 Rotterdam 99 The Hague 99 Table 2 Main pollution issues by pollution sources

Air Quality Management 6 Guidebook It was also became clear that the way National Governments had interpreted the AQD’s meant that it was not possible to compare all reported levels between different urban areas across Europe. As Cities considered what actions they could take, no single “Killer solution” was identified apart from actions by the EU and National governments to improve standards for vehicle emissions and fuel to achieve a reduction in pollution levels. The impact of many measures would be difficult to assess even when intensive monitoring infrastructures or campaigns. Cities have concluded that improved reporting protocols are required and that measures need to be grouped together in packages to obtain the necessary Political commitment, resources or Public acceptance. The Air Quality benefits of some measures may develop as by-products of tools introduced for other purposes (e.g. Congestion Charging in London and the Stockholm experiment). The contents of the packages will vary from city to city depending on the budget, politics, geographical position, public awareness and commitment and other restrictions.

CITEAIR project partners have developed the following products: -

CITY ANNUAL AIR QUALITY REPORTS - A GUIDEBOOK - discusses strategies for Air Quality Monitoring and Reporting and proposes an Air Quality Reporting template which will assist professional users in comparing the performance of their Air Quality Strategy and Action Planning. COMPARING URBAN AIR QUALITY ACROSS BORDERS - the first air quality index (CAQI- Common Air Quality Index) for use at the European level, complementing existing local indices. Differentiating between background and roadside conditions aimed the Index provides easy access to simple information to enable European citizens to compare their environment with similar urban areas (see www.citeair.rec.org ) THE COMMON OPERATIONAL WEBSITE (COW) - provides an attractive platform to compare air quality in different participating cities in real time applying the CAQI. (see www.airqualitynow.eu) AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT – A GUIDEBOOK - is intended to assist the user in completing the diagnosis of their problems and identifying a selection of tools and/or measures which could help reduce the problem and improve air quality. The examples used to illustrate a theme are supplemented by Case Studies already implemented together with signposting or links to websites where other solutions have been reported. COMMUNICATING AIR QUALITY - A GUIDEBOOK - provides a strategy for disseminating information on air quality. It also contains good practices, which could be used as models for the future. TRANSFERRING A TRAFFIC-ENVIRONMENTAL MODELS CHAIN - A GUIDEBOOK - explains the transfer of experiences in developing a Decision Support System (DSS) that assesses the environmental impacts of urban traffic in near-real time, from a local scale to a wide area (regional scale).

The Introduction to the “Air Quality Management“ Guidebook provides a brief overview of the Air Quality Management Cycle, indicating where CITEAIR products can help. Following the Air Quality Reporting protocols assists in identifying the problem pollutants and locations of pollution ‘hotspots’. The chapter on Choosing Air Quality Management Strategies uses extracts from Air Quality Action Plans to illustrate the Package process. The Appendices include more detailed information on Air Quality Strategies and Action Planning in several cities supplemented by links to the websites where the full documents can be consulted. Equipped with an appreciation of the problems and the factors influencing the local choices, the User can make a “Pick & Mix” selection from the range of measures outlined in the next chapter. A subjective assessment has been made to illustrate the likely cost and impact of each measure, using a High/Medium/Low score. The actual score for each user will be influenced by local circumstances. To assist the user in making their own assessment, detailed Case Studies of some of the measures are provided in the Appendices to illustrate how their impact may be assessed or inferred. With the understanding acquired from this reading the User can then use the links included in each summary of the measures to access further details. Consulting the COW may encourage the User to contact a particular city, to discuss the implementation of particular measures. The Guidebook concludes with a Glossary and References.

Air Quality Management 7 Guidebook 1 AIR QUALITY OVERVIEW

1.1 Introduction

European Union has taken a firm course of action to combat increasing air pollution leading to green house effect and global warming. Its legislation is concerned with maintenance of air quality, which does not harm human health or the environment. The EU’s main Air Quality Objectives are to provide a clean and healthy environment regardless of the global growth and its impact on the environment. Air Quality Legislation was first introduced at the EU level in 1970. Numerous Directives and Regulations have followed regulating air quality and factors influencing it, such as: emission sources, fuel qualities, monitoring/regulating air quality and protection of the ozone layer. Long-term goals were set in the 6th Environmental Action Programme 'Towards Sustainability' complimented by National Strategies and Action Plans. These typically cover sectors such as : Industry, Energy, Transport, Agriculture and Tourism. Themes effecting air quality range from Climate change; Acidification and Air Quality; Urban Environment; Waste Management; and Protection of Nature and Biodiversity. Thirteen Council Air Quality Directives and three Council Decisions comprise the core of the air quality legislation. These Directives and Decisions implemented by National Governments through Regulations are the tools for directing action by National, Regional and Local Government and others. They cover four main groups: product control and material handling, ambient air quality standards (limit values and guidelines), ambient air quality assessment and management; and monitoring and information exchange. The development of Europe’s urban centres is linked with the development of sustainable mobility options. Changes in behaviour, economic growth or recession and structure of the population are factors that have an immediate impact on transport and mobility patterns. The EU Air Quality Directives are increasingly devolving responsibility for action to the Cities and regions, where the most complex challenges in transport and environment need to be solved. Air pollutants resulting from traffic are a major source of pollution in many of the urban zones. Local and Regional Authorities implement EU guidelines to reduce the impact of those pollutants on health and well-being of citizens. Different approaches to implementing EU directives on Ambient Air quality led to a variety of styles of reporting, modelling and an array of approaches to reduce traffic related pollution. Air pollution models are used to predict and analyze air quality in particular zones and can be grouped into following categories: traffic models, pollutant emission models, atmospheric dispersion models. The CITEAIR project started in March 2004 will last 46 months. It is led by Leicester (UK), supported by Paris (FR), Prague (CZ), Rotterdam (NL), Rome (I), the Region Emilia Romagna (I), Munich (DE), Coventry (UK), The Hague (NL), Bratislava (SK) and Brussels (BE). The project contributes to the development and implementation of efficient solutions to assess and reduce the impact of traffic on air quality in large urban areas. Through close co-operation, exchange of experiences and joint developments between European regions and cities, the project develops solutions to inform the public and local authorities about the environmental situation in a comparable and easily, understandable way and offer guidance on efficient measures to reduce environmental damage mainly caused by transport. Other municipalities are encouraged to contribute to the initiative via a user network.

1.1.1 THE CONTEXT OF THE AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT GUIDEBOOK

Developing and implementing an Air Quality Action Plan is a long and complex process consisted of many stages and depends on the topography, geographical position and resources of individual city or region. It is also dependent on the legislations coming from EU as well as from the national levels. Those legislations are set up to offer guidance and to set the limits to pollutants. Diagram 1 illustrates the Air Quality Management Cycle and its links with the European Union Directives and National Regulations and how the various CITEAIR products can assist in determining sensible and achievable Air Quality Action Plans.

Air Quality Management 8 Guidebook Environmental Strategy

Scientific research including Biology, Chemistry, Medicine, Meteorology, Physics etc generates advice, which is used by Policy Makers to map out a strategy with a variety of courses of action including targets for individual pollutants. As our understanding of the various mechanisms develops, then the focus of action can change and the measures or tools available to help achieve these targets may change. The advice will suggest limit values for concentrations per pollutant, which can be incorporated in the Air Quality Directives and associated legislation. The final values adopted from time to time will follow political negotiations, which will take into account a wide range of socio-economic factors.

EU-Ambient Air Quality Directives

Air Quality Legislation was first introduced at the EU level in 1970. Scientist who carried out work on the environmental strategy helped to set the basis for the legislations, advising on the pollution standards. Numerous Directives and Regulations have followed regulating air quality and factors influencing it, such as: emission sources, fuel qualities, monitoring/regulating air quality and protection of the ozone layer.

Legislative Tools

These allow to designate competent authorities at both national and regional / local levels. They also allow to introduce statutory ambient air quality standards and alert thresholds. Central governments with the use of legislations are able to set more stringent standards and incorporate them at primary or secondary legislations then those set in the directives.

Air Quality Modelling and Monitoring

Local and Regional Authorities implement EU guidelines to reduce the impact of pollutants. Different approaches to implementing EU directives on Ambient Air quality led to a variety of styles of reporting. Monitoring of the pollution levels is one of the methods of implementing the directives, a variety of different styles and types of monitors are implemented throughout the Europe. Modelling of pollution is also used to predict and analyse air quality in particular zones and can be grouped into following categories: traffic models, pollutant emission models, atmospheric. The use of modelling can reduce the number of measuring stations needed to assess large areas. Modelling also allows to predict future scenarios.

AQD Exceedences Identified and AQMA Designated

It is a statutory requirement for local government to predict future exceedences of the air quality objectives where members of the public might be exposed to such exceedences. Scientific assessment processes are carried out to designate Air Quality Management Areas (AQMAs) to address those hot spots where specific air quality objectives are predicted to exceed the future targets.

Identifying the Sources and Developing Options

Once the hot spots have been identified authorities consult with stakeholders, various organisations and general public, which helps to determine specific AQMA boundaries. Various professionals within the authority as well as specialists are involved in the process of scientific assessment process and anticipated AQMA designation. Within the AQMA solutions of reducing the pollution levels are introduced.

Review Options

The local government body needs to review the options available to it. It needs to identify what changes are politically acceptable and are going to be accepted by the public, what improvements will allow for achieving significant impact. What options are feasible based on the potential the City already has.

Air Quality Management 9 Guidebook agram A: Relationship between Citeair and the Air Quality Management Cycle

Air Quality Management 10 Guidebook The following are some of the areas that the Local authority need to consider when choosing the options it is going to apply to comply with EU directives on Ambient Air Quality:

Roles and Responsibilities

Local authority needs to identify who is responsible for what part of AQMA and in what capacity that person or organisation can act.

Authority Planning Function /Integration

Local authority needs to set up an action plan to establish how to integrate decisions to co- operate with various groups and individuals within and from outside the authority.

Perceptions and Practicability

The “hot spots” identified in the preliminary stages of AQMA designation need to be addressed. A range of suitable measures or tools need to be reviewed and appropriate action selected. The actions undertaken by the authority need to reflect its ability to implement them effectively and with the support of all involved.

AQ Improvements

The list of improvements that can be implemented to increase the air quality is usually generated by local authority. The list will contain a variety of schemes designed to reach the recommended targets set by the air quality directives. The measures that are considered have to be both politically and publicly acceptable. Measures that have the most significant impact are often the most difficult to promote to obtain acceptance by the public and/or the politicians.

Cost Effectiveness

The list of possible measures, tools and approaches generated by the local authority to reduce the air pollution and to minimise pollution at the hot spots may involve both expensive and cheap options. Those measures need to be reviewed to assess factors such as effectiveness, cost, acceptability and feasibility. Sadly the measures which have the greatest effect are often the most difficult to achieve, whilst those which are cheapest and easiest to implement do not often produce significant reductions. However existing infrastructures, can offer the potential for implementing measures on a marginal cost basis. For example the London Congestion Charging Infrastructure offers potential for enforcing a Low Emission Zone at relatively cheaper costs.

Non-Air Quality

Options and measures to reduce air quality, which are not associated with reduction of congestion and volume of traffic. In some cities where Industrial Emissions dominate the Air Quality then these might be tackled first or alongside traffic orientated solutions. Introducing green spaces in inner city, can provide “Breathing Space” as well as enhancing the overall environment.

Options

The selection of actions to improve Ambient Air Quality will depend on the budget, politics, geographical position, public awareness and commitment and other restrictions. Existing Policies and Plans may need to be adapted or replaced by new versions. In many cases these policies will need to cover several years and provide for a phased implementation programme. The “Package Concept” described elsewhere in this document has been developed by CITEAIR Cities to ensure that the community can become involved and the investment can be shown to have delivered improvements to the local Air Quality.

Policies

Existing Policies and Plans may need to be adapted or replaced by new versions. Ultimately some of the major reductions will rely on European and National initiatives such as Vehicle Emission and Fuel Standards or Inter-regional initiatives for say Ozone. The Local Policies will need to be drafted to the support required to enable the use hard and soft measures as well as “Package

Air Quality Management 11 Guidebook Concept” to ensure that low impact “awareness raising type” measures are implemented alongside the more expensive options.

National Measures

European and National initiatives such as Vehicle Emission and Fuel Standards or Inter- regional initiatives, will be required if significant improvements are to be achieved in the urban centers, even where a City has adopted major measures.

Hard Measures

Hardest restrictions against vehicle drivers can be taken to enhance air quality in areas with high levels of air pollution. These measures usually have a high impact but also require big investments. Examples of such measures are: Low Emission Zone in London, and RUC- Road User Charging. The use of Air Quality Modelling allows the impact of these to be assessed before the major investment required is committed.

Packages

Groups of measures consisting of hard and soft measures can be implemented in the city or region to achieve better air quality. The packages can be tailored to the individual needs of the city or region, depending on the existing potential and budget. The concept is to group together a variety of measures, some high cost/high impact with some low cost low impact, to achieve identifiable reductions, whilst at the same time conditioning the public to make “environmentally friendly green choices” about their life style.

Soft Measures

These types of measures usually are not very costly but also do not have a high impact on improving the Ambient Air Quality. Usually they involve education of the public to pollution reducing actions they can take such as walking or cycling to work. They also involve educational schemes at schools to raise awareness of the environmental issues.

Quality Action Plan

The Quality Action Plan is implemented when the Local Authority has assessed and consulted on the suitability of different management strategies and has selected those which are most acceptable to the community and will bring the “best available” impact. The action plan will confirm the City’s commit to implementing the changes required to improve air quality.

Implementation:

Implementing the measures depend on the many aspect of the city such as • Topography • Geography • Layout of the city • Existing infrastructure • Restrictions by politicians • Restrictions by general public • Restrictions by budget All of the above factors will influence the type of measures the local government will implement.

This guidebook allows the user to analyse several measures already implemented by other cites. The selection of case studies provides a broad spectrum of examples. Both soft and hard measures are presented and classified into sections for the easy identification. Chapter 3 of this guidebook contains many examples of schemes that have been implemented and had a positive impact on the environment. Appendices include case studies of the major cities involved in the Citeair project. Examples of packages that are to be implemented in the cities that want to improve their air quality are also provided. The user will then be able to develop an action plan which is relevant to the local circumstances.

Air Quality Management 12 Guidebook 2 CHOOSING MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

The proceeding chapters have showed the air quality implementation strategy protocol employed. Although many cities face similar problems, strategies and methods vary widely due to such factors as the technological requirements, costs, social and economic make up of the city etc. This chapter will look at the requirements of some of the schemes, how cities approach air quality decision-making and what are the implications of EU air quality directives for air quality management. In the United Kingdom, for example, Local Authorities are responsible for the implementation of the Local Air Quality Management (LAQM) elements, which superseded the National Air Quality Strategy. Scientific assessment processes are carried out to designate Air Quality Management Areas (AQMAs) where specific air quality levels are predicted to exceed the future target dates. The Air Quality Regulations specify the air quality objectives at the national levels for seven pollutants (nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, lead, PM10, benzene, 1,3-butadiene and sulphur dioxide). Local authorities are obliged to work towards the national air quality objectives (AQOs). These objectives are health-based, and allow for considerations of cost and benefit, viability and overall capability of reaching a particular level of air quality. It is also a statutory requirement for local authorities to predict future exceedences (see Table 1) of the air quality objectives where members of the public might be exposed to such exceedences. The stipulated period between identifying any such locations where air quality objectives are predicted to exceed and official declaration of the AQMA is four months. During this period authorities consult with stakeholders, various organisations and general public, which helps to determine specific AQMA boundaries. Those boundaries are highly variable, dependent on various local factors (local authority, political decision making and regional collaboration). Local Authority officers, undertake the Air Quality Review and Assessment (AQRA) leading to the designation of the Air Quality Management Areas. Part of this process is to fill a questionnaire assessing local politics and consultation on the final AQMA. This evaluation process includes the assessment of modelling and monitoring tools used to identifying areas of predicted exceedences. The appraisal process is also identifying various regional approaches to air quality management, and observations relating to outcomes of the first phase assessment work and regional approaches will be discussed.

Air Quality Objective(s) % of UK local authorities predicting future exeedences Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) annual mean (ann.) only 34 NO2 (ann.) and PM10 24-hour mean (24-hr) 31 NO2 (ann.) and NO2 hourly mean (hr) 11 NO2 (ann.) and PM10 annual mean (ann.) 4 PM10 (24-hr) only 2 NO2 (ann.) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) 15-minute mean (15-min) 2 NO2 (ann.), PM10 (24-hr) and SO2 (15-min) 2 Other predicted objective exceedences combinations 14 Table 1: The most anticipated AQMAs with predicted NOx exceedences

The scientific assessment process and anticipated AQMA designation process involve various professionals within the authority. Table 2 represents examples of different professionals involved.

Profession Average score Average Score Assessment process AQMA designation Environmental Health Officers Very involved Very involved Transport Planning Officers Quite involved Very involved Strategic Planning Officers Some involvement Some involvement Development Control Planners Little involvement Some involvement Local Agenda 21 Officers Little involvement Little involvement Economic Development Officers Little involvement Little involvement Legal Officers Little involvement Some involvement Education Officers Little involvement Little involvement Table 2: British local Authority Officers involvement with the air quality assessment process and AQMA designation process

Air Quality Management 13 Guidebook The Highway Agency (the UK national Highway Authority) monitors and manages traffic congestion at the regional level. All of the parties involved are required to work closely with those facilitating local air quality improvements at the action planning stage of the management process Information is provided by the Environment Agency concerning major industrial emissions for inclusion with Point, Area and Line sources for inclusion in the emissions database assembled by the Local Authority. This data is then used in Air Quality Models to identify the boundaries for the local AQMA(s). Collaboration between individual local authorities and national agencies bring benefits from shared experiences and resources, which can lead to joint modelling, monitoring and emission inventory work initiatives, also it can lead to development of new methodologies for new scientific assessment process.1 Diagram 2 provides a simplified overview of the Quality Action Plan design and implementation process.

Diagram B: Air Quality Action Plan design

2.1 SUITABILITY OF MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

There is no one solution for all situations, (the “Killer Solution” ) apart from actions by the EU and National governments regarding vehicle emission standards and fuel standards aimed to achieve a reduction in pollution levels. EU Air Quality directives impose duties on member states to carry out air quality assessments and implement action plans. In most cases those duties have been delegated to cities and regions. The contents of the packages will vary from city to city depending on the severeness of the environmental problems, the budget, politics, geographical position and other restrictions. The Chapter 3 and the Appendices of this report provide a directory of measures, which can be put together in packages on a “pick-and-mix” basis depending on the local circumstances. Table 5 illustrates different management strategies that can be employed by the city. Strategies adopted depend on several factors. Cities carry out assessments on the infrastructures already in existence as well as the possibilities of new implementations. Those assessments depend on the experience available. Examples are given of various schemes and the assessment of each one is carried out on cost, technology required, political and public perception and its relation to the air quality effect. Schemes introduced to resolve say congestion will generally bring AQ benefits (e.g London Congestion Charging and the Stockholm RUC experiment showed 15 – 20% reductions in the levels of certain pollutants.

1 http://science.uwe.ac.uk/research/uploads/Appendix%207.01%20Paper%201.doc

Air Quality Management 14 Guidebook 2.1.1 POLICIES, PLANS AND PROGRAMS

The European Community Directive on the assessment of the effects of certain plans and programmes on the environment (2001/42/EC) regulates assessment of the environmental impacts of plans and programmes. also known as the SEA Directive. The objective of the SEA Directive is 'to provide for a high level of protection of the environment and to contribute to the integration of environmental considerations into the preparation and adoption of plans with a view to promoting sustainable development' This environmental commitment is broadly consistent with Government policies and is reflected in other transport planning and appraisal guidance. SEA will normally be required (in the UK) for new transport plans including Local Transport Plans and Local (Transport) Implementation Plans, Table 32 illustrates the process.

SEA stage Purpose of this stage

Setting the context, identifying objectives and problems Document how the plan is affected by outside and establishing the baseline. factors; Analyse the environmental protection objectives, Streamline the subsequent baseline Establish SEA objectives, indicators and targets. description, prediction and monitoring stages. Collect relevant information on the environmental context Help to identify environmental problems, Outline the environmental characteristics of areas likely to be objectives and alternatives. significantly affected. Outline any existing environmental problems which are relevant to the plan Deciding the scope of SEA and developing alternatives. Help ensure that: Outline the relationship with other relevant plans, the SEA covers key issues. programmes and their environmental objectives. Identify relevant alternatives at the strategic level. Scope the likely significant effects of the plan and alternatives. Consult with environmental authorities Assessing the effects of the plan. Defensible consideration of all likely significant Forecast the significant effects on the environment of the environmental effects. chosen strategy taking into account the objectives and Propose mitigation measures where geographical scope of the plan. appropriate. Outline the reasons for selecting the alternatives dealt with. Propose a monitoring programme. Propose measures to prevent, reduce and as fully as possible offset any significant adverse effects on the environment of implementing the plan or programme. Such measures should be costed and deliverable. Describe the measures envisaged concerning monitoring Consultation on the draft plan and the Environmental Identify the opinions and concerns of the public Report. and environmental authorities on Prepare an Environmental Report in which the likely environmental issues. significant effects on the environment of implementing the Show how information and opinions on plan, and reasonable alternatives taking into account the environmental issues have been considered. objectives and geographical scope of the plan. The information to be given is listed in Article 5 and Annex 1 of the SEA Directive. Give environmental authorities and the public an early and effective opportunity within appropriate time frames to express their opinion on the draft plan and accompanying Environmental Report before the adoption of the plan (Art. 6.1, 6.2). Take consultation results into account.

Monitor the significant effects of implementing the plan Achieve implementation of the plan in on the environment. accordance with the outcomes of the SEA. Decide what needs to be monitored. Ensure that adverse effects of implementing Identify the information required the plan can be identified and corrective action Confirm when the remedial action would be required and taken. identify what remedial actions might be needed. Provide information for future SEAs. Consider who is responsible for the monitoring activities Table 3: SEA appraisal stages

2 http://www.webtag.org.uk/webdocuments/2_Project_Manager/11_SEA/index.htm#1_1

Air Quality Management 15 Guidebook 2.2 ASSESSMENT OF MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

The CITEAIR project partnership represents cities with populations of over 250,000 ranging from provincial cities to large capital cities (See Table 4), hence represents the different levels of economic and political pressures that cities in Europe would face. The partner cities are also indicative of the different industrial, geographical and topographical influences on air quality in Europe.

City / Region Area [km²] Population Reference

Bologna 140.9 372, 505 Official Site of City of Bologna

Bratislava 367.59 428,672 Data from Wikipedia

Brussels 162 992,041 Brussels-Capital Region

Coventry 98.64 300,848 www.coventry.gov.uk

Emilia Romagna Region 22,123 4,030,220 Data from Wikipedia

Leicester 73.09 279,923 www.leicester.gov.uk

Paris 14,518.3 11,505,000 Data from Wikipedia

Parma 260 413,182 Data from Provincia di Parma

Prague 496 1,172,975 Data from Wikipedia

Rome 1285 2.553,873 Data from Wikipedia

Rotterdam 304.22 604,819 Data from Wikipedia

The Hague 98.22 469,059 Data from Wikipedia

Table 4: CITEAIR cities with population > 250,000

The Partners undertook an initial review of various Strategies/Measures/Tools which were being considered by Cities. The review is summarised in Table 5

Air Quality Management 16 Guidebook Management Strategy Strategy Technology Cost Infrastructure Public and Political Perception and their Air Quality Effect requirements Traffic Management High Only feasible if The application of such schemes are based on Unlikely to noticed by, unless there is a major Dependent on the scheme – can impact all Systems infrastructure is already in existing traffic management systems available change in traffic flow major roads in a city therefore have a citywide place. impact Low tech Low Low Popular locally but less so if it impacts on Rerouting of traffic can be beneficial commuters Road Tolling / Permit High High costs Requires electronic or manual surveillance of Generally popular within the controlled zones but Generally a local impact within the controlled Based Access (for automated (for automated schemes) access points., as well infrastructure for issuing less so with those who have to travel into it. zone. schemes) but high revenue. fines, charges, permits etc Politically acceptable as a congestion measure Needs a strong political will to implement Low Emissions Zone High High To allow effective enforcement a high technology Access restriction for air quality seems to be less A local to citywide impact – depending on the (for automated (for automated schemes) scheme is required, along with fine and permit favourable than similar schemes for congestion. size of the zone. schemes) issuing infrastructure. Levels must be set to suit Needs a strong political will and a high public well An LEZ in a major city will also effect the existing car fleet of the city. informed national traffic fleet therefore have a nationwide impact Pedestrianisation / Home Low Med Planning of public transport infrastructure and Popular with the public Generally a local impact expected, however Zones Change in the use of road delivery access in and around non-vehicle area some initial resistance from traders there are wider implications with road planning space. required. and public transport Parking Restrictions Low Low Enforcement required. Needs to complemented by Depends on location within the city. Local impact, but if city centre schemes effect good public transport links In city: whether availability of parking spaces is commuting patterns then a citywide impact can improved be expected Fleet Renewals and Low Med-Low Based on existing fleet infrastructure. Likely to be popular if the rate of renewal is not too Dependent on organisations involved. Should Retrofitting (based on far above the natural rate. be regarded as having a citywide impact with existing fleet) Is consistent with alternative fuels possible knock-on effect to neighbouring conurbations and nationwide. Alternative Fuels High-Med High-Med An existing fleet operator required Requires strong political support for a public fleet As fleet renewals – citywide impact -> possible (subsidies may act as an or a willing private fleet operator nationwide incentive). Retrofitting is probably easier to achieve than accelerative renewal programs Integrated Public Med-Low Med-Low Central management of public transport logistics, Popular with the public. However feasibility of A citywide impact, especially if commuting Transport and P&R ticketing etc required scheme is dependent on ownership of public patterns are significantly influenced. transport and willingness of relevant bodies to work together. Travel Planning Low Low Schemes must be tailored to the existing Generally popular except when seen to hinder A citywide impact can be achieved if many infrastructure for public transport, cycling, walking employer’s and employees’ flexibility organisations and people are involved etc. Industrial Pollution Med Med Dependent on the industry and its requirements Depends on the country and the priorities of the Nationwide and transboundary impacts based on Best based on Best Available public and politicians on economic development Available Technology Requires a strong national political leadership Technology Domestic Heating Low Low Government grants and incentives speed up the Popular with the public Citywide, nationwide and transboundary process impacts

Table 5: Management Strategies

Air Quality Management 17 Guidebook When Citeair project was conceived partners were concerned about the impacts of limit values on the Air Quality Action Plans. The project therefore embarked on a survey of cities to assess how they thought they might comply (see Table 6).

SO2 + Pb CO C6H6 PM10 NO2 O3 City 1h 24h 1yr 1yr 8h 1yr 24h 1yr 1h 1yr 8h* Bologna 9 9 9 9 9 9 2 2 2 Bratislava 9 9 9 9 9 9 Brussels 9 9 9 9 9 9 2 2 9 ? 2 Coventry 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 2 9 Leicester 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 2 2 ? Paris 9 9 9 9 9 9 2 9/2 9/2 9/2 2 Parma 9 9 9 9 9 9 2 2 2 Prague 9 9 9 9 9 9/2 9/2 9/2 9/2 9/2 9 Rome 9 9 9 9 9 9 2 ? 2 2 ? Rotterdam 9 9 9 9 9 9 2 9/2 9 9/2 2 The Hague 9 9 9 9 9 9 2 2 9 2 9

Table 6: Expected compliance of EU Air Quality directives for 2005 and 2010 (assessed in 2004)

Key: 9 = objective will met, 2 = objective unlikely to be met, 9/2 = objective will generally be met but hotspots remain + Refers to 2005 PM10 objective, * 8 hour maximum for ozone

The main pollution sources and the problems that the cities have to tackle, have been identified as listed in Table 7.

Pollution Sources

City Transport Industrial Domestic Background Bologna 9 9 9 Bratislava 9 9 9 Brussels 9 9 Coventry 9 Leicester 9 Munich 9 9 Paris 9 9 9 Parma 9 9 9 Prague 9 Rome 9 Rotterdam 9 9 The Hague 9 9 Table 7 Main pollution issues by pollution sources

2.3 EXAMPLES OF INTEGRATED ACTION PLANS

For a city looking to improve its air quality this guidebook provides a directory to help achieve the best results. The options available for each individual city depend on factors such as technological requirements, costs, social and economic make up of the city and already existing schemes. There

Air Quality Management 18 Guidebook are four main categories in Chapter 3, which deal with specific problems related to Ambient Air Quality. Each category has been assessed for its impact and implementation costs. Within each category several subcategories are discussed giving at least one example each. The examples classified in descending order from those which have high impact on improving the air quality in urban areas to those which impact is low.

Local governments need to tackle the problem, but there is no one uniform solution. Each city or region has to choose the options, which are most suitable- “mix and match” approach. Below are several types of packages that can be applied depending on the existing resources.

Package 1: Low cost, short-term, high feasibility

This scenario or package includes the measures that are low cost (<£500 000), short-term (assuming funding could be implemented almost immediately) and as such are highly feasible

Emissions

• Roadside emissions testing • Targeting idling engines – including buses and taxis

Information and education

• Real time air quality information provision for the public • Promote air quality on the school curriculum (target young people) • Education of local authority officers and Members through providing interactive seminars, workshops and briefing meetings etc

Land-use Planning

• Integration of environmental themes • Raise awareness among local authority officers and Members

Road Network

• Increase parking restrictions and costs • Develop further speed zones (20 mph zones) combined with traffic calming and block rat runs • Pedestrian and cycle priority

Promotion of Alternatives

• Implement Travel Plan • Implement home-working and flexi-time to more council staff and promote to other employers

Package 2: Medium cost, medium-term

This scenario or package includes the more costly measures (£500K - £3 million). As before, they are listed within subgroups

Emissions

• LEZ-feasibility study and limited implementation • Encourage heavy through traffic to use most suitable routes rather than enter the city centre. This can be done by using effective signing and providing maps of designated

Land-use Planning

Air Quality Management 19 Guidebook • Development Control procedures – including aspects of building design, mixed use development, assessments for developments sensitive to air quality as well as those which adversely affect it via sec106 agreements

Manage network

• Reallocation of road space • Enforcement speed limits access restrictions (short-term)

Promotion of Alternatives

• Improve bus services (frequency, attractiveness, disabled and level access etc) • Provide improved public transport information

Package 3: High cost, long-term

This scenario or package of measures represent the high cost initiatives, less feasible options, which necessitates them to be implemented over the longer-term.

(a) Generic Strategies

Emissions from road traffic using the major road network are the most significant source of nitrogen dioxide in most urban areas. Whilst the air quality assessment work undertaken by the Council is intended to identify key pollution hot spots, the Action Plan seeks to address the issue of elevated pollutant concentrations more generally across the city. The main focus of air quality action planning must therefore be to reduce motor vehicle kilometres travelled and emissions per motor vehicle kilometre. Of these, emissions from road traffic are the key air quality issue in the city. Therefore in order to improve air quality within the AQMAs, attention should be paid to the following variables:- A. Numbers of vehicles flowing past critical points in the City (i.e. locations where people are exposed to excessive concentrations of traffic pollutants in the AQMA, over the relevant averaging periods). B. Vehicle/miles within the Local Transport Plan area. C. Emissions per vehicle/mile.

(b) List of Measures

Detailed case studies provided by the partners can be found in the Appendices. Summaries of some case studies have been presented in this chapter to assist with better understanding of the mix and mach approach of choosing the schemes.

The following sections have shown some of the measures available for targeting specific air quality problems that relate to specific source of emissions or a small group of users (especially related to traffic). When trying to meet air quality limit values from the European Directives, these strategies on their own will not achieve these targets therefore suggesting a combination of these measures are required. This is particularly important in cities where pollution is not dominated by just one source. Here an integrated approach to air quality action planning is required. In Paris planning for 2010 (see text box below) has focused on the effects of improvements concerned with waste treatment, energy production, rail emissions and transport planning. These range of measures are predicted to reduce annual average concentrations of NO2 to close to the limit values for 2010, yet exceedences are still expected at roadside and around the airport.

Air Quality Management 20 Guidebook Case Study – Air Protection Plan (PPA) for Paris

Within the framework of the development of the Plan of Protection of Atmosphere (PPA), the Regional Direction for Industrie, Research and Environment (DRIRE Ile-de-France) entrusted to AIRPARIF the evaluation of the quality of the air in the Ile-de-France region expected for the year 2010. This evaluation was undertaken for the two pollutants which do not respect in a chronic way the air quality objectives, namely nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and ozone (O3).

The work consisted in working out the inventory and the spatial distribution of main atmospheric pollutants emissions for the three base cases: the year 2000 being used as the baseline year, the year 2010 that takes into account the strategies of control already engaged on national or regional scales and the year 2010+PPA that takes into account the complementary regional measures proposed in the Plan of Protection of the Atmosphere of the Ile-de-France region. This was followed by modelling of the concentrations of NO2 and O3 for the three base cases for two different meteorological years (rather good dispersive conditions like those encountered in year 2000 or in year 2002; and rather poor dispersive conditions and high temperatures in summer like those of the year 2003).

The predictions for the base case for 2010 included measures that are already “in the pipeline” based on European, national or regional regulations. On top of this, the base case 2010 + PPA includes complementary measures aimed at reducing the emissions suggested within the framework of the PPA. These measures include: - waste treatment incinerators located in the so-called “sensitive NOx area” should meet by the end of 2010 a limit value for NOx emissions at 80 mg/Nm3 (instead of 200 mg/Nm3) - closure of certain power stations from Electricity of France and changing the operation mode of one power station - equipment of low-NOx burners for all the renewed individual boilers - Equipment of all gasoline distribution equipments delivering more than 1000 m3/year of a system of vapour recovery of the NMVOC from the pumps - Reduction of 30% by 2010 compared to 2000 of the emissions of NOx of the rail traffic in Ile-de- France by an optimization of the conditions of operating of engines - taken into account of a fall of road traffic corresponding to the realization of part of the measures registered in the Plan of Urban Mobility

The effect of these strategies shows that for the 2010 base case, NOx emissions are expected to fall by 32% when compared with 2000. A further 10.1% reduction is expected in 2101+PPA case. For NO2 concentrations a reduction in the maximum value for annual average concentration on the Paris and its suburbs (except sector of Roissy) would be around 17µg/m3 leading to a maximum value around the limit value (38 to 44 µg/m3 according to weather configurations by 2010 to compare with the maximum values of 55 and 62 µg/m3 in the baseline cases) in 2010 base case. For 2010+PPA a further reduction of 4 µg/m3 on the annual average concentrations of NO2 on certain sectors of the agglomeration. A benefit of about 3 µg/m3 would be in particular recorded on Paris and its close suburbs, areas where the exceedence of the limit value would still be expected in 2010.

In Brussels there has been a slightly different approach based upon Structural Air Quality Improvement and Global Warming Abatement ( see text box below)

Air Quality Management 21 Guidebook Case Studies – Air Climate Plan For Brussels

The government of the Brussels Capital Region adopted its Plan d’amélioration structurelle de la qualité de l’air et de lutte contre le réchauffement climatique (Plan for structural air quality improvement and global warming abatement). This plan, dubbed the Air-Climate Plan, brings together measures designed to improve ambient air quality and diminish the emission of greenhouse gases by the year 2010.

The Plan’s measures have been divided into several action areas: Reducing emissions generated by transport, a big source of urban pollution, through the technological improvement of vehicles and a policy to reduce motorized traffic. This entails the regulation of parking, plans to displace companies and improvements in public transport, among others. Reducing emissions from energy consumption in buildings, which are leading sources of greenhouse gases, by introducing a policy on the Rational Use of Energy. (RUE) Promoting renewable energy. Reducing emissions from industrial activities via a policy for technological progress and the use of products that generate less pollution. This involves regulations on the use of solvents-base products in companies that release volatile organic compounds. Reducing emissions from individual incineration and the household use of solvents (uncontrolled emissions).

The transport measures planned are:

A. Reduction of the road traffic volume by: - Incentives to reduce the use of the car Encouraging the use of less polluting modes of transport Parking policy

B. The fall of the road traffic emissions by: Support and diffusion of the technological improvements of the vehicles (clean vehicles) Management of circulation (speeds and flows of traffic) viewing less air pollution

C. Actions on the behaviours of displacements aiming at a less pollution To control congestion and to reverse the evolution of the traffic, Brussels region Capital will follow an ambitious policy, in order to support the use of other means of transport, by offering a credible alternative to the use of the private car: To promote a new culture of displacements, and to choose more respectful modes of the environment; from 2002 to 2010, the modal share of two wheel vehicles should pass from 1 to 10%, thanks in particular to the creation of cycle roads; Creation of pedestrian roads; To increase the offer of public transport (quantitative and qualitative); To promote the more rational use of the car: through sharing, Co-conveyance, To promote the acquisition and the use of clean vehicles.

In addition, with the start-up of the RER, the Brussels-Capital region intends to improve its within mobility, and this with the modal transfer of car towards the RER; the Area thus hopes to return on a level of traffic lower by 20% than the situation of 1999. With regard to goods traffic, Brussels-Capital region will take care to ensure better organization of flows in transport, and will follow a policy of encouragement of the modal transfers in favour of rail, water way and of inter method water-rail-road; the Area of Brussels-Capital will also continue the development of the port of Brussels.

It is expected that this 20% drop in traffic volume will enable Brussels to meet its air quality targets for 2010 through 70% drop in SOx, 48% reduction in NOx and 77% drop in NMVOC emissions compared with 2000.

The options available for Air Quality Action Plans are diverse. The topography, geographical position and resources of individual cities and regions all have an impact on which measures can be considered. The following short paragraphs give a flavour of the content of the Air Quality Action Plans being developed by CITEAIR partners which the reader will find in the Appendices.

Air Quality Management 22 Guidebook Leicester

Emissions from road traffic using the major road network are the most significant source of nitrogen dioxide in Leicester. Different strategies were assessed with respect to costs, benefits, feasibility and terms on air quality. It can be determined that the implementation of schemes like access restrictions, capacity reductions and promotion of public transport are core elements of tackling nitrogen dioxide emissions. Further information of Leicester’s scheme of tackling traffic caused pollution can be found in Appendix B.

Prague

The City of Prague assessed impacts of the implementation of different measures for improving the air quality, which are included into the Strategic plan for Air Quality Protection in Prague. Sharing the experience with the other partner cities, a contribution to an efficient air quality management was achieved. A proposal of 25 measures is directly bound to concrete groups of pollution sources and was prepared on the basis of a detailed analysis of potential solutions of respective issues. One of the most effective measures to tackle air pollution are changing in parking policies, extension of road network to enhance traffic flow, promotion of public transport and capacity reduction schemes for lorries into city centre. More details about Prague’s Air Quality Action Plan is mentioned in Appendix C.

Rijnmond

In Rinjmond the amount of particulate matter is mainly affiliated to sea salt and industry. Exceedences in nitrogen dioxide are expected to occur especially along major arterial roads at a large number of locations in future when no further measures will be implemented. Analyses of different sources of emitters were taken and it became apparent that the concentrations in NOx are caused by road traffic by about 50 %. Different task groups responsible to chart every possible measure for their particular 'source', including a breakdown of costs, impact, feasibility and timeframes. As a result 100 measures were carried out. Based on different criteria as the impact on air quality, costs, feasibility, side effects and timeframe, a qualitative assessment was made. As a main result it was found that the introduction of shore-side electricity for ships in the port and low-emission zones do have a positive effect on the local air quality. How the strategy of Air Quality Action Plan in Rinjmond was prepared can be found in Appendix D.

Air Quality Management 23 Guidebook 3 MANAGING AIR QUALITY – AIMS AND IMPLEMENTATION OF STRATEGIES

In the proceeding chapter a number of themes for managing air quality in urban areas were identified. This chapter will discuss these in further detail and use examples of where such techniques have been applied. The first 3 sections that deal mainly with road transport based issues highlight the importance of managing traffic. The wider scope of air quality management and the importance of creating integrated action plans are highlighted in the following sections.

3.1 ACCESS CONTROL,CAPACITY REDUCTION AND TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT

Since the 1950s, car ownership and road building increased rapidly throughout Europe. Consequently – along with an uneven growth in the modal share of both passenger and good transport – for most countries in Europe, major cities and main highways connecting urban centres suffer from congestion problems that have found to create economic problems for the cities and the countries as a whole. Since the 1970s efforts have been made to reduce congestion and improve traffic in particular in cities. Although such schemes are designed with traffic management (and its economic impacts) in mind, their effect on air quality has only being appreciated recently, as complementary air quality and traffic monitoring and modelling techniques have been developed. One of the solutions for traffic congestion was to increase capacity of the existing network of roads and highways. Such approach created even more congestion because of the increased usage of roads especially by freight transport. This section looks at the range of measures that have been designed to reduce urban congestion and their impacts on air quality.

3.1.1 TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT

For many cities, the main traffic management activities are controlled by a central Intelligent Transport System (ITS) used to optimise traffic flow and minimise congestion in urban areas. In the UK, this concept is represented by Urban Traffic Management & Control (UTMC) systems UTMC systems were initially set out to “improve congestion and demand management”, however currently new initiatives involved air quality effects. The principles of traffic management systems used across Europe are the same but are based on differing software platforms. The basic requirements are:

• Traffic signals with variable timing systems • Real-time traffic monitoring data (e.g. Traffic count data, CCTV images) • Historic traffic data to predict normal traffic flow trends • Real-time or static data on public transport • Local information on events that effect traffic flow

This information allows for traffic management by a central control system by a variety of methods. • Automated fixed plans for traffic light control for different scenarios (based on day of the week and time of day, as well as special plans for events) • Automated responsive plans, based on traffic monitoring data to optimise flows • Manual intervention of traffic light sequences by operators

The City of Leicester has a well-established UTMC system based on SCOOT based traffic monitoring and optimisation, complemented through the use of CCTV that allows for operator intervention. Through research collaboration with Leeds University air quality impacts of queue relocation using has been carried out, utilising the existing system in Leicester (see text box). This was done as part of a national government and European funded initiatives. The alterations of signal

Air Quality Management 24 Guidebook timings were made to relocate queues during morning peak time traffic to areas with natural ventilation and provide a buffer between traffic emissions sources and the population. These trails showed the ability to reduce pollution at “hot spots” however the evidence suggests that no effect would be expected on annual averages of pollution concentrations. The case study from Leicester is presented in Figure 1.

Impact Cost High High

Case Study - Gating Trails in Leicester

Using existing UTC (Urban Traffic Control) system using SCOOT (Spilt Cycle Offset Optimisation Technique) and air quality monitoring infrastructure. A gating trail was carried out on Narborough Road in Leicester.

The Narborough Road in Leicester is a major radial that becomes increasingly narrow as it approaches the city centre. Gating has been used here to restrain traffic at the outer end of the radial where there is relatively little pedestrian activity and the houses are set well back from the road. There are service roads either side of the dual carriageway and the houses have appreciable front gardens. In contrast, the city centre end of the road is single carriageway with buildings close to the kerb so that pollutants are trapped by a canyon effect. The aim is to reduce congestion, and hence emissions of pollutants, at the more sensitive city centre end of the radial. To reduce congestion at the city centre end of the road it was necessary to create very large queues at the gating point, the Braunstone Lane junction, which lead to complaints from the public. The trial was modified to hold somewhat smaller queues at the Fullhurst Avenue junction, the first junction inbound from Braunstone Lane and reduce the severity of the restraint at the original gate. Two smaller queues have proved to be more acceptable whilst still improving conditions at the city centre end of the road. Figure 1 shows the site and the two gating points used. NORTH Imperial Avenue City Centre Fullhurst Avenue

SOUTH Braunstone Lane Upperton Road

SCOOT junction Pollution Monitor

The trial successfully demonstrated a reduction in emissions in the protected area. Emissions were reduced by between 3% and 8%, depending on pollutant. Reductions in the peak ¼ hour were almost twice as great as reductions in the average values over the two-hour peak. Since a high level of restraint was needed to gain these reductions, it was found to be more publicly acceptable to have two smaller queues rather than one very large queue. Outbound traffic was delayed more in the protected area, due to the nature of the two stage signal. An extra stage, allowing traffic out of the protected area would increase reductions in emissions.

Figure 1: Leicester gating trial site

Air Quality Management 25 Guidebook In Rotterdam speed restrictions3 were applied on part of the urban motorway using high technology traffic management techniques (See Figure 2). Appreciable impacts on air quality were found at roadside and within the district. Effectively the traffic management technique provided a positive effect on driving style, which leads to a positive effect on traffic flow and air quality. Traffic management techniques based on established high technological traffic control infrastructure have been shown to reduce localised air quality “hot spots”. The benefits of such techniques on air quality are now being appreciated and should provide an important tool for air quality management where the infrastructure already exists.

Impact Cost High Low

Case Study – Speed Restrictions On A13 Motorway, Overschie District, Rotterdam

In order to improve the air quality in the Rotterdam district Overschie, a pilot experiment has been conducted on the national motorway A13. As of May 11th, 2002, the maximum speed has been reduced from a 100 to 80 kilometres per hour in the area where the motorway passes through this district. Research by the Netherlands Research Organisation (TNO) has proved that traffic moving at a constant moderate speed emits less air pollution in comparison to dynamic traffic (traffic with frequent speed fluctuations or speeds above 120 km/hr). The 80 km speed limit is only successful if it is heavy policed. So in addition to new road signs a system taking pictures of vehicles entering and leaving the zone and calculating the average speed was put in place. The system is connected to an automated fining system for people driving too fast. Capturing chances are close to 100%.

. The findings and the conclusions are based upon the measurements up to and including March 2003 and calculations up to and including January 2003. The findings can be summarised as follows: • Trajectory speed control has been effective in reducing the fluctuations in traffic speed on the A13 right across Overschie and also in not exceeding the speed limits (especially during the night). The traffic now flows more efficiently through Overschie even while the number of vehicles has remained constant or has even slightly increased. • As a result of the new speed limit the traffic emissions on the A13 through Overschie (in case of constant intensity) are estimated to be reduced by about 15-25% for NOx and about 25-35% for NO2 and PM10. • Concentrations measured at the locations 50 and 200 m to the east of the A13 in Overschie during westerly 3 winds indicate that the air quality for NO2 has improved by approximately 5 µg/m at a distance of 50 m and by 3 3 3 µg/m3 at 200 m and for PM10 by approximately 4 µg/m at 50 m and by 1 µg/m at 200 m. These results indicate that the measure has a positive impact on the air quality in Overschie.

• NO2 measurements with passive samplers in Overschie indicate that local traffic affects the spatial variation in air quality. At a distance of 250 m and more from the A13, the impact of the emissions is no longer detectable in Overschie. • Model calculations were used to assess the effect of the on the contribution of the A13 to the air quality in Overschie as well as the impact on the total air quality. The reduced contribution of the A13 on the air quality in up to 200-m distance is approximately 25% for NO2 and 34% for PM10. The improvement of the total air quality at this distance was calculated as 7% for NO2 and 4% for PM10.

Figure 2: Rotterdam Speed Restriction

3 http://www.mobilitymanagement.org/epomm_example.phtml?sprache=en&id=318

Air Quality Management 26 Guidebook 3.1.2 ACCESS CONTROL AND CAPACITY REDUCTION

The initial development of access control and capacity reduction schemes was not designed as air quality measures exclusively but such effects now have an impact on the planning process in their implementation. Usually technological requirements for access control are limited but instead require the reorganisation of streets and roads. Access control to roads or certain areas of a city has taken many guises. The types of schemes include: • Road tolling • Permit based control • Low Emission Zones • Home Zones / Liveable Areas • Pedestrian Areas • Parking restrictions

In The Netherlands, the development of ‘woonerf’ concept (’Living Yard’) during the 1970s led to initiatives that attempt to reduce the domination of vehicular traffic in streets, and share space equally with other users (cyclist, pedestrians and residents). Notable developments were carried out in Delft and The Hague. The concept was imported to other European countries4 and in the UK is represented by ‘Home Zones’5 principle. Such schemes are characterised by the re-design of residential streets to encourage greater safety and community cohesion by reducing vehicle through-flow and speed. Cycling and walking are encouraged in these areas. The influence of promoting sustainable living with sustainable transport in these schemes means there are many overlaps with air quality management.

3.1.2.1 Congestion Charging Scheme- London6 Impact Cost High High Examples of high technological control of capacity reduction and access control schemes have been used in Rome’s ACS+RP scheme ( see Figure 4) and congestion charging in Central London (see Figure 3). In both these schemes high set up cost were required due to technology and traffic management infrastructure needed, yet high revenues were obtained from the charges, issuing of permits and fines. Both these schemes are examples of where non-air quality measures (traffic and congestion measures) have shown to have a positive impact on air quality. More information on road user charging can be found in the studies carried out in various European projects7, in particular on the impacts and feasibility of such schemes. A good summary of lessons learnt and recommendations is provided from the Progress project8, that highlights some factors relating to consultation, legal issues, transport policy, technology, enforcement and user acceptance of road charging schemes. Some of the key points are:

• The effects on traffic (and environment) must be clearly explained

• Such schemes will not succeed in isolation and therefore must be linked with other improvements in traffic and transport. (In the examples of London and Rome public transport improvements and a flat rate parking fee respectively were introduced as an integral part of the congestion charging and access control schemes).

• Automated schemes have generally higher compliance rates, however must be based on robust proven technology rather than new experimental technology.

4 Woonerf developments in The Hague and Delft 5 Homes Zones in the UK: www.homezones.org and www.homezonesnews.org.uk 6 http://www.cclondon.com/ 7 Road User Charging Information: a) www.progress-project.org, b) www.europrice-network.org c) www.transport-pricing.net 8 Progress Project Deliverable D7.2: http://www.progress-project.org/Progress/pdf/D7.2.pdf

Air Quality Management 27 Guidebook Case Study – Congestion Charging Scheme

The congestion charging scheme in London was introduced in February 2003. The scheme charges a daily rate for vehicles to enter and travel in the 21 square kilometre charging zone between 7:00 and 18:30 during weekdays. The scheme is supported by an infrastructure of 203 camera sites, using automatic number plate recognition (ANPR) technology cameras placed on the 173 entry points into the congestion zone and in locations within the zone. Vehicles driving in the charging zone during the charging period are charged a flat rate of £5 per day, subsequently increased by £8 per day. Vehicles exempt from the scheme include licensed taxis and minicabs, buses, motorcycles, vehicles for disabled persons including “blue badge” holders and vehicles with 9 seats or more. Residents in the charging zone – of which approximately 40,000 households own a car – are entitled to a 90% discount of the charge (£2.50 for one week compared to a full charge of £25 for non-residents).

Figure 3- Congestion charging scheme in London

Air Quality Management 28 Guidebook Road charging schemes are regarded as controversial for the public, businesses and politicians. Therefore extensive consultations with all parties is required before implementation and clear information after implementation.

Impact Cost High High

Case Study – Access Control Scheme and Road Pricing (ACS + RP) in Rome

Access control restrictions were first implemented in the city centre of Rome in 1989. The scheme was steadily modified with the biggest change being observed in October 2001 when automatic enforcement of the scheme was introduced. The access control policies are accompanied by flat rate road pricing (ACS + RP) for the authorised private car users.

The ACS+RP scheme is applied to central limited traffic zone (ZTL). The pricing zone has an area of 4.6 km2 and is controlled through 22 entrance gates. In the scheme access to the ZTL is restricted on weekdays between 6.30 am and 6.00 pm and on Saturday from 2.00 to 6.00 p.m. to permit holders only. Residents of the zone receive two free permits per family group and then pay for any further permits required. Non-residents can receive a permit if they belong to specific categories: doctors, commercial agents, reporters, etc., based on an annual permit which is worth the equivalent of a 12-month public transport card that is 311.47 Euro, while some other specific authorised people pay half fare. This access permits are about 20,000. Public offices and other private bodies and associations are given each a limited number of permits, agreed in advance with the municipal offices. All non-resident owners of a parking space can receive a circulation only permit. Permits are given to disabled with reduced walking capabilities certified by one of the national service doctors. Freight operators with their offices in LTZ or with a continuous activity in LTZ have received permits to access the area in specific time windows, using special parking slots for loading/unloading vehicles. Time limitations are not valid for transporting food, medicines, press products and some other freight categories. Further, permits have been distributed among the operators of public services, such as technological services (water, energy, waste, etc.). In all approximately 200,000 LTZ permits have been issued, of which 28,000 are resident permits (LTZ resident population 42,000). Main observed results of the implementation of the system are a 10% decrease in traffic during the day that becomes 20% decrease in traffic during the restriction period, 15% decrease in the morning peak hour (8.30-9.30), 10% increase of two wheeled vehicles and a 6% increase of public transport. The air quality impact of the scheme is difficult to judge, as since year 2000 (before the ACS+RP operations) many actions have been undertaken to reduce the traffic impacts on air quality including yearly emission control on registered car fleet, renewal of the public transport bus fleet, access limitation to non-catalysed vehicles and an increase of the Park & Ride provision. In this period, the access restrictions for non-catalysed vehicles in the whole Rail Ring zone was achieved in the first part of 2003. However between January 2001 and January 2003 significant improvements have been seen in monitored benzene concentrations (reductions of 19% - 39%) but the improvement for particulates in the ZTL – the biggest air quality problem for Rome – were less than expected. This is partly due to the increased use of powered two wheeled vehicles since the introduction of the scheme.

Figure 4- Acess Control Scheme and Road Pricing in Rome

Air Quality Management 29 Guidebook Impact Cost 3.1.2.2 Low Emission Zone (LEZ) as a measure to tackle air pollution High High LEZ London9

To improve air quality in London - which is currently among the worst in Europe - the Mayor is proposing to designate Greater London as a Low Emission Zone (LEZ). The objectives of the proposed LEZ are two-fold: • To move London closer to achieving national and EU air quality objectives for 2010 • To improve the health and quality of life of people who live and work in London, through improving air quality A LEZ would aim to reduce air pollution by discouraging the most polluting vehicles from driving in Greater London. These are generally older, diesel engined heavy goods vehicles (HGVs), buses, coaches, heavier vans and minibuses. Air pollution affects the quality of life of a large number of Londoners, especially those with respiratory and cardiovascular conditions. It is estimated that every year some 1,000 premature deaths and a similar number of hospital admissions occur due to poor air quality in the Capital. Many more people experience discomfort as a result of pollutants aggravating existing conditions. Two of these pollutants - particulate matter (PM10) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx) - are particularly harmful to health. Road transport is responsible for around half of all emissions of PM10 and NOx in London. The Low Emission Zone (LEZ) would aim to encourage operators to clean up their vehicle fleets by either replacing or modifying older diesel-engined vehicles that do not meet the proposed LEZ emissions standards. Operators of vehicles that do not comply with the proposed standards would have to pay a substantial daily charge to drive these vehicles within the zone. In order to maximise improvements in air quality and health benefits, it is proposed that the LEZ would cover all of Greater London and operate 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. From 2008, the LEZ would target the most polluting diesel- engined heavy goods vehicles (HGVs), buses and coaches. From 2010, the LEZ would target heavier vans and minibuses. These would have to comply with the LEZ emissions standards in order to drive in London without charge. The standards would predominantly be based on Euro standards. Newer vehicles would meet these standards but older, diesel-engined vehicles would have to be fitted with pollution abatement equipment or be re-engined in order to comply with the standards and travel into London without charge. The next stage of development is the drafting of a Scheme Order which would implement the proposed LEZ. This will detail the exact vehicle types, emissions standards and area covered by the LEZ, as well as registration and enforcement procedures.

10 3.1.2.3 Kilometre Pricing in Rotterdam Impact Cost High Medium

The scheme is designed to reduce congestion during peak hours, influence modal split, prevent trips during peak hours. At present every owner of a car is taxed equally. Owners are not confronted with costs for the use of the car, except by he fuel they have to pay. Representatives of the business community in Greater Rotterdam were provided with information on new proposals to introduce kilometre pricing in the Netherlands. Aim was also to stimulate them to prepare their businesses and their employees for the upcoming introduction of kilometre pricing and have them develop ways to cope with it. Kilometre pricing was herewith put on the agenda before the discussion on a political level will possibly result in a bill, if there are no divergences, a nationwide Road User-Charging scheme for all vehicles will be implemented by the year 2012. Supported by GPS/Galileo satellite monitoring technology, the charging will depend on the location (i.e. city drivers will pay more km than country ones), on the time (i.e. the per km charge at peak times will be higher than at off-peak times) respectively to the characteristics of the vehicle being

9 http://www.tfl.gov.uk/tfl/low-emission-zone/default.asp 10 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=109

Air Quality Management 30 Guidebook driven (i.e. larger vehicles will pay more per km driven than smaller ones). The estimated costs will add up between € 2.2bn and €4.1bn. This Kilometre Pricing system offers the vehicle drivers a fair bill because of detailed cost finding. Furthermore it is difficult to say whether a direct correlation between charges for road using and less air quality exist. Probably there will be a change in the modal split because it is probable that more people will use public transport. Resulting from this switch, traffic flow in peak hours will be more stable. The impacts of stable traffic flow results in the reduction of pollutant emissions.

3.1.2.4 Clear Zones11 Impact Cost High Medium This project is an initiative set up by the UK’s Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) in 1995 - which aims to exploit new technologies and operational approaches to improve quality of life and support economic growth, whilst minimising the adverse impacts of its transport systems to provide a liveable accessible and lively urban centre where traffic congestion, pollution noise, stress and other negative impacts are eliminated or limited, has developed a platform for urban planning, air quality and technological access control to be combined. The initiative allows local authorities to combine statutory objectives for air quality management, regeneration and traffic reduction and has become a platform for cities to develop technologies and systems to promote access control schemes along with other complementary schemes, such as cleaner fuel public transport. An example of a Clear Zone initiative is the work carried out by the Corporation of London in creating a Traffic and Environment Zone12 within the City of London “Square Mile”, which incorporates London’s main business district. Using the principle of making traffic routes less attractive or impossible by removing a significant amount of traffic capacity in the zones by reducing the number of access points, and by reducing their width to a single lane. Improving the efficiency of the surrounding street network and altering traffic signal timings has created provision of additional capacity for diverted traffic outside the zone.

3.1.2.5 Toll Collect – Road Pricing System in Germany13 Impact Cost Medium Medium The Toll Collect system calculates and collects the road toll based on the exact number of kilometres travelled on a motorway for HGV above 12 tons. This is different from the vignette system. The satellite-supported free-flow system ensures that toll collection does not interfere with the flow of traffic. In contrast to conventional systems, Toll Collect requires no speed limits, traffic stops, or restriction to prescribed traffic lanes. The toll system, which is a dual system, offers the benefits of two log- on options: automatic log-on via On-Board Unit and manual log-on at toll station terminals or over the Internet. The system of automatic log-on is based on an innovative combination of mobile telecommunications technology (GSM) and the satellite-based GPS (Global Positioning System). The main element of the automatic log-on system is the On-Board Unit (OBU), which uses satellite signals to determine the truck's position and distance travelled, automatically calculates the amount of toll, and transmits this information the Toll Collect computer centre. As an alternative, Toll Collect offers the option of manual log-on at a toll station terminal or over the Internet. This type of log-on is particularly suited to trucks that seldom use German motorways, such as foreign drivers and companies. The contribution to a better air quality by introducing a toll collect system is difficult to assess. It is false to say that there is a direct correlation of road pricing and a better air quality because people will rather use A-roads instead of motorways to avoid paying for road pricing but taking an A-road to the target can takes more time and consequently more fuel. To assess the direct impacts on toll collect system it is necessary to focus individual considerations and no general predication can be taken.

11 http://www.clearzones.org.uk/home.htm 12 http://www.clearzones.org.uk/casestudylondon.htm 13 http://www.toll-collect.de/frontend/HomepageVP.do;jsessionid=E75C038EDB7852B562BD252A24C50F6D

Air Quality Management 31 Guidebook 3.1.2.6 Air Quality Action Plan for Berlin14

In Berlin, the limits of PM10 and NO2 are mainly caused by traffic and exceeded. Therefore Berlin has to compile an action plan for tackling air pollution between 2005 and 2010. At this a sustainable and long-dated strategy of reducing air pollution in Berlin is aspired. The whole urban area of Berlin is declared as a control zone for this Action Plan. Limit exceeding appears especially close to trunk roads and therefore those areas are study areas. The action plan includes variance analysis, analyses of causes, development of air quality, development of measures and the elaboration of this action plan. Due to vehicle modifications (soot filter, natural gas vehicles) and funding of NGVs by the TUT15 programme the consequence in the light of an air quality improvement can be detected. Moreover these modifications are an inspiring example for other sectors. To improve air quality a few short termed measures were adopted. Inherent are speed limits, congestion relocation as well as information campaigns for public and companies. In addition to the abovementioned one mid-termed measure with high impacts on air quality will be installed by the year 2008 – the implementation of a LEZ. The general framework for introducing a LEZ in Berlin has to consider an act on the part of the government, traffic signs for the LEZ, and fiscal fundings for vehicles with low emissions and enough lead-time for introduction. Furthermore the enhancement of parking management systems and the focussing on public transport can be long-termed measures.

3.1.3 PARKING CONTROL AND RESTRICTIONS INFORMATION

Instant access to parking information and zone restrictions information reduces congestion created by large queues for car parking space and eliminates unnecessarily travel into restricted zones. E-Parking has been described as a system which delivers a solution enabling drivers to get early information on available parking space, make a reservation, access the reserved space and pay for the service booked upon departure - without ever having to leave the car. There are several schemes, which use e-parking technology.

16 3.1.3.1 E-Parking Impact Cost High Medium E-Parking is a scheme to reduce congestion caused by queuing for car parking spaces. E-Parking has delivered a solution enabling drivers to get early information on available parking space, make a reservation, access the reserved space and pay for the service booked upon departure - without ever having to leave the car. Preston – Parking database, real time information for public about availability of parking space in car parks participating in the scheme, no controls as such but just info about space availability. Corlay - Parking database, real time information for public about availability of parking space in car parks participating in the scheme no controls as such but just info about space availability Norwich - Parking database, real time information for public about availability of parking space in car parks participating in the scheme, , no controls as such but just info about space availability Leicester - Parking database, real time information for public about availability of parking space in car parks participating in the scheme, , no controls as such but just info about space availability Leicester’s parking guidance and information system plays a vital role in reducing circulating traffic, congestion and as a consequence air pollution in the city centre and helps finding a parking space easier. The city centre of Leicester is divided into four zones:17 • North (Blue) • South (Orange) • East (Magenta) • West (Green)

14 http://www.stadtentwicklung.berlin.de/umwelt/luftqualitaet/de/luftreinhalteplan/situation.shtml access 26/09/06 15 Tausend Umwelt Taxis; programme to fund natural gas vehicles in collaboration between Berlin City Council and a gas supplier 16 www.leicester.gov.uk 17 http://www.erf.be/files/2432_eparking_TTI.pdf

Air Quality Management 32 Guidebook Drivers entering the city via any of the main arterial roads can follow the signs to their chosen zone and then onto the named car parks where there are spaces available. The signs have been specified and designed by the Transport Systems Section; the system is based around a network of 31 strategically located digital signs. The system links all of the city centre’s multi-storey car parks. Data is transmitted to the central system from the car parks via a fast communications link enabling the system to send car park occupancy data back to the digital signs.18

3.1.3.2 OptiPark19 Impact Cost Low Low

OptiPark™ is an electronic parking system, which eliminates the need for parking meters or pay-and-display. The system is easy to use and maintain by a provider. It provides an easy way to manage on and off street parking or non-gated controlled parking lot. The system utilises the Internet to load the OptiPark. Users can choose any amount of money to be loaded on the card, the users enter a web site, chooses the amount of money they wish to pay, and then OptiPark is loaded. They can also select the city & zone of required parking (variable tariffs, length of parking time). OptiPark offers tangible advantages for the driver, the parking inspector and the local authority. It is activated easily and reduces the need to go to specialised machines of hunting for change. Its main advantages are: • It can be used anytime, anywhere (with internet access) • It is easy to use, charged card allows for parking • Eliminates the need for expensive infrastructure such as token machines • Eliminates unnecessarily drive to find cash points and change.20 OptiPark contributes to lower emissions produced by cars by reducing the need to make trips to find cash points.

3.1.3.3 Restrictions of Truck Parking in Residential Areas - Rotterdam21 Impact Cost Low Low The aim of the Truck Parking management concept is preventing long term parking of truck-combinations in residential quarters close to the port area. The residents of urban areas close to the port district suffer noise pollution because of trucks parking in residential streets. In addition the district is not optimally accessible and the residents do not feel safe. An area has been designated with long-term parking places for truck combinations (Truck Park) to try to solve these problems. The project incorporates two innovative aspects. The first is that the expansion of these parking spaces is seen as a solution for noise pollution in residential areas. The second aspect is the intelligent use of limited space. This system could be a solution for tackling noise pollution as well as a marginal reduction of air pollution can be reached due to the limited parking spaces. The Truck Park Fruitport is located in a port area with fruit companies and is close to the residential areas of the Delfshaven district. The Truck Park offers secured parking with 24-hour surveillance for trucks and other lighter distribution vehicles. The Truck Park is already in use with 60

18 http://www.leicesterequal.co.uk 19 http://europa.eu.int/information_society/activities/eten/cf/opdb/cf/project/index.cfm?mode=detail&project_ref=ETEN-517348 20 http://www.antoptima.com/admin/pdf2/pdf022.pdf#search=%22OPTIPARK%20parking%20database%22 21 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=13

Air Quality Management 33 Guidebook parking spaces for long-term parking (up to a maximum of one week). In 2004 around 10.000 trucks parked at the facility. The trucks using the facility are both national and international. Almost all trucks had one of the Fruitport companies as their destination.

3.1.3.4 Rotterdam- Alexander scheme22 Impact Cost Low High In the Rotterdam region everybody can park at the P+R sites for free. The Rotterdam Alexander site is close to a metro/intercity-train station and it has 535 parking places. A lot of non public transport users make use of the P+R site to go shopping or working in the area instead of using the P+R for its main purpose. Due to this, it is possible that people who want to use the P+R for travelling with public transport can not find a parking place. The pilot was introduced in May 2004 for the period of two years. In this pilot Rotterdam had implemented a parking management-system. It is a basic parking system. People with a valid public transport ticket will get a free parking ticket. People without valid ticket will pay a parking tariff. Controllers between 7:00 – 19:00 will check the tickets. When the controllers are not present the P+R can be used without a ticket. In the future a pay-machine will be used to recognise a legal public transport ticket with stamp or a public transport ticket without one. The parking system is operational since May 2004. Inhabitants and organisations situated near the P+R site were informed and consulted. Important is the monitoring of the pilot. This will be done at three moments, before the start (May 2004), after half a year and after one year and a half. The monitoring of the occupancy rate is supplemented with interviews with P+R-users and measuring of the parking in the surrounding of the location. Non-public transport users are trying to avoid the parking tariff check this parking in the surrounding to measure the effects of additional parking. The above-mentioned main purpose of this P+R scheme is to improve intermodal interchange, ameliorate the attractivity of public transport and hence a reduction of emissions can be a possible result. However one single P+R scheme is definitely not enough for tackling emissions – multiple P+R facilities located on strategic neuralgic points can be efficient with at least a “medium” impact on air quality.

3.2 IMPROVING TRANSPORT FLEETS

European legislation on vehicle emission standards – the so-called Euro standards – have set standards for road vehicle manufacturers on emissions of carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulates (PM). The Euro emissions standards are enabling graduated reductions in vehicle emissions as each Euro standard set tighter controls for emissions from new vehicles. This means urban air quality can improve due to natural vehicle renewal and the removal of older, more polluting cars from the city’s fleet (however in reality emissions reduction from cleaner cars has been off-set by the increase in the number of cars). On top this initiatives to use alternative fuels enable emission reductions beyond what can be achieved from the Euro standards. The following sections look at how the impact of Euro standards and the uptake of alternative fuels on a fleet basis.23

3.2.1 VEHICLE AND FUEL IMPROVEMENTS

European emission standards are sets of requirements defining the acceptable limits for exhaust emissions of new vehicles sold in EU member states. The standards are defined in a series of European Union directives staging the progressive introduction of increasingly stringent standards. Currently, emissions of NOX, HC, carbon monoxide (CO), and particulate matter are regulated for most vehicle types, including cars, lorries, trains, tractors and similar machinery, barges, but excluding seagoing ships and airplanes. For each vehicle type, different standards apply. Compliance is determined by running the engine at a standardised test cycle. Noncompliant vehicles cannot be sold

22 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=108 23 http://www.sugre.info/Vorlage.phtml?lan=en

Air Quality Management 34 Guidebook in the EU, but new standards do not apply to vehicles already on the roads. No use of specific technologies is mandated to meet the standards, though available technology is considered when setting the standards. The stages are typically referred to as Euro 1, Euro 2, Euro 3, Euro 4 and Euro 5, or alternatively using Roman numerals instead of numbers. However, the directives in which the standards are defined do not refer to them in either way. The legal framework consists in a series of directives, each amendment to the 1970 directive 70/220/EEC. Here is a summary list of the standards (see Table 9 A and B ), when they come into force, what they apply to, and which EU directives provide the definition of the standard.

• Euro 1 (1993) for passenger cars - 91/441/EEC (also for passenger cars and light trucks - 93/59/EEC) • Euro 2 (1996) for passenger cars - 94/12/EC (& 96/69/EC) • Euro 3 (2000) for any vehicle - 98/69/EC • Euro 4 (2005) for any vehicle - 98/69/EC (& 2002/80/EC) • Euro 5 (2008/9) for any vehicle - (COM(2005) 683 - proposed)

EU Emission Standards for Passenger Cars (Category M1*), g/km

Tier Date CO HC HC+NOx NOx PM Diesel

Euro 1† 2.72 Jul-92(3.16) - 0.97 (1.13) - 0.14 (0.18) Euro 2, IDI Jan. 1996 1 - 0.7 - 0.08 Euro 2, DI Jan. 1996a 1 - 0.9 - 0.1 Euro 3 Jan. 2000 0.64 - 0.56 0.5 0.05 Euro 4 Jan. 2005 0.5 - 0.3 0.25 0.025 Euro 5 (proposed) mid-2008 ? 0.5 - 0.25 0.2 0.005

Petrol (Gasoline) Jul. 2.72 0.97 Euro 1† 1992 (3.16) - (1.13) - - Jan. Euro 2 1996 2.2 - 0.5 - - Jan. Euro 3 2000 2.3 0.2 - 0.15 - Jan. Euro 4 2005 1 0.1 - 0.08 - Euro 5 mid- (proposed) 2008 ? 1 0.08 - 0.060.005b

* Before Euro 5, passenger vehicles > 2,500 kg were type approved as Category N1 vehicles † Values in brackets are conformity of production (COP) limits a - until 30 Sept. 1999 (after that date DI engines must meet the IDI limits) b - applicable only to vehicles using lean burn DI engines Table 8: EU Emission Standards for Passenger Cars

Air Quality Management 35 Guidebook Whereas for passenger cars, the standards are defined in [g/km], for lorries (trucks) they are defined by engine power, [g/kWh], and are therefore in no way comparable. The following table contains a summary of the emission standards and their implementation dates. Dates in Table 9 refer to new type approvals; the dates for all type approvals are in most cases one year later (EU type approvals are valid longer than one year).

The official category name is heavy-duty diesel engines, which generally includes lorries and buses.

EU Emission Standards for HD Diesel Engines, g/kWh (smoke in m-1)

Tier Date Smoke Test cycle CO HC NOx PM 1992, < 85 kW 4.5 1.1 8 0.612 1992, > Euro I 85 kW 4.5 1.1 8 0.36 Oct. 1996 4 1.1 7 0.25 Euro II Oct. 1998 ECE R-49 4 1.1 7 0.15

Oct. 1999 ESC & EEVs only ELR 1.5 0.25 2 0.02 0.15 0.1 Euro III Oct. 2000 2.1 0.66 50.13* 0.8 Euro IV Oct. 2005 ESC & 1.5 0.46 3.5 0.02 0.5 Euro V Oct. 2008 ELR 1.5 0.46 2 0.02 0.5 * for engines of less than 0.75 dm3 swept volume per cylinder and a rated power speed of more than 3000 per minute. EEV is enhanced environmentally friendly vehicle.

Table 9: EU Emission Standards for HD Diesel Engines

3.2.1.1 Alternative Fuels as a solution

History of Alternative Fuel Development24,25

The history of biofuels has less to do with technology advancements and more to do with political and economical greed. In order to understand the foundation for biofuel technology though, it is necessary to know the history of the diesel engine. In 1893, a German Inventor named Rudolph Diesel published a paper entitled "The theory and Construction of a Rational Heat Engine". In this paper, he described a revolutionary new engine where air would be compressed by a piston to increase pressure and therefore raise temperatures. (Planet Fuels, 2001) Because of the high temperatures, it was found that the engine could run off a variety of vegetable oils such as hemp and peanut oil. In 1911, at the Worlds Fair in Paris, Rudolph ran his engine on peanut oil, and later described that "the diesel engine can be fed with vegetable oils and will help considerably in the development of the agriculture of the countries which use it." Rudolph wanted an alternative to expensive and inefficient steam engine, and his new diesel engine was the answer. Two years after the Worlds Fair, Diesel was found dead. It was rumoured that the German government assassinated him in order to keep his new technology out of the UK submarine fleet. Shortly after this, the Germans introduced diesel engine technology in their U-boats, which contributed to much of their success during wartime. After his death, the petroleum industry capitalized on this new engine, altering it to run on the by-product of petrolem distillation called "Diesel #2". (Boyle, 2003) Also during this time, Henry Ford, creator the Model T and contributor to the advancement of the assembly line, became convinced that renewable resources were the key to success in the

24 http://www.gather.com/viewArticle.jsp?articleId=281474976717687 25 Pearce, F. Fuels gold; NewScientist 23 September 2006; p 36-41

Air Quality Management 36 Guidebook automotive field. Ford built an ethanol plant in the Midwest, and formed a partnership with Standard Oil to sell and distribute it in the states. In the early 1920's, biofuels made up 25 percent of all fuel sales. (Sahlman, 2003) But, with the rapid growth of industry and economic growth of major players in the industrial field, biofuels and renewable resource growth was threatened. There were a few major players who had a lot of political pull and contributed to the downfall of biofuels and renewable resources. William Randolph Hurst produced nearly all the paper in the US, and was threatened by the many uses of the hemp plant. Andrew Mellon, secretary of the Treasurer and financial backer of the DuPont Company, patented a chemical necessary to produce wood pulp in paper. The Rockefellers were developing large empires from the use of petroleum, and biofuels threatened all of their niche their markets. These key players all had vested interests in seeing renewable resource use decreased, the hemp industry destroyed and biomass fuels forgotten. (PlanetFuels, 2003) By the beginning of World War II, by undercutting biomass fuel prices, the petroleum companies monopolized on fuel causing the biomass industry shut down. The industry's agenda was to make more money, and they had no interest in the effects their greed would have on following generations. Throughout the next couple decades, the petroleum and automotive industries grew tremendously, both in their economics and political power. Due to our increasing dependency for oil, the US began importing from other countries at low prices. In the early 1970's, the US supply of oil became limited and we had to rely on foreign imports to run our country. In 1973, OPEC, an organization in the Middle East that controls a majority of the world's oil, reduced its output, which caused prices in the US to increase dramatically. With the rising prices of gas, consumers began looking for other methods to support their obsession with travel. So, in 1978, diesel engines began re- gaining popularity and biofuels re-entered the consciousness of the country. (NBB, 2005) Now, almost thirty years later, ideas for alternative fuels are beginning to catch on. Over 200 major fleets in the US now run on biofuels, including US Post Office, US Military, and metropolis transit systems. (NBB, 2005) Hybrid vehicles are being produced by more car companies and sales are increasing throughout the country. Biodiesel is now being produced from many different products: from soybeans and corn in the Midwest, tallow from the slaughter industry, sugar cane in Hawaii and forest wastes in the North West. . The only types of biofuels utilised nowadays on a commercial basis in Europe are bioethanol and biodiesel produced by agricultural crops26. Many private groups have caught onto the trend of alternative fuels and have made it their mission to educate people of the uses and technologies involved in using and creating alternative energies. Despite the resistance of major political and economic powers, biofuel technology27 and use is beginning to regain its popularity. At this point in history, with increased pollution, global warming, environmental degradation, health problems, and rising prices at the gas pump, the popularity and implementation of biofuels and renewable technology is extremely important for the continuation of our society.

Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF)28

A Diesel Particulate Filter is designed to remove Diesel Particulate Matter or soot from the exhaust gas of a diesel engine. Hereby the rate of efficiency reaches the total of about 90 [%]. Different methods of burning off the accumulated particulates are designed. The burning off can either reached through the use of a catalyst (passive) or through an active technology such as a fuel burner which heats the filter to soot combustion temperatures. Basically the filter walls are made of Cordierit, Siliciumcarbid (SiC) or Aluminium Oxide that are all ceramics. The off-gas stream is forced to pass the porous filter wall. Due to sedimentary deposition of the particles on the filter wall (filter cake) the differential pressure increases. When a threshold pressure level is reached the filter regeneration will be initialised to avoid a too high off-gas stream pressure. For this reason the particles have to be burned off from time to time. This procedure is called “Regeneration” and is done either passively (by adding a catalyst to the filter) or actively. On-board active filter management can use a variety of strategies: · Engine management to increase exhaust temperature · A fuel burner to increase the exhaust temperature · A catalytic Oxidizer to increase the exhaust temperature

26 TZIMAS E. et al; The introduction of alternative fuels in the European Transport Sector: Techno-Economic Barriers and Perspectives; European Commission DG JRC; Technical Report EUR 21173 EN; May 2004 27 http://www.biodiesel.org/resources/fuelfactsheets/ 28 http://www.deep.org/reports/stobiedpf.pdf

Air Quality Management 37 Guidebook · Resistive heating coils to increase the exhaust temperature · Microwave energy to increase the exhaust temperature All on-board active systems use extra fuel, whether through burning to heat the DPF, or providing extra power to the DPF's electrical system. Typically a computer monitors one or more sensors that measure back pressure and/or temperature, and based on pre-programmed set points the computer makes decisions on when to activate the regeneration cycle. Running the cycle too often while keeping the back pressure in the exhaust system low, will use extra fuel. The reverse runs risk of engine damage and/or uncontrolled regeneration and possible DPF failure. Quality regeneration software is a necessity for longevity of the active DPF system. Diesel Particulate Matter combusts at when temperaures above 820 [K] are attained. The start of combustion causes a further increase in temperature. In some cases the combustion of the Particulate Matter can raise temperatures above the structural integrity threshold of the filter material, which can cause catastophic failure of the substrate. Various strategies have been developed to limit this possibility. The amount of available oxygen makes fast regeneration of a filter possible; it also contributes to run away regeneration issues. Some applications use off-board regeneration but they are not useful for on-road vehicles, except in situations where the vehicles are parked in a central depot when not in use because of requirement of operator intervention.

Biodiesel effects on Diesel Particulate Filter performance29

The Balance Point Temperature which describes the Diesel Particualte Filter inlet temperature at which the rate of particle oxidation approximately equals the rate of particle collection, is on average 315 [K] lower when B20 (20 [%] Biodiesel 80[%] petrodiesel) is used. Furthermore the use of B20 causes a 2.9 [%] increase in fuel consumption which is consistant with the lower heat value of this fuel. An installation of the DPF caused a nearly 2 [%] fuel economy penalty for Ultra Low Sulphur Diesel as well as for B20.

Emission changes petroleum diesel versus B20: • + 2.0 [%] NOx • -10.1 [%] PM • -11.0 [%] CO • -21.1 [%] THC In catalysed DPF systems the soot is then burned by reaction with NO2. The role of NO2 as an oxidant is critical to catalysed DPF performance and DPFs typically contain a precious metal catalyst upstream of the ceramic filter where NO is converted to NO2. NO2 is a more aggressive oxidiser of soot at low temperatures than oxygen, and thus can control the soot oxidation rate. Therefore the small increase in NOx emissions observed for B20 may have significant consequences for the performance of B20 with DPFs.

3.2.2 PRIVATE FLEET

The usage of renewable fuels in private and public sector will gain more importance in future particularly with respect to sustainability and air quality. The following chapter lists a few examples of usage of different renewable fuels in the private and pubic sector seperately to gain a better reader’s overview.

Impact Cost 3.2.2.1 USPS Delivers with Alternative Fuel Vehicles30 High High

The United States Postal Service (USPS) runs the largest federal fleet, with approximately 208,000 vehicles. Of those vehicles, USPS operates approximately 7,400 alternative fuel vehicles (AFVs). The majority of these AFVs are converted "long life vehicles" (LLVs), designed with a 1,000-lb capacity and a 24-year life span. By converting a large portion of these vehicles to compressed natural gas (CNG), the USPS has created the nation’s largest fleet of

29 www.nrel.gov/docs/fy06osti/39606.pdf 30 www.eere.energy.gov/cleancities/ccn/pdfs/afnewsv2-5.pdf

Air Quality Management 38 Guidebook CNG delivery vehicles. The USPS also has other medium- and heavy-duty trucks that operate on alternative fuels. In 1999, USPS plans to purchase a number of electric vehicles (EVs), and will seek cost-sharing from local governments, utilities, and various other sources (the majority of these EVs will be located in Clean Cities communities). They also have long-term plans to convert all 128 trucks operating from the Dallas, Texas, bulk-mail center to run on liquefied natural gas (LNG). The large fleets of AFVs within USPS also provide an impetus for infrastructure development: the more AFVs there are in a city, the more interest industry and suppliers have in building the infrastructure to fuel these vehicles. In Tucson, Arizona; Dallas, and El Paso, Texas; New York; Connecticut; and Washington, D.C., USPS fleets have made great strides toward meeting the goals of the Clean Cities programs by implementing alternative fuel programs that not only help displace oil, but also create a workable solution for the industry. The automakers have produced the vehicles, now the infrastructure is needed. USPS is working with fuel suppliers and other government agencies to make this happen.

3.2.3 PUBLIC FLEET

Public transport is an integrated part of the modern city. The overall emissions from buses contribute significantly to the urban pollution. Several schemes have been introduced to combat this situation and examples of different measures have been listed below.

3.2.3.1 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) - Winchester31 Impact Cost High Medium An Air Quality Management Area (AQMA) was declared for Winchester in November 2003, due to high concentrations of air pollutants in the city centre. Quality Bus Partnership was agreed between MIRACLES and the local main PT operator: in 2003 13 new Euro 3 buses were added to the Winchester fleet and all mid-life vehicles will be brought up to Euro 3 standard or better. HCC have purchased LPG and Euro 4 pool vehicles, hybrid petrol/electric, LPG/petrol and electric cars. The main public transport operator in the area, Stagecoach, has a fleet of nearly 60 buses serving Winchester. Prior to MIRACLES, Stagecoach had already set up a rolling programme to upgrade its fleet to Euro II standard, but in partnership with Hampshire County Council (HCC), through MIRACLES, it was decided that this should be extended to meet the Euro III standards introduced in 2001. A Quality Bus Partnership was agreed between MIRACLES and Stagecoach in September 2003. In November 2003 thirteen new Euro III buses were added to the Winchester fleet. Through the QBP an ongoing programme of retrofitting has been agreed for the Winchester bus fleet to bring all mid-life vehicles up to Euro III standard or better. Clean up grants from the Government organisation, Energy Savings Trust, have been applied for, to provide additional funding for the retrofit programme. Alternative fuel buses, such as the electric powered bus pictured below, have been trialled on the Park and Ride service to raise awareness of the different technologies available and test public reaction. Retrofitting of the local bus fleet is ongoing and expected to continue after the end of the demonstration phase, although funding may need to be found from other sources. Once complete, Winchester will have one of the cleanest bus fleets in Europe. Based on their analysis of HCC vehicles, Motorvate will be advising HCC how to improve the fuel efficiency and emissions status of their fleet. Improvements should be seen before the end of the project. Following the Motorvate workshop, local businesses will be invited to join the Motorvate scheme. The aim is to get at least four companies to sign up to Motorvate before the end of the project. Another example of the fleet improvement can be observed in Bristol with the implementation of new vehicles for Dial-a-ride programme.32

31 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=28 32 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=60

Air Quality Management 39 Guidebook 3.2.3.2 Electricity - electric buses in Rome33 Impact Cost High Medium City of Rome implemented a measure to increase the number of electric buses circulating within the inner city centre and to purchase new electric buses 34 with higher transport capacity, in order to serve a larger area. The measure forms part of a wider municipality project, which aims to achieve a “zero emission area” in the city centre. Since 1989 three bus lines, operating with electric mini buses, have successfully been in service inside the inner city centre Limited Traffic Zone (LTZ). The LTZ covers a surface of 5.2 km2 compared to the 1,300 km2 of the whole Municipality. ATAC, the PT Agency in Rome, with the support of MIRACLES has so far purchased 10 new electric mini buses, which have been added to the 42 already in service. The plan to buy 36 more medium sized e-buses (8-9 meters length) is still on going. The objective of the measure is to continue to enlarge the electric bus fleet through the purchase of 36 new “medium sized” buses, to be operated on two new lines, with a total length of 14 km. It is planned that they will produce 700,000 vehicle-Km/year.

3.2.3.3 Fuel Cell Buses in London35 Impact Cost High High Route 25 between Oxford Circus and Ilford has been chosen as the first fuel cell trial bus route for a number of reasons. London’s Buses is part of Transport for London, and is responsible for achieving environmental targets and standards for the whole of London’s bus fleet, as required by the Mayor’s Air Quality Strategy. “First” operates around 16 % of the London bus network. Their experience, support and expertise in transit management is crucial in ensuring the trial is conducted and assessed to rigorous standards. BP is providing the hydrogen-refuelling facilities for the fuel cell buses. BP is an infrastructure partner in five of the nine CUTE (Clean Urban Transport for Europe) cities and is demonstrating a range of different hydrogen technologies in each location. Energy Saving Trust is supporting the project through grant funding from its new vehicle technology fund programme. Daimler Chrysler has developed and manufactured the buses and will provide technical support during the trial. The European Union has co-financed the trial, with the support of the European Commission Directorate-General for Energy and Transport. London is taking part in a pioneering project to reduce air pollution and noise by testing the first generation of zero emission fuel cell buses. This important initiative is a key part of the Mayor’s Transport and Air Quality Strategies, which are designed to help give Londoners a cleaner and healthier future. Not only is the fuel cell bus trial a significant step towards achieving that goal, it also demonstrates that London is leading the way in alternative forms of public transport. Nine cities in Europe are taking part in the fuel cell bus trial, making it the largest project of its type anywhere in the world. The reason it’s so important is because of greenhouse gas emissions and inner-city noise levels, which are a major source of complaint. The project brings together over 40 organisations including the bus manufacturer, operating companies, hydrogen suppliers, fuelling and storage facilities, and universities. It is part of the ongoing development of clean urban transport systems, which combine energy efficiency with cost-effectiveness. The fuel cell buses will be subjected to rigorous ecological, technical and economic analysis, which will then be compared to conventional bus transportation. By the end of the trial London will have made a major contribution to a much-needed initiative, the results of which are eagerly awaited by transport authorities and governments across the globe. The usage of Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cells, which are the most common fuel cells, have several positive aspects: Hydrogen can be raised renewably e.g. by using solar energy to split up H2 from water by electrolysis and the necessary O2 can be used directly from the atmosphere. Steam Reforming is a more cost-efficient method to raise H2 from synthesis gas, which is a mix of carbonic energy sources. The Methanol Reformation underlies the Steam Reformation and with this method it is

33 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=25 34 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=54 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=180 35 http://www.tfl.gov.uk/buses/fuel-cell-buses.asp

Air Quality Management 40 Guidebook easy to get H2 from Methanol (CH3OH) and water vapour (H2O). Methanol Reformation is taken into consideration for conventional vehicles to avoid on –board pressure vessels filled with H2.

36 3.2.3.4 Fuel Cell Hybrid Railcar in Japan Impact Cost High High The East Japan Railway Company developed a fuel cell system for railcars as an independent type motive power system that emits low air pollution. JR is world’s first company, which present the development of the first fuel cell hybrid railcar. This fuel cell hybrid railcar will be realised by modifying the New Energy train (NE train) used for development of a diesel engine-based hybrid system. Testing is scheduled to start from July 2006, and various tests will be performed to confirm the fuel cell performance, environmental burden reduction effects, hydrogen supply system and other aspects. Development of railcar system technology that uses fuel cells is also being promoted to utilise future breakthroughs in fuel cell technology.

3.2.3.5 Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) in Nantes and Barcelona

CNG Station Nantes37

At the end 2001 GN Vert/Eurotec was selected by the market commission for the construction of the station, with a work planning starting January 2002 and finishing august 2002. The market was attributed for 152,449 Euro. The compressed gas station was opened up in June 2003. While waiting for the definitive fuelling station to be operational, a temporary fuelling station, rented by Semitan has been implemented. This temporary station enables to operate the buses that have been delivered for training session and to operate At the end 2001 GN Vert/Eurotec was selected by the market commission for the construction of the station, with a work planning starting January 2002 and finishing august 2002. The market was attributed for 152,449 Euro. The compressed gas station was opened up in June 2003. While waiting for the definitive fuelling station to be operational, a temporary fuelling station, rented by Semitan has been implemented. This temporary station enables to operate the buses that have been delivered for training session and to operate routes that will be equipped in September. Gas will be delivered at 16 bars instead of 200 on the previous fuelling station, thus giving access to a real gas “market” tariff.The experience gained with Jupiter 2 and the first CNG fuelling station in St Herblain depot enabled Semitan to improve some of the processes. It also showed that being the owner of the fuelling station would be more economically efficient for UCN. The advantage of Compressed Natural Gas is the better stoichiometric combustion leading to lower emissions. A new CNG tank is made of aluminium sheets with fibreglass. CNG is often confused with LNG – CNG is in compressed form and has lower costs of production while LNG is in liquid form and the production is much more expensive. Furthermore CNG requires a much larger volume to store the same mass of natural gas and needs the use of high pressures too. However the advantage of LNG is that no expensive cooling processes and cryogenic tanks are necessary.LPG is a compressed blend of propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10).

Compressed Natural Gas Buses in Barcelona38 Impact Cost Medium Low

In Barcelona, one of the measures to reduce the air pollution consists of the integration of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) buses in the urban transport fleet of TMB (Barcelona Metropolitan Transport), thus promoting more sustainable transport. TMB started trials with CNG buses for the first

36 http://www.jreast.co.jp/e/press/20060401/index.html 37 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=63 38 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=39

Air Quality Management 41 Guidebook time in 1995 when tests with two CNG vehicles showed the feasibility of this new type of fuel. The results confirmed the reduction of polluting emissions and noise produced by these vehicles compared with those propelled by diesel oil. In 2000, TMB signed an agreement with GAS NATURAL to introduce CNG as an operational fuel for the bus fleet. In this way, between 2001 and 2002 a fleet of 70 CNG vehicles was introduced. These are standard buses, of 12 m. length, supplied by IVECO and MAN (2001/2002 generation). One part of the demonstration concerns the evaluation of the environmental and energy performance under real, generalised operating conditions. The other concerns the installation of equipment and specialisation of one of the city’s biggest bus depots (Zona Franca I) for the maintenance of vehicles using this fuel type. Compressed Natural Gas is an attractive fuel 39 because of its environmental advantages compared with diesel oil since, for a same use, it achieves a reduction of polluting emissions of between 82% and 98% for each 100 To realise the feasibility studies, the vehicles were put into operation on different type of lines of the road network, and a comparative analysis of performance was undertaken. The selected lines were services 22, 57 and 157. The first one is a hilly route with considerable gradients (Sea-Mountain line), while the others are flat routes. The trials were started in parallel with the first phase of equipment and infrastructure relating to gas supply, storage and distribution. In this way it was concluded that on the lines with important gradients the CNG buses performance was worse, and so CNG buses are normally assigned to lines with flat routes. The results of the introduction of Gas Natural vehicles have been highly positive, both because of the good performance and of the positive acceptance by users (see Rationale). TMB wants to maintain and enlarge the project, and to do so 90 new Natural Gas vehicles will be incorporated to the existing fleet so as to reach, by 2005, a total of 160 CNG buses. The fleet extension includes both standard and articulated types of buses (currently the 70 CNG buses are standard). The new engines, and CNG-related elements such as gas tanks, incorporate technological improvements compared to the current ones, and further improvements in fuel consumption and maintenance are anticipated.

3.2.3.6 Bio fuel in Cork and Graz

40 Impact Cost Biofuel use in Cork City Council Medium Low Before the project Cork City Council’s plant and machinery/vehicle fleet used to consist of approximately 250 vehicles, and the only fuels used by the City Council were petrol (2.5%) and diesel (duty paid and duty free). After a preliminary study, it was decided to use Cold-pressed Rape- Seed Oil as the clean-fuel and in May 2003 Elsbett trained council employees to convert 16 vehicles of the City Council fleet. After some adjustments the trial was successful, and a full excise duty exemption for Biofuels was eventually introduced in Spring 2005.This measure involved researching various options for converting 5-10% of the City Council Fleet to run on a lower emission fuel. Conversions would then be carried out on a pilot basis with a view to possible expansion fleet wide and promotion of the alternatives nationwide, depending on the results of the pilot. The significant drawback associated with the use of RSO in Ireland related to the relatively high cost of RSO. Previously, it had been possible to invoke a clause in the Finance Act, which exempted research on bio fuelled vehicles, from fuel excise duty. Unfortunately this waiver was no longer applicable when the MIRACLES project was being drafted. However, as a result of lobbying by the budding bio fuel industry, supported by Cork City Council, a full excise duty exemption for Bio fuels was eventually introduced in Spring 2005.

100% Biodiesel bus fleet in Graz41 Impact Cost Medium Low 39 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=23 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=165 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=184 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=186 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=71 40 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=26

Air Quality Management 42 Guidebook The Graz public transport company operates all of its ca. 120 busses on 100% biodiesel. A large part of this fuel is provided by processed used cooking oil. Graz collects used cooking oil on a large scale. This UCO is converted into biodiesel and along with biodiesel produced from rape seed provides the whole bus fleet with fuel. The busfleet also got an optimised high quality interior design (information screens, air conditioning, a better acoustic and visual information and ramps for mobility impaired persons. The attractivity of the city will increase due to lower pollution levels by the biodiesel driven buses. Public transport becomes user-friendlier, especially for the disabled and other specific target groups. All busses (120) operate on 100% biodiesel fuel, in winter additives have to be added and about 30% fossil diesel has to be added. There are own biodiesel filling stations. There is a regular monitoring of fuel quality (supported by the local university) and of the engines and engine components. The operation is very successful. However, it is only possible because biodiesel is fuel tax exempt. The experience from Graz: 100% Biodiesel in the whole bus fleet (and now also taxis) with used cooking oil bases biodiesel is unique and could be spread to all European cities 42. Often this is hindered by extra guarantees asked for by bus and car manufacturers. Usually operating with a 30% biodiesel mix is already deemed difficult, Graz proves the contrary.

3.2.3.7 Retrofitting “Hybrid drive” in La Rochelle43 Impact Cost Medium Medium The aim of the project is to provide 1 fully accessible and 2 conventional hybrid taxis per year for taxi asscciation – “Abeille”. Implementation of clean hybrid vehicles is being carried out in close cooperation with cars manufacturers. To reach this goal, a strategic scheme was set up in cooperation with the taxi drivers and managers. One of the main tasks will concern the procurement for which cooperation will be looked for with some car constructors in order to get special incentive prices for the taxis. To help the deployment of these vehicles, promotion activities will be launched in order to convince taxi drivers as well as customers. The main advantages of hybrid vehicles are the integration of an on-board rechargeable energy storage system. This results in less pollution and less fuel. Hybrid vehicles provides better fuel economy than conventional vehicle because the engine is smaller and may be run at speeds providing more efficiency.

3.2.3.8 Ethanol- clean car fleet in Malmo44

The increased use of clean vehicles is today hindered by a lack of information of alternatives such as gas, ethanol and electricity, in combination with higher investment costs and the uncertainty of which fuels will be available locally in the future. It is the municipal units that decide which car that will be selected and purchased 45. The City of Malmö will procure 250 clean vehicles. The city employees when in duty, instead of using their own private cars, use these vehicles. These vehicles runs 20 000 km on average per year. The total mileage will be approx. 7 million kilometres per year, 28 million kilometres in four years. Moreover, the employees are discouraged of using private cars when travelling to work. The demonstration effect is

41 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=89&PHPSESSID=84a39d7e8defe7231306751bd7... 42 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=91 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=332 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=335 43 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=326 44 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_short.phtml?lan=en&id=224 45 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=334

Air Quality Management 43 Guidebook the most important aspect of the activity; the vehicles will be clearly marked as environmental vehicles and highly visible during daytime in the traffic in Malmö. Since many people the positive experience of the vehicles is spread more widely use the vehicles compared to if 250 vehicles was bought for private use (City of Malmö has 18 000 employees and potential users). Implementation timetable for month 1-48 M 1-4 Specification of vehicles and planning of procurement M 3-13 Planning and realization of information to users/information campaign M 2-48 Procurement of vehicles. To stimulate the municipal organization and it’s employees to choose and purchase clean vehicles The direct environmental effect will be a decrease in CO2 emissions NOx, CO, VOx yearly. When biogas production is developed by the City Sewage Services (measure 5.2) the effects concerning CO2 will be even larger. Ethanol is a combustion fuel; it does not produce any particulates due to the fact that the reaction product is just water and carbon dioxide. C2H6OH + 3 O2 → 2 CO2 + 3 H2O . The usage of ethanol in the vehicle reduces CO2 emissions by about 13 [%] in comparison with unleaded petrol. Furthermore ethanol has a high energy density and because it is a liquid, it is easy and safe to handle, transport and distribute, without the need for expensive cryogenic and high-pressure systems that are needed for gaseous fuels.

3.2.4 PUBLIC TRANSPORT

The common goal for improving public transport is in increasing public transport’s share of the demand for travel, specifically through attracting trips from car. The focus of Central Government Transport Policy and of the Central Leicestershire Transport Strategy is in maintaining mobility while reducing dependence upon the private car, and this can only be achieved by increasing use of the bus. Other important policy objectives, such as reducing social exclusion and improving accessibility to jobs and social opportunities will also be addressed by improved bus services. The commercial interest of the bus operators is long term growth in profits, which given reduced opportunities for cost cutting can only come from growth in passenger numbers. But as perceived by the general public, bus services must improve significantly if they are to achieve these objectives.

3.2.4.1 Public Authority operated fleets

The following examples are just selected applications of types of measures that local governments implemented. In order to improve their fleets to be more environmentally clean. These examples t show that, with the adequate political engagement, an improvement in the public transport operation can be made to reduce its impact on environment. These implementations require complete strategy including the infrastructure. It also shows that only partial evaluation cannot be sufficient to approach the problem of converting a complete regional fleet

3.2.4.2 Busses – Lille fleet46 Impact Cost In 1990 Lille Metropolis decided to start an Low High urban bus service, fuelled by natural and/or purified biogas, produced from the fermentation of sludge from a local sewage treatment plant. After an experimental project and a test period, it was decided to introduce a new fleet of such vehicles into full service. The final objective is to convert the entire fleet (400 buses) into buses running on this type of fuel. Infrastructure investments will be partly financed by the Trendsetter Budget (extra-cost of the busses, the depots and the line modifications due to the use of biogas). Furthermore, a technical study will evaluate the technical and environmental aspects of the experience of a biogas busses fleet. 86 new gas buses have been put in service in Lille metropolis. The total fleet of gas buses, at this date is 127 gas buses on a total fleet of 311 vehicles. 40 new buses (EURO 5 standards) have been order and delivered. A new bus depot was constructed, and it is designed to park and maintain 150 gas buses (100 standards, 50 articulated). This new depot is built in front of the next organic recovery context, which will produce mass quantity of biogas. In the hart of this depot is built one of the biggest

46 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=332

Air Quality Management 44 Guidebook compression units in Europe. This compression unit will be the first one in Europe that will compress natural gas and biogas. The experience of Lille in the operation of a biogas bus fleet is certainly pioneering this area and setting the trends for future clean and sustainable public transport. Lille metropolis demonstrated the technical, environmental and economical feasibility of such conversion in a large scale.

3.2.4.3 Trams – tram train extention in Bremen47

Impact Cost Low High Bremen has made Public Transport more attractive and more environmentally friendly by providing clean transport in the city as well as the region. The experience shows that an extension of the tram network is an important element to attract more passengers and influence the shift in modal split, which leads to improvement in air quality. The surveys of the recently opened tram line n°4 in the East of Bremen showed an increase in patronage of Public Transport up to about 40% in comparison to the previous (even more frequent) bus services. It demonstrates that tram rides are perceived as more convenient – giving also transfer- free access to the city centre. The tram network actually ends at the edge of Huchting, a peripheral development of the 60s. The residents of that area and the peri-urban areas of the neighbouring communities (Stuhr area) have either to interchange from bus services to the tram or are using Park & Ride. More than 16.000 residents will benefit from a direct and convenient tram connection to the city. There will be a time- saving of about 6 minute per trip. As there is no new corridor for tram tracks necessary, a very cost- efficient and innovative solution is feasible. It should be highlighted, that the freight operation can be maintained. Many of such (underused) tracks have already been closed down in Germany – with the result that more freight was coming on the road.

48 3.2.4.4 Rail - New Nantes Vertour railway connection Impact Cost Low High On the Motorway that connects Nantes with Vertou 55,000 vehicles a day use this connection. To reduce the volume of traffic and hence effect an enhancement of air quality a new alternative to car traffic was designed by installing a new railway link between this cities. The link Nantes-Vertou uses the existing national railway infrastructure Nantes-Bordeaux. This infrastructure is planned to accept a local express train on the Nantes-Vertou part of the infrastructure. The three halts in between are all equipped with car and bike park and ride: In the Vertou station, 150 car park spaces are in use and there are extension possibilities. The station Frêne rond has 60 car park spaces and the station Pas Enchantés 80. For each station 20 enclosed bike park spaces (closed boxes for 20 bicycles) are available. Users will have a free access by card if they have a public transport monthly or annual ticket. In addition, 12 free bike park spaces are available. This new link is a success because 1.400 users/day are using this railway link (300 before).

3.2.4.5 Private Sector operated fleets

There is an increasing trend across Europe for transport fleet to be operated by private sector. Improvements in those fleets lead to more environmentally friendly buses and cleaner ambient air in urban areas. Here are some examples of schemas aimed at improving the private sector fleet.

47 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=73 48 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=66

Air Quality Management 45 Guidebook 3.2.4.6 Buses- the Central Leicestershire Quality Bus Partnership49

The Central Leicestershire Quality Bus Partnership consists of Leicester City Council, Leicestershire County Council, Arriva, First and Kinchbus. The Partnership is an informal Body, which aims to plan, facilitate and deliver improvements to bus services and bus service facilities in Central Leicestershire. It meets regularly to review matters of common Impact Cost interest and discuss ways in which bus services Low High can be improved. These may include items such as publicity, bus priorities and traffic management issues. Individual bus companies remain responsible for their own commercial strategies. Achievements already delivered, or being progressed include:

• Development of the Star Trak real time information system (see Operational Improvements) • Introduction of the “all operator” Flexi ticket (see Integrated Ticketing) • Bus priority measures in important bus routes (see Operational Improvements) • Development of a Bus Information Strategy, which will provide improved standards of information on bus services and times. • Input to the Local Transport Plan. Additionally, the bus companies have invested in updating their bus fleets with the introduction of many new, low floor buses.

50 3.2.4.7 Taxis – CNG driven taxis in Berlin Impact Cost Low High

At this time 800 CNG taxis and driving school cars are in usage in Berlin. The costs of acquisition and fuel are reduced heavily. The purchase of new CNG Taxis and driving school vehicles will be funded when the following is fulfilled: All ordered vehicles have to be on the state of art and to apply a standard, several norms (D4 EURO IV and UZ 89) are convenient. Furthermore the vehicles have to be in usage appropriated for at least 2 years in the region of Berlin. To enjoy the funding it is necessary to file an funding application at the KfW bank of fundings. To summarise, this funding system of taxis and school driving vehicles can be a contribution to decrease air pollution because of attract the purchase of CNG vehicles and as a result the less emissions because of less polluting fuel. In addition to that several other benefits occur like the cheaper fuel costs (-50 [%] in comparison with petrol, -30 [%] in comparison with diesel), cheaper car insurance as well as tax incentives. The changes in the taxi fleet have also been implemented in London to improve emission values.51

3.3 INTEGRATED TRANSPORT AND TRAVELLING PLANING

Integrated transport concept has been widely discussed at the Government and local levels. Definition of Integrated Transport52 as presented in 1998,by the UK Government’s Transport White Paper, “A New Deal for Transport: Better for Everyone” includes four areas of Integration: a) Within and between different types of transport, so each works properly and people can make easy connections between them; b) With the environment, so that our transport choices cause less damage; c) With land use planning, to support more sustainable travel choices; and

49 http://www.leicester.gov.uk/your-council--services/transport--traffic/transport-development/sustainable-team- homepage/buses--public-transport/quality-bus-partnership 50 http://www.tut-berlin.de/ http://www.fgm.at/docs/etaxi_e.pdf 51 http://www.tfl.gov.uk/pco/pdfdocs/emissions-strategy-revised-implementation-date.pdf 52 http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200203/cmselect/cmwelaf/205/20504.htm

Air Quality Management 46 Guidebook d) With other areas of Government policy, such as education, health and wealth creation, so that transport helps to make a fairer, more inclusive society.

The key objective of an integrated transport policy is to create accessible, affordable and sustainable transport and to optimise the efficiency of the transport information system in the Urban community Global economy can be enhanced by an improvement in the organisation of transport systems. The fragmentation of the transport modes– road, sea, rail, air – as well as of transport systems is a rather costly situation, which can be improved by integration.53

3.3.1 INTERMODAL INTERCHANGE

Intermodal Interchange is an integrated part of public and private transport which enhances passenger’s optimal connection to their destinations. Intermodal Interchange offers the passenger the option of linking different ways of public transport with individual transport. A well-installed system can significantly reduce air pollution by limiting the journey time by the users and encouraging them to use the public transport. The following chapter lists just a few examples of how Intermodal Interchange can be installed in a city.

3.3.1.1 Park and Ride in La Rochelle54 Impact Cost The objective of this scheme is to create a Medium Medium second car park shuttle in the district of LAGORD (North of La Rochelle) with, in parallel, the management of the parking in the centre. Innovative aspects of this project are coordination of bus and taxi services to increase multi-modal travel. This Park and Ride (P+R)55will be located near the motorway and near important residential zone. The estimate of the costs of the scheme is available to the public but the full evaluation will be carried out after the implementation of the scheme. The implementation of a Park and Ride Scheme can have significant impacts on air quality depending on the size of the operation.

Impact Cost 3.3.1.2 Bike and Ride in Berlin56 Low Low

The aim of this project is to give cyclists in Berlin the option of taking their bicycles on the train or leaving them at the station. It will allow to combine their travel with train, underground and the tram. 10% of all cyclists in the capital already combine bicycle travel and public transport on a daily basis. Cyclists in Berlin can take their bicycles on regional trains the underground and the trams at any time. Night bus services also recently started allowing bikes on board. Single journeys can be purchased at a reduced price, cyclists who regularly take their bicycle on public transport have the option of buying a monthly bicycle ticket and schoolchildren can take their bikes on for free. The state of Berlin has contributed over one million euros towards these projects. The BVG, the Berlin transit company responsible for the underground, buses and trams, also plans to improve its facilities for bicycles. As part of the Bicycle Transportation Strategy for Berlin drawn up by the Berlin senate, the various transport companies have promised to continue to improve interfaces between bicycle transportation routes and the public transport network.

53 Andersson T. et al. “Why Integrated Transport Systems?”; The OECD Observer; No.211, April/May 1998 54 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=339 55 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=159 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=43 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=328 56 http://www.stadtentwicklung.berlin.de/verkehr/radverkehr/index_en.shtml

Air Quality Management 47 Guidebook 3.3.1.3 Bicycle Parking in Rotterdam57

Facilitation of the whole range of schemes is needed to stimulate Impact Cost the use of bicycles in combination with public transport: such as bicycle parking at home and public transport location and improving cycle lanes Low Low Special safe boxes for bicycles were placed throughout many streets/living areas to encourage the bicycle users The project aims to stimulate the use of bicycles and public transport, by realisation of high quality bicycle parking facilities at several metro and train stations in Rotterdam. Already existing facilities were assessed and as a result, a strategy for the location and exploitation of bicycle parking facilities was set up. For all locations implementation plans were made. The unguarded bicycle parking facilities at 23 public transport stations needed extension and/or improvement. Near public transport nodes, there is a demand for three large scale guarded bicycle facilities. The unguarded bicycle parking facilities have been extended in 11 metro stations. At each station 30 up to 200 bicycle parking places are now available. A further extension at another 15 metro stations has been planned. The extension at 7 metro stations will be realised in 2005. The draft plans for two guarded bicycle stands in the city centre is finished, with a total capacity of 600 parking places.

3.3.2 OPERATIONAL IMPROVEMENTS

To enhance attractiveness and effectiveness of Public Transport services a Management Information System can be used. Management Information Systems can improve the traffic flow and reduce the congestion. A few examples of how Management Information Systems are working are explained in the following chapter.

3.3.2.1 Management Information Systems58

Management Information Systems assist road users maintaining a steadily traffic flow and hence contribute for a better air quality. Traffic Flow and Speed have a significant correlation as shown in Figure 4. A method based on the k-means algorithm, a statistical technique demonstrated to be successful in categorising traffic flow regimes in the urban environments of Leicester City was developed to classify traffic into four states. From Figure 2 it can be seen that there are four distinct areas of the speed flow curve that relate to different levels of emissions for quiet, free flow, busy and congested conditions;

• Quiet (not congested) – characterised by traffic speeds not constrained by the flow levels

• Free flow (slightly congested) – where the speed is constrained by the flow, particularly with the ability to overtake, but nevertheless traffic remains flowing.

• Busy (moderately congested) - when the flow is approaching and reaching the capacity of the link. Traffic flow is very unstable, causing short shock waves and, for a given traffic volume, large variation in speed with acceleration and deceleration events.

• Congested (severely congested) – with flow breakdown speeds are slow and display stop start behaviour.

57 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=156 http://www.fgm.at/projekt.phtml?proj_id=207&sprache=en http://www.mobility-cultura.net/upload/20052005_102704_Biotransport_Vilnius_4final_en.pdf http://www.mobility-cultura.net/upload/11012005_124547_Wolford_final4en.pdf http://www.mobility-cultura.net/upload/brochure/Brochure_en.pdf http://www.mobility-cultura.net/upload/23032005_120707_Free_bicycle_pump_stations_4final_en.pdf http://www.mobility-cultura.net/upload/12092005_123308_Bicicle_Garage_4final_en.pdf http://www.mobility-cultura.net/upload/17012005_115723_PedestrianZone%20_4finalen.pdf http://www.mobility-cultura.net/upload/11012005_124034_Bogotá_final4en.pdf 58 http://www.vmslimited.co.uk/trams.html

Air Quality Management 48 Guidebook The extreme value shows the optimal balance between traffic flow and speed. Management Information Systems contribute reaching this extreme value to balance the maximum vehicle flow based on the capacity of the road.

Figure 3: Relationship between Traffic Counts and soeed There are several systems available on the market that allow a better coordination and real time information processing of traffic data. Such information is invaluable for efficient management of traffic. TRAMS is a Windows® software System Integration package. It works with standard desktop PCs easily enabling Variable Message Signs limited to configure and tune bespoke solutions to meet specific traffic management needs. TRAMS provides clear and concise information to about traffic. It is suitable for an extensive range of applications and is compatible wit most of the roadside equipment. The system can be characterised by: • Flexible & varied communications • Complete System Integration with: • Variable message signs • Access Control • Bus-lane violation monitors • Pollution/weather monitors • Car park information • Overheight vehicle detectors • MIDAS vehicle detectors Applications include: UTMC, Car Park Guidance, and Driver Information. A case study of UTMC in Leicester (“Queue Relocation in Leicester) is described on page 25. The latest generation of traffic management and information system is COMET and is the architectural hub of a modern traffic control centre. It provides co-ordination facilities allowing operators to control and monitor their urban networks across a range of systems whilst delivering meaningful timely and accurate information to the travelling public. 59 Comet offers different features like • Graphical display of map, web data and traveller information • Control and monitoring of congestion, strategy and time of day • System logging and auditing • Incident management • External system control Management Information Systems improve the traffic flow in cases of imminent congestion. That implies a more stable traffic flow and hence the vehicles will emit less pollution. The disadvantage of these systems is the cost.

59 http://www.siemenstraffic.com/d/auth.rpl?m=cat&catid=255

Air Quality Management 49 Guidebook 3.3.2.2 Real Time Passenger Information System “Star Trak”60

The Star Trak system is a real time bus passenger information system that gives ‘next bus' information. The information is provided to users in one of the 4 following ways: • Signs at bus stops Signs are located at various locations along Star Trak routes, which give ‘next bus’ information using various types of signs.

• Multiroute signs These are signs located in Leicester city centre, which gives passengers ‘next bus’ on all routes leaving the city centre. These signs can be used a multi-route terminus. • SMS All stops along a Star Trak route are equipped with plates which have a code associated with the stop. Passengers can text this code to a national number (84268) and receive the ‘next bus’ information for their chosen stop. To test the service out, • Website A website has been designed with mapping functionality giving users the ability to find their ‘next bus’ using the website. All of the Star Trak routes appear on the website with other general information about the routes and the system. The Star Trak system comprises the following components: • Bus location – using GPS technology to located the bus at all times along its route • Intelligent traffic signal priority – to enable a late running bus to have priority through traffic signals • Passenger information – bus stop signs, sms and website • Bus fleet management – for the bus companies to keep track of their buses • Electronic timetable database – the main part of the system, which says when the bus is on time or late.

3.3.2.3 Telematics Technologies for Transports and Traffic in Turin - “5T”61

The city of Turin started in 1992 a large-scale project in mobility telematics named 5T Telematics Technologies for Transports and Traffic in Turin, which embodies the conceptual framework and the results of the QUARTET Project financed by the EU and of the “Environment and Traffic project” financed by the Italian Environment Ministry. The Turin 5T System has been developed and implemented right across the city of Turin. It comprises nine subsystems (Urban Traffic Control, Public Transport Management, Environment Control, Parking Control, Information Media Control, Collective Information (VMS), Automation Debiting, Maximum Priority, Route Guidance), together with an overall City Supervisor, which integrates all the other sub-systems actions into a general mobility/environment strategy. Turin has focused on a comprehensive evaluation of the IRTE (Integrated Road Transport Environment) system. The 5T project was tested during a two-year experimental phase which ended in 1997. The measured effect of the 5T System was a reduction of the average O/D triptime by 21% for the resident in the area affected by the system. The 5T System has been maintained in 1998-99 at the functional levels reached during experimentation. In the same period the process of the transformation of the 5T Consortium – which has generated 5T – into a new company in charge of all developments of transport telematics in Turin has been accomplished.

60 http://www.star-trak.co.uk/ http://www.fgm.at/projekt.phtml?sprache=en 61 http://www.cemt.org/topics/env/CO2turin/CO2gentile.pdf#search=%225T%20Italy%20integrated%20transport%20turin%20air %20pollution%22 http://www.fgm.at/projekt.phtml?sprache=en

Air Quality Management 50 Guidebook 3.3.2.4 Dynamic real-time passenger information for trams62

Prototyping of an interface between the Public Transport Operation Control Centre and the dynamic passenger information system in Berlin. Main goal is the acceleration of the pilot realisation for dynamic information of passengers at tram stops about the real departures of trams (Pilot-Demonstration: Tramline 6). Tram line 6 with a length of 21.6 kilometres was selected for demonstration, because other tram lines are partly running on the same track with tram line 6 and interchanges to 12 other tram lines do exist along the track. On the common track these other tram lines will be included in the system and also displayed on the information panels. Information panels will also be installed at 4 bus stops at connecting points to tram line 6. 100 information panels will be installed at 40 tram stops and the mentioned 4 bus stops. The following information will be given on the display for all lines running at the stops: line n°, destination, real (dynamic) departure time ("in xx minutes").One display line is provided for free programmable text information. The dynamic passenger information system uses the actual available hard- and software Oracle database distribution server, decentralised computers, information panels with LED-technology. Parallel the development of a passenger information system which gives dynamic information based on mobile-phone technology via SMS and internet is starting in February 2004. The development of the application software/interface between the “RBL”and the DAISY-system was finished at the end of 2003. Extensive tests of functionality were done. The necessary changes, which were caused by the test results, were almost all implemented. The DAISY software was implemented in the operation control centre. In the frame of the BVG-DAISY-project the first 6 panels appeared at Moll-/Otto-Braun- Str. stop November 2003.

3.3.2.5 Integrated Ticketing63

An integrated ticketing system needs firstly the agreement of public transport authorities to use one ticket for several public transport journeys. This offers passengers an easier access to travel information. The main objective of Integrated Ticketing is to simplify of the ticketing structure. Hereby Smart Card Systems support the improvement of intermodality between Public Transports and consequently these systems contribute to better air quality because a probable shift in modal split can be the result. Different Policies they are relevant for Integrated Ticketing are i.e. to work to secure Public Transport provision that is accessible and affordable to all Sections of the community. The Integrated Ticketing system has already been applied in several European countries e.g. Karlsruhe (D), Graz (A), and Stockholm (S) as well as in all Swiss regions.

3.3.2.6 Bus priorities

The main objective of a bus lane is to give priority to buses and save journey time in places where roads are congested with other traffic. There are no restrictions to the length of the bus lane; they could be very short to reduce congestion in a particular place. Some cities created separate local road

62 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=178 http://www.fgm.at/projekt.phtml?sprache=en 63 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/PDF/generate_pdf.php? http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=68 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=285 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=48 http://www.fgm.at/projekt.phtml?sprache=en

Air Quality Management 51 Guidebook systems using bus lanes. In Berlin bus lanes can be also used by cyclists. In Graz, bus lanes can be used by private vehicles outside rush hour and taxis can use it at all times. Bus lanes can only be implemented when the road in question is both likely to be congested as well as heavily travelled by bus. The construction of bus lane has to be the same or even higher standards as usual lanes, as the traffic weight loads tend to be high. The result of introducing bus lanes is prioritisation of public transport and reduction in journey time. The shorter journey time makes the public transport more attractive to car owners therefore reducing the care use and pollution.

3.3.2.7 Guided Bus64

The main objective of guided buses is to be independent from the traffic. They can use either physical, guiding system such as kerbs, or remote, such as optical or radio guidance. Guided Buses can be steered for part or their entire route by external means, usually on a dedicated track. This track, which often parallels existing roads, excludes all other traffic, permitting the maintenance of reliable schedules on heavily used corridors even during rush hours. On kerb guided buses (KGB) small guide wheels are attached to the bus, and these engage vertical kerbs on either side of the track way. The bus is steered in the normal way away from the guide way. The start of the guide way is funnelled from a wide track to the normal width. The track way allows for high speed operation on a narrow guide way. Only a few examples currently exist, but more are proposed in various countries. The longest guided bus way in the world is the O-Bahn Bus way in Adelaide, South Australia, which has been operating reasonably successfully in the mid 1980s. In the United Kingdom a number of guided bus ways currently operate. They are at:

• Ipswich – opened in 1995 • Leeds – opened in 1995 • Leeds enlargement – opened in 2001 • Bradford – opened in 2001 • Crawley – opened in 2003 • Crawley enlargement – opened in 2004 • Edinburgh – opened in 2004

The effects in the light of air quality are the same as in the example “Bus Lanes” mentioned above. Independency from traffic indicates an enhancement in public transport and hence an improvement of air quality.

3.3.3 TRAVEL PLANNING TO PROVIDE SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT OPTIONS

A travel plan sets out a range of measures aimed at promoting other forms of transport to reduce dependency on single car occupancy. It is not a scheme that is against the car as such, but aims to achieve less car use to benefit everyone. By looking at the travel issues that face both staff and students we can try to make other forms of transport more accessible, drawing on the help of TravelWise and other travel planning consultants. Travel Plans are relevant to the full range of developments relating to jobs, leisure, retail and services, including offices, industry, health and education uses. At the heart of successful Travel Planning is partnership. Through working in partnership with other organisations and businesses, including local planning authorities and public transport operators, real transport alternatives can be provided to your site. Travel Plans can involve the introduction of incentives to people to change their mode of travel, such as discounts or interest free loans for alternative transport modes, sometimes in the context of restrictions on the use of private cars.

64 http://www.garden.force9.co.uk/OBahn.htm

Air Quality Management 52 Guidebook Travel Plans help to reduce the impact of travel on the environment. And, by reducing costs, they can also make good business sense. Travel Plans can produce many benefits for an organisation such as: • Helping to inform the design and operation of buildings • Promoting good access to your premises and cutting congestion around your site • Improve road safety around and near your buildings • Improving the number of car parking spaces available to customers • Reducing the costs of car park provision and maintenance • Saving money on business travel • Promoting the image of your organisation • Reducing air and noise pollution • Increasing staff punctuality and performance • And, potentially a healthier workforce. The main question should be, how the passenger can be excited with public transport. The Transport Information system is one of the possible tools for catching potential passengers. In fact, there are many other measures as well. Following several measures are listed. To get a better idea of it, this chapter consist of mainly two component parts. Alternatively this explanation might be useful: A travel plan provides a strategy for an organisation to reduce its transportation impacts and to influence the travel behaviour of its employees, suppliers, visitors and customers.

3.3.3.1 Walking Bus65

Each walking bus had an adult 'driver' at the front and an adult 'conductor' bringing up the rear. The children walk to school in a group along a set route picking up additional 'passengers' at specific 'bus-stops' along the way. The bus runs rain or shine and everyone wears a reflective jacket. Along the way children can chat to their friends, learn valuable road safety skills and gain some independence. All walking buses are different - they vary to suit the needs of the children and their parents. Some schools have a number of walking buses and some only have one walking bus. Some walking buses operate only on certain days; other walking buses operate only in morning or afternoon. A walking bus at your school could be set up to match the availability of the volunteers. The walking bus provides a chance for everyone to take part in regular exercise. Evidence shows that more active children are likely to become more active adults. Every journey made on foot helps reduce the amount of traffic around schools, which will help reduce air pollution and improve local environment for everyone.

Examples: Hammersmith and Fullham, in the US, Walking Bus becomes more and more popular.

3.3.3.2 Bike IT project in Leicester66

Bike IT is the National ‘Schools & Skills’ Cycling Demonstration Project carried out in partnership between Leicester City Council and National Cycling Charity – Sustrans. This two-year project has involved eight local schools, provided cycle training to almost 1,000 pupils and introduced New National Standard Cycle Training to the City as part of an on-going review of Road Safety Education. There has been a definite, measured and radical impact on levels of cycling in schools involved in the project. A co-ordinated approach to cycle training for pupils and parents, curriculum and classroom support for teachers, new cycle shelters and local area traffic control has made a dramatic change. For example (as below) over 100 students and staff at Braunstone Frith Primary School rode

65 http://www.walkingbus.com/ http://www.mobilitymanagement.org/epomm_example.phtml?sprache=en&id=318 66 http://www.sustrans.org.uk/default.asp?sID=1102425335218

Air Quality Management 53 Guidebook to school for a Bike to School Week Promotion this April (More than 34% of the whole school). More than 50 students now cycle to school on a regular basis. 116 Cycled to Herrick School in early June and 31 children and parents took part in the first after-school ride at Granby school for National Bike Week. 177 cycled to Queensmead on the final day of their first ever bike to school week in late June. Across all eight schools where there was an existing culture of cycling numbers have increased by 300 to 500%. In schools where there were there was no culture of cycling average numbers of 50+ are now common. These numbers are far in excess of what in comparison are modest City Council targets.

3.3.3.3 Make bicycling attractive67

The main aim of this project is to promote cycling. he project will include information on the fastest and safest bicycle paths through the city along with information on Bike and Ride facilities. Its objective is to make people shift from car and public transport to bike, thereby reducing fuel consumption and environmental impact. The main bodies responsible for this project are Public Transport authority, such cities as Stockholm, Nacka, Huddinge, Södertälje etc. and the regional branch of the Swedish Road Administration. There are 19 of the 24 municipalities involved in this project at present. Another important stakeholder is Cykelfrämjandet, a Swedish association for bicycling, driving promotions for a environmental friendly society. During the course of the project , several activities have taken place: Creating a strategy for bicycling in the county in the back ground study, starting agreements with the different authorities/stakeholders, designing website and launching it, Evaluation and many more, which allow for better understanding of project dissemination and satisfaction of bikers. 68

3.3.3.4 Establishing a car sharing scheme in Aalborg69 and Rome70

The objectives of the car-sharing scheme are to: promote car sharing as an alternative to purchase of the first/second car; The main goals of this project concentrate on establishing a car-sharing service at to 2-3 sites with 4-6 shared vehicles replacing 15-35 private cars and to Introduce car sharing as a private/public scheme aimed at creating a commercially viable service.

Aalborg will introduce a combined private/public car sharing71 scheme. It will address the increase in private car ownership and the corresponding increase in modal share of the private car. The idea is to combine individual citizen memberships with private company and public institution memberships. This will make the utilisation of the vehicles over the day as efficient as possible, and thereby enhance the opportunities of an economically successful scheme. It is important that the car-sharing scheme is structured in a way that will meet the requirements of the users. Inputs from app. 200 potential users acquired through telephone interviews and a dialogue with the Hertz Delebilen have served this purpose. The main car-sharing site as well as a front desk function is located at the new bus terminal central in the city neighbouring major residential areas. Train, city bus and coaches as well as bike rental will service this area - the key transfer point for public transport in Aalborg. Currently there is only one commercial operator in Denmark - Hertz Delebilen. In order to investigate the market and allow other operators to enter the market as well Aalborg launched a tender for the service. But no others than Hertz Delebilen responded to the tender. Partnering with a commercial operator does not mean public funding of commercial activities. The key role of Aalborg has been practical assistance and support in the promotion of car sharing in the development phase.

67 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=105 68 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=82 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=156 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=12 69 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=67 70 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=35 71 http://www.mobility-cultura.net/upload/19052005_162225_Stabilsation_%20of_Behaviour_Znojmo_4final_en.pdf

Air Quality Management 54 Guidebook Car-sharing has had its difficulties gaining market in Denmark. To overcome the risk of a lack of interest, promotion and dedicated marketing and information efforts are required.

Car sharing in Rome

The objective is to change the current transportation habits, especially the way the car is used, creating an alternative to the purchase of the first/second car and indirectly enhancing the use of PT services. Car sharing trial started March 2005 in the Borough III. This zone was selected because of its strong PT network: TP pass-holders residents have therefore been contacted and encouraged to subscribe. Car sharing vehicles are allowed to circulate in the interdict zones and have a lot of benefits, so as to make the scheme more attractive. Rome has one of the highest rates of car ownership in the world: 76 cars every 100 inhabitants. Car sharing is a flexible mobility service, allowing the common use of a fleet of vehicles by a customer club. After a preliminary study carried out in 2003, within the inner part of the city rail ring, a pilot project was chosen. The Borough III was selected as the ideal area to trial an experimental car sharing service. The Borough III has a strong underground and surface PT network, a large number of paid parking spaces and several important attractions: railway stations, scientific and university centres, Ministries, the general hospital (Policlinico), etc. The Municipality of Rome has joined ICS (Iniziativa Car Sharing). This is national Agreement between Municipalities, promoted by the Ministry of Environment, to guarantee the coordinated and integrated management of local services and the application of established standards. ATAC, the main Public Transport Operator, was commissioned to start up the car sharing service in collaboration with Legambiente (one of the most important environmental associations in Italy). These two organisations are in charge of the administration of the fleet and of the relationships between partners and suppliers, managing payments and customers (information, subscriptions, assistance, complaints). The fleet consists of 11 Euro3 compliance vehicles, some of which are marsh gas supplied. Car sharing vehicles are allowed to park free of charge in every car park of the city, included the park&ride zones. They can enter the LTZ (Limited Traffic Zone) and the preferential lanes as well as the future green corridors of mobility; furthermore, they are allowed to circulate in the interdict zones, also during the limited traffic days. All these benefits help to make the scheme more attractive to users. Interest of Public Administrations in car sharing depends on the ability of the schemes to reduce pollutant gas emissions. Every car owner who becomes a car sharer reduces his costs by 30-50%, thanks to more efficient use of the vehicle and an increased use of PT. It has been estimated that every shared car can reduce the number of private cars by 10, and that 54% of subscribers sells their second car, while 13% no longer purchase a first car. 72

3.4 INDUSTRIAL AND DOMESTIC POLLUTION SOURCES

The previous section has concentrated on tackling road traffic related air quality problems, which in many cities are the dominant source of pollution. However this is not always the case, as for a number of Europe cities industrial and domestic sources still play a large part in the pollution concentrations that they must deal with. This section will look at some of the legislative and regulatory methods used to reduce the impact of industrial and domestic emissions and then provide examples of how they have been tackled.

72 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=30 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=272 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=70 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=287 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=50

Air Quality Management 55 Guidebook 3.4.1 REGULATIONS AND LEGISATION

This chapter includes how regulations in particular for industrial emissions have been responsible for reducing the most common emissions. Not to be sneezed at is the proper legal framework as well as the measures to cope with the emissions that are part of this chapter.

3.4.1.1 General information

Many EU countries already have policy instruments aimed at reducing the sulphur, NOX and dust emissions that cause "local" environmental degradation and health problems. Because many of these pollutants have cross-border impacts (e.g. sulphur emissions from the UK causing acid rain in Scandinavia), the European Commission has introduced a number of directives that will harmonise the control of such emissions including:

• Large Combustion Plant Directive (LCPD), due to come into force on 1 January 2008, imposes strict limits on the concentration of SO2, NOX and dust emitted in the flue gas of industrial plant. The concentration levels differ according to the type, size and age of plant; • Integrated Pollution and Prevention Control (IPPC) directive, places requirements on operators of plant to use the Best Available Techniques (BAT) to minimise harmful emissions to the environment. It was introduced in 1999 and is being phased in to full implementation by 2007; and • National Emissions Ceiling Directive (NECD) sets national emissions ceilings for SO2, NOX, VOCs and ammonia to be met by 2010.

3.4.1.2 Domestic fires

Smoke consists of unburnt particles of carbon or soot, tiny tar particles and hydrocarbons. These particles can penetrate deep into our lungs and cause damage. About 20% of the smoke in our atmosphere comes from domestic fires. Ordinary coal burnt in open grates can produce up to twenty times as many tar and hydrocarbon particles as industrial chimneys. Domestic smoke is emitted at a low level, so does not disperse quickly. Domestic smoke can be a major cause of urban smog. Although smoke control legislation has cleaned up many towns and cities, some areas still have problems. The London smog of 1952 lasted for several days and caused at least 4000 deaths, prompting the implementation of the Clean Air Acts 1956 and 1968. Although the situation is vastly improved, in areas where solid fuel is widely used dense domestic smoke can still obscure winter sunshine, contribute to fogs and cause respiratory problems for children, old people and those with bronchitis or asthma. Open fires are also a source of dust and grime in the home.

3.4.2 TACKLING INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION

The impact of industrial emissions on the local environment will vary from city to city. Where there is a significant contribution then the user will consider appropriate measures. These are not scope of this document.

3.4.3 TACKLING DOMESTIC POLLUTION

The impact of smokeless fuel legislation and the move away from coal and brown coal has a fuel towards natural gas and oil, means that the domestic emissions make a better contribution to the air quality.

3.4.3.1 Programme of subsidies of the City of Prague for heating systems conversion on the City territory

The Programme of subsidies of the City of Prague for heating systems conversion on the territory of the City has been running since 1994. The objective of subsidies provided is to motivate owners or users of apartments to convert their original heating systems (namely the solid fuel) into environmentally friendly fuels and renewable sources of energy. The Programme has been accepted by the public in a very positive manner and also received highly positive response from abroad.

Air Quality Management 56 Guidebook The Programme development and results are presented in Table 11 and depicted in the Figure 4 below.

Figure 4: Subsidies paid and the number of apartments, 1994–2004

Number of applications in respective year Apartments

Average Year Amount paid Max. amount Number subsidy Registered Duplicities Rejected Granted [Kč / CZK] per apartmen of per apartment [Kč / CZK] apartments [Kč / CZK]

1994 6 335 54 3 095 3 186 108 220 940 20 000 11 069 9 777

1995 7 036 2 899 575 3 562 83 238 513 25 000 7 840 10 617

1996 2 398 325 381 1 692 55 657 126 25 000 5 071 10 976

1997 2 404 276 151 1 977 59 528 854 20 000 5 641 10 553

1998 1 144 7 155 982 25 997 010 15 000 2 607 9 972

1999 956 1 111 844 21 554 464 15 000 2 158 9 988

2000 769 4 37 728 17 415 627 15 000 1 675 10 397

2001 429 5 28 396 8 693 928 15 000 788 11 033

2002 251 0 11 240 5 837 606 15 000 604 9 664

2003 225 0 18 207 5 040 345 15 000 457 11 029

2004 140 0 17 123 3 659 870 15 000 340 10 764

Total 22 087 3 571 4 579 13 937 394 844 283 – 38 250 10 434

Table 10: Complete overview of submitted applications for subsidies to the conversion of heating systems in 1994– 200473

The average amount of the subsidy per apartment (see Table 11) following from the Figure 4 above depends mostly on if the conversion was carried out in family houses and apartments with stand-alone heating system or in tenement houses having more apartments heated by means of a central boiler room. The central heating system appears as more effective for less portion of power per individual apartment than in the case of stand-alone heating system.

Number of ap. Number of ap. Number of ap.

73 OIM MHMP

Air Quality Management 57 Guidebook Type of heating before Share converted using current status, Share the Programme, of ap. sub- 2004 of ap. 1991 [%] sidies in 1994– [%] 2004

DCH 164 679 33,44 % 2 879 167 558 34,02 %

160 113 32,51 % 35 371 195 484 39,69 % Gas + electricity + alter. sources

Solid fuels 167 716 34,05 % 0 129 466 26,29 %

Total 492 508 100,00 % 38 250 492 508 100,00 %

Table 11: The overview of changes in shares of respective heating categories of apartments (ap.) over the period of the Programme implementation, 1994–200474

The overview above demonstrates, that the Programme subsidies in 1994–2004 helped to reduce the number of apartment units heated using solid fuels by approx. 22 % (from 168,000 to 130,000 apartments). The resulting share of apartments heated in full or in part by means of solid fuel fired systems dropped from 34 % in 1991 to 26 % at the end of 2004. The total share of such apartments is, in fact, lower because the statistics do not include the cases of the heating system conversion, which received no subsidy from the Programme. In 1994–2004 the City of Prague contributed to the conversion of solid or liquid fuel- heating systems into more environmentally sound heat sources (central heating, natural gas, electricity, or renewable sources) in 38,250 apartments, which represents approx. 8 % of the total number of apartments on the Prague territory (according to the census 1991). The adverse environmental effects of stationary energy sources in Prague have been significantly reduced over the last decade as shown in Figure 5, pollutants emissions dropped from three to ten times.

74 DCH – central heating unit, Source: OIM MHMP

Air Quality Management 58 Guidebook Figure 5: Yearly assessment of immission characteristic of the period 1981–2003

Finally, it may be stated that the Programme of subsidies for conversion of heating systems adopted by the City of Prague to, along with other programmes for healthier air, have contributed, in large extent, to the reduction in SO2 concentrations. The sulphur oxides emissions from stationary energy sources account for 95 % of the total amount of sulphur emissions and do not pose a critical issue concerning air pollution. The persistent high air pollution in Prague is caused, mainly, by traffic, which has been producing approx. 80–90 % of total emissions of critical pollutants (NO2, CxHy, CO).

Air Quality Management 59 Guidebook 3.4.3.2 Shore –Side Electricity proposal in Fishing Port of Scheveningen

The developer in conjunction with the local authority has suggested a new development on the northern quay of the Fishing Port of Scheveningen. These facilities originally included short-stay rental apartments, shops and an underground parking. At present the northern quay has no usage because of limited space. New facilities would require the demolition of these buildings. Compliance to noise regulations is a decisive issue in terms of project feasibility. The shipping vessels are equipped with deep freeze storage facilities on board. The power for the refrigeration system is provided by a diesel engine driven generator. A typical engine will have a capacity of 800 kW. The diesel engine runs 24 hours a day. Acoustical research has demonstrated that the allowed sound exposure levels on the façade of adjacent living dwellings will be greatly exceeded, when these vessels are at berth and operational. The most suitable alternative is shore-connected electricity also known as cold ironing (see Figure 6). The fishing vessels will have to be modified, if the project is carried out, to accommodate for the supply of electricity from the quay. The European Commission drafted a “European Union strategy to reduce atmospheric emissions from seagoing ships”, COM (2002) 595 final. This has led to a proposal for a revision of Directive 1999/32/EC regarding the sulphur content of marine fuel. The Commission proposal did not initially include any provisions for exemptions to the port requirement (0.1% sulphur when operating at berth). For shore-side electricity an exception was made in the second reading of the proposal (article 4b). The justification for the amendment is cited below: The use of low-sulphur marine gas oils in ports is a matter of high priority, and derogations/exemptions should be avoided to the largest extent possible. The use of shore-side electricity significantly reduces air and noise emissions in ports and should therefore be promoted. The environmental and subsequent health effects of cold ironing are local in their nature. Noise reduction can be achieved by simply creating sufficient distance between the source and the object (living dwellings) that needs protection. One of the requirements for the Fishing Port was the flexible use of the quay since the reefer vessels do not have a fixed berth. This a major difference with regard to existing shore power facilities like Göteborg.

6 kV-60Hz 10 kV-50Hz

Figure 6: schematic view cold ironing (cross-section)

Air Quality Management 60 Guidebook Depending on the destination of the fishing vessels time at sea varies from 3 to 5 weeks. Berth time is approximately 1 day for every week at sea. Together these vessels remain approximately 700 days a year at berth. This includes the use of the new quay. The annual combined electricity consumption of the reefer vessels is 10 GWh (see Table 12). The variable costs are based on the peak tariff of approximately € 0,060 per kWh (from 07.00 - 23.00 hours) and a night tariff of € 0,030 per kWh. The average price for the use of electricity is estimated at € 0,0437 per kWh. In addition the power user pays a charge of € 0,00112 per kWh for the maintenance of the electricity network. The fixed costs for the use of electricity are based on the available capacity of 6 MW and the maximum average monthly power consumption, estimated at 50% of peak capacity. The number of running hours of the auxiliary engines will be considerably reduced when shore power is used while the ship is at berth. This will affect the frequency of engine maintenance. Based on estimates by the ship-owner the maintenance costs will decrease by € 4 per running hour. In 2013, based on 700 days at berth (all vessels) the savings will amount to € 69.000. In the first year the costs of using the shore power facilities exceed the benefits. From 2013 onwards the operational costs of shore power are lower than the use of the auxiliary engines onboard. During the transition period some of the vessels still need to be modified to allow for connection to the shore power facilities. As soon as all reefer vessels make use of shore power the reduced costs of fuel and maintenance outweigh the costs of electricity consumption The project is technically feasible but requires a large investment, the cost-benefit analysis shows that in socio-economic terms, the investment is feasible, even when taking various uncertainties into account. Full description of the proposed project can be found in Appendix L.

Air Quality Management 61 Guidebook Power use Fuel savings Name vessel Vessel ID NOx [kg] SO2 [kg] CO2 [kg] HC [kg] PM [kg] Sfc [kg] [kWh / year] [l]

Afrika SCH 24 691,200 9,262 8,433 499,046 276 553 156,902 184,591 Johanna Maria SCH 118 614,400 8,233 7,494 443,597 246 492 139,469 164,081 Sandettie FC716999 384,000 5,146 4,685 277,248 154 307 87,168 102,551 Wiron 1 PH 110 288,000 3,859 3,514 207,936 115 230 65,376 76,913 Wiron 2 PH 220 288,000 3,859 3,414 207,936 115 230 65,376 76,913 Wiron 5 SCH 22 672,000 9,005 8,198 485,184 269 538 152,544 179,464 Wiron 6 SCH 23 672,000 9,005 8,198 485,184 269 538 152,544 179,464 Zeeland SCH 123 537,600 7,204 6,559 388,147 215 430 122,035 143,571 Alida SCH 6 576,000 7,718 7,027 415,872 230 461 130,752 153,826 Ariadne SCH 303 576,000 7,718 7,027 415,872 230 461 130,752 153,826 Franzisca SCH 54 921,600 12,349 11,244 665,395 369 737 209,203 246,121 Oceaan IV SCH 120 96,000 1,286 1,171 69,312 38 77 21,792 25,638 Oceaan VII SCH 333 576,000 7,718 7,027 415,872 230 461 130,752 153,826 Willem vd Zwan SCH 302 1,152,000 15,437 14,054 831,744 461 922 261,504 307,652 Future vessel - 537,600 7,204 6,559 368,147 215 430 122,035 143,571 Future vessel - 537,600 7,204 6,559 368,147 215 430 122,035 143,571 Future vessel - 537,600 7,204 6,559 368,147 215 430 122,035 143,571 Future vessel - 537,600 7,204 6,559 368,147 215 430 122,035 143,571 TOTAL 10,195,200 136,615 124,381 7,360,934 4,078 8,156 2,314,310 2,722,717

Table 12: Emission reductions and fuel saving through the use of shore power

Notes: The fuel density (0.850 kg/l) is based on the use of gas oil with a low sulphur content at an ambient temperature of 15 degrees centigrade.

Air Quality Management 62 Guidebook 4 APPENDICES

Air Quality Management 63 Guidebook A. CITEAIR PROJECT OVERVIEW

Welcome to the ( Common Information to European Air ) Project and it’s Products.

Partners from the HEAVEN (Healthier Environment through Abatement of Vehicle Emissions and Noise) project concluded that the implementation of the existing EU Air Quality Directives and guidelines has been fragmented, without any common approach. They felt that there was a need for a sustainable harmonised EU level approach involving the more efficient implementation of European legislation with integrated interregional initiatives.Transport has a major impact on urban centres, bringing problems concerning air pollution, noise, traffic and congestion. CITEAIR is advising the Regione Emilia-Romagna on the transfer of the Decision Support Systems developed in the Heaven Project.

The European Union has been actively developing policies to protect the environment and require member states to inform citizens on the state of their ambient air quality, a concept further enforced by the Aarhus convention. Simple, up to date and comparable information on air quality in Europe is important for the general public which is increasingly concerned about air pollution, for the media as well as for local authorities. Currently, this information is not easily available. The internet is commonly used for publishing air quality in near real-time and often air quality is being presented as an index, translating measurements into a summary figure for easy interpretation. A review of existing websites and indices shows that the way air quality is interpreted differs considerably and is not easily comparable. For air quality specialists air quality information is available at the European scale (e.g. Airbase, an historic database and Ozone web, near real time but one pollutant only75). These sources of information are not easily usable by the general public. There was a gap to fill, to provide near real- time comparative environmental data easily understood by the wider public..

The CITEAIR project started in March 2004 and will last 46 months. Fourteen partners from seven European countries are involved in the project (see Diagram A 1). These are divided into five core cities (yellow), five follower cities (green) and a transfer region (red).

Diagram A 1

75 http://air-climate.eionet.eu.int/databases/airbase/ and http://labs.eea.eu.int/neighbourhood/ozone-web

Air Quality Management 64 Guidebook The project is led by Leicester; who along with the other core cities, Paris, Prague, Rotterdam and Rome, are responsible for the development and delivery of the project.

The Follower Cities, Bratislava, Brussels, Coventry, Munich and The Hague are responsible for providing user response to developments. They are complemented by a User Group. Emilia- Romagna is the Transfer Region who are being assisted in the development of a Transfer Implementation Plan and its partial implementation. City Subscribers have been recruited for the Common Operational Website.

Air pollutants resulting from traffic are a major source of pollution in many of the urban zones. Local and Regional Authorities implement EU guidelines, different approaches to implementing EU directives on Ambient Air quality led to a variety of styles of reporting, modelling and an array of approaches to reduce traffic related pollution. Air pollution models are used to predict and analyse air quality in particular zones and can be grouped into the following categories: traffic models, pollutant emission models, atmospheric dispersion models.

The project contributes to the development and implementation of efficient solutions to assess and reduce the impact of traffic on air quality in large urban areas. Through close co-operation, exchange of experiences and joint developments between European regions and cities, the project develops solutions to inform the public and local authorities about the environmental situation in a comparable and easily, understandable way and offer guidance on efficient measures to reduce environmental damage mainly caused by transport. Other municipalities are encouraged to contribute to the initiative via a user network.

Consisting of five major components : three technical components plus management and dissemination, CITEAIR has developed products including: -

CITY ANNUAL AIR QUALITY REPORTS - A GUIDEBOOK - discusses strategies for Air Quality Monitoring and Reporting and proposes an Air Quality Reporting template which will assist professional users in comparing the performance of their Air Quality Strategy and Action Planning. COMPARING URBAN AIR QUALITY ACROSS BORDERS - the first air quality index (CAQI- Common Air Quality Index) for use at the European level, complementing existing local indices. Differentiating between background and roadside conditions aimed the Index provides easy access to simple information to enable European citizens to compare their environment with similar urban areas ( http://citeair.rec.org) The CAQI is a pragmatic, bottom-up compromise between a number of objectives: dynamic and easy to understand for the public (main target group) and scientifically reasonably rigorous. It was defined after a review of existing indices and tested through one year data from four CITEAIR cities. A further comparison with other indices was made from airbase data (de Leeuw and Mol, 200576). The CAQI is split into two indices representative of two types of exposure: a background and a traffic index. Three time scales are available through an annual index, a daily index and an hourly index which is updated each hour in order to provide a dynamic picture enticing people to make repeated visits. THE COMMON OPERATIONAL WEBSITE (COW) - provides an attractive platform to compare air quality in different participating cities in real time applying the CAQI. www.airqualitynow.org is designed to automatically treat the data from a multitude of European Cities and calculate the corresponding indices. The process to participate has been made easy: cities only have to upload their data through an agreed ftp format; easy to use proven technology (procedure detailed on the website). If cities want to participate in only one of the indices, can only deliver data on a daily basis, or even only present year average data, they can join via www.airqualitynow.org. The purpose of the CAQI and the website is not to replace more detailed local information nor to check EU regulation compliance (indices are the only data displayed) but to complement it. The value added is to provide, for the first time, a European and comparable picture of the air quality, near real-time and understandable by anybody. The methodological innovation is the provision of separate indices for 2 types of

76 Leeuw, de F., and Mol, W. Air quality and air quality indices: a world apart? ETC/ACC Technical paper 2005/5.

Air Quality Management 65 Guidebook environmental conditions and three time scales. It could also be an alternative to raise public awareness for cities which do not already operate a website. AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT – A GUIDEBOOK - is intended to assist the user in completing the diagnosis of their problems and identifying a selection of tools and/or measures which could help reduce the problem and improve air quality. The examples used to illustrate a theme are supplemented by Case Studies already implemented together with signposting or links to websites where other solutions have been reported. For example extensive use has been made of measures implemented by Cities and Regions especially from the CIVITAS Initiatives, the MOST and INTEGAIRE Projects. COMMUNICATING AIR QUALITY - A GUIDEBOOK - provides a strategy for disseminating information on air quality. It also contains good practices, which could be used as models for the future. TRANSFERRING A TRAFFIC-ENVIRONMENTAL MODELS CHAIN - A GUIDEBOOK - explains the transfer of experiences in developing a Decision Support System (DSS) that assesses the environmental impacts of urban traffic in near-real time, from a local scale to a wide area (regional scale).

The inter-relationship between the CITEAIR products and the requirements of the EU Air Quality Directives are described in the Introduction to Air Quality Management Guidebook (see Diagram 1 and accompanying text). The products aim to assist the user and focus on :-

• the assessment of comparable data • the impact of traffic on air quality in urban areas • Signposting measures for Air Quality Action Planning • Information for the public, local authority and professional users

All the documents are published in electronic format, which ensures that additional contributions may be added during 2007. The reader is invited to send comments, and details of any measures or tools, which they believe would enhance the advice being offered to the user, to the Lead Partner ( [email protected] ).

Additional Funding has been provided by the INTERREG 3C programme to promote further workshops; to recruit further cities to the COW; to develop the Forecast Index for use with the Media; to involve the Members of the European Parliament, the Department Generale Environment and the European Environment Agency more closely with the CITEAIR initiative to strengthen the role of the Cities and Regions and encourage the embedding of the concept within the European Air Quality Management mechanisms.

Air Quality Management 66 Guidebook B. AIR QUALITY ACTION PLAN OPTIONS FOR LEICESTER

Package 1: Low cost, short-term, high feasibility

This scenario or package includes the measures that are low cost (<£500 000), short-term (assuming funding could be implemented almost immediately) and as such are highly feasible. The measures to be included are incorporated under the 5 headings used in section 3.2.

Emissions

• Roadside emissions testing • Targeting idling engines – including buses and taxis

• Campaigns to influence driving style (i.e. to encourage more consistent driving behaviour), and campaigns to reduce short journeys by car (i.e. through encouraging uptake of cycling, walking and different school transport) • Run Seminar/Conference and provide guidance packs for other fleet operators to reduce emissions • Develop an implementation plan for and investigate funding for SCR to Council Fleet. This builds upon feasibility studies already undertaken showing retrofitting as the preferred option.

Information and education

• Real time air quality information provision for the public • Improve information about links between poor air quality and health, through targeted information campaigns • Use the internet as a medium for disseminating information on air quality and transport • Targeting house movers with local information on public transport (to be done through estate agents and developers). • Promote and reward car-free days • Mobility management strategy • Targeting short journeys (schools, businesses and residents) for example develop a vehicle pollution index for households and businesses in Leicester based on the age of vehicles/miles travelled/length of journeys. This could be done via questionnaires to schools and with online website calculators to allow individuals to calculate the vehicle emissions they produce: compare their emissions with the average advise what measures they could take to improve their performance. • Promote air quality on the school curriculum (target young people) • Education of local authority officers and Members through providing interactive seminars, workshops and briefing meetings etc

Land-use Planning

• Integration of environmental themes in to Supplementary Planning Guidance (SPGs) and into LRC area design briefs • Raise awareness among local authority officers and Members • Encourage tree planting through planning agreements and obligations to assist with improving local air quality

Highway Network

• Increase parking restrictions and costs • Develop further speed zones (20 mph zones) combined with traffic calming and block rat runs • Pedestrian and cycle priority • Co-ordinate highway and utility works • Provide real-time parking information via VMS • Increase the co-ordination and collaboration between neighbouring authorities within LTP area with respect to efforts to improve local air quality

Air Quality Management 67 Guidebook Promotion of Alternatives

• City Council to implement their own Travel Plan • Travel plans for other large organisations • Implement home-working and flexi-time to more council staff and promote to other employers • Safer routes to school/ Breathe Easy and exclusion zones • School “walking buses” • Pilot school yellow bus scheme • Pilot off bus ticketing scheme • Promote and facilitate cycling • Promote and facilitate walking

Package 2: Medium cost, medium-term

This scenario or package includes the more costly measures (£500K - £3 million), and those which can be implemented over the course of LTP 2 period (i.e. 2006 to 2011). As before, they are listed within subgroups used in section 3.2.

Emissions

• LEZ-feasibility study and limited implementation • Encourage heavy through traffic to use most suitable routes such as A46/Western Bypass and M1 rather than enter the city centre. This can be done by using effective signing and providing maps of designated routes to all companies in the city. • Further enhance Freight Quality Partnership • Feasibility study for movement of freight vehicles on network – Freight hub • Implementation of a minimum emission standard for buses in the city, through a Quality Bus Partnership • Council fleet purchase to consider emissions • Implementation of action plan for retrofitting SCR to Council Fleet • Voluntary schemes for scrapping old vehicles i.e. in relation to a specific local authority scheme in future or a national campaign. Subsidised Public transport could be offered as an incentive locally. The Authority could also lobby government for a national scheme/legislation to address older vehicles.

Land-use Planning

• Development Control procedures – including aspects of building design, mixed use development, assessments for developments sensitive to air quality as well as those which adversely affect it • Develop and implement policy for restricting parking provision for new developments via sec106 agreements

Manage network • Reallocation of road space • Enforcement speed limits access restrictions (short-term)

Promotion of Alternatives • Improve bus services (frequency, attractiveness, disabled and level access etc) • Provide improved public transport information • Implement off-bus ticketing • Leicester West Park & Ride scheme to proceed with associated corridor improvement

Air Quality Management 68 Guidebook Package 3: High cost, long-term (Post LTP-2: 2006-2011)

This scenario or package of measures represent the high cost initiatives, less feasible options, which necessitates them to be implemented over the longer-term. For example, there may be barriers which need to be overcome, funding sources which need to be investigated and feasibility studies which need to be undertaken before any particular option, or suite of options, are viable for implementation.

It should be noted that, in its present form, this package does not represent a cluster of measures that will result in the objective for nitrogen dioxide to be met by the end of 2010.

(a) Generic Strategies

Clearly, emissions from road traffic using the major road network are the most significant source of nitrogen dioxide in Leicester. Whilst the air quality assessment work undertaken by the Council is intended to identify key pollution hot spots, the Action Plan seeks to address the issue of elevated pollutant concentrations more generally across the city.

The main focus of air quality action planning must therefore be to reduce motor vehicle kilometres travelled and emissions per motor vehicle kilometre. Of these, emissions from road traffic are the key air quality issue in the city. Therefore in order to improve air quality within the AQMAs, attention should be paid to the following variables:-

D. Numbers of vehicles flowing past critical points in the City (i.e. locations where people are exposed to excessive concentrations of traffic pollutants in the AQMA, over the relevant averaging periods). E. Vehicle/miles within the Local Transport Plan area. F. Emissions per vehicle/mile.

Appropriate generic strategies to achieve each of these can be tabulated as follows:

Strategy A B C

Transport modal shift 9 9 Elimination of unnecessary travel / transport 9 9 Redistribution of traffic flows 9 Reduction in free-flowing traffic speeds 9 Reduction in congestion / queuing 9 Reduction in old / poorly-maintained vehicles in all / part of the area 9

Promotion of appropriate automotive technologies in all / part 9 of the area Avoidance of development where relevant exposure can 9 occur in close proximity to major roads.

Table 13: Appropriate generic strategies

Unlike the previous packages described, this package consists of a single list of the specific measures and options identified as delivering clear improvement to local air quality. All of the options will affect overall emissions positively, and many will encourage a modal transition from private car use to other forms of transport

Air Quality Management 69 Guidebook (b) List of Measures

• Implementation of a scrappage scheme with financial incentives • Full implementation of a Low Emission Zone (LEZ) with effective enforcement • Implementation of a designated Freight hub for the city centre • Provision and enhancement of VMS real time route guidance • Subsidised bus fares • Electric guided buses • Trams – MRT Implementation of School ‘yellow bus’ scheme

Air Quality Management 70 Guidebook C. AIR QUALITY ACTION PLAN IN PRAGUE

City of Prague would assess impacts of the implementation of different measures for improving the air quality, which are included into Strategic plan for Air Quality Protection in Prague. Sharing the experience with the other partner cities will contribute to efficient air quality management. In accordance with legal requirements, an Integrated Action Plan of City of Prague has been prepared highlighting the types of air quality management strategies available for air quality abatement. The Integrated Action Plan consist of two documents, the “Integrated Plan for the Pollutants Emissions Reduction” and “Integrated Plan for Air Quality Improvement on the Territory of the City of Prague“ . These documents were based on the background material (“Long-Term Concept of Air Pollution Control on the Territory of the City of Prague”), which provided both detailed analysis of the current air quality conditions as well as prospective ones, and the analysis of instruments available for the improving of air quality and the emission reduction. The Programmes solutions were therefore focused on concrete conditions of the City of Prague. The crucial part of the Programmes for the City of Prague is a proposal of 25 measures, which are directly bound to concrete groups of pollution sources or to individual circles of activities affecting emission load and ambient air quality, respectively. The proposals of respective measures were prepared on the basis of a detailed analysis of potential solutions of respective issues found within the framework of the “Long-Term Concept”. Doing so attention was concentrated namely on sources of such pollutants emissions, in which ambient air quality limits have been exceeded. The summary information on the measures proposed is given in Table 13 below. The majority of measures (15) are targeted on transport, five measures are focused on the reduction of emissions from stationary sources , and the other five instruments are common to all emission sources or circles of activities, respectively. The measures have been subdivided into short-term ones (to be applied immediately as the document has been passed), medium-term ones (deadline by 2010), and long- term ones – permanent (to be gradually implemented over a longer time period). In terms of air quality benefits the measures have also been classified into three groups as follows: • decisive measures are such measures, which would have an essential benefit in the emission reduction and or ambient air quality improvement in one or more pollutants; • important measures should have their expected air quality effects at the level of percents as compared with the current state (in the case of a couple of pollutants) and thus contribute in an important way to compliance with the air quality limits in “hot spot” areas; • supplementary measures include other measures proposed, which air quality effects would be less visible. The Act on Air Pollution Control assumes that, once approved by the competent authorities, both the Programmes shall become the binding documents for the public administration at the City Hall as well as at its respective districts and quarters not only for air pollution control but also in land-use planning, zoning and permitting of new constructions or changes to constructions, which may substantially affect air quality, or development concepts and development programmes of respective industries and other activities (see Table 13 A, B and C). A)

Short-term measures Decisive Reduction in particulates emissions from transport Modifications to rules and principles of the Programme of subsidies of the City of Prague for the heating systems conversion Reduction in particulates emissions from stationary sources Important Parking policy in the centre and in local centres Limiting sources and destinations of traffic Operative inspection of emission parameters of vehicles Programme for public communication and public awareness Supplementary Organisational measures for public transport preference Time-organised delivery of supplies Reduction of emission produced from the public transport buses Reduction of dust levels by greenery plantation

Air Quality Management 71 Guidebook B)

Medium-term measures Important Comprehensive support to the use of alternative fuels in traffic Access charging into designated parts of the Prague territory Reduction in emissions from the group of sources under the Act on IPPC Supplementary Demonstration projects of major fuel and energy suppliers Energy supply concept for the left-bank part of the City of Prague

Long-term, permanent measures Decisive Construction of high-capacity ring road network Support to high-quality public transport Important Support to park-and-ride facilities Limiting of heavy lorries access into the City centre Land-use planning - principles of territorial arrangement concerning air pollution control Land-use permitting - principles for new constructions Supplementary Pedestrian zones and establishing of other types of calmed roads Support to cycling

Table 14: A, B, C summary information on the measures proposed

C 1 Brief characteristics of the measures proposed

C 1.1 Construction of high-capacity ring road network

The completion of the construction of the network of radial roads and ring-roads is the basic prerequisite for a partial displacement of traffic from the densely populated central part of Prague and thus to the reduction of the immission load in the most polluted parts of the City. The measure gives priority constructions, recommends the ranking of implementation of respective sections, and principles of their preparatory works, etc. See more information in part 3. Examples..

C 1.2 Parking policy in city centre and in the local centres

The measure task is to achieve a reduction in traffic volume in the most loaded parts of the City through effective regulation of parking. It proposes to establish the acceptable traffic capacity levels for respective parts of the City, which should serve as a basis for the supply of parking lots, to expand paid parking zones further from the city centre, to install information systems, etc.

C 1.3 Support to park-and-ride facilities

The traffic restrictions shall be connected with the support to park-and-ride parkings, which enable to reduce the individual car traffic volume in the inner part of Prague. The measures proposed define the rules necessary for the effective functioning of the park-and-ride system and recommend the sequence of the construction of respective park-and-ride parking facilities.

C 1.4 Organisational measures for public transport preference

The target is to eliminate reasons for the reduction of travel speed namely of tramways through a strict enforcement of law in the case of traffic offences, which are crucial for the reduction in the road capacity – as the riding on the tramway lane, no respect to bus priority lanes, etc.

C 1.5 Support to high-quality public transport

The City public transport should provide an effective option to the use of an individual car. The measures proposed can be classified in the groups as follows:

Air Quality Management 72 Guidebook a) increasing of the travel speed of public transport means; b) meaningfull tariff policy; c) expanding the routes of the public rail transport and their equipment; d) integrating of public transport networks with those of railway and regional bus transport systems; e) improving of exchange relations of public transport lines; f) better information to the passengers; g) supporting use of park-and-ride facilities; h) providing high quality public transport over short distances, namely in the city centre; i) restricting of and reasonable reduction in advantages of other transport modes.

C 1.6 Restricted access of heavy lorries into the central parts of the city

At present there are two zones limiting the heavy lorry entrance to the central part of Prague. The measure is aimed, first of all, at further expansion of the zone as the construction of the high- capacity road network will be advancing. Furthermore recommendations for the control and information activities are formulated here. See more information in part 3. Examples.

C 1.7 Limiting sources and destinations of car traffic

The objective is to formulate such land use development principles, which will be in accordance with air pollution control against adverse effects of transport caused by the location of new high- capacity structures as large shopping centres, cultural and sports centres, transport terminals, and warehouse, etc. The major instrument thereof is the system of limits for new constructions and establishing of conditions for the location of structures which induce high demand for transport.

C 1.8 Inspection of emission parameters of vehicles

The measure objective is to gradually eliminate from operation the vehicles, which do not comply with emission limit values. It is expected that the application of widely spread inspections using a new mobile laboratory will significantly support the elimination of non-compliant vehicles, which contribute to air pollution in Prague in very important manner, out of operation.

C 1.9 Time-organised delivery of supplies

One of the factors affecting air quality is the contact of supply delivery vehicles with other participants of road traffic. The stop-and-start mode of the vehicle operation across the City and the blocking of traffic contributes to extreme load of roads that are already filled at the limit of their capacity.

C 1.10 Reduction of emissions produced by the public transport buses

Although the public transport vehicles’ operation has a relatively smaller share in the Prague’s air pollution, nevertheless, there is a certain potential here to reduce the emission and immission loads. Besides, it is appropriate that the City would begin to apply remedial measures, first of all, in fleets of its own organisations. There are following steps proposed for respective groups of vehicles: replacing fuel with diesel fuel emulsion (for older bus models) and installing of filters to reduce particulate emissions, which contribute significantly to the reduction in emissions of other substances as well.

C 1.11 Comprehensive support to the use of alternative fuels in traffic

The measure aim is to spread the utilisation of gaseous fuel in passenger as well as cargo road traffic as an alternative to the current fuels. Recommendations are formulated to support technical infrastructure, furthermore, the usage of economic instruments (namely the creation of a programme of subsidies and alleviations within the traffic regulation), and information campaign.

Air Quality Management 73 Guidebook C 1.12 Reduction in suspended particulates emissions from transport

The measure concentrates on the reduction of dust fluidised by road traffic. In this case the main remedial tool is the street cleaning and therefore the increased intensity, frequency, and extent of street cleaning activities has been proposed.

C 1.13 Reducing of dust levels by the greenery plantation

The purposeful greenery plantation has been proposed as an effective measure to reduce the concentration of suspended particulates PM10, especially in the vicinity of main roads. Moreover, it is necessary to prevent further reduction of vegetation cover share and to establish requirements for the new constructions accordingly.

C 1.14 Access charging into designated parts of the Prague territory

The measure is focused on the reinforcement of the regulation of an access toll into a part of the City of Prague. The proposal expects namely a decision on the intention at the City Council and the development of a feasibility study, which shall be followed with further steps. Some of the key points are: • Road charging measures are regarded as controversial for the public, businesses and politicians. Therefore extensive consultations with all parties is required before implementation and clear information after implementation. • The effects on traffic (and environment) must be clearly explained

C 1.15 Pedestrian zones and other types of roads with calmed traffic

This is a proposal of principles for further expansion of pedestrian zones. Priority areas and types of localities for the development of pedestrian zones and a proposal of their implementation are parts of the measure recommendations.

C 1.16 Support to cycling

The measure objective is to create such conditions, so at least a portion of population would start to use bicycle not just for relaxing activities or sports also for the inevitable trips across the City (smaller shopping, travel to authorities, to schools, etc.). This means, first of all, to provide for the safe passage through the entire City (minimisation of car crash accident) and potential for the safe storage of bicycles.

C 1.17 Reduction in emissions from the group of sources falling under the Act on IPPC

The text formulates recommendations for the issuing of integrated permits in respective categories of sources. Further concrete measures for two most important stationary sources, Cogeneration Plant Malešice and Cement Mill Radotín, were developed.

C 1.18 Modifications to rules of the Programme of subsidies of the City of Prague for the heating systems conversion

This measure proposal is based on the current programme of subsidies to the heating systems conversion, which have been carried out in Prague since 1994. Respective recommendations are targeted on the increase in the current subsidy level, classification depending on the type of the new heating system, support to population communication and awareness, and relations to other sources of funding. See more information in part 3. Examples.

C 1.19 Energy supply concept for the left-bank part of the City of Prague

It was recommended to develop a feasibility study of the construction of a long-distance supply pipeline from a source in Kladno, which has a surplus of heat output. Depending on the study results the construction of such long-distance pipeline could be implemented and the current heat sources on the Prague territory could be replaced with.

Air Quality Management 74 Guidebook C 1.20 Reduction of particulate emissions from stationary sources

The measure concentrates on two groups of pollution sources. The most important group includes construction sites, heaps and bulk material depots, waste landfills, quarries, etc., and also large parkings or clay playgrounds, for example. The second group includes selected installations (quarries, wood mills) where the risk of local immission limit value exceedance was detected.

C 1.21 Demonstration projects of major suppliers of fuel and energy

The measure will promote those projects, which would enable to show to the public approaches in energy industry and transportation that are extremely sound to air quality. The City role in these projects is mainly in an active support, in the forms of competitions or contests, for example.

C 1.22 Air quality protection principles in land-use planning

The measure objective is to form basic rules and requirements for the sites, in the initial phase of the land-use planning either to improve current state or to protect selected location from new air pollution sources.

C 1.23 Land-use permitting - air quality protection principles for new constructions

The land-use decision making represents the most important preventive instrument of air pollution control. The measure concentrates especially on setting more precise conditions for the new constructions and on stricter inspection of the conditions established.

C 1.24 Programme of communication and public awareness

Concerning the long-term point of view, education and awareness are one of the most effective instruments of environmental protection. For the nearest period the basic circles were selected as follows: • current state of air quality and the necessity to adopt restrictive measures; • the use of the City public transport instead of private cars; • health hazards following from the solid fuel combustion and the municipal waste incineration; • possibilities for the use of alternative fuels in vehicles.

C 1.25 Change in the conditions of municipal tenders

The proposal includes establishing of conditions of air pollution control, compliance of which will be inevitable to be able to receive public orders from the City. The measure concerns namely construction works, building and structure maintenance, supplies of heating systems, etc. The measure objective is especially to support the organisations, which employ procedures meeting the stricter conditions of air pollution control.

C 2. Suitability of Management Strategies

All measures proposed in “Integrated Plan for Air Quality Improvement on the Territory of the City of Prague“ were analysed as for the effects on air quality. The air quality limit exceedance in the area of Prague has been analysed. The results are shown in the Table 15. 3 3 - -3 10 24h yearly 10 CO 8-h 2 BaP area BaP) PM yearly yearly µg.m >0,001 moving >35x/rok average average average average average PM 3 % of total >50 µg.m maximum (except of NO >40 µg.m- >40 µg.m-

Term of 2010 2005 2005 2005 2012 compliance % 6,4 7,5 26,4 1,0 28,0 62,3 of Prague area

Table 15: Air Quality limit exceedance in Prague, 2004

Air Quality Management 75 Guidebook The limit of exceedance for PM10 concentrations occurs in 26% of Prague area and the limit exceedance for NO2 in 6% of area of Prague. For this reason all measures proposed above were analysed and compared to the results of air quality modelling ATEM, simulating introduction of the proposed measure and its effects on traffic load and on traffic or production emissions, as well as on ambient air quality in respective areas. The effects were also analysed as to the population density in the areas influenced by the measures. Financial analysis has been carried out for all the above mentioned measures, related to the investment cost, durability and operational cost for their realisation. The double factor cost – benefit analysis including population density and other social aspects has been carried out for all the measures proposed. The priority list according to the “effectivness” of the measures (see an example in Table 15) has been proposed to experts and decision makers for discussion. The most effective measures in Table 16 are: 2. Parking policy 1. Construction of high-capacity ring road network 3. Support to high-quality public transport 6. Restricted access of heavy lorries into central parts of the city The discussion over the proposed measure has been promoted and the Steering Committee of experts and decision – makers has been established. The political desision will be taken by the City Council and approved List of Priorities will be included into the “Integrated Plan for Air Quality Improvement on the Territory of the City of Prague“. The documents approved by the City Council of Prague will become a binding regulation for City Auhorities of Prague for Air Quality Management. In the next part of the article some examples and case studies of Air Quality measures will be demonstrated and discussed.

Cost related to Relative Benefit No Measure Description 1 year* effectivity mil. Kč points % 2 Parking policy in city centre and in the local centres -73,72 0,71 1 Construction of high-capacity ring road network 664,33 6,50 100% 5 Support to high-quality public transport 1 165,9 8,70 67% 8 Inspection of emission parameters of vehicles 0,05 0,78 63% 6 Restricted access of heavy lorries into central parts of the city 0,26 3,50 57% 12 Reduction in suspended particulates emissions from transport 121,05 3,40 44% 7 Limiting sources and destinations of car traffic 0,10 0,39 31% 13 Reducing of dust levels by the greenery plantation 15,36 2,60 29% 10 Reduction of emissions produced by the public transport buses 2,97 0,30 23% 22 Air quality protection principles in land-use planning 0,08 0,91 20% 20 Reduction of particulate emissions from stationary sources 0,73 1,15 16% Land-use permitting - air quality protection principles for new 23 0,08 0,39 8% constructions 9 Time-organised delivery of supplies 0,15 0,10 8% 3 Support to park-and-ride facilities 72,00 0,72 8% 11 Support to the use of alternative fuels in traffic 23,86 0,69 8% 15 Pedestrian zones and other roads with calmed traffic 0,86 0,09 7% 4 Organisational measures for public transport preference 0,15 0,09 7% 24 Programme of communication and public awareness 0,77 0,38 6% 25 Change in the conditions of municipal tenders 0,76 0,38 5% 18 Subsidies for the heating systems conversion 9,18 0,39 5% 16 Support to cycling 4,01 0,10 2%

Table 16: Effectiveness of measures *) Cost related to 1 year are expressed as investment per 1 year of lifetime + operating costs per 1 year

Air Quality Management 76 Guidebook C 3. Examples and Case Studies of Air Quality Measures in Prague

C 3.1 Air pollution charges

In compliance with the Act No. 86/2002 Code on air pollution control the Department of Environment of the Prague City Hall kept the registration and issued decisions of charges both for large and extra large air pollution sources as well as for mid-sized ones in 2004. Within the agenda of charges for air pollution from mid-sized stationary air pollution sources, there were 3,062 mid-sized stationary air pollution sources, out of that 2,713 combustion installations and 349 technology installations, as for instance pump stations, paint shops, etc., registered by the end 2004. Charges for air pollutants emissions to the operators of mid-sized air pollution sources in 2004 totalled the amount of CZK 1,767,000.- which equals about 70,150 EUR. Within the agenda of charges for air pollution from extra large and large stationary air pollution sources, there were 463 sources registered by the end of 2004, out of that number 225 were combustion installations and 238 were technology installations. Charges for air pollutants emissions to the operators of extra large and large stationary air pollution sources in 2004 totalled the amount of approx. CZK 5,540,000, which equals to 220 000 €.

C 3.2 The Programme of subsidies of the City of Prague for heating systems conversion on the City territory

The Programme of subsidies of the City of Prague for heating systems conversion on the territory of the City has been running since 1994. The objective of subsidies provided is to motivate owners or users of apartments to convert their original heating systems (namely the solid fuel - brown coal) into environmentally friendly fuels and renewable sources of energy. The Programme has been accepted by the public in very positive manner and also received highly positive response from abroad. The Programme development and results are given in Tables and depicted in the graph below.

Figure 7: Subsidies paid and the number of apartments, 1994-200477

The results depends mostly on if the conversion was carried out in family houses and apartments with stand-alone heating system or in tenent houses with more apartments heated by means of a central boiler room. The central heating system appears as more effective for less portion of power per individual apartment than in the case of stand-alone heating system. The total share of such apartments is, in fact, lower because the statistics does not include the cases of the heating system conversion, which received no subsidy from the Programme. In 1994–2004 the City of Prague contributed to the conversion of solid or liquid fuel-fired heating systems into more environmentally sound heat sources (central heating, natural gas, electricity, or renewable sources) in 38,250 apartments, which represents approx. 8 % of the total number of apartments on the Prague territory (according to the census 1991). The sulphur oxides emissions from stationary energy sources account for 95 % of the total amount of SO2, nevertheless sulphur emissions do not pose a critical issue concerning air pollution.

77 : OIM MHMP

Air Quality Management 77 Guidebook Of the total nitrogen oxides emissions on the Prague territory 82 % are traffic related and 4 % go to low-level emission from small area sources. Local area sources, including the local combustion of natural gas and solid fuel contribute to the nitrogen oxides concentrations within the range form 5 to 50 % in the downtown with limit-exceeding immission pollution. Finally, it may be stated the Programme of subsidies of the City of Prague to conversion of heating systems, along with other programmes for healthier air, has contributed, in not a small extent, to the reduction in pollutants emissions.

C 3.3 Restricted access of heavy vehicles into the central parts of the city

Two zones limiting the access of heavy vehicles to the central parts of Prague are already established. In 1999 the first Environmental zone “Restricted access of vehicles over 6 t” covered the areaof 6 km2 of Prague 1 and a central parts of the Prague 2 . The main aim is to protect Prague historical preservation area from heavy vehicles traffic. Exceptionally, the acces of heavy duty vehicles is allowed only by a permit issued by City Authority. Gradually the area has been extended to 17 km2. The area of this zone is identical with the zone “Restricted parking of buses”. Tourist buses are not allowed to stop on the main communication roads and bus parking is allowed only on the designated parking areas78 (). Due to the above mentioned regulations the intensity of heavy load traffic dropped in some central parts of Prague up to 80%. The traffic has been diverted to the newly opened parts of the city ring road in the southern part of Prague, designed to abate the negative effects of traffic in the centre. However, the heavy traffic load on the city ring road raised up to 30–50 %. The combined environmental zone “Limited access of vehicles over 3.5 t” covers area of Prague 1 and central parts of Prague 2. Exceptionally, parking (outside of designated parking areas) of vehicles over 3.5 t and buses is allowed with a permit issued by local authorities for limited time79. The expansion of both zones has been tested for area of Praha 4 and Praha 5 neighbourhood with the aim to find out what changes occurred in the area after the widening of the Environmental Zone restriction for goods vehicles over 6 tons both in v olumes and composition of the haulage and types and directions of trips. A testing survey was conducted in March 2004 on. The travel volume of heavy haulage inside the area dropped by 11 %. In August 2004 (after launching the Mrázovka tunnels), the Environmental Zone restricting the goods vehicles with gross weight over 6 t was extended over a portion of the Praha 5 area. As from 2007, a new regulation for the combined environmental zone “Limited acess of vehicles over 3.5 t” will be valid. The access will be restricted for all vehicles not complying with EURO 2 standarts. The information campaign about regulation has been already started to enable suppliers and drivers adopt their fleets for the new regulation.

C 3.4 Construction of the high-capacity ring road network

A new portion of the City Ring Road has been put into operation in 2003. An impact of diverted traffic loads to the new portion of City Ring road on on air quality in city of Prague has been evaluated by ATEM modelling. A study compared the recent development in air quality to the previous situation, when the parts of City Ring Road between Malovanka and Zlichov (tunnels Strahovsky an Mrázovka) were not operational. The traffic load data, speed and congestion data for both versions in the whole territory of Prague were simulated by the Institute of Transport Engineering in Prague. It is obvious, that the City Ring Road, as any other communication, represents a new source of air pollution in its adjacent area. Simultaneously, the ring road diverts and reduces traffic from other local communications. This is how the ring road can contribute to the air quality abatement in other neighbouring areas. The aim of the study was to compare these two impacts and evaluate the final effect of the operation of the City Ring Road. The results of evaluation show that: • After the part of city ring road got into operation, lower pollution concentration values can be observed on a bigger part of the city if compared with the situation without a new ring road

78 http://www.udi-praha.cz/regulace/zona6t.htm 79 http://www.udi-praha.cz/regulace/zona3t.htm

Air Quality Management 78 Guidebook • The most important reduction of immission concentrations due to the City ring road has been estimated in the vicinity of the Barrandovsky bridge, intersection Andel and along the streets from Smichov to Strahov • Improvement in the smoothness of traffic in many communication results in aerial reduction of immission loads in the whole centre and on the east part of the city • Increase of immission loads influenced by the traffic on the city ring road has been evaluated especially on the streets connected to the assessed part of the ring road, namely: • On Patočkova street, part Zlichov-radlicka, Strakonicka street, Barrandov Bridge and Southern Connection • A slight increase has been calculated in the vicinity of some other roads, as Podbabská, V Holešovičkách, Argentinská, Radlická streets or Štěrboholská radiála. On some of these streets the higher immission load is not only a consequence of a higher difference in traffic loads, but also of a reduction in the smoothness of traffic. The modelling of spatial distribution of immission loads demonstrated that the area with lower immission load due to the traffic on the city ring road is bigger then the area, where the concentration levels were raised. Based on the spatial distribution of the population density in Prague an analysis of the number of inhabitants living in different areas was made. The analysis showed (Figure 5) that the number of inhabitants living in area where air quality has been substantially improved due to the city ring road is bigger than the number of inhabitants where air pollution got worse.

IHr PM10 IHr NO2 IHr BZN Zlepšení Zlepšení Zlepšení Zhoršení Zhoršení Zhoršení

Figure 8: Comparison of weighted average values of air quality for citizens in Prague

The results of emission and immission assessment proved that the diversion of traffic into the new portion of the City Ring road Zlichov-Malovanka has an positive effect on air quality in Prague. Most significant improvement has been calculated in area of Barrandov and in the centre of Prague. On opposite, the concentrations have been raised along the ring road and along the South connection highway.

Air Quality Management 79 Guidebook D. AIR QUALITY ACTION PLAN FOR PARIS

Air Quality Management 80 Guidebook E. RIJNMOND REGIONAL AIR QUALITY ACTION PROGRAMME

E 1.1 Problem outline

The air quality in Rijnmond, just as elsewhere in the Netherlands, has improved over the last 30 years. Nevertheless, the air quality in the region at present gives cause for concern. Air pollution has an adverse impact on public health. Among other things, it can lead to respiratory complaints and premature death. In order to prevent such hazardous effects, European air quality standards have been drawn up as shown in Table 17. The Air Quality Decree lays down the limit values which the air quality must meet based on the European legislation and regulations: The limit values apply anywhere in the open air, with the exception of workplaces.

Particles Type Value To be achieved by Exceedances NO2 yearly average 40 µg/m3 2010 - Particulate matter yearly average 40 µg/m3 2005 - (PM10) daily average 50 µg/m3 2005 35 days per year Table 17: European Air Quality Standards

For particulate matter these took effect from January 2005, those for nitrogen dioxide (NO2) will come into force on 1 January 2010. The limit for particulate matter is breached on a large scale across the region and in spite of anticipated improvement, it is expected that in 2010 the limit values for NO2 will still be exceeded. In order to combat the extensive consequences to public health caused by air pollution, it is particularly important to implement measures at source. If insufficient progress is made in tackling air pollution, parts of the Rijnmond region are in danger of becoming ‘closed off'. Air quality regulations pose a threat to plans and projects. Examples include the second Maasvlakte and the North section of the A 4, as well as smaller-scale building plans. This issue is high on the agenda of the various administrative bodies in the Rijnmond region. The ROM-Rijnmond Executive Council80 In which the various parties are represented has set up a Top management steering committee on Air, chaired by the Director of the ROM-Rijnmond staff team. This staff team subsequently commissioned DCMR to devise a package of measures for the region with which to tackle the problem. This project is carried out in close cooperation with the other parties in the region and other involved parties (including the business community). The appended report gives the results of this project.

E 1.2 The air quality in Rijnmond at present

Particulate matter

The concentrations of particulate matter in the region fluctuate around 40 µg/m3. The exclusion of 'sea salt' (an adjustment to the Air Quality Decree in August 2005) means that the limit is only exceeded at a limited number of locations. However, large-scale breaches of the 24 hour /daily limit value do occur. According to the available models, the daily limit value for particulate matter is exceeded across a significant part of Rijnmond.81

80 Includes representatives from: the Ministries of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment; Transport, Public Works and Water Management; Economic Affairs; Agriculture; Nature and Food Quality; the Province of Zuid-Holland, the City of Rotterdam, Rotterdam Metropolitan Region, Rotterdam Port Authority, DCMR Rijnmond Environmental Agency and the Chamber of Commerce 81 A discussion is taking place on the relationship between the results of model calculations and measurements in the Rijnmond region. Those involved include the National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection (RIVM), Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (MNP), DCMR, the Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment, and local parties.

Air Quality Management 81 Guidebook Nitrogen dioxide

In the present situation, the limit value for nitrogen dioxide (which comes into force on 1 January 2010) is exceeded primarily along major arterial roads, in parts of the urban centres and in the Botlek and Pernis industrial areas. The concentrations show a slight downward trend but it is expected that - if no additional measures are taken - exceedances will still occur at a large number of locations in 2010, particularly along major arterial roads.

E 1.3 Sources

Air pollution is a problem that also has a trans-boundary component. The air quality in Rijnmond is thus only partly determined by sources within the region. By the same token, emissions in Rijnmond also have an impact outside the region.

Particulate matter

The diagrams below show the emissions (Figure.8) and the concentrations (Figure.9) of particulate matter in Rijnmond. The emissions are the amounts of air pollution which are released into the air in Rijnmond. The contribution per source is shown in Figure. 10.

Sources PM10

26%

Industry Road traffic Shipping Other 54%

11%

Figure 9: Contributions from sources to emissions (releases) of particulate matter in the region

If we look at the air quality in Rijnmond (what are the residents of Rijnmond breathing in?) it appears that a large part of the emissions originates from outside the region. Only about 20% of the particulate matter in Rijnmond is the direct result of emissions in the region. The remaining 80% is 'background' levels. Within the 20% contribution from the region, road traffic and shipping form the most important sources. This is shown in Figure 9.

Concentrations PM10

4% 7%

47%

Industry Road traffic 32% Shipping Other Background foreign Background Netherlands and natural sources . Figure 10: Contributions from sources to ambient concentrations of particulate matter in the region

Air Quality Management 82 Guidebook The main difference between the contributions to the emissions and to the ambient concentrations at residential level is the result of the height at which emissions are released. For example, industrial sources are a major contributor to the emissions, but due to the high chimney- stacks, the effect on the regional ambient air quality is limited. Conversely, road traffic has a major impact on ambient air quality because the emissions are released at a low level. As a result of the small regional contributions, measures in the region will only be able to have a limited effect on the air quality. Nevertheless, local / regional measures can be worthwhile. In the first place, that little 'local / regional' bit may be what is causing the concentrations to exceed the limits values. A limited decrease may be all that is needed to bring concentrations below the limit value.82 Furthermore, local and regional measures will in many cases be aimed at reducing the emissions from incineration processes ('soot'), and 'soot' is the component of particulate matter which is most hazardous to public health. Finally, in places, local measures can have a much greater impact.83

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

Sources in the region contribute largely towards air pollution from nitrogen dioxide (NO2). The regional contribution is about 80%. The most important sources are road traffic and shipping. These two sources together contribute around two thirds of the concentrations of NO2 in the Rijnmond region. Other sources are industry and households. The diagrams below show the contributions from sources in Rijnmond to the emissions (Figure10 ) and concentrations (Figure11) in Rijnmond:

Sources NOx

24% Industry/Energy Road traffic 47% Shipping Other

20%

Figure 11: Contributions from sources to emissions (releases) of NOx in the region

Concentrations NOx

7% 21%

Industry/Energy Road traffic 7% Shipping Other Background

48%

19%

Figure 12: Contributions from sources to the ambient concentrations of NO2 in the region

82 Broadly speaking, an average yearly reduction in particulate matter of 0.18 µg/m3 (i.e. approx. 0.5%) in the model calculations corresponds to the daily average limit value for particulate matter being exceeded one day less p.a. 83 For example, in Amsterdam the introduction of low-emission zones (the banning of old, highly polluting lorries from the city centre) has led in places to 20 - 30 % reductions in concentrations of particulate matter.

Air Quality Management 83 Guidebook Spatial sections have been constructed for the Rijnmond region showing the various sources of NO2 concentrations in Rijnmond. These give a picture of the contributions made by each of the sources at various locations in the region. Road traffic is a particularly large contributor along the main arterial roads; shipping is a major contributor along the waterways and harbour basins, and industry makes a substantial contribution in the industrial port area.

E 1.4 Rotterdam’s Approach to Air Quality

On 1 November 2005 the City of Rotterdam published its ‘Approach to Air Quality’. This approach comprises a considerable number of measures aimed at improving the air quality in the City of Rotterdam. These measures have all been incorporated into this project. Moreover, coordination with the Rotterdam approach is assured since the project manager of Rotterdam’s Approach to Air Quality participated in the Rijnmond Regional Air Quality Action Programme project group.

E 1.5 Regional Air Quality Master Plan; Rotterdam Metropolitan Region and Rotterdam Port Authority Plans of Approach

In December 2004 the ROM-Rijnmond Executive Council decided on the Air Quality Master Plan for the Rijnmond region. This includes fourteen measures for the improvement of air quality. In view of the overlap it was decided to incorporate the elaboration of this in the Air Quality Regional Action Programme. Moreover, integration is assured since DCMR’s project manager on the Master Plan also participates in the Regional Action Programme project group. The project also incorporates the results of the Air Quality Plan of Approach, established 12 Oct. 2005 by the Rotterdam Metropolitan Region. The same goes for the Plan of Approach to Air that the Rotterdam Port Authority established on 8 November 2005. Again, the project managers for these two plans participated in the Regional Action Programme project group.

E 1.6 Zuidvleugel Randstad

At the Zuidvleugel level, the Province of Zuid-Holland centralizes local and regional authorities’ initiatives. The ambition is to achieve a cohesive, coordinated package for the Zuidvleugel. In view of the importance to the regional programme of effective coordination with other regions and municipalities as well as integration at Zuidvleugel level, during the timeframe of the project the project manager participated in the provincial air quality core team. In addition, the province has been represented in the project group.

E 1.7 Status and consequences

The package of measures in the present report has the status of the most complete overview possible of measures which could be taken in the Rijnmond region with, where possible, an analysis of costs, feasibility, implementation and impact on air quality. Based on the expertise of the participants in the project, a suggestion for a prioritization (which measures do the project participants consider to be most promising?) has been added to the overview. The package of measures from the Regional Action Programme provides the administrators in the region with a basis for reaching agreements through regional cooperation about the measures which are to be implemented or further elaborated by the various parties.

E 2. IMPLEMENTATION

E 2.1 Organisation

ROM-Rijnmond Executive Council and Top management steering committee on Air. Due to the problems posed by poor air quality, the ROM-Rijnmond Executive Council has commissioned DCMR via the regional Top management steering committee on Air to draw up a regional package of measures. In this project a very active contribution has been made by the other regional parties from the Top management steering committee on Air, notably the Rotterdam Metropolitan Region, the Rotterdam Port Authority, the Province of Zuid-Holland and the City of Rotterdam’s Town Planning and Housing department. The commission requires the plan to be so ambitious that it will make a serious contribution to resolving the problem of regional air quality.

Air Quality Management 84 Guidebook The regional Top management steering committee on Air has also developed other initiatives in the context of the issue of regional air quality. Specifically, steps have been taken to achieve greater uniformity in measuring and calculating via a 'process and information' task group.

Task groups

The package of measures in the regional action programme has been drawn up primarily by five task groups (Table 18) chaired by Rotterdam Metropolitan Region, Rotterdam Port Authority and DCMR Rijnmond Environmental Agency.

Task group Chair

Road traffic Rotterdam Metropolitan Region (H.P. de Bruijn)

Shipping Rotterdam Port Authority (M. Prinssen)

Rail traffic Rotterdam Port Authority (T. Hempenius)

Industry DCMR Rijnmond Environmental Agency (H. Knippels)

Households DCMR Rijnmond Environmental Agency (A. de Buck)

Table 18: Package of measures in the regional action programme

The task group chairs have themselves borne the responsibility for putting together the task groups and have organised the group meetings. A large number of parties have participated in the task groups, including central government departments (the Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment and the Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management) and the business community (CBRB, KNRV, TLN, EVO, Railion, etc.). This applies particularly to the road transport and shipping task groups. Appendix 1 gives an overview of the participants in the various task groups. The brief of the task groups is to chart every possible measure for their particular 'source', including a breakdown of costs, impact, feasibility and timeframes. The five task groups cover the most important sources of particulate matter and NOx in the region. There are other sources, however, such as the building sector and agriculture. These have not been included in the project. Air traffic has also been omitted because it does not make a contribution to the ambient levels of NO2 and fine particulate concentrations. On the basis of the available know- how on emissions (see also figs. 1 to 4), however, the sources distinguished by the task groups account for more than 90% of the emissions in the region.

Project group

The project group receives regular feedback on the activities and results of the task groups. In addition to the chairs of the task groups, the project group includes representatives from: Rotterdam’s Town Planning and Housing department (project manager Administrative task Rotterdam), Province of Zuid-Holland (in connection with its relationship with the Zuidvleugel conference and integration between the regions) and the ROM- Rijnmond staff team. DCMR (A. de Buck) chaired the project group. During the period /timeframe of the project the project group convened four times. The organisation structure is shown in Figure 1284.

84 text from figure: Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment; Zuidvleugel (coordination Province Z-H), Rijnmond: ROM-Rijnmond Executive Council+; Top management steering committee on Air (chair ROM-Rijnmond); Measures Regional Action Programme (led by DCMR); Process and Information (Task group (proposed) (led by DCMR); Policy and planning (1st draft ROM/JPS); Road traffic (led by SRR); Shipping (led by HbR); Industry (led by DCMR); Households (led by DCMR)

Air Quality Management 85 Guidebook Diagram C: Organisation structure of the project group

E 2.2 Possible measures

A large number of parties have made a contribution to the five task groups. This applies in particular to the shipping and road traffic task groups. In addition to the regional authorities, these task groups have had active input from central government parties (the Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment and the Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management) and the business community (in the shipping task group in the form of CBRB (inland shipping) and KNVR (seagoing shipping), in the road traffic task group in the form of TLN and EVO (the hauliers and the shippers respectively (responsible for road traffic’s contribution). In the industry task group, the business community was represented by the trade association Deltalinqs and in the rail traffic task group the business community was also well represented. In total around 60 people from about 20 organisations provided input in the five task groups. The task groups convened on a number of occasions between August and November. The substantial input by parties (public authorities and market parties) in the task groups has made it possible to gain a broad insight into the various measures that might be taken and their consequences. Moreover, the consultation in the task groups has contributed to creating support among the parties involved. Consultation between the parties has also contributed to a better mutual understanding and provided tools for reaching joint agreements more quickly.

E 2.3 Effect calculations

As far as possible, the measures mapped (or combinations of them) have been assessed according to their impact on air quality. The assessment according to impact was conducted by DCMR. Broadly speaking, the filling in of the models is based on currently available knowledge and data. This has come from a number of different sources. DCMR was not able to verify all the data during the limited period /timeframe of the project. Furthermore, the figures used are often fairly rough. For these reasons the assessment results may contain considerable inaccuracies. The uncertainties are greatest in the case of particulate matter while assessments for NO2 are generally more accurate. In the assessments for particulate matter the uncertainty is relatively great for the shipping sector. For this sector, use was made of emission studies which were conducted between 1994 and 1999. In the Rijnmond region a

Air Quality Management 86 Guidebook further study into the extent of these emissions is in progress. It is anticipated that this will lead in the first half of 2006 to a better insight into the actual emissions.

E 2.4 Elaboration of communication measures

Some measures focus particularly on using 'communication' as an instrument directed towards the residents of Rijnmond, with a view to raising awareness and influencing behaviour. This chiefly concerns measures in the ‘households’ and ‘road traffic’ sectors. For these two sectors further details in brief have been worked out: which communication instruments can best be used? How promising are they envisaged to be?

E 2.5 Prioritisation

In the project a proposal has been made for the prioritisation of measures. This was devised by the project group on the basis of insights from the task groups. The aim of the prioritisation was to attain a preselection of 'promising measures' and serves as a preliminary ‘proposal’ to the administrators for further elaboration and decision making.

E 3 RESULTS

E 3.1 Inventory of possible measures

In total approx. 100 measures have been mapped for the five target groups. These are based on the know-how of the participants in the task groups. The overviews and measures drawn up per target group can be found in appendix 5a to 5e. Broadly speaking, only a limited number of new proposals have emerged. The measures mainly comprise already existing ideas and initiatives. These have been combined in the project, tightened up and further worked out. In view of the large-scale participation of parties involved in the task groups and the active input which has been provided there, it may be assumed that the package of measures provides a fairly complete picture of the activities that can be set in motion in the Rotterdam region to improve air quality. The measures may be distinguished into:

• technical measures (for example, to be achieved through regulations, financial instruments or demonstration projects); • logistical and organisational measures; • measures aimed at the exemplary function of government; • communication/information.

In the measures an attempt has been made to give an indication of the available instruments, costs, effects, responsible parties and the period needed for achieving the goals. In most cases it has not been possible to estimate the costs of the measures to be taken. Impact on air quality was more frequently able to be estimated. Owing to the limited insight into the costs, it has not proved possible to work out the cost-effectiveness (costs per amount of reduction of air pollution) quantitatively.

E 3.2 Assessing the impact on air quality

Approximately. 20 measures were sufficiently detailed to be able to assess them in terms of their effects. The overview in appendix 3 shows the particular measures concerned. In addition to the measures, a number of scenarios have also been assessed. These scenarios show what the improvement in the air quality could ultimately be if certain more extensive techniques were to be used in a particular sector. These involve: • Lorry traffic all lorry traffic meets EURO V standards • Emission reducing techniques particulate matter inland shipping (soot filters): all inland shipping fitted with a filter • Catalytic converters inland shipping: 100% Dutch fleet fitted with catalytic converters all inland shipping fitted with catalytic converters • Catalytic converters seagoing shipping: 50% foreign ships fitted with catalytic converter

Air Quality Management 87 Guidebook Within the timeframe of the project it was not possible to estimate the effects of a combined package of measures (what is the total yield if the following package is implemented?).

E 3.3. General findings of the task groups

In view of the differences between the various task groups (composition, problems), and the nature and size of the potential package of measures, each task group followed its own line of action. A brief description of the most important findings is given below.

E 3.3.1 Road traffic

In the 'road traffic' sector no “comprehensive” measures presented themselves. The main benefit must come from relatively small projects (a lot of small contributions add up to one big gain). A number of actors (problem owners) may (in pairs or as a group) be held responsible in this matter. In addition, the measures cannot be seen in isolation. This is why a threefold cohesive approach was opted for: City measures, Ring road measures and Road haulage measures.

E 3.3.1.1 City measures package

Actors: city / region / central government / vehicle fleet management organisations. Methods: prevent traffic, make traffic less polluting and improve traffic flow Package of measures: • Small-scale / quick-acting measures (chiefly traffic management) beat large-scale / long-term measures (tunnels, etc) hands down. Moreover, the small/quick method is a “no regrets” approach. This leads to five groups of interconnected measures: • Low emission zones: First outline in February ready for the urban area of the Metropolitan Region, aimed at road haulage (dS+V commissioned by SRR). An important link-up with the routing of road haulage and the problems associated with loading and unloading in the inner cities (specified times for loading/unloading etc.). • Cleaner’ municipal vehicle fleet: By the end of 2005, data on composition of municipal vehicle fleets and replacement investments including those from DCMR, ENECO and HbR (IGWR commissioned by SRR). Link-up with transport plans of municipal services. • Clean’ Public Transport: Important exemplary function of the region. First effect in RET/Connexxion permits (2006). • Clean’ vehicle fleet Metropolitan Region area: This is the ultimate goal: a ‘clean’ vehicle fleet in the Rijnmond region. Across the region and within the R3 framework, agreements with lease companies about upgrading vehicle fleets are already being worked on. • Communication and Additional Policy

E 3.3.1.2. Ring road measures package

• Actors: chiefly Directorate-General for Public Works and Water Management / Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management. Plus various other road maintenance bodies and other authorities. • Methods: prevent congestion and promote constant-speed driving. • Package of measures: • Dynamic speed regulation on the Rotterdam diamond arterial route (Lobby for) road-pricing: Probably not achievable before 2010 (Nouwen advisory committee), but effective in the long term. • P+R transferia: This also includes the introduction of customised parking rates (parking policy), linked to ‘clean’ vehicles.

E 3.3.1.3. Road haulage measures package

• Actors: hauliers, distributors, shippers, major “consumers”. • Methods: (partially) prevent empty transport, promote ‘clean’ transport, modal shift. • Packages of measures: • Intelligent loading + distribution centres

Air Quality Management 88 Guidebook • Clean’ vehicle technology: This includes campaigns on soot emissions (included in communication/peak days). • Modal shift • Requirements with regard to ‘clean’ vehicles as part of the contracting out of public works

E 3.3.2 Shipping

The measures for shipping have been subdivided into seagoing shipping and inland shipping. Both sectors operate internationally. When measures are taken these should first of all be adopted in regulations and/or supported by subsidy instruments. The subsidy instruments may be of a local, national or European character. For example, the ratifying of international treaties on seagoing shipping (IMO/MARPOL) and, in addition, EU policy/legislation on inland shipping. Various measures shown in the matrix point to this. A second consideration is the timeframe for achieving effective measures. Most measures cannot be implemented in the short term and will therefore not bring about less emissions from shipping in the short term. Furthermore, just as in the other sectors, measures have the greatest impact on NOx emissions and less on the emissions of particulate matter. It is not possible to give an unequivocal picture of which measures (based on our current knowledge of effects) are the most promising for improving air quality. The following list may be used as a rough guide: 1. existing and future policy and legislation 2. shore-side electricity for specific categories of ships in the port with high cost-effectiveness (€/prevented kg NOx of particulate matter) 3. develop (end of pipe) techniques 4. apply existing (end of pipe) techniques In points 2, 3 and 4 the combination with financial instruments (incentives and subsidies) has a stimulating effect on the sector. The scope of impact and the environmental effect of measures are important factors in making choices, in addition to the cost effectiveness of the various measures. Moreover, it is of major importance that there should be a good fit between incentives from the region and those from central government. The budget provided by the Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment for the installation of NOx catalytic converters and soot filters in inland ships is of vital importance to reducing emissions from inland shipping. However, the budget provided will only be sufficient to take the necessary emission-reducing measures in a part of the Dutch fleet. In order to achieve an adequate improvement in air quality it is essential that the scheme should provide sufficient financial scope to equip the entire Dutch fleet.

E 3.3.3 Railways

In the railways task group, parties from the public sector (regional and central government) and the business community convened for the first time to discuss the issue of air pollution from rail traffic. Bottlenecks, possible solutions and preconditions were discussed. The railways are important in bringing about the ‘modal shift’ so desirable for achieving improved air quality. Moreover, as a result of international source policy the railways will also have to become ‘cleaner’. Standardization of emissions from the EU forms the first point of action in this: up to now, in contrast to goods transport by road, there have been no emissions standards applying to rail traffic for releases of air polluting substances. Once the Betuwe Railway Line is fully in operation, there will be opportunities for shifting to electric transport in the long term. This would eliminate emissions of NOx and particulate matter. An important element is that the game rules (for entry, use, timeframes and preconditions, etc.) on the railways ultimately have a positive outcome for the ‘modal shift’ towards rail transport. For the secondary railway lines there are (in the short term) possibilities for cleaner diesel locomotives. It is only recently that the impact of the railways on local air quality has been focused on. In this study, the effect of the Rotterdam Port Railway on air quality has been calculated, based on the present situation. These show that it is not an obvious move to invest heavily in measures to improve the railways in the short term. It is desirable that when the anticipated ‘modal shift’ takes place once the Betuwe Railway Line is fully functional that a further calculation should be made. This should highlight its differences from road traffic and concretise the impact of measures on the railways, particularly in the longer term when the other modes of transport have become cleaner.

Air Quality Management 89 Guidebook E 3.3.4 Industry

Since the seventies, industry has attained considerable reductions in its emissions to air. The majority of point sources (chimney-stacks) are now fitted with emission reducing facilities. In the near future a number of major measures will be taken such as the conversion of the refineries to gas combustion (this results in both a reduction in particulate matter emissions and NOx emissions) and the implementation of NOx limiting measures in the framework of the NOx emission trade. In this region, the latter will lead among other things to the placing of an NOx installation on the E.ON- Maasvlakte power station. Broadly speaking, after taking the above measures industry will satisfy the present criteria for the ‘current level of technology’. The NOx emissions from industry are released via chimney-stacks. The impact of a source on the concentration at ambient level is thus determined to a great extent by the height of the chimney. The higher the chimney, the less can be perceived at ambient level. In the NOx emission trade system, it is left to the market to determine where emission reducing measures should be taken. Each installation has to meet a reference value, the so-called performance standard rate. If a company releases too much NOx then it can choose to either buy extra rights or to take measures. Since this is a national system, the regional imposition of extra requirements will be seen as an undermining of the trade system. This means that it will only be possible to take more far-reaching measures if the government makes available additional funds. The costs of more far-reaching measures come to around 5-6 €/prevented kg emission. Major particulate matter emitters are the refineries and the storage and transhipment of dry bulk goods. The conversion of the refineries to gas combustion will result in a significant reduction in the emissions of particulate matter (approx. 90%). In the recent past, in the storage and transhipment of dry bulk goods good results (emission reductions on the order of 50%) have been achieved through adopting crust enhancers and control measures (monitoring). These have not yet been adopted by all the storage and transhipment companies in the region. Enforcement is being tightened up with a view to ensuring all companies implement these measures. The costs of other further-reaching measures, such as roofing-in, are disproportionate. Moreover, the greater part of the particulate matter from the dry bulk sector is relatively coarse and therefore probably has a limited impact on public health. In addition to the storage and transhipment companies, in isolated cases particle filters could also be applied to a point source. It needs to be checked whether this fits into the criteria of the 'current level of technology'.

E 3.3.5 Households

Households contain two principal sources: central-heating boilers and fireplaces. As far as central-heating boilers are concerned, only emissions of NOx are involved. Measures are closely linked with the energy policy: if households use less heating NOx emissions automatically decrease. The most important measure is to connect up dwellings to residual heat from industry. The first phase in this (connection of 50.000 housing units to residual heat from industry) actually went ahead in November 2005. A second phase in which 500.000 housing units will ultimately be connected up is in the pipeline. Although major investments are involved in this, the costs can be recovered. The improvement in air quality in addition to the savings in CO2 emissions offers an argument for working on the attainment of the second stage of the Warmtebedrijf. As well as connection to residual heat, measures aimed at energy saving in households (measures as part of renovation, information) are also important. Fireplaces form the second relevant source. According to national figures, fireplaces account for approx.10% of fine particulate emissions in the Netherlands. These figures are not exactly hard, but they nevertheless provide an indication that fireplaces are indeed an important contributor to emissions, particularly in the immediate living environment. In the case of fireplaces, too, communication is an important point of action. The most important measure proposed is that on peak days (days on which the limit values for air quality are exceeded) citizens should be specifically advised not to use their fireplaces. This would be the first step towards increased awareness. This measure forms part of the Rotterdam’s Approach to Air Quality and may be extended across the region. A second measure is to not build any facilities (chimney flues) for installing fireplaces.

Air Quality Management 90 Guidebook E 3.4 Analysis of communication aspects

Measures which involve a communication aspect have been investigated for communication instruments which might be deployed. This exercise is limited to the task groups dealing with road traffic and households because it is primarily these that contain measures which relate to the public.

E 3.5 Proposal for the selection of ‘promising measures’

In the project an assessment has been made of which measures are the most promising. This was a qualitative assessment carried out on the basis of five criteria: Criteria for ‘promising measures’ • impact on air quality • costs • feasibility • side-effects • timeframe This selection should be seen as an ‘expert judgement’, based on the broad expertise collected together in the project, making use of the five criteria listed above. It should be noted here that in view of the problems with air quality (effects on public health and standstill of spatial developments) a further analysis would have been desirable, which would have looked specifically at: • the impact of measures on the numbers of residents in the region and their level of exposure; • the possible opportunities offered by the measures in the light of the proposed Air Quality Act and the local net effects approach included in it. Such an elaboration was not possible within the timeframe of this task, however, partly due to the uncertainties in the current legislation process: it is still unclear how and on the basis of which criteria (exposure, concentrations, emissions) the local net effects approach should take place. In view of the urgency of the issue it was decided to make an initial proposal for prioritisation using the available know-how . In total 34 measures were designated as ‘promising’. These were divided among the five target groups. The ‘promising’ measures include all the measures from ‘Rotterdam’s Approach to Air Quality’. In addition to these measures, however, various other measures have been incorporated. The selection of ‘promising’ measures means that approx. 65 other possible measures did not receive that designation. Among these measures there are a number that could be very useful. It is certainly important not to lose track of these. But in the context of prioritisation, it is advisable in any case to get to work on the 34 most promising measures.

E 3.6 Elaboration and phasing of ‘promising’ measures

The 34 measures distinguished are at different stages of development. Some can be adopted immediately. Some must first be elaborated. Others require a constant effort. On the basis of their particular phase of development and the timeframe within which effects may be expected, the measures may be distinguished into four categories (see Table 19).

Category Feature Achieve measure/ effect No. of measures

Already being Before 2010 5 Implemented I Implementation in 2006 Before 2010 6

II Research in 2006 Before 2010 17 If research results are positive: Implementation in 2007 (sometimes in 2006)

III Research/lobby aimed at the After 2010/2020 6 long term

Table 19: Categories of measures

Air Quality Management 91 Guidebook The tables below (Tables 20, 21 and 22) show the measures concerned. Per table a party is shown in bold. These parties can function in the ROM-Rijnmond Executive Council as main contact person for the measure concerned.

No. Target Measures Impact Costs Administrative Responsible group task for party Rotterdam 2 Exemplary > 2.2 million8 Yes City, municipalities, ‘Clean’ municipal vehicle 85 fleet (+ ‘clean’ vehicle fleets function provincial and local from lease companies) authorities

3 ‘Clean’ public transport Local > 1.2 million8 Yes City, (requirement for granting (Public municipalities a permit) Transport j unctions) 4 Communication/ additional Local P.M. Yes City, policy (e.g. phased municipalities traffic lights)

6 P&R transferia 86(combined Urban > 5.5 million87 Yes City, with customised parking rates) area municipalities

8 Requirements with regard to Exemplary Yes Rotterdam, ‘clean’ transport in contracting function local authorities out local government work

15 No facilities in new housing Local, - No City, for a fireplace chimney flue new housing municipalities (to be decided) locations

Table 20: Category I - Measures

Table 21: Category II – Measures

No Target Measure Impact Costs Responsible party Measure of group Rotterdam approach on “Air Quality” 1 Road Low emission zones88 Considerable > 1.5 City, municipalities, Yes Traffic at million89 hauliers local level 5 Dynamic speed regulation Along the Central Min. of Transport, Yes along whole Rotterdam diamond governm Public Works and Water Diamond90 ent Management

11 Companies Tighten licence conditions of Local (up to a Vary DCMR, Province, No some companies as regards few µg/m3 ) companies emissions of fine particulates cf. BREF/NER

12 Subsidy for additional “ High DCMR, Min. of Housing, No measures at some low NOx (approx. Spatial Planning and the sources (incl. three power 50 Environment, companies stations in Pernis and Botlek) million investme nt per company)

85 Substantial impact if private vehicle fleets also become ‘clean’ 86 Implementation over a much longer period; combined customised parking rates 87 Estimate for Rotterdam (for period up to 2010) from Rotterdam’s Approach to Air Quality 88 Might take the form of: banning old lorries from inner cities; tie-in with measures to stimulate intelligent loading and distribution 89 Estimate for Rotterdam from Rotterdam’s Approach to Air Quality 90 Following on from the speed limits already attained on the Terbregseplein/Kleinpolderplein/Overschie section and in relation to the corresponding road network

Air Quality Management 92 Guidebook No Target Measure Impact Costs Responsible party Measure of group Rotterdam approach on “Air Quality” 13 Stimulate quiet/clean/efficient “ High, will DCMR, Min. of Transport, No AGVs at container terminals be Public Works and Water recovere Management (PMR), d ROM-R3, companies

18 Railways Stimulate research into use of “ P.M. HbR, Min. of Housing, No ‘cleaner’ diesel locomotives Spatial Planning and the and soot filters in the port Environment, Min. of Transport, Public Works and Water Management, ProRail, producers, lease companies

20 Refuelling, repairing and Local P.M. HbR, ProRail No cleaning in Rotterdam

23 Shipping Demonstration project Local HbR,V&W, No Min. of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment, shipowners 24 Certification of inland shipping P.M. P.M. V&W, HbR No [stimulate adoption of emission-reducing measures]

25 Shore-side electricity for inland Local HbR Yes shipping 28 Demonstration projects Local HbR, Min. of Housing, No shipping Spatial Planning and the Environment, Min. of Transport, Public Works and Water Management, shipowners

29 Financial instruments in port P.M. P.M. HbR, Min. of Transport, No (expand Green Award) Public Works and Water Management

30 Shore-side electricity for: Local HbR Yes - ferries/ short sea craft - cruise ships - 31 Fit port authority vehicles with Exemplary P.M. HbR, port police, other Yes ‘clean’ engines or filters function services

32 Communic Broad public campaign Raising P.M. ROM, Rotterdam, SRR, Yes at-ion and awareness local authorities, DCMR, innovation HbR and others

33 Peak days approach Locally on P.M. Rotterdam, ROM, SRR, Yes - do not use fireplaces peak days local authorities, DCMR, - soot emissions campaigns HbR and others - reduce max. speed for (depending on activity) ships - spray streets 34 Experimental area for new - 1 Rotterdam, local Yes technologies million91 authorities, business community

Table above is a continuation of the table 20. Measures presented in the table 20 could be further investigated in 2006 and if the research results are positive converted into a plan of implementation, to be carried out in 2006/2007.

91 Estimate for Rotterdam from Rotterdam’s Approach to Air Quality

Air Quality Management 93 Guidebook Table 22: Category III - Measures No Target Measure Impact Costs Responsible Measure of group party Rotterdam approach on “Air Quality” 14 Companies Promote modal shift Along major HbR, companies No (incl. possible point of arterial roads attention in land development grants and contracts) 17 Railways Electric drive in Local, increasing P.M. Min. of No locomotives after opening Transport, Betuwe Railway Public Works Line and Water Management HbR, hauliers, railways 19 Lobby to tighten up EU “ Min. of No regulations Transport, Public Works and Water Management Min. of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment, HbR, hauliers, railways 21 Shipping Lobby to tighten up EU Considerable - Min. of No regulations Transport, Public Works and Water Management Min. of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment, HbR 22 Research into extending Considerable Approx. Min. of Housing, No subsidies for emission- 300 Spatial Planning reducing measures million and the (de-NOx, soot filters) Environment, HbR,CBRB

27 Lobby to tighten up EU / Considerable - Min. of No IMO regulations Transport, Public Works and Water Management Min. of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment, HbR

Category III Measures can be initiated from 2006 with a view to achieving substantial long-term (>>2010) improvements

Air Quality Management 94 Guidebook E 4 CONCLUSIONS

1. A large number of measures are possible by means of which a contribution can be made to improving air quality. These comprise a whole range of measures at different types of sources for which various parties have primary responsibility. 2. The greatest improvements are to be attained for air pollution through NO2 . As far as particulate matter is concerned, the air quality can only be improved to a limited extent through measures in the region. For particulate matter, however, it does apply that small improvements in the air quality can be sufficient to bring levels near to or even below the limit value. In addition, measures with regard to particulate matter chiefly affect primary particulate matter (in particular soot particles) which are the most harmful to the public health of the residents of Rijnmond. 3. Broadly speaking, local and regional measures contribute principally to improving local air quality. Within the local and regional measures there is no one 'comprehensive' measure: it is best to take measures at various sources. 4. An important effect on the air quality in the region may come from measures at national level and the greatest result will be achieved through tightening up the EU source control policy (and IMO). 5. In addition, local and regional measures can have a considerable spin-off effect, partly because regional incentives can prompt companies to step up the adoption of national subsidy schemes for the installation of filters or ‘clean’ engines. For example, a measure such as low emission zones (banning highly-polluting lorries from inner cities) including outside the region lead to a reduction in environmental burden. The same applies to an additional, stimulating policy in the region with regard to sectors such as shipping and railways. There can also be spin-off effects in other areas. Examples include: • trains which run on electricity instead of diesel, will keep their ‘clean’ image far into Europe; • dynamic speed regulation also leads to in a reduction in noise nuisance and an improvement in the safety situation along the Rotterdam diamond; • measures with regard to oil-fired boilers in refineries and seagoing shipping also contribute to a reduction in emissions of secondary particulate matter. 6. In the short and long term the best results will be achieved in the region using a combined approach comprising: • a package of local and regional measures; • lobbying central government and the EU for the accelerated introduction of source-based measures. To this end, a selection of 34 'promising measures' has been made. 7. Using the calculation models currently available (and the level of detail of the input of source data in them) it is not yet possible to ascertain the extent to which this package of measures will resolve future bottlenecks for the air quality in Rijnmond. 8. The measures distinguished are at different stages of development. Some can be adopted immediately. Some must first be worked out in detail. Others require a constant effort. On the basis of their accumulated know-how and insights obtained, the project group made an assessment of the most promising measures, based on a number of criteria (impact, costs, feasibility, side-effects and timeframes). These 34 measures are included in appendix 3. They are broken down into: • 5 measures which are already in the process of implementation. • 6 measures which can be taken in 2006 (in several cases an acceleration of policy already set in train). • These will yield their effect before 2010. • 17 measures for which research is needed in 2006, on the basis of which – if the research result is positive – actual implementation can begin from 2006/2007. • These will mostly also yield an effect by 2010. • 6 measures and initiatives which must be set in train aimed at the longer term (in particular lobbying and research). • These will yield an effect in the longer term (>2010/2020). 9. For many local and regional measures the best results will be obtained in regional or supraregional cooperation. This will also considerably strengthen the spin-off effects.

Air Quality Management 95 Guidebook E 5 RECOMMENDATIONS

In response to the research results stated, the project group has come up with the following recommendations:

E 5.1. ‘Promising measures’

With regard to the measures to be taken in the region it is recommended to start with the overview of ‘promising measures’ set out in this report, which is based on a substantive assessment of the total number of possible measures in terms of ‘impact’, ‘costs’, ‘feasibility’, ‘side-effects’ and ‘timeframes’. Moreover, to bear in mind that in addition to these measures, the other measures charted may also be very useful and should not be forgotten.

E 5.2. Category breakdown

To base the implementation of the measures on a breakdown into three categories: I: measures for which the implementation can start in 2006 which will yield an effect before 2010; II: measures for which further research in 2006 is needed in order to achieve an implementation plan, with a view to putting this into implementation from 2007 in order to yield an effect before 2010; III: other measures (lobbying, research) which will only have an effect in the longer term.

E 5.3 Measures

On the basis of a substantive assessment of the total number of possible measures, an estimate of the timeframe in which measures will yield an effect, and an estimate of the possible timeframe for implementation, the project group recommends the following: • To implement the measures from category (section 3.6, table 19) in 2006; • To implement the measures from category II (section 3.6, table 20) in 2006 and, - if the research results are positive – to convert them into an implementation plan; • To set in train the measures and initiatives from category III (section 3.6, table 21) in 2006 and beyond with a view to achieving longer term (>>2010) improvements.

E 5.4 Responsibilities

The project group recommends that the leading role in the research and implementation processes mentioned under point D 5.1. should be allocated to the various parties, and proposes appointing the ‘responsible parties’ printed in bold in the tables above for this role.

E 5.5 Financing

Joint agreements will need to be made with regard to the financing of the implementation of measures from the Regional Action Programme, in so far as the costs of research and/or implementation of measures cannot reasonably be borne by a single party. The project group proposes that the project leaders should in the short term draw up a (rough) budget of the implementation costs of ‘their’ measure as well as a proposal for the division of these costs. These proposals will subsequently be included in agreements to be made (with central government among others) regarding the financing of the Regional Action Programme.

E 5.6 Calculations

Ensuring the permanent upgrading of the calculation models used including the complete documentation of the data used. Close coordination of this with the national agencies in this field (ER, MNP, RIVM). In this way, future explorations will be based on the most up-to-the-minute prognosis so that the best insight will be gained into bottlenecks and possible measures for resolving them. It is important that regionally-devised plans should not be included in national prognoses for air quality background levels (to avoid figures being counted twice). This fits in with the initiatives for setting up a Regional Air Expertise Centre. In addition to upgrading the calculation models, undertaking the implementation of supplementary calculations. This applies among other things to measures which have not yet been assessed (e.g. the introduction of dynamic speed regulations on the ring road), but also for the

Air Quality Management 96 Guidebook incorporation of planned economic and spatial developments in the calculations. An example of this is the assessment of the contribution to air pollution caused by the Betuwe Railway Line as soon as this is running at maximum capacity.

E. 5.7 Synergy between the input from parties and the measures to be taken

With regard to the elaboration and possible implementation of local and regional measures to work on maximising synergy with the measures at national and EU level. To that end, to ensure close coordination with the business community, non-governmental organisations and central government.

E. 5.8 Close collaboration in the region and working on coordination and integration in the context of the Zuidvleugel

The recommendation with regard to most measures is to implement these jointly in a regional context. In addition, it is useful to coordinate with other regions and municipalities in the Province of Zuid-Holland in the framework of an integrated Zuidvleugel approach.

Summary

Despite considerable improvements in recent years, the air quality in Rijnmond is still giving cause for concern. According to the available figures, limit values are being exceeded on a large scale. Air quality can adversely affect public health. The exceeding of the limit values produces a real risk that spatial and economic developments will be unable to take place. This issue is high on the agenda of the various administrative bodies in the Rijnmond region. This is why the ROM-Rijnmond Executive Council (BOR) has taken the initiative to achieve a package of measures for the region to tackle the problem. These must tie in with the existing plans drawn up by parties from the BOR, in particular Rotterdam’s Approach to Air Quality (published 1 November 2005), the Air Quality Master Plan developed by the BOR (7 December 2004), the Air Quality Plan of Approach by the Rotterdam Metropolitan Region (12 October 2005) and the Plan of Approach to Air by the Rotterdam Port Authority (8 November 2005). On behalf of the BOR, the ROM-Rijnmond staff team has commissioned the DCMR Rijnmond Environmental Agency to draw up the package of regional measures. Five task groups have contributed to creating the package of measures: road traffic (chaired by Rotterdam Metropolitan Region), shipping (chaired by Rotterdam Port Authority), railways (ditto), industry (chaired by DCMR) and households (ditto). Within the task groups a large number of parties have made an active contribution. This applies both to government (local and regional, provincial and central) [the Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment and the Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management], and to representatives from the business community. Considering the breadth and the great involvement of the participating parties, it may be assumed that the package of measures gives a fairly complete picture of the possible measures which could be implemented through the cooperation of partners in the region. The measures from the plans listed above have been fully incorporated in the package. Furthermore, every effort has been made to achieve close coordination with other municipalities and regions in the Province of Zuid-Holland under the umbrella of the Zuidvleugel. The efforts of the task groups resulted in 100 possible measures. Based on five criteria [impact on air quality, costs, feasibility, side-effects and timeframe], a qualitative assessment was made. From this, 34 measures emerged as ‘promising’. As far as possible the measures have been assessed according to their impact on air quality. There is no single local or regional measure which might be called an absolute ‘corker’. Nevertheless, it has been found that local measures such as the introduction of shore-side electricity for ships in the port and low-emission zones do have a positive effect on the local air quality. Measures which are primarily undertaken at national or EU level and lead to source-based measures, such as the subsidising of filters, road-pricing and a stepped up introduction of the EURO-V norms have more impact on the regional air quality. These measures can lead (in the long term) to substantial improvements in regional air quality. Moreover, regional measures can provide an important stimulus to the national policy. For example, a measure such as low-emission zones (banning highly-polluting lorries from city centres) will prompt transport companies to accelerate their introduction of ‘clean’ lorries. This will also lead to a reduction in environmental pressure outside the region. The same applies to an additional, stimulating policy in the region with regard to sectors such as shipping and railways. Of the 34 ‘promising’ measures there are:

Air Quality Management 97 Guidebook • 6 measures which can be implemented immediately; • 19 measures which can be elaborated into measures in 2006 after which (if the result is positive) they will be ready to be implemented in 2006/2007; • 6 measures which are aimed at the long term (lobbying, research).

It is advisable that: • the ‘leaders’ (the parties who form the main contact in the BOR for the measure concerned) should, in the short term, draw up a rough budget for their package of measures, including a proposal for the division of costs. These proposals can be used in agreements with central government about financing. • parties should implement measures in cooperation with partners in the region. Cooperation leads to measures being taken over a larger area (with a broader impact on air quality), so that they can be elaborated and implemented more efficiently and can be regarded as a clear and consistent package to the market parties involved. Whenever useful, also work on cooperation with other municipalities and regions under the umbrella of the Zuidvleugel. Cooperation and coordination can considerably reinforce the spin-off effect from local and regional measures. Efforts should be made to achieve the synergy of measures at local/regional level with those at supraregional and central government level. Examples include: environmental zoning, ‘clean’ public transport, ‘clean’ shipping and national support for the communication campaign

Air Quality Management 98 Guidebook F. CASE STUDY 1: ACCESS CONTROL (ACS) & ROAD PRICING (RP) IN ROME

CITEAIR – Common Information To European Air

Component 2 – Guidebook for Air Quality Management

Case Studies of Management Strategies

As part of the EU project CITEAIR (Common Information To European AIR) supported through the INTERREG IIIC programme, the project partners aim to develop a “Guidebook for Environmental Management” that will help cities and regions assess their situation, identify their air quality problems and share information on air quality abatement measures and strategies. This document represents a common template for presenting the case study management strategies.

Title Access Control (ACS) and Road Pricing (RP) in Rome Restricting Access to Rome’s city centre for permit holders and its associated Brief Description road parking policies. Fabio Nussio: [email protected] Links & Contacts (STA – Mobility Agency for Rome)

Long Med Short Comments Term Term Term Strategy Type X X To be graduated according to the obtained results

AQ Effects PM NOx O3 CO CO2 C6H6 Noise Comments High Need of integrated plan to Med XXXX have stable results Low

~ €4 million start up costs and €3 million / year operating High Low Cost costs. €57.5 million / year raised through fines & permits Technology X

Air Quality Management 99 Guidebook 1) Description of Management Strategy

In Rome, modal split is characterised by the dominance of registered private cars (about 2 millions) and motorbikes (about 600.000) despite the lack of parking spaces. The City Administration has thus developed policies aimed at improving mobility, modifying modal split in favour of public transport, increasing traffic safety, decreasing air pollution and acoustic nuisances, regenerating urban spaces, rationalising public space use, safeguarding citizens health, preserving historical and architectural heritage. To reach these objectives, the City Administration is implementing long term and short term activities. In the Urban Traffic General Plan a fundamental role is played by complementary restrictive measures on traffic regulation and management, such as articulation of parking fares (more expensive parking charges getting closer to the city centre) and access restriction system to the city centre, including RP policies. Access control restrictions were first implemented in the city centre of Rome in 1989. The scheme was steadily modified with the biggest change being observed in October 2001 when automatic enforcement of the scheme was introduced. The access control policies are accompanied by flat rate road pricing (ACS + RP) for the authorised private car users. The ACS+RP scheme (see Map 1 of ZTL in Rome) is applied to central limited traffic zone (ZTL). The pricing zone has an area of 4.6 km2 and is controlled through 22 entrance gates. The area hosts about 42 thousand residents and over 116 thousand workers In the scheme access to the ZTL is restricted on weekdays between 6.30 am and 6.00 pm and on Saturday from 2.00 to 6.00 p.m. to permit holders only. The scheme is full scale, applied to all the citizens.

Map 1: Central Limited Traffic Zone (ZTL) in Rome Residents of the zone receive two free permits per family group and then pay for any further permits required. Non-residents can receive a permit if they belong to specific categories: doctors, commercial agents, reporters, etc., based on an annual permit which is worth the equivalent of a 12- month public transport card that is 311.47 Euro, while some other specific authorised people pay half fare. This access permits are about 20.000. Public offices and other private bodies and associations are given each a limited number of permits, agreed in advance with the municipal offices. All non-resident owners of a parking space can receive a circulation only permit. Permits are given to disabled with reduced walking capabilities certified by one of the national service doctors. Freight operators with their offices in LTZ or with a continuous activity in LTZ have received permits to access the area in specific time windows, using special parking slots for loading/unloading vehicles. Time limitations are not valid for transporting food, medicines, press products and some other freight categories. Further, permits have been distributed among the operators of public services, such as technological services (water, energy, waste, etc.). In all approximately 200,000 LTZ permits have been issued, of which 28,000 are resident permits (LTZ resident population 42,000).

Air Quality Management 100 Guidebook 2) Implementation of the Strategy

Legislation and Costs

The City Council of Rome has set objectives to implement sustainable urban development that include suitable mobility options. The policies and activities for long term planning for mobility are outlined in the “Mobility Integrated Program – PROIMO” and private demand management policies for short term planning. The ACS+RP scheme complements both these policies and forms part of planning strategies for the city’s Urban Traffic General Plan (PGTU – Piano Generale del Traffico Urbano) and Urban Traffic Plan (PUT – Piano Urbano del Traffico). These objectives have been supported by EU funded projects most notably through the city’s involvement in the CIVITAS project MIRACLES. The Rome application was the first one for automatic ACS+RP scheme in Italy and the government Bodies examined it carefully, establishing the parameters for its operation. Firstly, the equipment used was submitted to the technical evaluation and approval by the national Ministry of Public Works (July 1999, approved 26 June 2000). Secondly, the Municipality applied for the authorisation by the Public Works Ministry to install and manage the approved system; the request specifies the organisation in charge, and the number and location of the equipped gates to be installed (approved 21/3/01). Due to the complexity of the procedures related to the use of such automatic equipment to be made operational on large scale for the first time in Italy, the Decree obliges to a pre-exercise period. In this period (from August 1st to September 30th, 2001) the system was jointly operated with the Urban Police at each gate to endorse the violations. At the end of this period, the Municipality proceeded to the fully operational phase starting from October 1st, 2001, according to the recommendations contained in the homologation of the system and its devices

Organisation, Start Up and Maintenance of ACS+RP

The cost of automating the ACS +RP scheme included 3.8 million Euros for development and start up and 3.2 million euros per year for operation and maintenance. Some development costs were covered by EU funding. Revenues from permits and fines amounts to 57.5 million Euros per year. The running of the scheme involves 49 people employed by STA (Mobility Agency for the city of Rome) and the Municipality Police. A simplified scheme of the cost and revenues is reported in the following table.

The organisation is located in STA and is composed by 20 persons of the Municipality Police, making the final check on the fine, 18 persons working at the complaints department, 1 persons working on the system monitoring and development and 10 persons working at the citizens front office for permit management.

Public Perception

The public perception to the new access system (see Figure 13) was assessed through two surveys carried in 2000 and November 2003 on residents and shop owners in Rome Old Town ZTL. The respondents acceptance of the access control system did not change significantly in the before and after scenarios; the only change is represent by a 5% reduction of shop owner perceiving the

Air Quality Management 101 Guidebook access control system negatively. As expected, residents remained more in favour of the access control than shop owners.

70% Definitely Possibly Just a little bit Not at all 60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0% 2000 2003 2000 2003 Residents Shop owners

Figure 13: Public Perception figures to the new Access System in Rome

Both categories consider air and noise pollution to be the most serious problem, although traffic congestion as well as fuel and energy consumption have a significant impact on the Old Town environment. According to the residents, the greatest concern is the excessive presence of cars, vans and trucks, but also of motorbikes and mopeds; on the other hand, shop-owners underestimate the pollution caused by tour buses.

Technological Requirements

The ACS+RP scheme installed in the city centre of Rome (see Diagram 3) is based on a system consisting of four functional elements, On street “gates”, Vehicles On-board unit (OBU) and smart card, Communication subsystem and the Control Centre.

The access gates comprise two basic components working, in conjunction with the control centre, to monitor the access to the historical centre:

• a unit which handles communications between the vehicle (the On Board Unit with smart card) and the control centre. This unit contains all the relevant information concerning authorised vehicles. This part of the system is based on the Telepass ™ technology developed and implemented by Autostrade S.p.A., the main national highway operator; the extensively proved reliability of this technology has been the main reason to adopt it in the Rome application. • a second one, a vision unit/television camera, which acquires and process, via an advanced OCR, vehicle plate images in any case of violation.

The OBU, composed of a communication unit and a smart card (the permit), allows users to access the automatic services and their permits to be checked without direct identification. It also provides a friendly interface (visually, graphically, and acoustically) which informs the driver that he is activating an operation and the state of the device.

Air Quality Management 102 Guidebook Diagram D: Central Access Control System in Rome

The automation of the ACS+RP scheme that led to its successful application was reliant on extensive use of ITS (Intelligent Transport System) technologies based around a traffic control centre installed at STA headquarters. The Integrated ITS deployed in Rome, includes a subsystem dedicated to the automatic access control (ACS+RP) to the city centre. The System installed consists of four functional elements, On street “gates”, Vehicles On-board unit (OBU) and smart card, Communication subsystem and the Control Centre. The system currently installed is composed of 22 access gates, enclosing the entire area (6 km2) of the ZTL. The system has high reliability with high MTBF (Mean Time Between Failures) reported. The on-street installations for the system were designed with regard to minimising their visual impacts on the city’s historic monuments.

Problems and Future Developemnets

Traffic congestion due to the high number of 2-wheels vehicles has always been a problem for the City of Rome, probably due to favourable weather condition. However, since the activation of ACS+RP that banned the access of non authorized vehicle within the ZTL, with the exceptions of 2- wheels and other exempted categories, it has become an even bigger problem. These trends are strictly related to access restriction policies. Currently, automatic vehicles detection system installed on the electronic gates are not able to detect 2-wheels, to evaluate the number of mopeds and motorcycles on-filed measurement campaign needs to be performed. The analysis of the Best Available Technology (BAT) to control and implement ACS+RP policies for motorbikes and motorcycles is to be carried out in the running MIRACLES project for the future implementation of new gates for 2-wheels control. In particular the banning of non-catalysed 2 wheelers will be assessed, as STA and the Municipality of Rome foresees forced changes in the scooter fleet towards electric and catalysed scooters due to the serious concerns about PM10 emissions from non-catalysed scooters. From the beginning of 2003 the yearly check-up of vehicles emissions to compulsory tune–up was extended also for two-wheel motorcycles and mopeds through the implementation of the Traffic Act’s so-called "blue badge" for the scooters.

The success of the electronic ACS+RP and its extensions

The necessity of integrated ITS systems in Access Control and Road Pricing applications is given by the results of the ACS+RP scheme application. Before the use of electronic system, the policy was already set-up, but its application wasn’t achieved. Now the STA centre is ready to integrate the other ACS+RP schemes expected in Rome in other districts (Trastevere, Villa Borghese) and also San Lorenzo one with a night ACS+RP scheme similar to Trastevere.

Air Quality Management 103 Guidebook In summary, ITS can give a real support to the effectiveness of the applied measures and to the information delivery to the citizens. Introduction of transport measures without ITS infrastructure would be followed by scarce results, at least in Rome. On the other hand, the application of new technologies in the real world for the provision of mobility services to the citizens quite often requires a revision of national and local regulations and rules, as well as a re-definition and re-allocation of roles and responsibilities

New EU regulations and fleets control

The new EC Directive on road toll interoperability proposes to combine VPS/CN (Vehicle Positioning System with Cellular Network) with DSRC in the short/medium term and to test its applicability to buses and coaches from 2008. It focuses on the goal of achieving interoperability between the different electronic toll systems already in place. VPS systems potentially offer much more flexibility in defining or refining the charging system because they use “virtual gantries”. However the requirements for VPS system are very strong, both in terms of signal reliability/certification and in terms of system management. The use of GPS-based positioning systems is presently not reliable because of the intrinsic positioning error, lack of certification and the non-continuous availability of the system, discouraging widespread application. Problems could arise especially along the cordon where correct position determination is fundamental, where the enforcement procedure cannot accept position errors. Such application of real Road Tolling has potential future application by integrating Galileo into the VPS technique (GVPS), permitting the issue of temporary permits for trips, time, distance, once the reliability of the system is tested in complex urban situation, especially for specific fleets (tourism coaches, freight deliveries). Hence, it is considered necessary to draft technical guidelines that are able to ensure the interoperability among these technologies also in urban toll applications like Rome.

3) Effect of the Strategy

Air quality

Since year 2000 (before the ACS+RP operations) many actions have been undertaken to reduce the traffic impacts on air quality including yearly emission control on registered car fleet, renewal of the public transport bus fleet, access limitation to non-catalysed vehicles and an increase of the Park & Ride provision. In this period, the access restrictions for non-catalysed vehicles in the whole Rail Ring zone was achieved in the first part of 2003 with results in terms of air quality improvements already appreciable. It is therefore not easy to identify the contribution of the scheme implementation. however between January 2001 and January 2003 significant improvements in the four monitoring stations are shown in Table 23.

Station

Table 23: Reductions in Air Pollution

In the ZTL the improvement for particulates – the biggest air quality problem for Rome – were less than expected. This is partly due to the increased use of powered two wheeled vehicles since the introduction of the scheme.

Traffic

Main observed results of the implementation of the system are a 10% decrease in traffic during the day that becomes 20% decrease in traffic during the restriction period, 15% decrease in the morning peak hour (8.30-9.30), 10% increase of two wheeled vehicles and a 6% increase of public transport. The traffic reduction is shown in Figure 14 and shows impressive the similarity between 2001 and 2002.

Air Quality Management 104 Guidebook Figure 14: Traffic Reduction figures

The possible evening pure RP scheme

The morning peak phenomenon is lower than in the past, while the evening one is the highest of the day and slightly higher than before the activation of the gates. The decrease can be completely attributed to the activation of the electronic gates, since the traffic outside the restriction window has remained substantially unchanged. The lower traffic flows registered during the first year of working ACS+RP system derive mainly from a strong reduction in illegal traffic entering ZTL, which has diminished from 36% before the activation of the gates to below 10% after 2 years after activation. The observed data for total mean flow in October 2000 and 2002 (see Figure 15) inside the ZTL per hour showed a new peak around 6 pm for transits towards ZTL. The ACS+RP scheme is switched off at 6pm.

Figure 15:Observed data for total traffic mean flow in October 2000 and 2002

This critical phenomenon was analysed: even the application of a limited fare to access in the evening the ZTL could produce an impressive limitation of the “crossing” traffic with limited effects on traffic entering the ZTL as the destination. Such results can be accepted by the shop owners and retailers in general because only partially affect the people going into the ZTL for shopping/leisure. Thus, the application of an “evening pure Road Pricing scheme” is under discussion by Rome Municipality.

Air Quality Management 105 Guidebook Additional Information

The Rome Metropolitan Area (see Map 2), instituted through the National Act 142/90, hosts about 4 million residents over an area of 5300 km2 and comprises the Rome Municipality (1300 km2). Rome Municipality is further subdivided into 19 districts (Municipi), but from a functional point of view five areas can be identified, four internal to the Great Ring Road (GRA, Grande Raccordo Anulare) according to the Urban Traffic General Plan (PGTU, Piano Generale del Traffico Urbano), while the fifth is external to the GRA and extends to the city border; all of them have been identified on the basis of their general characteristics and the planned modal shift between public and private transport.

Map 2: Rome Metropolitan Area

The historical centre (A), corresponding to the restricted access zone (ZTL, Zona a Traffico Limitato), has an area of about 6 km2 and shows the highest concentration of business activities in Rome (21,000 workers/km2): less than 1% of the municipal territory hosts 13% of the total workers, while population amounts to only 2% over the total (Table 24).

Population (CEU, 30/06/1999) and employment (ISTAT, 1991) in Rome

TU Area Population Population Employment Employment partition (km2) (inhabitants density (workers) density ) (inhab./ km2) (workers/ km2) Historical centre 5.7 52848 9272 120950 21219 Central area 34.2 333359 9747 300490 8786 Semi-central area 114.2 1212514 10617 308909 2705 Peripheral area 190.1 578111 3041 131032 689 Suburban area 940.6 574146 291 92401 98 Whole city 1284.8 2750978 2141 953782 742

Table 24: 1999 Statistical data for Rome

Air Quality Management 106 Guidebook In Rome, being the capital city of the country, the main activities are administrative, political and services, including transport and all assets related to tourism: these activities are particularly concentrated in the central area, especially in its historical centre. In spite of this concentration of activities, a sufficiently developed radial system of public transport services has not been implemented. Both pedestrian and public transport shares are only 20% each of the total mobility, while 60% trips are travelled by private transport.

Fleet Composition for Rome

Diagram E: Fleet Composition for Rome

General Asset of Rome Road Pricing Policies

The scheme reported in the Figure 8 shows the general asset of road pricing policies to be implemented in the city, accompanied by complementary restrictive measures on traffic regulation and management, such as articulation of parking fares: more expensive parking charges getting closer to the city center; it aims to encourage the use of peripheral inter-modes nodes and access restriction system to the city center. In addition, the Administration carried out in the last years a deep innovation of local Public Transport organization. Parallel actions are foreseen as mobility manager, car-pooling, car-sharing and taxi bus services.

Figure 16: Assessment of Road Pricing

Air Quality Management 107 Guidebook The on-street parking payment strategy in the inner city

In the City of Rome parking is an integral component of the urban mobility system. The basic tariff strategy states that the system must provide an adequate price range in terms of parking costs in proportion to the distance from the high demand areas. Paid parking has become increasingly important, i.e. discouraging people to use cars for "systematic" journeys to the city centre. STA has created paid parking spaces on roads in its inner zones and - following an international Tender for Bids - appointed operational management of parking spaces to private companies. In 2002, STA took directly the management of the on-street parking system in Rome, integrated with general strategy of the Municipality to favour the parking outside the Rail Ring Area with the creation of off-street low cost parking area connected to the main exchange points of the Public Transport and the always increasing taxation of on-street parking inside the Rail-Ring, including inside the two inner zones of Rome. According to this general strategy, STA increased the off-street parking places outside the Rail Ring to 12.247 with 29 park and ride areas, as per December 2003, and undertakes to continuously implement new structures along the main railway lines. STA also coordinates the 250 Auxiliary Traffic Wardens appointed by the Mayor to the purposes of Paragraph 132, Section 17 of Law 127 of 15 May 1997 (the so-called "Bassanini bis" Law). The job of these Auxiliaries is to control and verify any irregularities in paid parking areas. The on-street payment is not due on holidays and it is free-of-charge for the residents in each zone and other specific categories, according to the Italian Road Code.

Map 3: On-Street Parking Pricing On-street parking pricing is based on fixed hourly rates of 1 € for approx. 65.000 parking spaces distributed in the territory of the Municipality of Rome inside the Rail Ring (see Map 3). Currently parking policy allow resident citizens having free parking areas with the direct consequence that only the 20 % of parking places is available for paying users. At city level the availability of parking places for paying users is diffused, and not concentrated where would serve, where offices are attracting need of parking (public offices, commerce, etc). Up to now, the experience acquired has lead to propose modifications to bring to the on-street parking inside the Rail Ring, in order to improve the conditions of the traffic and environment in the city. The implementation of a new parking policy is based on the introduction of three different parking policies and fares (High, Limited, Long Term fares) to be gradually introduced, beginning from zones that for user characteristics and attractive points can represent a valid experiment of such initiative.

Air Quality Management 108 Guidebook Summary

The dominance of the private car has led to high levels of congestion and pollution, damaging both the health of the citizens and the cultural heritage of the city. The City of Rome aimed to reduce congestion and the impact of air pollution through the development of automated access restriction systems combined with P&R facilities. Parking pricing in city centre was implemented and an improvement of the pubic transport can be recognised. Cars are restricted from entering the core of the city except for residents and permit buyers.. The amortisation is under one year of operation. During 2001 and 2003 significant improvements of air quality have been detected. As a result of the implemented schemes traffic decreased.

Air Quality Management 109 Guidebook G. CASE STUDY 2: QUEUE RELOCATION IN LEICESTER

CITEAIR – Common Information To European Air

Component 2 – Guidebook for Air Quality Management

Case Studies of Management Strategies

Title Queue Relocation in Leicester Urban Traffic Control (UTC) gating trials on two radial routes into the city Brief Description enabled reduction of traffic queuing and emissions in sensitive areas. Nick Hodges, Leicester City Council Links & Contacts Email: [email protected], Tel: +44 116 2995690

Long Med Short Comments Term Term Term Strategy Type x x A trail that has affected utilisation of UTC

AQ Effects of Strategy PM NOx O3 CO C6H6 SO2 CO2 Others High Med Low XX Comments Low impact found however true impact of SCOOT UTC not evaluated

Based on existing traffic management infrastructure in High Low Cost Leicester Technology X

Air Quality Management 110 Guidebook 1) Air Quality Situation

Leicester is a medium sized city located in East Midlands region of the UK. The city has a population of almost 300,000 people, with the greater urban conurbation (Central Leicestershire) serving over 500,000 people. There are no major “heavy” industries in the city, consequently road transport is the city’s main contributor to air pollution. For road transport, the city centre is served by 9 radial routes, 4 of which to the west of the city provide links to the M1 motorway – the main highway in England, running from London to Leeds. The city centre sits in a bowl hence air pollution is likely to accumulate in the centre. Winds in the city are predominately from a west and southwesterly direction; hence the motorway and radial routes to the south and west of the city contribute to the city centre’s air quality. Annual mean air quality objectives for NO2 are unlikely to be met by Leicester. The main problems for air quality are roadside locations in the city centre and along main radial routes into the city. These areas of the city have been designated Air Quality Management Areas (AQMA) as shown in Figure 17. Cars are the main form of transport into the city centre. The modal share of transport (2003) shows 42.5% people entering the city centre between 0700 and 1900 is by car, 35.9% by bus. Congestion is an increasing problem for the city, with the congestion index rising from 0.7 minutes per vehicle kilometre in 2001 to 1.11 minutes per vehicle kilometre in 2003.

Figure 17: a) Air Quality Management Areas (AQMA) in Leicester b) Topography of Leicester

2) Description of Management Strategy

Urban Traffic Management and Control (UTMC) is a programme that is looking at both improved methods of traffic management and tools to improve the efficiency of systems. Within this programme, the UTMC03 project has investigated how UTMC methods can be used to control and manage emissions of pollutants from vehicles in urban areas. These could include fiscal measures (car park charges), traffic control and enforcement (traffic signal co-ordination), and information provision (traffic broadcasts). Spilt Cycle Offset Optimisation Technique Urban Traffic Control (SCOOT UTC) is a long- standing technique to reduce traffic delays in urban road networks controlled by traffic signals. Efficient traffic signal co-ordination, allow benefits to be seen for all emissions. Within the UTMC03 project, the SCOOT UTC objective function was modified to minimise emissions rather than delay even if delays reduction contribute to a reduction emissions already. In Leicester two trials were carried out, one testing SCOOT gating and fixed time gating and the other testing the “Emissions SCOOT” modification.

Gating Trials

For the gating trials in Leicester, the sensitive area was Narborough Road (A5460), a major radial road into Leicester from the M1 (Junction 21) and M69 motorways to the west of the city and

Air Quality Management 111 Guidebook major commuter routes south-west of the city. The restraint operated on the morning inbound peak and relocated queues from the City centre end of the Narborough Road (3-4 lane carriageway near Upperton Road) to the outskirts near the M1. At this end of the road, the development is much further back from the kerbside than in the protected area. The Narborough Road in Leicester is a major radial that becomes increasingly narrow as it approaches the city centre. Gating has been used here to restrain traffic at the outer end of the radial where there is relatively little pedestrian activity and the houses are set well back from the road. There are service roads either side of the dual carriageway and the houses have appreciable front gardens. In contrast, the city centre end of the road is single carriageway with buildings close to the kerb so that pollutants are trapped by a canyon effect. The aim is to reduce congestion, and hence emissions of pollutants, at the more sensitive city centre end of the radial. To reduce congestion at the city centre end of the road it was necessary to create very large queues at the gating point, the Braunstone Lane junction, which lead to complaints from the public. The trial was modified to hold somewhat smaller queues at the Fullhurst Avenue junction, the first junction inbound from Braunstone Lane and reduce the severity of the restraint at the original gate. Two smaller queues have proved to be more acceptable whilst still improving conditions at the city centre end of the road. Figure 18 shows the site and the two gating points used.

NORTH Imperial Avenue City Centre Fullhurst Avenue

SOUTH Braunstone Lane Upperton Road

SCOOT junction Pollution Monitor

Figure 18: Leicester gating trial site

“Emissions SCOOT” trial

This trial was carried out in Region RA in Leicester, which controls the city end of the busy A6 London Road. Unlike gating, a change in flow should not result when “Emissions SCOOT” is being used and so changes in flow must be allowed for. Results are summarised in Table 25:

Air Quality Management 112 Guidebook Pollutant Change with “Emissions SCOOT” CO -2% CO2 -1% VOC -2% NOx -1% PM10 -1% Table 25: Reductions in pollution

None of the changes was statistically significant at the 95% level. It cannot be definitely said from these results alone, that the use of the modified SCOOT will result in a reduction of emissions. The fact that the results are in line with predictions made in earlier simulation tests does provide some confidence that benefits, although small, are real.

It should be noted that these small benefits are in addition to those much larger benefits already provided by ‘normal SCOOT’.

3) Effect of the Strategy

Queue relocation is a useful tool to move some pollution away from sensitive areas. However, it relies crucially on there being suitable areas for the relocated queues. The queues must be relocated to roads where the pollution from the vehicle emissions is less damaging and the queues are politically acceptable. In addition, the relocated queues cannot be too far from the protected area or the beneficial effect on the protected area will be diluted by other sources of traffic.

Summary

Due to the geographical location and the surrounding highways Leicester’s air quality is affected. Fiscal measures, traffic and enforcement as well as information broadcast are measures to tackle air pollution caused by traffic in Leicester. Relocation of queues as a measure to reduce air pollution was a good working method. By means of traffic density monitoring, cars were rerouted to an other road to city centre. As a result there were two less queues instead of one large.

Air Quality Management 113 Guidebook H. CASE STUDY 3 CONGESTION CHARGING IN LONDON

CITEAIR – Common Information To European Air

Component 2 – Guidebook for Air Quality Management

Case Studies of Management Strategies

Title Congestion Charging in London The traffic measure of charging a flat rate to enter central London on weekdays Brief Description to reduce congestion has been found to have an effect on air quality Greater London Authority (GLA) – www.london.gov.uk Links & Contacts Transport for London (TfL) – www.tfl.gov.uk ERG Kings College London – www.erg.kcl.ac.uk

Long Med Short Comments Term Term Term Strategy Type X Not designed as an air quality measure

AQ Effects of Strategy PM NOx O3 CO C6H6 SO2 CO2 Others High Med XX X Low Comments The effects on emissions has been calculated

£320 million start up costs with £64 million pa running High Low Cost costs. £100 – 110 million pa revenue generated. Technology X

Air Quality Management 114 Guidebook 1) Air Quality Situation

In 2002, the Greater London Authority (GLA) set out the Mayor of London’s Air Quality Strategy. This predicted that national air quality targets – Air Quality (England) Regulations 2000 – 3 would not be met for annual NO2 concentrations (see Map 4 ) (40 µg/m by 31 December 2005) and 3 daily PM10 concentrations (50 µg/m not be exceeded more than 35 times a year by 31 December 2004). Both objectives were expected to be exceeded along the major road network and, in addition, the nitrogen dioxide objective is also expected to be exceeded in Central London. Road traffic is the major source affecting nitrogen dioxide levels in London, accounting for approximately 60 per cent of emissions, with a further 21 per cent comes from residential and commercial gas use. Direct and indirect emissions from the city’s main international airport – Heathrow Airport – are also a significant factor for high NO2 levels in west London

Map 4: Predicted annual mean concentration of NO2 for 2005

Exceedences above the target value of 40 µg/m3 are expected in central London and around Heathrow Airport. Seventy per cent of PM10 emissions occurring in London are from road sources but are only responsible for a third of the PM10 concentration in the city. The other main sources are from sources outside London, the production of particulate matter through chemical reactions and re- suspension from roads and construction sites.

The importance of road traffic in achieving good air quality for London is highlighted in the objectives in the Mayor of London’s Air Quality Strategy. These are:

• Reduce pollution from road traffic through…. reducing the amount of traffic & reducing emissions from individual vehicles • Reduce emissions from air travel through…. minimising emissions from aircrafts, minimising emissions from direct activities of the airport, improving public transport use to and from the airport and minimising emissions from road traffic around the airport • Sustainable Buildings • Reducing pollution from industry and construction

London is a large and rapidly growing city. Its current population of 7.4 million is predicted to increase by 700,000 over the next 15 years and a similar level of additional jobs is expected to be created. As the UK’s capital city it is recognized by the national government that, given London’s existing levels of pollution, achieving both EU and governmental air quality objectives in the capital will be very challenging. The government advises that the Mayor’s duties for achieving these objectives need to be balanced with London’s other priorities.

Air Quality Management 115 Guidebook 2) Description of Management Strategy

The congestion charging scheme for London started in February 2003 as a strategy to improve the chronic traffic congestion in central London, where congestion is six times worst than any other city in the UK (2002). It was not planned as an air quality strategy however benefits from the scheme in reducing air pollution in an area of London where air quality is poor have been observed. The congestion charging scheme charges a daily rate for vehicles to enter and travel in the 21 square kilometre charging zone consisting of mainly of the whole of the borough City of London and approximately half of the borough City of Westminster between 7:00 and 18:30 during weekdays. This represents 1.3% of the total 1579 square kilometre area of Greater London (see Map 5). The scheme is supported by an infrastructure of 203 camera sites, using automatic number plate recognition (ANPR) technology cameras placed on the 174 entry and exit points into the congestion zone and in locations within the zone.

Map 5: London congestion charging area

In anticipation of the implementation of congestion charging 300 extra buses were provided in the charging zone to deal with the expected transfer of people to public transport from private vehicles when travelling into the zone (20,000 people per day). The extra bus space was expected to provide 20% more spaces than the rise in demand. London’s extensive underground tube system was also expected to adequately cope with the increasing demand (2% increase in passenger numbers, equivalent to one extra person per tube carriage). Vehicles driving in the charging zone during the charging period are charged a flat rate of £per day. Vehicles exempt from the scheme include licensed taxis and minicabs, buses, motorcycles, vehicles for disabled persons including “blue badge” holders and vehicles with 9 seats or more. Residents in the charging zone – of which approximately 40,000 households own a car – are entitled to a 90% discount of the charge (£2.50 for one week compared to a full charge of £25 for non- residents). Payment of the congestion charge can be made by telephone, online, mobile phone text messaging, at various retail outlets and petrol stations inside and outside London and at self service machines located in car parks within the charging zone. The charge must be paid before 10 pm on the day of travel. If the charge is not paid by 10pm on the day of travel, but is paid between 10.00pm and midnight, there is a £5 surcharge on the standard charge (i.e. a total of £10). If the charge is not paid by midnight on the day of travel, an £80 Penalty Charge Notice (PCN) will be sent to the registered keeper of the vehicle. This is reduced to £40 if paid within 14 days. After 28 days the penalty increases to £120.If a vehicle has more than three outstanding and unrepresented PCNs, then the vehicle can be clamped and/or removed until the cost of the PCNs plus appropriate release fee have been paid. In practice this is likely to be 3 X £120 PCNs + £125 release fee (+£15 per day daily storage), i.e. minimum of £485 at the Pound, or 3 X £120 +£45 release fee, totalling £405 to remove a clamp

Air Quality Management 116 Guidebook 3) Implementation of the Strategy

Opinions on the Scheme

London’s Congestion Charging Scheme was implemented and run by the Greater London Authority (GLA). This body was restructured in 2000, becoming more autonomous from national government, including an elected mayor with power to manage the city’s transport system and the raising of taxes to fund this. The manifesto of the successful mayoral candidate – Ken Livingstone – included Congestion Charging, however before implementation the scheme was unpopular with not only local opposition politicians but also with the national government. The charging zone is situated mainly in the boroughs of City of London and City of Westminster. It is an area that would be familiar to all visitors to London, as it contains numerous major tourist attractions, some of Central London’s major retail and leisure districts and the offices of many international companies and financial institutions. In the charging zone over 80% of the business units employ less than 10 people, which together contribute to approximately 15% of the zone’s employment. Large businesses (employing 300 people or more) represent a small proportion of business units but employs 35% of the people in the zone. The major employment sectors are Finance and Business activities. Consultation process by Transport for London and surveys by various interest groups were carried out. In general the scheme was unpopular with smaller businesses and car drivers. Generally, large businesses were in favour or neutral to the scheme.

Cost and Revenue of the Scheme

Initial start up costs for the scheme was £320 million with estimated running costs of £64 million per year. Scheme was expected to raise £1.3 billion over ten years (£130 million per year). On average, TfL report 400,000 non-residential, 90,000 residential and 40,000 fleet payments per week, generating revenue of around £100 –110 million per year. By law profits from congestion charging must be re-invested into London’s transport infrastructure.

Technology Used

The system employed to capture and process this information combines the best and most reliable technology available, chosen specifically to match the needs of this particular scheme. The power of the system is derived from integrating many standard computer servers on to one system. This type of distributed architecture is typical of large-scale websites, allowing for the necessary processing power and speed without reverting to large and expensive computers and having the ability to improve the system if needed by sourcing more 'off the shelf' boxes and adding them on to the existing architecture. A network of 203 enforcement camera sites, not just on the boundary of zone, but sited throughout the zone. At all entry points to the charging zone except cul-de-sacs. There are a further 10 Mobile Patrol Units which will be despatched to different locations within the charging zone for enforcement purposes. These cameras use high quality video-stream (analogue) signals to Automatic Number Plate Recognition (ANPR) computer system, with an estimated capture rate of 90% within the charging zone. The 203 enforcement camera sites contain 254 colour cameras and 434 mono cameras. All captured images are streamed back in analogue to the ANPR system which pumps out a data block showing the exact time and date that the images were taken. Images from both the colour camera and the mono camera along with the information from the ANPR reader are then stored as back-up in case the information needs to be compared. The main hub site where the camera data arrives is located in central London. The congestion charging system has been designed so that all the systems involved in capturing the images store data in this main centre. No image will travel more than 20 kilometres from any point within the charging zone. Further storage is available at the back-up site. There are an additional 25 ANPR 'lap-top' units that are deployed at fixed camera locations in the event of communications failure to these locations. They will operate in the same way as the normal ANPR system but will be localised at the communication cabinets on the streets. They will be deployed when there is a communication failure and the media will be collected manually from the cabinet. These units are ruggidised Industrial Computers with custom cards to capture and read number plates at a full 50 f.p.s frame rate.

Air Quality Management 117 Guidebook All images are automatically matched against the database of those who have registered to pay; those who have done so are discarded. All payment data is stored at two data centres just outside the M25. The ANPR examines a video camera feed of the vehicle and identifies the best snapshot from which it can read the number plate. The collection of images captured from the video feed is approximately 100Kb in size, and the system was designed with the capability of handling an average of a quarter million vehicles per day. The system itself is scaleable so that it can be easily expanded to accommodate any significant traffic volume growth by adding 'off the shelf' components. For those who have not paid the charge, all images are sent to the WORM drive (Write Once Read Many). Each image is encrypted and digitally signed at the first point of capture to prevent any modification to the original image. This is to ensure there is a complete evidence trail in the event of any disputed penalty charges. Images of number plates, belonging to those who have not paid to register by midnight, will then be manually checked against DVLA databases for penalty notice to be issued. 64 additional monitoring camera sites provide supplementary traffic monitoring over and above that provided by the enforcement network consisting of 60 colour cameras and 68 mono cameras. Enforcement cameras are also available for monitoring outside charging periods and only in emergencies during charging periods.

4) Effect of the Strategy

Air Quality

By reducing the overall volumes of traffic within the charging zone, and increasing the efficiency with which it circulates, congestion charging has been directly responsible for reductions of approximately 12 percent in emissions of NOx and PM10 from road traffic within the zone (24-hour annual average day). Traffic changes on the Inner Ring Road are estimated to have resulted in very small changes to emissions of NOx and PM10 from road traffic, of less than plus/minus 2 percent respectively. Both here and in the charging zone, beneficial changes to the emissions performance of the vehicle fleet between 2002 and 2003 provide additional ‘background’ benefits.

Traffic

Within the charging zone road traffic flows have decreased by 15 per cent and mean daily traffic speed has increased by 20 per cent (from 19 km/h to 23 km/h). Congestion in the charging zone has been reduced by 30 per cent. Car trips into the central charging zone has reduced by 65,000 – 70,000 per day. Of these trips no longer crossing into the charging zone, 50 to 60 percent have transferred to public transport. Between 20 and 30 percent have diverted around the charging zone and the remaining 15 to 25 percent have made a variety of other adaptations Changes in vehicle km traveled in the charging zone shows an increase in buses (+20%), an increase in taxis (+13%) and a decrease in cars (-29%) and heavy goods vehicles (-11%). Bus usage has increased inside and outside the congestion charging zone. Although increased traffic has been observed on the Inner Ring Road, these increases are somewhat smaller than expected by Transport for London and are not leading to significant operational problems on this key route There is no evidence of systematic increases in traffic outside of charging hours on weekdays or weekends in response to the introduction of the charge. There is no evidence of systematic increases in traffic on local roads outside of the charging zone in response to the introduction of the charge. A rise in bus passengers has been observed during charging hours (+34%) in the first year of congestion charging. In the same period the number buses during the charging period has also increased (+27%). In the first year of congestion charging underground patronage fell (-8%) for passengers exiting at stations in the charging zone during the morning peak. A network-wide reduction (-6%) in Underground patronage was also observed in the same period

Air Quality Management 118 Guidebook Public Perceptions

Opinions on Congestion Charging have been varied. Generally those living within the charging zone are positive about the scheme than those living in Inner London but outside the charging zone. People surveyed living within the charging zone generally believe since the introduction of the scheme congestion, public transport availability and reliability, noise and pollution have improved. Of the survey group one third believe the scheme was bad for local business, however generally few strong opinions were expressed on the scheme’s effect on local business and employment. In fact there seems to be little correlation between London’s economic progress and congestion charging. The scheme is seen to be affordable by most frequent travellers surveyed – 6 in 10 – compared with approximately a quarter who are finding it difficult to afford.

Appendices - Additional Information

The information above has been summarised from reports produced by the Greater London Authority, Transport for London and Environmental Research Group Kings College London that are now available on their websites. Further information can be found in the following documents:

• Cleaning London’s Air; The Mayor’s Air Quality Strategy, Greater London Authority, September 2002 • Congestion Charging; Update on Scheme Impacts and operations, Transport for London, February 2003 • Central London Congestion Charging Scheme; Impacts Monitoring – First Annual Report, Transport for London, June 2003 • London Congestion Pricing; Implications for Other Cities, Todd Litman, Victoria Transport Policy Institute, February 2004 • Central London Congestion Charging Scheme; Impacts Monitoring – Second Annual Report, Transport for London, April 2004 • Central London Congestion Charging Scheme; Impacts Monitoring – Summary Review, Transport for London, January 2005 • The impact of congestion charging on vehicle emissions in London, Sean D. Beevers & David C. Carslaw, Atmospheric Environment, 39, 2005, 1-5

Summary

Road traffic is the main cause affecting NO2 and PM10 levels in London whereat Heathrow Airport is responsible for those high levels in the western area. Due to the fact that London’s air quality is 6 times less than in other European countries congestion charging system for London started in 2003 to improve the traffic congestion in central London. The system operates with cameras that computerise data (pictures) into a database supported by ANPR system that allows controlling the access of vehicles into the congestion charging area. Vehicles are charged with 6 [£] per day and this payment can be done by different, handy varieties. Is the charge not paid an 80 [£] Penalty Charge Notice will be sent to the registered keeper of the vehicle. Introducing this scheme had the effect that congestion charging has been directly responsible for reductions of approximately 12 [%] in emissions of NOX and PM10. Furthermore the main daily traffic speed has increased and congestion within the charging zone was reduced. Not to be sneezed at are the increasing transported passengers with public transport and the reduction of cars as well as heavy goods vehicles. Public perception was accomplished due to public transport availability and reliability as well as noise and pollution reduction. The costs of this scheme are amortised within 3-4 years.

Air Quality Management 119 Guidebook I. CASE STUDY 4: 80 KM/H SPEED LIMIT ON A13 MOTORWAY IN OVERSCHIE, ROTTERDAM

CITEAIR – Common Information To European Air

Component 2 – Guidebook for Air Quality Management

Case Studies of Management Strategies

Title The 80 km/h speed limit on the Motorway A13 in Overschie, Rotterdam A heavy policed 80 km/h speed limit has been imposed on the urban part of the Brief Description A13 through Rotterdam’s Overschie district Final report (in dutch, with english summary): Wesseling et al. 2003. (http://www.dcmr.nl/media/LUC/R2003-258.pdf ) Links & Contacts Van den Elshout et al. 2003. Deliverable 8.8, Annex C. (http://heaven.rec.org/Deliverables/WP8%20Demonstration/HEAVEN%20- %20%20D8.8%20-%20Demonstratior%20Rotterdam%20-%20Annex.pdf )

Long Med Short Comments Term Term Term Pilot scheme, however there are plans to expand Strategy Type X scheme

AQ Effects of Strategy PM NOx O3 CO C6H6 SO2 CO2 Others High XX Med Low Comments Effects on emissions and roadside concentrations measured.

High Low

Cost Infrastructure €1.5 million, maintenance €0.2 million pa Technology X

Air Quality Management 120 Guidebook 1) Air Quality Situation

The Rijnmond area is located on the west coast of the Netherlands in the province of “Zuid- Holland” and includes the city of Rotterdam and the harbour industrial area. The Rijnmond area is an administrative co-operation of eighteen municipalities in the field of spatial planning, housing, economy, employment, transport, environment, health care, etc. The Rijnmond area consists out of the following 18 municipalities: Albrandswaard, Barendrecht, Bergschenhoek, Berkel and Rodenrijs, Pernisse, Bleiswijk, Brielle, Capelle aan den IJssel, Hellevoetsluis, Krimpen a/d IJssel, Maassluis, Ridderkerk, Rotterdam, Rozenburg, Schiedam, Spijkenisse, Vlaardingen, Westvoorne. Living, working and recreating in the Rijnmond area have been concentrated is a relatively small area: 1,2 million people live in an area no larger than 800 km. In this scarce space metropolitan elements as well as rural elements can be found. Naturally all modes of traffic, especially motorised traffic, have a great impact on environment and spatial occupation. The region is considered to be the economic motor of the Netherlands due to the presence of one of the largest harbours in the world, large-scale industry and about 22.000 medium and small companies. About 80 large industrial concerns can be found in this area, for example oil refineries, chemical plants, metallurgical factories and power plants. Companies for Petro- chemical products, transport and storage functions, handling and incineration of waste materials are amply represented. Moreover the Rijnmond area accommodates concentration areas for (glass) horticulture and areas have been reserved for nature and recreation. All these activities cause a substantial movement of people and goods. Although the air quality in the Netherlands generally complies with the legal standard for NO2 close to the main roads air quality tends to be a problem. Due to the harbour, industrial complexes and the motorways situated close to residential areas, air pollution in the Rijnmond area is a problem. In addition to local pollution sources, air pollution is also conveyed to the region from the rest of the Netherlands and from neighbouring countries. The air arriving from the south and east tends to be polluted even before it reaches the Rijnmond area and it is fairly clean if it arrives over the sea directly from polar regions. Local pollution is related to human activity within the Rijnmond area. This concerns industrial and domestic emissions and increasingly vehicle exhaust fumes. Industry, traffic, shipping and the households all contribute to the air pollution problems in the area. In the past 30 years considerable progress has been made, mainly due to the reduction of industrial emissions. Recently the pace of progress is very slow because technical innovation is partly nullified by the increase of both industrial production and traffic intensity. Although in the Netherlands the air quality generally complies with the legal standards, close to the main roads, air quality tends to be a problem.. Despite the fact that each individual car is becoming considerably less polluting, total vehicle emissions are decreasing only slowly due to increased traffic intensity. Traffic is hard to regulate but there are rules for fuel quality and engine efficiency. As a consequence, inner-city lead, SO2 and benzene have gone down. Three-way catalytic converters, which remove nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons from the exhaust fumes, have made a major contribution. Apart from technical innovation and promoting public transport, the spatial separation of housing and traffic is one of the few options to limit human exposure to poor quality air. The Air quality in the vicinity of busy roads is dependent on the local situation (for example traffic intensity; traffic flow; partitioning persons- and lorry traffic; distance to the road). Along several motorways the air quality standards from the EU directive for PM10 and NO2 have been exceeded within a distance of up to 100- 300 m from the road. Short-term solutions for these situations are sought in traffic-measures, which contribute to lower emissions by traffic on the motorway.

2) Description of Management Strategy

Research has shown that traffic moving at a constant, moderate speed emits less air pollutants compared to traffic with frequent speed fluctuations or driving 120 km/h or more. Constant speeds can be achieved by enforcing a “keep your lane” policy or by fixing the maximum speed for all vehicles to the maximum of the heavy trucks. In order to improve the air quality in the Rotterdam district Overschie, a pilot experiment has been conducted on the national motorway A13 (see Map 6). As of May 11th, 2002, the maximum speed has been reduced from a 100 to 80 kilometres per hour in the area where the motorway passes through this district. The 80 km speed limit is only successful if it is heavy policed. So in addition to new road signs a system taking pictures of vehicles entering and leaving the zone and calculating the average speed was put in place. The system is connected to an automated fining system for people driving too fast. Capturing chances are close to 100%.

Air Quality Management 121 Guidebook Map 6: A13 and A20 in Rotterdam

A “trajectory-control” system was set up over a 3-km stretch of the A13 in Overschie. So in addition to new road signs a system taking pictures of vehicles entering and leaving the zone and calculating the average speed was put in place. The system is connected to an automated fining system for people driving too fast. Escape chances for offenders are close to 0%. The area consists out of 6 to 8 lanes of traffic and several accesses and exits. Research into the impact of the 80km/h- measure on the air quality of Overschie has been performed by TNO in co-operation with the DCMR (Environmental Protection Agency Rijnmond). As the concentrations of the air pollutants NO2 and PM10 exceed the air quality standards more emphasis was laid into research on these two pollutants. The motorway passes through the middle of a traditional, village-like city district where problems remain (spatial planning, noise) even if the air quality problem could be solved. The measure taken is therefore not a permanent solution but it helps reducing the air quality and noise problems a small amount.

3) Implementation of the Strategy

Political Support and Legislation

The Ministry of Traffic and Water Management and the Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and Environment introduced the measure in May 2002. The Ministry of Justice was involved as well to determine the height of fines, how trajectory control would proceed, etc. The local surrounding governments were involved as well, as the outcome of the pilot was very important for them. TNO Netherlands Research Organisation and DCMR EPA performed research on the impact of the measure.

Costs

The infrastructure is estimated at € 1.5 million and yearly maintenance: € 0.2 million. The scheme initially generated a lot of income through fines though this money goes straight to the treasury and cannot be used to repay the investments. Four more sites are currently (2004) under construction in the Netherlands. Different companies have been invited to make a design and the costs are likely to come down.

Air Quality Management 122 Guidebook Support from the public and Business Communities

The public in the surrounding areas supports the measure. In fact public pressure from local citizens groups was essential in convincing national politics that measures are needed to be adopt.80% of the people in the surrounding neighbourhoods supports the measure. People notice a larger effect to the air quality and noise pollution than can be measured or explained. The conception of road-users to the effects measure on congestion and driving time differs considerably. A majority of passenger car drivers think there is less congestion. A majority of the lorry drivers think there is more congestion. Police and the road administrator do not report a real difference in congestion. Over travel time the opinion of the road users differs. About 30% of the car drivers and 40% of the lorry drivers think there is an increase in travel time due to implementation of the measure.

Technological and Infrastructure

This measure is fast to implement. Changes to infrastructure are minimal. What needs to be built is a “trajectory control system”. The speed on the section is controlled by this system. This means that camera’s are strategically placed over the whole section to measure the speed of a car throughout the section. Because of this the speed on the section is more constant. An important aspect of the speed measure is controlling the speed limit of 80 km/h. This is carried out by co-operation between the Ministry of Traffic and water management, the public prosecution office and the Rotterdam Rijnmond police department. As a control system an automatic trajectory control system was chosen. During the first weeks after implementation of the measure about 6000 people per day were caught speeding. After a while the amount of “speeder” has stabilised at about 700 to 800 on a working day and 1000 to 1100 on a weekend day ( see Figure 19). The amount of speeders is less than 1% of the total traffic stream.

Figure 19: Speed limits

Continuous monitoring of NO, NO2 and PM10 was performed at three different locations in Overschie: the first location is located approximately 500 m to the west of the A13 (“background location”), the other locations are located respectively 50 m and 20 m to the east of the A13 (see Map 7).

Air Quality Management 123 Guidebook Map 7: Location of monitoring stations

In addition to these continuous active measurements, so-called passive measurements were conducted between April 2002 and February 2003 at more than 30 locations in Overschie. The results of which provide information on the spatial resolution of the air pollution in Overschie. The TNO hour-to-hour line source model was applied to compute the contribution of traffic emissions at the A13 to the air quality in Overschie.

4) Effect of the Strategy

Effect on air quality

Trajectory speed control has been effective in reducing the fluctuations in traffic speed on the A13 right across Overschie and also in not exceeding the limit speeds (especially during the night). So traffic flows more efficiently though Overschie even while the number of vehicles has increased. The measure is estimated to reduce the traffic emissions when compared to the same traffic intensity, with 15-25% for NOx and 25-35% for PM10. Measurements of the NO2 and PM10 concentrations on locations at 50m and 200m east of the A13 in Overschie indicate that the air quality has improved during westerly winds for NO2 with 5 µg/m³ (50m) and 3 µg/m³ (200m), and for PM10 with 4 µg/m³ (50m) and 1 µg/m³ (200m). These results illustrate that the 80 km/h measure has a positive impact on the air quality in Overschie. Model calculations were used to assess the effect of the on the contribution of the A13 to the air quality in Overschie as well as the impact on the total air quality. The reduced contribution of the A13 on the air quality in up to 200-m distance is approximately 25% for NO2 and 34% for PM10. The improvement of the total air quality at this distance was calculated as 7% for NO2 and 4% for PM10. The reduction of the emissions is due to the fact that the catalytic converter performs best under constant conditions. Emissions increase briefly but sharply immediately after speed changes as the engine/catalytic converter system needs to readjust to the new situation. Modern vehicles with increasingly sophisticated engine management systems minimise these readjustment emissions so the beneficial impact of the measure depends on the fleet composition and is likely to be reduced in the future. It should be noted that the findings are highly specific for the emission conditions (e.g. fleet composition, emission factors) of the Overschie situation. Elsewhere impacts might be more or less substantial. Especially fleet composition and fleet age heavily influence the emissions and therefore the likely impact of this measure.

Air Quality Management 124 Guidebook Additional Information

Information concerning the weather conditions and the traffic flow intensity on the A13 were obtained respectively from the Meteorological services (KNMI) and the Roads department (RWS). TNO Automotive provided emission factors specifically derived for the A13 traffic before and after the measure. The results provide information on the spatial resolution of the air pollution in Overschie (see Table 26).

Passenger cars and small vans Large vans Heavy trucks

Fuel type diesel: 35 % 65 % petrol 100 % diesel 100 % diesel Average fleet age 2.5 years 3.5 years 2.5 years 5 years Average emissions (g/km): CO 0.898 1.261 Hydro Carbons 0.111 0.415

NOx 0.468 6.220 PM 0.029 - 0.201

Table 26: Average traffic characterisitics A13 Overschie 2001

Local air quality consists out of the sum of background concentration and the contribution of the local sources. At the site 50 m to the east of the A13 the distribution of the NO2 concentration is approximately as follows: 25 % is caused by emission sources outside of the Rijnmond region (large- scale background), 25% is caused by sources within the Rijnmond region, this region includes Rotterdam (regional background) and approximately 50% is determined by local traffic emissions. So, even without traffic on the A13, only 50% improvement in air quality for NO2 can be obtained.

Summary:

Rijmond is the whole area around the city of Rotterdam including the harbour industrial area. Due to the geographical location of this area as well as industrial complexes and motorways air pollution is conveyed to the region and the rest of the country respectively from neighbouring countries. Salt particles from the surrounding sea are responsible for a higher background PM10. Technical innovations like the integration of catalytic converters made up a major contribution tackling NOX out of the exhaust gas. Along the motorways the air quality standards from the EU couldn’t be achieved. Therefore a “keep your lane” policy was installed. Moving at a constant, moderate speed emits less air pollutants compared to traffic with frequent speed fluctuations. Fixing the maximum velocity for all vehicles to the maximum of heavy trucks can set through this policy combined with a “trajectory control” system. Strategically placed cameras send information to the system that calculates the average velocity a vehicle covers a distance and if the driver is too fast the system’s automated fining system will bill a fine to the permit owner. This infrastructure is not be amortised directly because the receipts go to the treasury directly. This measure is fast to implement and the expected changes to infrastructure are minimal. As a result of this measure a reduction by 30 [%] for NOX and PM10 was achieved.

Air Quality Management 125 Guidebook J. CASE STUDY 5: USE OF SECTION 106 BUILDING REGULATIONS IN GREENWICH

CITEAIR – Common Information To European Air

Component 2 – Guidebook for Air Quality Management

Case Studies of Management Strategies

Title Use of Section 106 building regulations (Greenwich) The Borough is encouraging developers – through regulations – to include Brief Description measures such as low emissions areas in their building schemes. Andrew Whittles (Greenwich Borough Council): Links & Contacts [email protected]

Long Med Short Comments Term Term Term Schemes aimed at encouraging a culture of air quality Strategy Type X abatement amongst businesses and developers

AQ Effects of Strategy PM NOx O3 CO C6H6 SO2 CO2 Others High Med XX X Low Comments Hard to assess: Long term urban development culture affected

Minimal / Zero: Costs of air quality abatement measures High Low Cost and infrastructure are passed on to private developers Technology X

Air Quality Management 126 Guidebook 1) Air Quality Situation

It is estimated that up to 1600 people can die prematurely each year, due to the health problems caused by breathing London’s’ polluted air. London’s air had long been pollutes. As recently as the 1950’s the capital was frequently engulfed in smogs. Since then government clean air regulations, the closure of coal fired power stations and increasing use of central heating rather than coal to warm the houses, has insured smogs are no longer a problem in London. Pollution is now less visible, but is still damaging to peoples health. Today most pollution in London comes from road traffic. The boroughs are legally required to review air quality in their area, assess their ability to meet government targets, and produce air quality action plans to improve air quality where these targets are not likely to be met. Busy roads such as the A2 and A102 Blackwall Tunnel, as well as significant industry and distribution activities, has prompted the borough of Greenwich to declare its entire area an Air Quality Management Area. Greenwich Council carried out a 3 stage review and assessment of air quality in the borough between 1998 and 2000, as part of the duties under Part IV of the Environment Act 1995. The aims of the review were: To assess current pollution levels in respect of the pollutants and standards laid down in the Air Quality Regulations; and where there was concern in respect of a pollutant.

• To predict future levels of the pollutant against the objectives laid down in the Air Quality Regulations; and where it is likely that a pollutant will exceed these standards and objectives • To identify areas where the public are likely to be exposed for a significant period of time

The results of the review and assessment showed that Government objectives for nitrogen dioxide (annual average) and PM10 particulates (24 hour average) were likely to be breached next to major roads in the borough. (see Map 8 ) The council declared the borough an Air Quality Management Area (AQMA) in 2001. The council were then legally obliged to prepare an action plan to improve air quality and carry out a further (Stage 4) review and assessment. The initial findings of the draft Stage 4 review show that local road transport contributes 28-80% towards NOx concentrations. For PM10, road transport accounts for 5-40% of emissions, depending on location, with approximately 60-95%, arising from background sources. Action plan measures: Transport Strategy, Land Use Planning, Vehicle Emissions Enforcement, Fleet Operations, Green Travel Plans, Energy & Housing Services, Corporate Procurement, Industrial Regulation, Statutory Nuisance, Construction Site Dust Control, Air Quality Monitoring and Research, Information & Education.

Air Quality Management 127 Guidebook Map 8: Greenwich

2) Description of Management Strategy

Declaring the Borough of Greenwich an AQMA has given borough planners some strength when dealing with development proposals. Greenwich Council understands that the planning system has a vital role to play in ensuring that land use and other resources are used more sustainable. Regeneration has presented an opportunity to further the Council’s aim of sustainability, and in particular that of air quality improvements with air quality management measures incorporated into all significant planning approvals. Greenwich Council does not see air quality as a bar to development but a bar to poor quality development. In this sense it is noticeable how developers contemporary thinking being applied at the planning stage. This approach has seen Greenwich take lead in London in seeking air quality improvements through the planning process. Greenwich uses the planning system to improve air quality, whether it be through low emission zones or extracting cash from developers to fund air quality monitoring equipment through section 106 planning agreements. Greenwich has been instrumental in using such conditions to help improve air quality, it has entered into an agreement with the Royal Mail that all its service vehicles will be Euro III by 2006.

3) Implementation of the Strategy

106 planning agreements

106 agreements are those where the developer enters into a legal agreement to fund or organise initiatives that are necessary to make a development acceptable. The section 106

Air Quality Management 128 Guidebook agreement deals primarily with a range of community benefits, covering employment and training, affordable housing, health and social support. Section 106 agreements provide scope to enforce planning conditions to mitigate the impact of emissions. Section 106 planning agreements are frequently used by planners to secure benefits from developers- and increasingly to fund air quality benefits. Through 106 building regulations measures such as a low emission zone to prevent the most polluting vehicles from using the bridge, and a tolling mechanism that encourages the use of the least polluting vehicles can be secured. The south-east London borough is behind a whole lot of eye catching and ground breaking initiatives. The provisional go ahead to the huge redevelopment of the Greenwich peninsular will include bold air quality provisions and a developer-funded low emission zone. Much of the peninsular development site is above air quality objective levels. Greenwich is obliging the dome developers to set up a low emission zone that will be separate, but complimentary, to any central London emission zone that might be agreed The zone will see resident parking spaces allocated to only euro-4 vehicles, regulated through a controlled parking zone. Because of the 18 year building phase, there will be many restrictions on construction traffic. The air quality provision will be imposed on the developer through conditions and 106 planning agreements An increasing number of agreed planning policies that are produced by local authorities, are endorsing the use of 106 planning agreements to fund air quality monitoring and emission reduction initiatives. However 106 agreements are controversial as they are often seen as planning bribes- a form of payment to the council for granting permission that should perhaps be refused. For developments in or adjacent to areas where air quality objectives are unlikely to be met and where the impact cannot be adequately mitigated by condition (i.e. where there is still a residual impact), a section 106 planning obligation will be sought for. The planning obligation (which will be related to the scale of residual impact on air quality) will be directed towards measures designed to improve air quality in the area. In the absence of adequate mitigation and/ or a planning obligation that offsets the impact on air quality, planning permission should be refused.

Advice on planning obligations:

• Necessary • Relevant to planning • Directly related to proposed development • Fairly and reasonably related in scale and kind to the proposed development • Reasonable in all other respects

4) Effect of the Strategy

Section 106 agreements could be used for a number of emission reducing initiatives as well as fund air quality monitoring equipment It is now commonplace for developers of larger projects, especially those in areas of poor air quality, to fund air quality monitoring through 106 agreements. But more frequently, section 106s are being used for bolder and more imaginative schemes that will improve air quality, directly or indirectly. Greenwich uses the planning system to improve air quality, whether it be through low emission zones or extracting cash from developers to fund air quality monitoring equipment through section 106 planning agreements. In Greenwich, air pollution is also being included in planning application for the warren development at the Royal Arsenal. Among other things the scheme will have a low emission zone which will likely oblige all commercial traffic associated with the scheme to Euro 4 standard, initially moving to Euro 5 and 6 at given future dates. There are also low emission proposals for the Thames Gateway Bridge. Greenwich’s approval is subject to a section 106 agreement that will include a provision for a low emission zone on bridge opening in 2012 based on Euro 4 technology. Measures will have a wider impact than just the bridge itself. Unlike most measures to reduce traffic a Low Emission Zone (LEZ) would exclude the most polluting vehicles that do not comply with set emission standards from entering an area of pollution

Air Quality Management 129 Guidebook concern, whether by voluntary agreement with bus and freight operators or based on the enforceable exclusion of certain categories of vehicle. The Millennium Dome is the latest high profile development using such agreements imaginatively. This huge development has just won the go ahead, and includes detailed section 106 agreements designed to mitigate the effect of the development when finished, and during its 18year construction phase.

Greenwich sees three key air quality issues arising from the development

• The impact of the construction of the development on air quality; • The exposure of residents of the site to poor air quality; • The impact of the completed development on air quality.

Increased vehicle emissions will come directly from the residents’ cars, and the increased congestion they create. But this can be mitigated, says Greenwich, with a low emission zone set up through a section 106 agreement. The zone is proposed to have conditions such as:

• All commercial vehicles accessing the site to conform to Euro 4 emission standard. This standard will be tightened to Euro 5 at a future date, possibly 2010. • Residential parking allocation will be reserved for Euro 4 standard vehicles, with a lesser standard for social housing provision (possibly Euro 2). Again, these standards should be tightened at a future date, possibly 2010. Exceptions would be made in terms of disabled parking and could also be considered for vintage cars etc. • Commercial parking allocation, including the Dome Arena, should give priority, in addition to disabled allocation, to Euro 4 emission standard vehicles, multi-occupancy and vehicles of 1 litre engine size or less. • Bus operators will be encouraged/required to introduce Euro 4 standard vehicles on routes servicing the Peninsula.

Greenwich Council and the developers will work with Transport for London in examining the benefits of a complimentary low emission zone on the A102(M)/Blackwall/Silvertown Link crossings. Greenwich accepts air quality will worsen, but says: “Wider potential benefits will accrue from the implementation of a low emission zone in terms of the accelerated uptake of cleaner vehicle technology, both in the borough, regionally and nationally.” The community benefits because it gets affordable housing and local labour is used. The vehicle fleet improves, a better air quality monitoring network is set up, a low emission zone and the benefits go beyond the scope of the designated area.

• Greenwich Council will continue to require ameliorating measures such as green transport plans and vehicle fleet improvement via section 106 planning agreements • Greenwich Council will continue to seek financial contributions for air quality monitoring in the borough via section 106 planning agreements

Examples of practical planning conditions and section 106 agreements include

• Encourage companies to invest in clean fuel fleets, secure bicycle parking (and changing facilities); • Promote improvements in public transport, walking and cycling; • Specify numbers of parking spaces; • Targets for the proportions of employee trips made by public transport; • Encourage companies to operate environmental management systems and air quality strategies, and encourage the implementation of green travel plans • Explore a requirement for operators to monitor or model emissions from their premises, practices or activities; • Potential requirement of developers to monitor air quality prior to, and following development; • Potential requirement of developers to install air conditioning in residential property developed in the most polluted locations

Air Quality Management 130 Guidebook • Restricting or prohibiting the use of specific classes and types of vehicles as well as monitoring the maintenance and emissions testing of the fleet; • The control of air quality impacts during the construction phase.”

Summary

As it mentioned in Case Study #3, most pollution in London is caused by road traffic. The borough of Greenwich was declared to an Air Quality Management Area (AQMA). Different Action Plan measures as a variety of actions were set through and Greenwich uses the planning system to improve air quality, whether it is through LEZ or extracting cash from developers to fund air quality monitoring equipment through section 106 planning agreements. With Royal Mail all the service vehicles will be Euro III standard by 2006. In consequence of 106 building regulations AQ Monitoring will be funded, especially air quality equipment. This scheme will have a LEZ which will likely oblige all commercial traffic associated with the scheme to Euro 4 standard, initially moving to Euro 5 and 6 standard. The installation of a LEZ would exclude the most polluting vehicles that don’t comply with set emission standards.

Air Quality Management 131 Guidebook K. CASE STUDY 6: ATMOSPHERIC PROTECTION PLAN FOR ILLE DE FRANCE

CITEAIR – Common Information To European Air

Component 2 – Guidebook for Air Quality l Management

Case Studies of Management Strategies

Title Atmospheric Protection Plan for Ile-de-France Region Air quality action plan for Paris and its surrounding region for 2010. The effect Brief Description of these strategies in the Ile-de-France

Links & Contacts Airparif: www.airparif.asso.fr

Long Med Short Comments Term Term Term Strategy Type X Plan for 2010

AQ Effects of Strategy PM NOx O3 CO C6H6 SO2 CO2 Others High X Med X Low Comments The effects on ozone are difficult to assess

The plan includes a range of strategies including High Low Cost implementation of legislation. Technology

Air Quality Management 132 Guidebook 1) Air Quality Situation

Beyond the specific episodes of air pollution, the Ile-de-France region suffers from chronic exceedences of the air quality objectives relating in particular to nitrogen dioxide and ozone. For nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in background location, the annual mean French objective (40 µg/m3), which will also constitute the European limit value in 2010, is not respected in the heart of the agglomeration corresponding to Paris and a portion of the surrounding areas. Near the automobile traffic, the exceedence of the air quality objective is observed on all the stations of the monitoring network, and relates to a very broad portion of the regional road network (see Figure 20).

Forêt de Fontainebleau 13 Forêt de Rambouillet 20 Cergy-Pontoise 27 Mantes-la-Jolie 27 Melun 27 Montgeron 33 Garches 33 Objectif de qualité : 40 µg/m3 36 Versailles 3 Evry 37 Valeur limite 2010 : 40 µg/m Tremblay-en-France 37 Vitry-sur-Seine 41 Argenteuil 42 Cachan 43 Bobigny 43 stations trafic Issy-les-Moulineaux 44 stations urbaines Gennevilliers 44 stations périurbaines Paris 6ème 44 Saint-Denis 45 stations rurales régionales La Défense 46 Paris 1er les Halles 47 Paris 13ème 48 Ivry-sur-Seine 49 Aubervilliers 49 Paris 12ème 50 Neuilly-sur-Seine 52 Paris 7ème 52 Paris 18ème 56 Rue Bonaparte 69 Av. des Champs Elysées 75 Quai des Célestins 82 Autoroute A1 Saint-Denis 96 Place Victor Basch 97 Bd périphérique Auteuil 103

0 102030405060708090100110 µg/m3

Figure 20: Monitored Annual Average for Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) at traffic, urban, semi-urban and rural stations in the Ile-de-France region The target value relating to ozone (O3) (120 µg/m3 on average over a 8 hours period) required by the EU Daughter Directive 2002/3) is also not respected over the whole of the Ile-de-France area, particularly during the year 2003 and in a chronic way on the rural areas. For the suspended particles (PM10), the air quality objective (30 µg/m3 on annual average) is achieved in the Ile-de-France region in background location but was not respected in 2003 at roadside. In addition, the future evolutions will lead to the lowering of the reference values for this pollutant, which remains particularly sensitive as shown by different recent studies

2) Description of Management Strategy

Within the framework of the development of the Plan of Protection of Atmosphere (PPA), the Regional Direction for Industry, Research and Environment (DRIRE Ile-de-France) entrusted to AIRPARIF the evaluation of the quality of the air in the Ile-de-France region expected for the year 2010, taking into account the strategies to control atmospheric pollutants that have already been engaged and supplementary measures suggested within the framework of the PPA. The question that arises, in particular, is to know if the predicted intensities of reduction of the emissions make it possible to respect for the regional territory, the target values for the quality of the air at year 2010 thus satisfying the objective of the Plan of Protection of the Atmosphere. The evaluation of the quality of the air at the year 2010 was undertaken for the two pollutants which do not respect in a chronic way the air quality objectives, namely nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and ozone (O3). The evaluation of the impacts on the concentrations in particles (PM10) could not be carried out taking into account the complexity of the physico-chemical phenomena brought into play as well as absence of national prospective scenarios concerning the evolution of their emissions. The first stage of work consisted in working out the inventory and the spatial distribution of main atmospheric pollutants emissions for the three base cases: the year 2000 being used as the baseline year, the year 2010 that takes into account the strategies of control already engaged on national or

Air Quality Management 133 Guidebook regional scales and the year 2010+PPA that takes into account the complementary regional measures proposed in the Plan of Protection of the Atmosphere of the Ile-de-France region. The following stages are related to the modelling of the concentrations in NO2 and O3 for the three base cases for two different meteorological years (rather good dispersive conditions like those encountered in year 2000 or in year 2002; and rather poor dispersive conditions and high temperatures in summer like those of the year 2003) on the basis of the different emissions scenarios (2000, 2010 and 2010+PPA). To conduct these different stages, Airparif made use of its decision support system (DSS) developed within the framework of the Heaven European project.

3) Implementation of the Strategy

Predicted base case emissions for 2010

The predictions for 2010 were built taken into account the evolutions of emissions which could be foreseen based on European, national or regional regulations already “in the pipe”, in particular:

• the large burning plants (GIC) which will have to respect certain limit values of emissions by 2010 (EU Directive GIC of the 13/10/01); • the waste treatment incinerators with a reduction in the limit values for NOx emissions at 200 mg/Nm3 which must be met by the end of 2005 (transcription of the EU Directive 2000/76); • the gasoline distribution equipments which will have to be equipped with systems of recovery of the vapours of NMVOC from the tanks and, for those equipments distributing more than 3000 m3/year, of complementary systems to recovery of the vapours of NMVOC from the pumps (transcription of the EU Directives “stage I” and “stage II”); • the reduction in the emissions of NMVOC at the industrial and domestic levels by the more important use of paintings in aqueous phase or low content of solvents (EU Directive 99/13 “COV/solvents”); • the regional rail traffic emissions reductions, coming from the re-motorization of 30 diesel engines by 2010; • the airport activity with the assumption of a maintenance of the emissions between 2000 and 2010 (source: General Direction of the Civil Aviation); • the road transport emissions evolutions with the natural technological turn-over of the running fleet, the predicted increase of almost 11% of the regional traffic volume and the increase of the part of light duty vehicles and two wheelers in the running fleet (source: Regional Direction of the Equipment of the Ile-de-France region).

Predicted base case emissions for 20 with the implementation of the PPA

The complementary measures aimed at reducing the emissions suggested within the framework of the PPA were transcribed in the emissions calculations of the base case “2010+PPA”( see Figure 21) in the following way : • waste treatment incinerators located in the so-called “sensitive NOx area” should meet by the end of 2010 a limit value for NOx emissions at 80 mg/Nm3 (instead of 200 mg/Nm3) ; • -closure of certain power stations from Electricity of France and changing the operation mode of one power station ; • -equipment of low-NOx burners for all the renewed individual boilers; • -Equipment of all gasoline distribution equipments delivering more than 1000 m3/year of a system of vapour recovery of the NMVOC from the pumps;

Air Quality Management 134 Guidebook 161,4 kt NOx (kilotons/year) Agriculture 12.4

Waste treatment 7.4 - 38,8 % - 31,9 % Burning (industrial, domestic, 32.5 tertiary) 109,9 kt - 10,1 % Production of energy 9.8 12.4 98,8 kt Other mobile sources 7.8 4.4 12.4 6.9 Air traffic 2.4 28.0 25.9 Duty vehicles 31.3 > 3.5 tons 9.8 3.5 6.4 6.2 Light Duty Vehicles 13.9 6.9 6.9

14.5 14.3 Road Traffic 10.4 Personal vehicles 38.3 10.3

16.1 15.9

Base case 2000 Base case 2010 Base case 2010+PPA

Figure 21 The effect of 2010 and 2010+PPA measures on NOx emissions in the Ile-de-France region

• Reduction of 30% by 2010 compared to 2000 of the emissions of NOx of the rail traffic in Ile- de-France by an optimization of the conditions of operating of engines; • taken into account of a fall of road traffic corresponding to the realization of part of the measures registered in the Plan of Urban Mobility. The other actions under consideration in the PPA could not be assumed in the evaluation of the emissions for the base case “2010+PPA” (example: levelling off of the NOx emissions of all mobile sources for the large companies, areas of activities, communities or administrations).

4) Effect of the Strategy

Predicted base case concentrations for 2010

The intensities of reduction of the NOx emissions estimated for the base case 2010 (-32%) should allow an important fall of nitrogen dioxide levels on the Paris and its suburbs by 2010. This improvement of the quality of the air relating to the NO2 should appear both in terms of maxima reached and in terms of surface area exceeding the limit value. The reduction in the maximum value for annual average concentration on the Paris and its suburbs (except sector of Roissy) would be around 17µg/m3 leading to a maximum value around the limit value (38 to 44 µg/m3 according to weather configurations by 2010 to compare with the maximum values of 55 and 62 µg/m3 in the baseline cases). Taking into account uncertainties associated with the methodology which has been used, it is nevertheless advisable to remain careful as for the respect of the limit value. The risks of exceedence would indeed remain relatively high on Paris and its suburbs, in particular for the years with bad dispersive meteorological conditions. The surface concerned with a risk higher than 25% to exceed the limit value would vary at base case year 2010 from 95 to 634 km2 according to weather conditions, these surfaces varying from 746 to 1007 km2 for the baseline situations. The cumulated intensities of reduction of the emissions of NOx and NMVOC estimated for the base case 2010 should allow an important fall of the occurrence of the exceedences of the European target value relating to ozone for the protection of human health (120 µg/m3 over a period of 8 hours

Air Quality Management 135 Guidebook in average). The number of hours of exceedence of this value should thus fall from 15% to 0% in Paris, from 35% to 15% on the suburbs and finally from 60% to 35% on the rural areas. The lower impact on urban areas can be explained by the occurrence of two phenomena acting in an opposite way: • on the one hand, the important reductions of emissions of precursors (NOx and NMVOC) by 2010 should cause a drop in the photochemical production of ozone, and this on the whole of the Ile-de-France region ; the maximum ozone concentrations reached during sunny days should thus drop; • in addition, in urban area, ozone produced in the afternoon will less quickly be consumed by the NOx emissions in evening and in the early morning (because of fall of the NOx emissions predicted by 2010): the number of hours of exceedences should thus drop less in the dense NOx emissions areas that in rural areas.

Predicted base case concentrations for 2010+PPA and the benefits of the PPA

The complementary reductions to the emissions of NOx (-10,1%) associated to the PPA measures would allow a gain up to 4 µg/m3 on the annual average concentrations of NO2 on certain sectors of the agglomeration. A benefit of about 3 µg/m3 would be in particular recorded on Paris and its close suburbs, areas where the exceedence of the limit value would still be expected in 2010, in particular for the bad dispersive meteorological conditions in the base case 2010. The benefit primarily concentrated on the most problematic areas, makes it possible to very clearly decrease (from – 10 to – 20 %) the risk of exceedence of the limit value relating to the NO2 in the dense heart of the Paris and its suburbs. It does not allow nevertheless, for all the weather configurations, to ensure the respect of the limit value (40 µg/m3) (see Figure 22). In particular, for meteorological conditions like those of year 2003, exceedences of the limit value would probably be recorded even

Figure 22 The effect of 2010 and 2010+PPA measures on NMVOC emissions in the Ile-de-France region

178.5 kt NMVOC (kilotons/year)

Biogenic sources 24.0 - 39,4 % - 39,0 %

Solvent uses 73.3 108.8 kt - 0,6 % 108.1 kt

24.0 24.0

Gasoline distribution 6.6 Burning (industrial, domestic, 14.5 tertiary) 45.6 45.6

Two wheelers 10.9 3.6 3.1 14.8 14.8 Personal vehicles 35.0 4.0 3.9 Road Traffic 7.2 7.1

Base case 2000 Base case 2010 Base case 2010+PPA with the set up of PPA measures in background location (maximum of 43 µg/m3 in Paris and its close suburbs except sector of the Roissy Charles de Gaulle international airport). For such a year, the area of the Ile-de-France region with a risk of exceedence greater than 25% could still reach 502 km2. For the years with good dispersive meteorological conditions, the PPA should make it possible to respect the limit value: maximum concentration in the agglomeration (except sector of Roissy) about 35 µg/m3 and area with a risk of exceedence greater than 25% very limited (43 km2 in the Ile-de-France region including only 9 km2 in Paris and its outskirts). For such years and by supposing the integral realization of the measures of the reduction planned, the PPA would thus prove decisive for the air quality in background locations.

Air Quality Management 136 Guidebook Problems to remain – Roadside and Air Traffic

One must be aware that the evaluations of the quality of the air at year 2010 shown so far relate to background pollution and not to the situation close to the pollutant emissions such as along the major road axes. It is extremely probable that the limit value relating to the NO2 would still be exceeded on most road traffic sites by 2010, even with the implementation of the PPA (Figure 23). A study carried out by AIRPARIF within the framework of the PRQA has indeed shown that a reduction of 70 to 80% in NOx emissions compared to the baseline situation would be necessary to make road sites compliant. A fall of about 45 to 55% of the NOx emissions near the principal road axes of the Paris and its suburbs could be foreseen by year 2010, which will not be sufficient to respect the limit value relating to the NO2 in several situations of traffic proximity. The sector of the international airport of Roissy Charles of Gaulle presents a specific behaviour at the regional scale but comparable with that of the international airport of Heathrow. The fall emissions is very limited in this sector by 2010 does not allow notable evolution of the NO2 concentrations.

NO2 3 Evolutions of annual average concentrations for NO2 (µg/m )

Limit value 2010 Good dispersive meteorological conditions

Base case 2000 Base case 2010 Base case 2010+PPA

Bad dispersive meteorological conditions

Figure 23 The effect of 2010 and 2010+PPA measures on annual average concentrations of NO2 in the Ile-de-France region.

Summary:

The Ille-de-France region is polluted with NO2, NOX and O3 therefore the French ministry entrusted to Airparif the evaluation of air quality in this region. The inventory and the spatial distribution of main atmospheric pollutants emissions for three base cases were worked out. These cases consider large burning plants, waste treatment incinerators, the airport and road transport emissions as well as a more detailed subdirectory. By means of waste treatment, burning and vehicle reductions, NOX can be reduced dramatically within 2000 and 2010 in all three studies.

Air Quality Management 137 Guidebook L. CASE STUDY 7: AIR CLIMATE PLAN FOR BRUSSELS

CITEAIR – Common Information To European Air

Component 2 – Guidebook for Air Quality Management

Case Studies of Management Strategies

Title Air Climate Plan for Brussels

Brief Description Plan for meeting Brussels’ targets for air quality and climate change for 2010

www.ibgebim.be Links & Contacts http://www.ibgebim.be/francais/pdf/air/planac_complet.pdf

Long Med Short Comments Term Term Term Strategy Type X

AQ Effects of Strategy PM NOx O3 CO C6H6 SO2 CO2 Others High XX Med XX Low Comments

High Low Cost Technology

Air Quality Management 138 Guidebook K 1 Air Quality Situation92

Brussels-Capital (capital of Belgium and also a European capital) numbers more than 950,000 inhabitants (1998). (Area: 161 km2, Average population density per km2: 5,900) Since it is a major national and international administrative center, the number of commuters in Brussels has increased by 100% in 20 years. Brussels has effectively become the country's leading source of employment: it offers almost 636.000 jobs. The diurnal population of the Brussels – capital region reaches 1.300.000 people. From 1990 to 2001, in the Brussels – Capital region, power consumptions increased with 19% in the housing sector, 13% in the tertiary sector and 11% for transport. Brussels has no heavy industry. Emissions mainly come from car traffic, heating and a number of other miscellaneous sources. The following observations were made during the drafting of the 2002 Air-Climate Plan: Transport is the main culprit of air quality deterioration. It is the source of 91% of carbon monoxide (CO) emissions, 89% of hydrocarbon (HAP) emissions, 57% of nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions, 44% of volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions and 19% of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. These pollutants are part of the problems relating to tropospheric ozone peaks (NOx and VOC) and greenhouse gases (especially CO2).

Heating generates 70% of CO2 emissions, 84% of SOx emissions and 84% of dust emissions. It is therefore the biggest source of greenhouse gases in Brussels.

Industry, given its limited importance in Brussels, contributes little to air pollution. Only a few industrial activities emit pollutants, e.g. print shops, car body repair shops, etc., which mainly emit solvents (COV). If these activities are poorly managed, then can contribute locally to the deterioration of air quality. These installations are required to apply for an environment permit containing technical provisions that the operator must comply with to ensure that his activities or installations are not a nuisance or a danger to the neighbourhood and do not harm the environment.

Incineration installations, the main one located at Neder Over Hembeek, release dioxins and heavy metals.

Household consumption is the cause of 28% of solvents emissions, originating in products such as paints, glues, varnishes, etc. Solvents contribute to the formation of tropospheric ozone. While it is difficult to know the exact contribution of households to transport-related emissions, travel from home to the workplace accounts for a relatively large share.

Brussels’s most notably reasons for air pollution are incineration, car repair shops, service stations, dry cleaning, print shops and other sectors that use solvents, without overlooking refrigeration facilities, which emit substances that deplete the ozone layer. On 13 November 2002, the government of the Brussels Capital Region adopted its Plan d’amélioration structurelle de la qualité de l’air et de lutte contre le réchauffement climatique (Plan for structural air quality improvement and global warming abatement). This plan, dubbed the Air-Climate Plan, brings together measures designed to improve ambient air quality and diminish the emission of greenhouse gases by the year 2010.

European directive 2001/81/CE fixes the ceilings of emissions thus to be reached from in 2010 for each Member State ( see Table 27)..

Pollutants Emissions in 1990 in ktons Aim to reach in 2010 in ktons SOx 372 99(-73.4%) NOx 339 176(-48.1%) NMVOC 324 139(-57.1%) NH3 95 74(-31.0%) Table 27: Emission Limits for Belgium

92 http://www.ibgebim.be

Air Quality Management 139 Guidebook Undertakings have been made at international and European levels and, in light of the Brussels air pollution situation, responsibilities have been assigned in Belgium. The Brussels government has pledged to reach the following targets:

• In terms of air quality, the priority targets seek to reduce emissions of ozone precursors (COV et NOX), benzene emissions (linked to petrol), fine particulates (PM10 and PM2.5) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (mainly linked to the combustion of diesel and heating oil);

• In terms of the amount of pollutants emitted in the Brussels Capital Region, the quantified targets for reducing emissions by 2010 in relation to 1999 emissions are included in the table 15 below. The Plan determines for each sector a certain number of actions that must lead to significant reductions of emission of atmospheric pollutants. See table 28 below.

Pollutants Total Reduction Reduction of Total Reduction Total reduction except transport to reduction except reduction to to reach in transport to be reached to reach in transport to reach in 2010 be reached in 2010 2010 be reached 2010 compared in 2010 compared to compared in 2010 compared to to 1990 in compared to 1990 in tons to 1999 in compared to 1999 in tons tons and % 1990 in tons and % tons and % 1999 in tons and % and % and %

CO2 -300.679 -243.354 -57.325 -656.976 -550.970 -106.006 (-7.5%) (-7.5%) (-7.5%) (-15%) (-15.5%) (-13%) SOX -3.124 -2.669 -455 -570 -458 -112 (-68%) (-65.6%) (-86.7%) (-27.9%)) (-24.7%) (-61.5%) NOX -4.321 -791 -3.530 -2.610 -405 -2.205 (-44.6%) (-20.9%) (-59.8%) (-32.7%) (-11.9%) (-48.2%) COV -7.307 -2.533 -4.774 -5.199 -1.833 -3.366 (-58.2%) (-38.8%) (-79.4%) (-49.8%) (-31.4%) (-73.1%) POPs of which largest possible reduction dioxanes HAP Heavy largest possible reduction metals Substances impoverishi Banishment ng the layer of ozone Fine largest possible reduction particles Table 28: Reduction Targets of Brussels Capital Region

Any reduction of consumption of fuels or energy obtained will at the same time have a direct effect on a reduction of the emissions of several pollutants. This is why the Plan will be a sectoral plan, by great sources of emission, rather than a plan proposing of the specific actions to each substance.

K 2 Description of Management Strategy

The Brussels Institute for Management of the Environment, IBGE was put in charge of monitoring and combating air pollution. The IBGE's main mission is to: • collect data; • draw up and coordinate the implementation of strategic sectoral plans; • grant environment permits and ensure that legislation is respected; • take firm action to raise awareness and provide information.

In 2001, the Research Laboratory in Environment of the IBGE manages a network which counted 10 telemetric stations and 35 sampling stations distributed on the territory of Brussels Capital region in

Air Quality Management 140 Guidebook order to be able to characterize all the situations of reference. The network of measurement of Brussels functions in real time gives a dynamic image of the air pollution and makes it possible to inform the public quickly. The Plan’s measures have been divided into several action areas: • Reducing emissions generated by transport, a big source of urban pollution, through the technological improvement of vehicles and a policy to reduce motorized traffic. This entails the regulation of parking, plans to displace companies and improvements in public transport, among others. • Reducing emissions from energy consumption in buildings, which are leading sources of greenhouse gases, by introducing a policy on the Rational Use of Energy. (RUE) • Promoting renewable energy. • Reducing emissions from industrial activities via a policy for technological progress and the use of products that generate less pollution. This involves regulations on the use of solvents- base products in companies that release volatile organic compounds. • Reducing emissions from individual incineration and the household use of solvents (uncontrolled emissions).

K 2.1 TRANSPORT

K 2.1.1 Reduction of the road traffic volume by • Incentives to reduce the use of the car • Encouraging the use of less polluting modes of transport • Parking policy

K 2.1.2 The fall of the road traffic emissions by:

• Support and diffusion of the technological improvements of the vehicles (clean vehicles) • Management of circulation (speeds and flows of traffic) viewing less air pollution

K 2.1.3 Actions on the behaviours of displacements aiming at a less pollution

To control congestion and to reverse the evolution of the traffic, Brussels region Capital will follow an ambitious policy, in order to support the use of other means of transport, by offering a credible alternative to the use of the private car: • To promote a new culture of displacements, and to choose more respectful modes of the environment; from 2002 to 2010, the modal share of two wheel vehicles should pass from 1 to 10%, thanks in particular to the creation of cycle roads; • Creation of pedestrian roads; • To increase the offer of public transport (quantitative and qualitative); • To promote the more rational use of the car: through sharing, Co-conveyance, • To promote the acquisition and the use of clean vehicles.

In addition, with the start-up of the RER, the Brussels-Capital region intends to improve its within mobility, and this with the modal transfer of car towards the RER; the Area thus hopes to return on a level of traffic lower by 20% than the situation of 1999. With regard to goods traffic, Brussels- Capital region will take care to ensure better organisation of flows in transport, and will follow a policy of encouragement of the modal transfers in favour of rail, water way and of inter method water-rail- road; the Area of Brussels-Capital will also continue the development of the port of Brussels.

K 2.2 INDUSTRIAL SECTOR

Six industrial sectors were identified to be the subjects of a thorough study of their atmospheric emissions. This choice results from the crossing between the activities likely to generate pollutants and the activities represented well in Brussels: they are service stations, dry cleaning, printing works, body, incinerators, and the fitters of air conditioning systems. The domestic uses of solvents, by their importance in the emissions, are also taken into account. Incinerators are responsible for emissions of many pollutants, the other sectors primarily of COV.

Air Quality Management 141 Guidebook On the other hand the systems of air conditioning contain fluorinated gases which undermine the layers of ozone or which have an effect of greenhouse. Moreover, generally of the concrete actions will have to be carried out to limit the emissions of COV and substances attacking the layer of ozone. The incinerator remains however an important gas transmitter for purpose of greenhouse (11,5% of CO2 and 17% of the CH4 emitted in the Area) and of precursory pollutants of the ozoneº(10% from Nox and 12% of the NMVOC emitted in the Area).

K 2.3 SYSTEMS OF AIR CONDITIONING

Systems HVAC (Heating Ventilation Air Conditioning) a bad refrigerating installation operation involves emissions by escapes of cooling agents of which hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC), fluorobromocarbons (halons) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFC). The HCFC contribute to the thinning of the stratospheric layer of ozone. They appeared to replace CFC which have a potential of thinning of the layer of ozone more raised and of which the use was limited for this reason by the Protocol of Montreal (1987). The HFC are fluorinated gases mentioned again in the list of greenhouse gases in the Kyoto Protocol. Belgium must reduce the emissions of here 2008-2012 (by report/ratio at 1995 for fluorinated gases for purpose of greenhouse). The inventory of the emissions reveals that the use and the emissions strongly increase. This phenomenon is due mainly to a progressive abolition of the use of the substances impoverishing the layer of ozone in various applications for which the HFC constitute an alternative.

K 2.4 USE OF SOLVENTS

The domestic use of solvents accounts for 23% of the total emissions of COV of the Area. In addition to this significant part of the emissions of COV, this pollution is important because of its diffuse character. The content solvent of the domestic products is of federal competence. However the administrations have the possibility in their schedules of conditions of requiring that the products used for the realization of work of painting or maintenance be free from solvents or contain some limited quantities. The use of "burn-all" by the households is as with it a problem of local pollution and diffusion (without control, any type of waste can be burned there under conditions of bad output of emissions of high pollutants). The marketing of these "small domestic incinerators" is a federal competence.

K 2.5 EXPOSURE INTEGRATED

Regulations as regards integrated exposure of the population constitute one of the priority axes as regards improvement structural of the quality of the air. This axis concretises the strategies of Brussels of the NEHAP (National Environmental and Health Action Plan) within the framework of the air. They fall under a total strategy, which integrates the concerns of health related to the environment in a concept of development durable. The regulations as regards integrated exposure of the population constitute one of the priority axes as regards improvement structural of the quality of the air. This axis concretizes the strategies of Brussels of the NEHAP (National Environmental and Health Action Plan) within the framework of the air. They fall under a total strategy which integrates the concerns of health related to the environment in a concept of development durable.

K 3 Implementation of the Strategy

K 3.1 The concerns and intentions of the population

That it is in term of choice of residence or disadvantages of living downtown, the environmental quality comes at the head from the concerns expressed by the Inhabitants of Brussels. By way of example, a survey of July 1998 highlights that 38% of the questioned people mention the air pollution is the most alarming environmental problem in Brussels and 75% of the people questioned point to motor vehicle traffic as the principal cause. Moreover, they are said generally ready to personally apply a certain number of rules aiming at improving quality of the air in Brussels like respecting the speed limits and adopting a non aggressive control (73% completely ready). With regard to the measures to be taken, the questioned people favour largely an increase in the public pressure on the management of the automobile traffic, except with regard to the taxation.

Air Quality Management 142 Guidebook K 3.2 Effect of the Strategy

K 3.2.1 Housing sector

The best scenario is Voluntarism scenario 2 – BAU 3 (Business as usual). It supposes a constant increase of housing number and a stabilization of consumption by imposition of the standard (see below.)

K 3.2.1.1 Improvement of the insulation

• Placement of aluminium foils behind the radiators (25% of the residences with central heating) • Replacement of the electric heating by gas heating (50% of the residences heated to electricity) • Regular Maintenance of the oil-fired boilers (50% of the residences heated to fuel oil) • Replacement of 30 % of boilers more than 20 years old. • Use of a solar heater for the production of domestic hot water (2% of the residences) • Replacement of incandescent lamps by "economic" lamps (50% of the residences) Replacement of the refrigerators and the refrigerators by Class A appliances (50% of the residences, see Table 29) Is the aim reached? Distance from the aim to reach in 2010 SO2 Yes 5.02% NOx without un-NOx No -5.99% NOx with un-NOx Yes 11.76% NMVOC No -26.56% CO2 No -7.75% Table 29: Replacement of the refrigerators and the refrigerators by Class A appliances (50% of the residences) K 3.2.2 Transport sector A reduction of 20% of the traffic (voluntarist scenario) in 2010 compared to 2000 is necessary in order to respect the standard of emission CO2 envisaged by the Air Plan, and this by taking in account of the starting assumptions. The Table 30 below shows the whole of the emissions of pollutant for 2010 related to the voluntaries scenario and also shows that a reduction of 20,1 % of the traffic makes it possible to achieve all the goals of emissions of the pollutants. Total 1990 2000 Scenario Aim Evolution Scenario Aim Aim emissions 2010 Brussels 2010/2000 2010/1990 Brussels achieved? by transport “ralenti 2010 2010/1990 (road, classique” railway and CO2 river) standard SO2(t) 525.72 161.55 48.53 70 -69.96% -90.77% -86.68% 4.08% yes NOx(t) 5900 4437.4 2300 2380 -48.17% -61.02% -59.66% 1.36% yes CH4(t) 300.01 219.24 50.07 NMVOC(t) 6014.9 4080.5 937.53 1246 -77.02% -84.41% -79.29% 5.13% yes CO(t) 41951 25368. 7092.68 CO2(kt) 764.33 826.12 706.99 707.01 -14.42% -7.5% -7.5% 0.00% yes N2O(t) 23.70 78.52 83.45 NH3(t) 5.23 71.5 78.76 Zn(kg) 232.80 256.62 216.64 <1990 -15.58% -6.94% 0.00% 6.94% yes Ni(kg) 16.30 17.96 15.16 <1990 -15.58% -6.94% 0.00% 6.94% yes Cu(kg) 395.76 436.26 368.29 <1990 -15.58% -6.94% 0.00% 6.94% yes Cr(kg) 11.64 12.83 10.83 <1990 -15.58% -6.94% 0.00% 6.94% yes Cd(kg) 2.33 2.57 2.17 <1990 -15.58% -6.94% 0.00% 6.94% yes Pb(t) 12.62 0.47 0.82 <1990 74.67% -93.52% 0.00% 93.5% yes HAP’S- 7.00 5.92 2.16 <1990 -63.47% -69.11% 0.00% 69.1% yes POP’s(t) Dioxine(g) 0.21 0.03 .01 <1990 -65.94% -95.02% 0.00% 95.0% yes Se(kg) 2.33 2.57 2.17 <1990 -15.58% -6.94% 0.00% 6.94% yes Table 30: emissions of pollutant for 2010 related to the voluntaries scenario

Air Quality Management 143 Guidebook Summary

Brussels has no heavy industry therefore emissions mainly come from car traffic, heating and a number of other miscellaneous sources. The biggest source of greenhouse gases is heating. The government of the Brussels Capital Region adopted a plan to improve air quality that brings together measures to improve ambient air quality on the one hand and on the other hand a diminishment of greenhouse gases by the year 2010. A reduction of the emissions caused by cars could be achieved by technological improvements, speed and traffic-flow-control as well as promote cycling and increase of the offer of public transport. The usage of clean vehicles can take a contribution to enhance the air quality in Brussels. In the light of goods traffic, transport via rail respectively the utilisation of waterways will be focused. Furthermore in other sectors where emissions are occurred the government has different rudiments to tackle emissions.

Air Quality Management 144 Guidebook M. CASE STUDY 7: Shore power Fishing Port of Scheveningen

CITEAIR – Common Information To European Air

Component 2 – Guidebook for Air Quality Management

Case Studies of Management Strategies

Title Shore power Fishing Port of Scheveningen

Brief Description

Author(s) Felix van der Meijden, Department of City Management, The Hague

Links & Contacts

Long Med Short Comments Term Term Term Strategy Type

AQ Effects PM NOx O3 CO CO2 SO2 Other Comments High Med Low

High Low Cost Technology

Air Quality Management 145 Guidebook Shore power Fishing Port of Scheveningen

A major contractor wants to develop new facilities on the northern quay of the Fishing Port of Scheveningen (Map 9), in conjunction with the local authority. These facilities originally included short- stay rental apartments, shops and an underground parking. The major fishing companies (Jaczon and Van der Zwan) as well as United Fish Auctions have expressed their desire to have additional warehouses (cold storage) and quay facilities for loading and unloading the fishing vessels. These facilities would be integrated in the existing plans for the area concerned. At present the northern quay has no usage because of limited space (present buildings are located 3 meters from the waterfront). New facilities would require the demolition of these buildings. Compliance to noise regulations is a decisive issue in terms of project feasibility. The shipping vessels are equipped with deep freeze storage facilities on board. The power for the refrigeration system is provided by a diesel engine driven generator. A typical engine will have a capacity of 800 kW. The diesel engine runs 24 hours a day. Acoustical research has demonstrated that the allowed sound exposure levels on the façade of adjacent living dwellings will be greatly exceeded, when these vessels are at berth and operational. A sound barrier is not feasible because of its sheer size (19 meters high). The existing quay will loose its functionality to a great extent. Aesthetics are also a major drawback (the local population will never accept such a solution). The most suitable alternative is shore-connected electricity also known as cold ironing. The fishing vessels will have to be modified, if the project is carried out, to accommodate for the supply of electricity from the quay. The cold ironing project is closely related to the development of the northern quay. Taking into account the time required for designing the whole project and the many procedures involved, construction will not start before 2008, assuming the decision to proceed with the project is taken. Based on estimates by GTI Marine and Offshore and the Energy supplier (Eneco) the construction time will take 2 years.

Fishing Port

Map 9: Fishing Port of Scheveningen

Geographic scope

The environmental and subsequent health effects of cold ironing are local in their nature. Noise reduction can be achieved by simply creating sufficient distance between the source and the object (living dwellings) that needs protection. Obstacles (other buildings) act as sound barriers.

Air Quality Management 146 Guidebook The Fishing Port is part of a larger highly urbanised area also referred to as the ‘Delta Metropolis’. The background concentrations of the pollutants in the city have their origin in the industrial areas of Rotterdam (refineries and petrochemical plants93) and from the sea (shipping in the North Sea and natural sources). The Hague hardly has any industry. Most of the local emissions are traffic related. Household heating is mainly the remaining source. To determine the socio-economic feasibility of cold ironing only the local airborne emissions and their effects are therefore considered. When considering noise and air quality the area of impact is the port and its surrounding residential areas. When assessing the effects on climate change (carbon dioxide emissions form the ships) the city as a whole is the area of impact. The explanation is found in the city’s CO2-neutral policy.

Implementation of the Strategy

Include factors such as: • Legislation used / required, • Costs and revenue of scheme • Political and public opinions of the issues and support for the scheme • Technological requirements for the scheme • Problems and / or future developments for the management strategy

Legislation

The North Sea has been identified in MARPOL Annex VI (entered into force on 19 May 2005) as a SOx Emission Control Area. This means that at least one the following conditions shall be fulfilled94: • the sulphur content of marine fuels, used by sea-going vessels while being in the SOx Emission Control Area, does not exceed 1.5%; • the use of an approved exhaust gas cleaning system to reduce the ship’s total SOx emission, including both auxiliary and main propulsion engines, to below 6 g/kWh or • the use of another technological method to reduce SOx emission to below 6 g/kWh.

The European Commission drafted a “European Union strategy to reduce atmospheric emissions from seagoing ships”, COM(2002) 595 final. This has led to a proposal for a revision of Directive 1999/32/EC regarding the sulphur content of marine fuel. The Commission proposal did not initially include any provisions for exemptions to the port requirement (0.1% sulphur when operating at berth). For shore-side electricity an exception was made in the second reading of the proposal (article 4b). The justification for the amendment is cited below: The use of low-sulphur marine gas oils in ports is a matter of high priority, and derogations/exemptions should be avoided to the largest extent possible. The use of shore- side electricity significantly reduces air and noise emissions in ports and should therefore be promoted.

Technological requirements for the scheme

One of the requirements for the Fishing Port was the flexible use of the quay since the reefer vessels do not have a fixed berth. This a major difference with regard to existing shore power facilities like Göteborg. The design discussed below is part of a feasibility study performed by Koppies & Stevens Port Management Consultants, in cooperation with GTI Marine & Offshore and Ecorys. The shore supply of electricity is universal (6kV, 60 Hz) using cable reel towers extending 7 meters above the quay. An electro-hydraulic tensile mechanism keeps the electrical cable tight, adjusting for vertical displacement of the ship relative to the quay caused by changes in vessel weight during (un)loading and tides.

93 Emissions from high stacks get attenuated under influence of the wind but contribute, in reduced concentrations, to the background pollution in a wide area (hundreds of kilometers from the source). 94 The proposition is part of an amendment in 2000. The North Sea will be formerly designated as an SOx Emission Control Area, when the amendment enters into force, on the day Annex VI becomes effective.

Air Quality Management 147 Guidebook The cable reel towers have a horizontal reach of 15 meters, 60 degrees to each side of the quay. The electrical connection to the ship is made using high-voltage plugs. A fibre glass wire integrated with the cable provides for the necessary data between the vessel and the transformer/switchboard (for example the required frequency). The locations of the towers are illustrated in the diagram 6.

new quay

existing cold storage

Diagram F: Tower locations

Two stations consisting of a transformer, switchboard and frequency modulator are planned, one on each side of the Fishing Port. One of the stations is fed by the main electricity supply from the energy provider (primary station). The other station is connected to the primary station by a 10 kV cable. This solution is the most cost-effective and provides some degree of redundancy. The best solution is to integrate the primary station with the new superstructures that are planned alongside the new quay. The total power supply for each station is 3 MW. This capacity is based on the requirements of the largest vessel and the simultaneous presence of ships - of all sizes - needing shore power supply. A rotating modulator provides the necessary conversion from 10 kV with a frequency of 50 Hz to 6 kV at a frequency of 60 Hz. A 10kV/6kV transformer provides the voltage for those ships using the standard 50 Hz, common on land.

Costs and revenue of scheme

Facilities and buildings requiring more than 2.4 MW of electrical power need to be fed from a main power station, using a 10 kV high voltage cable. Considering the peak power requirements of the vessels, using shore power simultaneously, the use of the existing electrical infrastructure in the port is not permitted. The nearest (and most accessible) main power station, operated by energy supplier Eneco, is located approximately 1,500 m from the primary transformer. The power station must be equipped with a main connection to supply the shore power electrical network, which requires an investment of € 229,000. The energy supplier is responsible for the main connection. Considering the high power demand for the shore power facilities it is conceivable that the secondary power station has insufficient capacity. Since the energy supplier is legally bound to provide adequate capacity, the costs of such an expansion do not need to be considered for the cost-benefit analysis of this project ( Table 32).

Air Quality Management 148 Guidebook The shore power electrical network involves a high voltage cable between the transformers and from the transformers to the cable reel towers. The total costs of the cable infrastructure are € 484120 (in 2005 prices). The 10 kV cable between the transformers and part of the 6 kV cables from the transformers to the cable reel towers are running parallel (about 65%) which will reduce the unit costs of excavation. The lower costs of canalization are also possible as a result of the construction work for the new quay. The cables can be buried during the process of building the quay. Part of the cable will be laid in existing quays. The cost of that section (about half the total length) will be higher but less costly than the main power cable because of the lack of obstacles and the absence of other underground infrastructure. GTI Marine & Offshore was responsible for the electro-technical design of the facilities and the cost estimates for transformers, switchboards and cable reel towers. The design includes 8 reel cable towers which allows the use of shore power on any berth location within the Fishing Port of Scheveningen.

No Part Unit Price Quantity Costs

1 Transformers and switch boards € 2.990

2 Cable reel towers € 60 8 € 480

3 High voltage containers placed on € 85 8 € 680 reefer vessels while at berth

4 Permanent ship modifications € 110 15 € 1.650

5 Main power supply Eneco € 229

6 Cable infrastructure € 484

Total € 6.513

Table 31: Investments in thousands of euros (2005 price level)

Depending on the destination of the fishing vessels time at sea varies from 3 to 5 weeks. Berth time is approximately 1 day for every week at sea. Together these vessels remain approximately 700 days a year at berth. This includes the use of the new quay. The annual combined electricity consumption of the reefer vessels is 10 GWh (see Table 31). The variable costs are based on the peak tariff of approximately € 0,060 per kWh (from 07.00 - 23.00 hours) and a night tariff of € 0,030 per kWh. The average price for the use of electricity is estimated at € 0,0437 per kWh. In addition the power user pays a charge of € 0,00112 per kWh for the maintenance of the electricity network. The fixed costs for the use of electricity are based on the available capacity of 6 MW and the maximum average monthly power consumption, estimated at 50% of peak capacity. The number of running hours of the auxiliary engines will be considerably reduced when shore power is used while the ship is at berth. This will affect the frequency of engine maintenance. Based on estimates by the ship-owner the maintenance costs will decrease by € 4 per running hour. In 2013, based on 700 days at berth (all vessels) the savings will amount to € 69.000. The ship modifications could result in loss of cargo space. The use of non-permanent electrical equipment onboard (containers) aims at preventing loss of cargo space. Further investigation is required (each reefer vessel must be considered separately) to provide the answer. The possible loss of operational income resulting from reduced cargo space is mentioned as P.M. in the cost-benefit analysis. The direct costs associated with the use of shore power and the savings resulting from reduced fuel consumption and maintenance are shown in Table 32.

Air Quality Management 149 Guidebook Costs (-) 2010 2013

Electricity • Fixed € 202.000 € 202.000 • Variable € 189.000 € 474.000 Operational costs € 38.000 € 95.000 Maintenance costs • Annual € 10.000 € 10.000 • major servicing € 23.000 Crew training € 3.000 € 3.000 Total € 442.000 € 807.000 Savings (+)

Reduced fuel consumption € 337.000 € 843.000 Reduced engine maintenance € 45.000 € 69.000 Total € 382.000 € 912.000 Net operational results - € 60.000 € 129.000

Table 32: Direct annual expenditures shore power Fishing Port of Scheveningen In the first year the costs of using the shore power facilities exceed the benefits. From 2013 onwards the operational costs of shore power are lower than the use of the auxiliary engines onboard. During the transition period some of the vessels still need to be modified to allow for connection to the shore power facilities. As soon as all reefer vessels make use of shore power the reduced costs of fuel and maintenance outweigh the costs of electricity consumption. In this calculation the price of gas oil was assumed to remain high (price based on bunker market in November 2004) during the lifespan of the project. The higher refining costs for 0,1% sulphur content in the marine fuel has also been taken into account (based on BeicipFranlab study).

Effect of the Strategy

The feasibility report by Koppies & Stevens Port Management Consultants has taken the use of 4 new additional ships into consideration as a result of the use of the new quay. Assumptions have been made with regard to the size of these vessels and average time spent at berth. No independent research was conducted to determine the specific emissions of the reefer ships in the Fishing Port. This is a costly and time-consuming procedure. A study by Environ for the Port of Los Angeles has shown that emissions of vessels within a single category may differ greatly. Furthermore the emissions at the time of the reference year (2010) would not compare to present monitoring data. The use of readily available average emission factors provided by a recent extensive study [Entec, 2002] for the European Commission seemed the obvious choice. These emission factors are differentiated in several ways: • ship categories, based on the LMUI* Code; • location (at sea, manoeuvring and in-port); • engine (slow, medium or high speed diesel) and fuel type; • origin and destination port. For determining the emissions in the Fishing Port of Scheveningen the data for vessels belonging to LMUI (Lloyd’s Marine Intelligence Unit) Code B11 for in-port operation was chosen. This differentiation takes the emission of the auxiliary engines into account. It should be noted that the actual annual reduction of emissions will decrease during the lifespan of the shore power facilities. Gas oil with a 0,1% sulphur content will be in use in the port starting from 2010. Ships built after 1 January 2000 need to comply with the IMO NOx Code (based on MARPOL Annex VI). The new nitrogen dioxide limits will apply to 3 ships calling at the port of Scheveningen. Based on a rated speed of 1800 rpm the NO2-emission of the auxiliary engines on these vessels may not exceed 10 µg/m3. This is lower than the emission factor used in the Entec- study. A number of ships will be replaced, further reducing the annual emissions.

The socio-economic benefit of reducing 1 kg of each of the main pollutants is listed in Table 33.

Air Quality Management 150 Guidebook Emission Valuation Pollutant [g / kWh] [€ / kg]

SO2 12,2 3,7

NOx 13,4 8,6

PM10 0,8 184 Table 33: valuation of airborne emissions95

Similarly the socio-economic benefit of reducing 1 dB(A) of noise for each resident living within the exposed area was determined. Based on literature the value was set at € 21. This data was then used to make the cost-benefit analysis shown in Table 34. The Net Present Value covers the entire lifespan of the facilities (15 years). As stated before the emission data is somewhat inflated. This is particularly the case for the SO2 emissions. PM10 values have an uncertainty between 20 and 50%. 20% lower 20% higher In thousands of euro’s Basic investment investment costs costs Net Present Value (NPV) € 26.123 € 26.617 € 25.629 Economic Internal Rate of Return 36,4% 43,0% 31,7% (EIRR) Financial Internal Rate of Return 1,2% 1,6% 1,0% (FIRR)

Table 34: Cost-Benefit Analysis shore power Fishing Port of Scheveningen

Conclusions

The project is technically feasible but requires a large investment in order to provide the flexible use of shore power facilities. As a result the project is not financially feasible. The cost-benefit analysis shows that in socio-economic terms, the investment is feasible, even when taking various uncertainties into account.

95 CE, 1999 (valuation data corrected to 2004 price level)

Air Quality Management 151 Guidebook GLOSSARY

AA ACS Access Control Scheme ANPR Automatic Number Plate Recognition APP Air Protection Plan AQAP Air Quality Action Plan AQD Air Quality Directive AQMA Air Quality Management Area AQMAP Air Quality Management Action Plans AQR Air Quality Report AQRA Air Quality Review and Assessment CC CAQI Common air quality index CNG Compressed Natural Gas COW Common Operational Website DD DCMR Regional authority that carries out air quality monitoring for municipalities DTI Department of Trade and Industry EE EMS Environmental Management System GG GVB Grazer Verkehrsbetriebe HH HCC Hampshire City Council II IBGE Organization which is responsible for the environment and energy in Brussels IPPC Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control ITS Intelligent Transport System LL LCPD Large Combustion Plant Directive LEZ Low Emission Zone LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas LTZ Limited Traffic Zone NN NECD National Emissions Ceiling Directive NMVOC Non methane volatile organic compounds PP PM Particulate matter RR RP Road Pricing RSO Rape-Seed Oil RUC Road Usage Charging SS SCOOT Spilt Cycle Offset Optimisation Technique TT TDMS Traffic Demand Management Strategy TMB Barcelona Metropolitan Transport TMC Technical Management Community TNO Netherlands’s Research Organisation TNO The Netherlands Research Organisation TRL Transport Research Liability TSS Transport System Sector UU UCO used cooking oil UTMC Urban Traffic Management & Control VV VPS/CN Vehicle Positioning System with Cellular Network

Air Quality Management 152 Guidebook Air Quality Management 153 Guidebook Air Quality Management 154 Guidebook