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Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-51430-9 - A History of Islamic Societies: Third Edition Ira M. Lapidus Index More information

INDEX

Note: Page numbers in italics refer to illustrations and tables.

‘Abbasid dynasty, 46, 70–3 Abdulrahim, Imaduddin, 744 ‘Abbasid empire: administration of central government, ‘Abdur Rahman, Amir, 722, 724 76–9; Baghdad as capital of, 74–6; decline of central Abi Khayr, 221 government, 85–7; and imperial Islam, 102–106; and Abraham (biblical ﬁgure), 36, 42, 96 inquisition, 104–105, 173; and local governments, Abraham ibn Ezra, 309, 310 80–2; provincial autonomy and rise of independent Abu al-‘Abbas b. al-’Arif, 303 states, 88–91; and provincial governments, 79–80; Abu ‘Abdallah Muhammad al-Jazuli, 321 resistance and rebellion in, 82–4; and Saljuq Empire, Abu al-‘Ala’ al-Ma‘rri, 201 182.SeealsoArab-Muslim empire Abu ‘Amir b. Garcia, 302 ‘Abbud, Ibrahim, 784 Abu Ayyub al-Ansari, 341 ‘Abdallah (Jordan), 588 Abu Bakr, 35, 48, 49, 65, 454 ‘Abdallah (Saudi Arabia), 614, 617 Abu Bakr ibn ‘Abdullah al-‘Aydarus, 484 ‘Abdallah ibn Abi Bakr, 33 Abu Bakr al-Khallal, 133 ‘Abdallah, Amir (Transjordan), 587 Abu Dhabi, 622 ‘Abdallah, Faruq, 720 Abu Hafs al-Naysaburi, 135 ‘Abdallah Jevdet, 531 Abu Hafs ‘Umar, 295 ‘Abdallah b. Salim, 484 Abu Hanifa, 126 ‘Abdallah b. Yasin, 294 Abu al Hasan al-Shadhili, 297 ‘Abdallah b. al-Zubayn, 69 Abu Hashim, 135 ‘Abd-‘Aziz, Sultan, 325 Abu Jummayza, 781 ‘Abd-‘Aziz, Shah, 699 Abu’l-Fazl ‘Allami, 404 ‘Abd al-‘Aziz b. Sa‘ud.SeeIbn Sa‘ud Abu’l-Kalam Azad, 706 ‘Abd al-‘Aziz b. Sa‘ud II, 613 Abu Madyan al-Andalusi, 222, 296 ‘Abd al-Haﬁz, 325 Abu Mazen, 605, 607 ‘Abd al-Hamid II, 529–30 Abu Muslim, 72, 83 ‘Abd al-Karim, 643 Abu Najib al-Suhrawardi, 222 ‘Abd al-Khaliq Ghujdavani, 425 Abu Sa‘id Kharraz, 136 ‘Abd al-Malik, 57, 69–70, 93, 95, 96, 102, 172 Abu Sayyaf group, 753 ‘Abd al-Mu’min, 295 Abu Talib, 33, 35, 41 ‘Abd al-Qadir, 468, 628 Abu Yazid al-Bistami, 136 ‘Abd al-Rabbih, 301 Abu Yusuf, 126, 127, 155 ‘Abd al-Rahman I, 299 Aceh, 438, 442–3, 741 ‘Abd al-Rahman II, 299, 302 Achaemenid Empire, 9 ‘Abd al-Rahman III, 299, 307 Acre, siege of (1192), 194 ‘Abd al-Rahman, Sayyid, 783 adab (literary form), 169 ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Rashid, 479 Adal, 483 ‘Abd al-Rahman b. Rustam, 290 Addis Ababa accord of 1972, 785 ‘Abd al-Ra’uf al-Singkeli, 443 Aden, 609 ‘Abd al-Samad, 443 ‘adl (divine justice), 122 ‘Abduh, Muhammad, 518, 519, 564 administration.Seebureaucracy; government, taxation

951

952 Index

al-Afdal, 192 Alfonso X (Spain), 311 affiliated regions, of ‘Abbasid Empire, 80 Algeria: and Fatimid Empire, 292; French colonialism in, al-Afghani, Jamal al-Din, 518–19, 564, 707 627–35; Islamic opposition in contemporary, 852; Afghanistan, 546, 720, 721–6, 841, 849 modernism and Islamic reformism in, 519; and Muslim Afghans, and Safavid Empire, 388, 389 identity, 831; and nationalism, 520, 831; and Ottoman Aflaq, Michel, 583–4, 586 Empire, 319–20, 327; post-independence era in, 635–7, Africa: colonialism as theme in history of, 450–1; Islam 649; resistance to French occupation of, 521, 628–9, and diversity of, 798–801; Islam and themes defining 630–5, 649; and variations on theme of Islam and state history of, 447–50; Muslim communities and state formation, 326–7 formation in, 490–1.SeealsoCentral Africa; East Africa; Alhambra, 307, 308 North Africa; sub-Saharan Africa; West Africa; specific ‘Ali (caliph), 35, 65–7, 71, 95, 103–104, 191 countries Ali, Noble Drew, 804 African Americans, and Islam, 802, 804–805 ‘Ali b. Daud, 483 African Democratic Assembly (RDA), 760–1 ‘Ali b. Dunama, 458 Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP), 793 ‘Ali al-Karaki, 380 Aghlabid dynasty, 290 ‘Ali Mughayat Shah (Sultan), 442 Agrarian Law of 1870 (Java), 730 ‘Ali Pasha of Janina, 368 agriculture: and Arab-Muslim empire in Iraq, 54, 55; and ‘Ali al-Rida, 172 Dutch colonialism in Java, 730, 731; introduction of Alia, Ramiz, 811 irrigation to Spain, 298–9; plantation system and slave aliran (Indonesia), 740 trade in Africa, 450.Seealsoeconomics and economy; Aliyev, Haidar, 686–7 land tenure Allah’s Nation of the Five Percenters, 805 ahdath (gangs), 214 al-Allawi, Iyad, 597 al-Ahkam al-Sultaniyya (al-Mawardi), 230–1 All-India Muslim League, 706 ahl al-dhimma (Peoples of the Book), 52 almami, 468 Ahl-i Hadith, 836 Almohads, 294–6 Ahmad Baba, 459 Almoravids, 293, 294–6, 303, 454 Ahmad Bey (Tunisia), 638 Alptigin, 179 Ahmad ibn Hanbal, 104, 130, 155 Altynsarin, Ibragim, 672 Ahmad b. Ibrahim, Imam, 483 Amanullah, Amir, 724 Ahmad ibn Idris, 484 Amara Dunqas, 477 Ahmad al-Jazzar, 375 American Muslim Political Coordination Council, 809 Ahmad al-Kunta al-Bakka’i, 473 American Revolution, 506 Ahmad Lobbo, 472 American Society of Muslims, 805 Ahmad b. Taymiyya, 231–2 American University of Beirut, 580 Ahmad al-Tayyib b. al-Bashir, Shaykh, 781 Amharic language, 482 Ahmad al-Tijani, 320 al-Amidi, 131 Ahmad b. Tulun, 89 al-Amin, 85 Ahmadinejad, Mahmood, 558–9 Amin, Hafizullah, 725 Ahmadiyya, 788, 797 Amin,Idi,796 Ahmadu Bello, 771 Amin, Qasim, 653 Ahmed III, 369 Aminu Kano, 771 Ahmed Nedim, 369 amir al-mu’minin (commander of the believers), 65, 99 Ahura Mazda, 13 amir al-umara’ (general-in-chief), 90 ‘A’isha (wife of Prophet), 66, 146 Amir Khusrau Dihlavi, 415 Ait Ahmed, 634 Amir Nasrallah, 426 Ajnadayn, Battle of (634), 49 Ammar al-Basri, 158 Akaev, Askar, 690 ‘Amr b. al-‘As, 49 Akbar, 401, 403–404 Amzian Muhammad, 629 AKP (Turkey), 540–2, 543 Anatolia: and Arab-Muslim conquests, 50; Ottoman ‘Ala’ al-Din Khalji, 392–3, 400 Empire and government of, 343; spread of Islam into, Alash Orda, 672 273–4; and Sufism, 357; Turkish migrations into, 331–2; ‘Alawis, 323–5, 590, 591 and World War I, 532–3.SeealsoTurkey Albania, 530, 811–12 angel, image of Muhammad as, 119–20 alchemy, 111, 112 Anglo-Egyptian Condominium (1899–1955), 781–2 Aleksander, King (Yugoslavia), 811 Anglo-Iraqi treaty (1922), 587 Aleppo, 192, 194, 375 Anglo-Ottoman treaty (1838), 531 Alexander the Great, 9 Anglo-Persian treaty (1919), 549 Alexandria (Egypt), 110 animism: in Caucasus and Inner Asia, 683; in Ivory Coast, Alfonso VI (Spain), 303 778.Seealsopaganism

Index 953

anjumans (religious associations), 703 Arab revolts of 1936–38 (Palestine), 601 ansar (earliest Medinan converts), 115 Arab Spring: in Egypt, 577–8; and Saudi Arabia, 626; in anticolonialism, and militant Islamic movements, Tunisia, 641; and women, 666 840 Arafat, Yassir, 603, 605, 606, 607 Anti-Terrorism Act (Canada), 810 Aramaic language, 31, 38, 63, 157, 165 Anvari, 203 archaeology, and evidence for Islamic identity, 93 Aoun, Michel, 598 architecture: and ‘Abbasid caliphate, 105; and Delhi Aphorisms of the Statesman (al-Farabi), 234 sultanate, 394; and Fatimid Egypt, 191; and apostasy (ridda) wars, 65 Hispano-Arabic culture, 301, 307; influence of al-‘Aqaba, pledge of, 35 pre-Islamic forms on early Islamic era, 169; and Jewish ‘aql (reason), 242 culture in Spain, 310; and Mughal Empire, 404; and al-Aqraba, Battle of (633), 48 Ottoman Empire, 346; and regional cultures in al-Aqsa, 119 post-‘Abbasid era, 203–204; and Umayyad period, 95, Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee, 809 96–9.Seealsomosques Arabia: Arab-Muslim empire and transformation of Arifi, 345 antique heritage of pre-Islamic, 167–74; and Arabism, Aristotle, 109, 110, 121, 131, 301, 310, 311 582; conversion to Islam and tribal societies of, 271; Arkoun, Muhammad, 834 family in late antique, 145–7; and Islamic reform Armenia, and Armenians, 80, 184, 353–4, 386, 527, movements, 517; and migrations following 532–3, 686 Arab-Muslim conquests, 50; and opposition to art: and influence of pre-Islamic cultures on early Islamic ‘Abbasid Empire, 83; overview of on eve of Islamic era, 169; Islamic motifs in Spanish, 307; and Java, 440; era, 26–32; Quran and traditional values of, 40; roles of and Mongol regimes, 204, 205; and Mughal Empire, Arabs in ‘Abbasid Empire, 76.SeealsoArabic 404, 415; and Ottoman Empire, 345–6, 415; and language; Arab provinces; Gulf states; Saudi Arabia; Safavid Empire, 383, 415; and Umayyad period, United Arab Emirates 100–101; visual in post-‘Abbasid era, 203.Seealso Arabian Peninsula.SeeGulf states; Kuwait; Saudi Arabia; culture; literature; manuscript illustration; Yemen representational images Arabic language: and ‘Abbasid Empire, 76; and Arusha Declaration of 1967, 793 Arab-Muslim empire, 63–4, 70, 157; Christian literature ‘asabiyya (group solidarity), 28 in, 158; and Copts in Egypt, 160; and Hispano-Arabic al-Asad, Bashar, 590, 592, 606 society in Spain, 300; Islamic scholarship and linguistic al-Asad, Hafiz, 590 studies, 118; and Jewish culture in Islamic context, Asawira (Persian archers), 59 165; and Persian culture in post-‘Abbasid era, 201; and asceticism, and Sunnis, 134–8 pre-Islamic societies in Arabia, 31 Ashanta, 464 Arabism, and Arab states in colonial period, 583–8 Ashanti Empire, 777 Arab-Israeli war (1947–1948), 587, 588 al-Ash‘ari, 123–4, 246 Arab-Israeli war (1967), 589, 592, 601 Ash‘arism, 123–4, 131, 245–6 Arabization: and Arab-Muslim empire, 70; of Spain, 300; Asia, overview of Islamic empires and societies in, of Swahili culture, 481 329–30.SeealsoCentral Asia; China; Inner Asia; Arab League, 593, 598, 601 Southeast Asia; specific countries Arab-Muslim empire: and ‘Abbasid dynasty, 70–3; Askiya Muhammad Ture, 456 administration of, 50, 52–3, 70; and Arabic language, assimilation: and Arab-Muslim empire, 59, 60, 63–4; and 63–4; and Christianity, 52, 61, 156–61; conquests of, Muslims in China, 695; and Muslims in western 48–50, 51, 391–5; and conversions to Islam, 61–3, Europe, 815; and Muslims in U.S., 803–804 156–7; and Egypt, 57–8, 61; historical character of, Association of Indonesian Muslim Intellectuals (AIMI), 46–7; and India, 391–5; integration of conquering and 744, 746 conquered peoples in, 58–60; and Iran, 58, 60, 63; and Assyria, 9, 19 Iraq, 54–5, 61; Jews and Judaism in, 161–6; and Astrakhan, 420, 421, 423 Marwanids, 69–70; and Mesopotamia, 56–7; and Astrakhanid dynasty, 426 Middle Eastern Islamic patterns, 259–61; and Ata, Gezli, 668 non-Muslim minorities, 153–66; and Rightly Guided atabeg (regent), 184 Caliphs, 65–7; and Syria, 55–6, 57, 63; and Ataturk (Mustafa Kemal), 530, 533–5, 535, 653 transformation of pre-Islamic cultures, 167–74; and atheism, and zanadiqa, 103 Umayyad monarchy, 67–9; women and family in, Athens, school of, 109 147–8 Atlantic slave trade, 450, 487 Arab nationalism: notables and rise of, 579–83; Arabism ‘Attar, Farid al-Din, 203 and use of term, 583–4; and Islam in Arab states, aul (extended family), 420 622–6; and struggle for unity in contemporary Fertile Auliya, Shaykh Nizam al-Din, 398, 400 Crescent states, 588–99 Aurangzeb, 405–407 Arab provinces, of Ottoman Empire, 373–6 Austria, 338, 363, 525

954 Index

Austrian war of 1593–1606, 363 Banda, 438 authenticity, and hadith, 129 Bangladesh, 717, 727, 843 authoritarianism: and Egypt under Mubarak, 571; and Bangladesh Welfare Association, 818 politics in Turkey, 543; and post-independence era in Banjermasin war of 1859, 733 North Africa, 649–50 banks, and global Islamic interactions, 838.Seealso authority: ‘Abbasid Empire and decline of central, 89; ﬁnancial system boundaries of in caliphate, 67, 103; and concept of al-Banna, Hasan, 567 state in post-‘Abbasid era, 207; cultural legitimization Banten, 733 and identity in Ottoman Empire and, 344–6; and Banu Furat, 86–7 legitimacy in Mughal era, 403–404; Muslim scholars in Banu Hashim, 41, 71 India and political, 399–400; Safavids and religious, Banu Hilal, 292 380; of scholars in post-‘Abbasid era, 224–5 Banu Jarrah, 86–7 Averroes.SeeIbn Rushd Banu Nadir, 42 Avicenna.SeeIbn Sina Banu Nawbakht, 141 Awami League, 727 Banu Qaynuqa, 42 Aws tribe, 41 Banu Qurayza, 41, 42 Aya Sophia, 346 al-Baqillani, 253 Aybeg, 195 Barak, Ehud, 606 ‘Ayn Jalut, Battle of (1260), 195 Barani, 394 Ayodhya mosque episode (1989), 716 al-Barawi, Shaykh ‘Umar Uways, 791 ‘ayyarun (gangs), 214 Barmakid family, 78 Ayyubids, 194–5, 196, 228 Basayev, Shamil, 686 Azad, Abu’l Kalam, 714 Bashir II, 580 Azalis, 546 al-Bashir, ‘Umar, 786, 787 Azarbayjan, 60, 184, 203, 542, 673, 676, 686–7 Bashkiria, 676 al-Azhar, Shaykh, 563 Basij, 558 ‘Azm family, 375 basmachi (rural bandits), 674, 679 Azoury, Naguib, 581 Basra (Iran), 52, 55, 59 Ba’th Party, 586, 590, 593, 594 Baba Farid, 395–6 Batyr Srym, 423 Babur, 400–401 Bawa Muhaiyaddeen, Muhammad Raheem, 807 Badawi, Abdullah Ahmad, 752 Bawa Muhaiyaddeen Fellowship and Mosque, 807 Badi II, 478 Bayan (scripture), 546 Badr, Battle of, 35, 41 Bayar, Jelal, 536 Badr al-Jamali, 192 Bayazid I, 333, 340, 344 Baghdad, 74–6, 105, 152, 156, 200–201 Bayazid II, 340, 351 Baghdad Pact (1955), 551, 569 Baybars (Sultan), 197 Baha’ al-Din Naqshband, 425 bazaaris, 553–4, 625 Baha’i religion, 546, 548 bedouins: and Arab-Muslim empire, 52, 59, 61; and Baha’oilah, 546 Ottoman Empire, 374, 376; and pre-Islamic Arabia, Bahmanid regime (Bijapur), 394 28–30; Quran and values of, 40; and resistance to Bahrain, 612, 619, 621.SeealsoGulf states ‘Abbasid Empire, 83; and Syria in post-‘Abbasid era, Bahya bin Paquda, 309 192 Baisunghur, 205 Bedreddin, 357 Baki, 345 Begin, Menachem, 604 al-Bakka’i Sidi Ahmad, Shaykh, 461 Beirut (Lebanon), 580 al-Bakr, Ahmad Hassan, 593 Bektashi religious order, 357, 527–8, 811–12 Bakr tribe, 48–9 Belgium, 451 Baksar, Battle of (1764), 412 Belhadj, ‘Ali, 637 Baldwin, 192 Ben ‘Ali, Zine al-Abidine, 640, 641 Balfour Declaration (1917), 527, 582, 599 Ben Badis (‘Abd al-Hamid b. Badis), 631, 632–3 Balim Sultan, 357 Ben Bella, Ahmed, 634, 635 Balkans: and global expansion of Islam, 273, 274; and Benedict XIII, Pope, 356 Ottoman Empire, 333, 336, 338, 343, 348, 365, 371.See Bengal, 274, 282, 395, 408, 412, 515, 698, 700, 703, 706 also Bosnia; Croatia; Herzegovina; Serbia Bengali language, 394 Balkan wars of 1912–14, 532 Berbers: and Arab-Islamic civilization in North Africa, Baluchis, 721 290; and conversion to Islam, 272; and expansion of Bamba, Ahmad, 766 Islam in Africa, 447; and Fatimid Egypt, 188; and jihad, Bambaras, 758 467; and Morocco, 324, 642; and rebellions during Bamidele movement, 759 ‘Abbasid dynasty, 72

Index 955

Berdymukhammedov, Gurbanguly, 690 conquests, 49; and Christianity, 13, 15, 16, 28, 154, Berek (Unity), 672–3 158–9; and history of pre-Islamic Middle East, 9; and Berri, Nabih, 598 Ottoman Empire, 335; and pre-Islamic Arabia, 26, 28; Bezels of Wisdom, The (Ibn al-‘Arabi), 250 and Saljuq Empire, 182; and Syria, 158–9, 192; and Bhutto, Benazir, 719 Umayyad period, 100 Bhutto, Zulfiqar ‘Ali, 717, 848 Bible, and Quran, 39.SeealsoAbraham Cairo, 191, 210–11 Bihafarid, 83 caliphs and caliphates, and concepts of Islamic society in Bihzad, 205, 383 pre-modern era, 828.See‘Abbasid Empire, Bijapur, 394 Arab-Muslim empire, imperial Islam, Rightly Guided bin Laden, Osama, 726, 841 Caliphs, Umayyad period Bintang Hindia (newspaper), 735 Camel, Battle of the (656), 66 biography, of Muhammad, 23, 33–45, 119 Cameroon, 779 Biruni, 202 Camp David accords (1979), 570, 603 al-Bistami, 252 Canada, 809–10, 845 Bitar, Salah al-Din, 586 Caniklizadeler, 368 black Muslim nationalist movements, in U.S., 804 Cantiq (magazine), 746 Black Sea, 338, 363, 691 Cape Malays, 779 Black Sea Economic Cooperation Council, 541 Carlos (Spain), 315 Bofo Abba Gomol, 483 Carter, Jimmy, 570 Bohras, 410, 797 Caspian region, and ‘Abbasid Empire, 80, 82 Boko Haram, 776, 855 Caspian Sea, 691 Book of counsel for Kings (al-Ghazali), 232 caste, and Hindu revivalism, 715 Book of Government, The (Nizam al-Mulk), 232 Catherine the Great (Russia), 423, 667 Borneo, 435 Catholicism, spread of during Ottoman period, 355–6.See Bornu (Sudan), 456–8, 472 also Christianity Bosnia, 336, 525, 617, 810–11.SeealsoBalkans Caucasus: history of Islam in, 684–7; and Islamic reform Bouazizi, Muhammad, 577, 641 movements, 282, 517, 670–3; modernization and Bouh, Sa’ad, 766 Soviet Union in, 676–83; post-Soviet era in, 683–4; and Boumedi´ enne,` Houari, 634 Russian revolution, 673–6; Russia and tsarist rule in, Bourguiba, Habib, 639 667–70 Bouteflicka, Abdelaziz, 637, 852 Celebes, 741 Bradford Council of Mosques, 816–17 center/periphery theories, and Ottoman Empire, 371–2 Bremer, L. Paul, 596 Central Africa, and Muslim communities, 484–5.Seealso Brezhnev, Leonid, 681 West Africa; specific countries Britain.SeeGreat Britain Central Asia: Muslim population of, 843; and newly British East India Company, 365, 384, 412 independent states in formerly Soviet, 687–91, 692. See brotherhoods, and social organization of Sufism, 281 also Afghanistan; China; Inner Asia; Iran Buddhism, 14, 395, 428, 429, 726 Ceylon, 438 Buganda, 485, 795, 796 Chad, 776 Bukhara, 59, 179, 426–7, 428, 431, 668, 669–70, 674–5 Chaghatay, 389, 403, 428 al-Bukhari, 129 Chagri Beg, 182 Bu Khentash, 629 Chalabi, Ahmad, 596 Bulgaria, 351, 365, 368, 371, 525, 812–13 Chaldiran, Battle of (1514), 336, 380 Bulliet, R. W., 62–3 Chama Cha Mapinduzi Party (CCM), 793 Bulut Kapan ‘Ali Pasha, 352 Cham kingdom, 435 Bumiputera (Indigenous sons of the earth), 752, 854 Chamoun, Camille, 597–8 bureaucracy: of ‘Abbasid Empire, 82; and organization of Chapanoglu, 368 scholars in Islamic communities, 277; of Roman charity tax (zakat), 128 Empire, 9.Seealsogovernment; taxation Charles “Pudding” 13X, 805 Burkina Faso, 758, 778–9 Charter for Peace and National Reconciliation (2005), 852 Burujirdi, Ayatollah, 553 Chaudhry, Iftikhar, 719 Busaidi dynasty, 482 Chechens and Chechnya, 684, 685–6 Bush, George, 596, 606 China: and eastern Turkestan, 419, 428–31; and gas Bushiri revolt (Tanzania), 792 pipelines from Central Asia, 691; and Indonesia, 740; Bustani, Butrus, 581 and Mongol regimes, 184, 186, 204; Muslim population Buwayhids, 90, 177, 179, 207 of, 843; Muslims in contemporary, 691, 693–6; and Bu Zian of Zaatsha, 628 Muslims as political minority, 854.SeealsoHui; Byzantine Empire: absorption and Islamization of former Uighurs territories by Turkish peoples, 332; and Arab-Muslim Chinese Islamic Association, 695

956 Index

Ch’ing dynasty, 430 and British rule in Egypt, 563–4; British in Southeast Chinggis Khan, 421 Asia, 747–50; and conversion to Islam in Southeast Chist, Mu’in al-Din Hasan, 397–8 Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, 275, 276; and French Chisti order, 397–8, 400, 409 occupation of Algeria, 628–30; Islamic reform Christianity: and Arab-Muslim empire, 52, 61, 156–61; movements and resistance to, 283; and Morocco, 325, and Byzantine Empire, 13, 15, 16; and colonialism in 641–5; and Muslim expansion in West and East Africa, Africa, 487; common vision of Judaism, Zoroastrianism, 485–9; and Netherlands in Southeast Asia, 436, 438, and, 11–12; and Crusades, 192; and Ethiopia, 482–3, 439, 442, 446, 729–40; and Russia in Caucasus and 790; and Hispano-Arabic society in Spain, 300; and Inner Asia, 667, 669; and Sudan, 780–3; and Swahili Ivory Coast, 778; Muslims in Spain under rule of, coast of East Africa, 791; as theme in African history, 304–307; in Nigeria, 775; in Ottoman Empire, 349–51; 450–1; trade, naval power, and emergence of and Palestine, 600; in pre-Islamic Arabia, 26, 28; and European empires, 502–504; and Tunisia, 638–40; in Quran, 38–40; reshaping of in early Islamic period, West Africa, 755–61.Seealsoanticolonialism; 170; and Roman empire, 15; and Safavid Empire, 386; imperialism and secularization, 501; spread of and perceptions of commercialization, of Ottoman Empire, 364–6 divorce and marriage, 17, 18; and status of women in Committee for Union and Progress (CUP), 530 pre-Islamic era, 19; in Tanzania, 794; and treatment of communism: and civil war in Indonesia, 742; national Jews in Europe, 161.SeealsoCatholicism; Church of Muslim version of, 675 England; Coptic Church; Greek Orthodox Church; Communist Party (Soviet Union), 673, 675 Maronite Church; missionaries; religion Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI), 739 Church of England, 818 community (umma): in India, 395–7; mass Islamic “circle of justice,” and statist ideology of Ottoman society in post-‘Abbasid era and organization of, Empire, 370 215–23, 225; and Middle Eastern Islamic patterns, city planning, and Isfahan, 383 261–2; Muhammad and establishment of model for, 35, city-states: and Arab-Muslim empire in Syria and 40–1, 44–5; organization of in Africa, 798–9; and Mesopotamia, 56; ﬁrst emergence of in Mesopotamia, Ottoman Empire, 357–8; pan-Arabism and Arab 7–8.Seealsostate nationalism, 584, 623; and relationship between state Civil Concord (2000), 852 and Islamic scholars, 114–17; and separatist Muslim civilization, and function of empires in pre-Islamic era, enclaves in Europe, 815–16; transnational Islam and 8–9 concept of universal, 837, 838.SeealsoIslamic Civil Rights Act (1964), 805 societies; milla; social organization; urbanization civil wars: and Arab-Muslim empire, 66–7, 69, 71, 259; in companions: and Islamic scholarship, 114; role of in Indonesia, 742; in Iraq, 597; in Lebanon, 592, 597, 598; caliphate, 67 in Minangkabau, 446; in Sudan, 787; in Syria, 592–3 comparative method, for assessing role of Islamic beliefs, clans: biography of Muhammad and Jewish, 41, 42; and institutions, and identities in historical contexts, 3 clientage in Arab-Muslim empire, 60; and family in late Confucianism, 429 antique Arabia, 145; and pre-Islamic Arabian societies, Congress of Berlin (1878), 319, 428, 451, 488, 647, 707 28–30 Constantine (Roman emperor), 9, 15, 17, 18 class: and Arab-Muslim empire, 59; and feminism in late Constantinople, 9, 334.SeealsoIstanbul nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, 656; and constitution(s): and crisis in Iran between 1892 and 1905, feudalism in Europe, 198; and Islamic revivalism, 833; 547–8; of Nigeria, 757; and status of Muslims in India, and middle class in Saudi Arabia, 616; and Muslim 714 middle class in India, 715; philosopher-king and Constitution of Medina, 41 theory of ideal state, 236; and women in early Islamic conversion, to Islam: in Africa, 449–50; in Anatolia, 332; period, 145; and women in Ottoman Empire, 358, 359, and Arab-Muslim empire, 61–3, 71, 156–7; and Copts 361; and women in post-‘Abbasid era, 209, 210–12, in Egypt, 159–60, 223–4; global expansion and 213; and women in pre-Islamic societies, 16; and establishment of Islamic states, 285–7; global women in Turkey, 657 expansion and establishment of Muslim elites and clientage: and ‘Abbasid Empire, 82; and Arab-Muslim Islamic communities, 277–80; in India, 395; in North empire, 60 Africa and Middle East, 269–72; and Ottoman Empire, Clinton, Bill, 606 336, 351, 353; and Safavid Empire, 386; and social clothing, and court dress in Safavid period, 389. See also organization of Islamic societies, 283–5; in Southeast veiling Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, 274–7; Turkish conquests coinage, and imperial Islam, 93, 95 and, 272–4, 332; in U.S., 804–805; in West Africa, Cold War, 724 475–6, 758, 770.Seealsodiffusion of Islam; Islamization colleges: and Ottoman Empire, 341, 370; and schools of convivencia (Spain), 304, 306, 311–12 law in post-‘Abbasid era, 217–18 Coptic Church: and conversion to Islam in Egypt, 159–60, colonialism: Arabism and Arab states under, 583–8; and 223–4; and Ottoman Empire, 354–5; and revolts in Arab nationalism, 622–3; British in Africa, 451, 485, Egypt, 58, 159 487, 488–9, 755–61, 769–70, 772, 777, 788, 792–3, 794; Cordoba, 301

Index 957

Council of Chalcedon (451 CE), 12 Democratic Tatar Republic, 674 coup d’etat,´ in Ottoman Empire, 368 Denmark, 825 Council for the Affairs of Religious Cults, 681 Denshawai episode (1906), 565 courts: of ‘Abbasid Empire, 78, 105, 106; of Fatimid Deoband (India), 515, 702–703, 706, 707, 708, 715 Egypt, 189; of Mamluk Empire, 196; and regional de Reuter, Baron, 546, 547 cultures in post-‘Abbasid era, 200–206; of Umayyad dervishes, 357.SeealsoSufis caliphs, 99–100 desert palaces, of Umayyad period, 100 creation, Ibn Sina and theory of, 248 devshirme (Ottoman Empire), 340, 341, 364 Crimea, 363, 419, 420, 421, 423, 667, 673, 674, 676 Dhu’l Nun al-Misri, 136 Croatia, 811.SeealsoBalkans dictatorships, in Egypt, 575.Seealsoauthoritarianism Crone, Patricia, 67 diffusion, of Islam: across Inner Asia, 499–500; in Crusades: and non-Muslim minorities in Islamic societies, Mediterranean, 497–8, 498–9; rapidity of in Africa, 798; 158–9, 160; and post-‘Abbasid era in Syria, 192–5 and Sahara desert, 500–501; in Southeast Asia, 433–6; Cultural Revolution (China), 695 and trade in Indian Ocean, 498–9; and trade in West culture: cultural pluralism in modern Europe, 814; and Africa, 460. See also conversion; Islamization institutional features of pre-modern Islamic societies, Dihlavi, Amir Khusrau, 203 827–8; Jewish in Islamic context, 165–6; and late Dihlawi, ‘Abd al-Haqq, 399 Mamluk era, 196; and modernization in Egypt, 566; dihqans (landowners), 10, 54, 55 Mughal Empire and Indian, 400–403, 404; and Muslim Din-i Ilahi (divine religion), 404 enclaves in Africa, 449; and Muslim subculture in Dioscorides, 301 France, 821; Ottoman identity and legitimization of, Diouf, Abdu, 767 344–6; post-‘Abbasid era and regional, 200–206; Spain Dipanegara, Prince (Java), 442 and Hispano-Arabic, 301–303; and spread of Directorate of Muslim Peoples (muftiat), 681 Christianity, 13; and state in imperial Islam, 112–13; Ditch, Battle of the (627), 35, 41, 42 synthesis of Arabic, Hebrew, and Latin in Spain, divorce: in Arab-Muslim empire, 148; in Egypt, 659–60; in 310–11.Seealsoart; folk culture; literature; Iran, 657–8; and legal system in post-‘Abbasid era, multiculturalism; oral tradition; popular culture; 212–13; and Mamluk era in Cairo, Damascus, and traditionalism Jerusalem, 210–11; in Ottoman Empire, 359, 361; in Cyprus, 525, 813 pre-Islamic societies of Middle East and Mediterranean, Cyrenaica, 646, 647 17, 146.Seealsomarriage diwan al-musadarat and diwan al-marafiq,87 Daendels, Marshal, 441–2 Diyanet (Turkey), 822 Dagestan, 676, 684, 686 Dome of the Rock, 96, 101, 156, 194 Dagomba, 463–4 Donner, Fred M., 39 Dahlan, Hajji Ahmad, 737 Dost Muhammad, 722 dahr (eternity), 385 Douwes-Deckker, Efi, 734 Dakhni language, 394, 399 dream interpretation literature, and Ottoman Empire, Damascus (Syria), 97, 98, 192, 194, 210–11, 375, 581, 361, 362 582 Druzes, 375, 376, 580 Daqiqi, 202 Dudu Mian, 700 dar al-hadith (college), 227 Dulgadir dynasty, 332 dar al-harb (non-Islamic regions), 44 Dulles, John Foster, 569 dar al-Islam (Islamic regions), 44 Durand Agreement (1893), 722 Dara Shikuh, 405 Durogba, ‘Ali Maye, 484 Darul, Arqam, 751–2 Dutch East India Company (VOC), 384, 730, 779 Darfur, 479–80, 787 Dyula (Juula), 275, 448, 464, 777–8 Dari dialect, of Parsi language, 201, 202 Dzungarian Confederation, 428–9 Darqawa, 323 Dar ul-Islam, 741, 805 East Africa: coast of and Swahili cultures, 480–2, 791–6; Da’ud, Prince (Afghanistan), 724 colonialism and Muslim communities in, 485–9; and Da‘wa al-Islamiyya (Islamic mission), 594, 597, 806 global expansion of Islam, 275–6, 447; and Islamic da‘wa movements, 751, 836 reform movements, 517; Islamic states of, 478;and Daylam, 89–90 Shi‘i communities, 796–7; and slavery, 450.Seealso Dayton Accords (1995), 811 Ethiopia; Sudan Deccan, the, 407 Eastern Europe: Muslim population of contemporary, de Gaulle, Charles, 634–5, 757 810–13; and Ottoman Empire, 338 Delhi sultanates, 274, 391–5 Eastern Women’s Congress, 655 Demirel, Suleyman, 537 East Indies, 438 Democratic Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, East Turkestan Islamic Movement (ETIM), 696 603 Ebu’s-su‘ud, 342

958 Index

Ecevit, Bulent, 537 in 1973, 601; women and political activism in economics and economy: and Algeria, 628, 636; and nineteenth century, 655; and women in post-World British rule in India, 412–13; and Central Asia after War I era, 659–60 dissolution of Soviet Union, 690–1; and decline of Egyptian Feminist Union, 655 ‘Abbasid Empire, 90–1; and Dutch rule in Southeast Elias of Nisibis, 158 Asia, 729–32; international trade and distribution of elites: global expansion of Islam and establishment of wealth, 503; and Egypt, 566, 569–70, 572; and French Muslim, 277–80; and Islamic reformism, 515–20; and exploitation of Algeria, 628; and Iran, 552, 556–7; and Islamic state in Java, 440; and Mamluks in Ottoman Malaysia, 751, 752; and modernization in Caucasus and Egypt, 374; and provinces of Ottoman Empire, 367–8; Inner Asia, 678, 680; and Morocco, 321, 643; of Mughal and qasbah in India, 704–705, 707.Seealsoclass; Empire, 407; and Nigeria, 770; and Ottoman Empire, intelligentsia; notables; ‘ulama’ 347–9, 364–6; and rationale for emphasis on El-Zakzaky, Ibrahim, 774 communal, religious, and political institutions of empires: and kingship in ancient Mesopotamia, 8; and Islamic societies, 3; and revolution in Iran, 554; and religions of pre-Islamic Middle East, 15–16.Seealso rise of Europe as world power, 501–502; and roles of caliphs and caliphates; courts; provinces; sultans and women in early Islamic period, 150; of Safavid Empire, sultanates; specific empires by name 384; and Saudi Arabia, 613; and Syria, 590–1; and England, expulsion of Jews from, 161.SeealsoEurope; Tunisia in late eighteenth and early nineteenth Great Britain centuries, 318; and Turkish Republic, 534, 536–7, 539; Enlightenment, 506 and West Africa, 757; women and legal system in Enrique II (Spain), 306 post-‘Abbasid era, 212.Seealsoagriculture; banks; Enver Pasha, 674 commercialization; financial system; industrialization; Erbakan, Necmettin, 538, 540 manufacturing; oil industry; poverty; trade Erdogan, Tayyip, 540, 541, 543 Edessa, 109, 194 Eritrea, 790–1 education: in Algeria, 629, 650; and Dutch colonialism in Eritrean People’s Liberation Front (EPLF), 790–1 Southeast Asia, 732, 736–7; global expansion of Islam Ershad, Husayn Muhammad, 727 and schools of law, 277; imperial Islam and Hellenistic Ertugrul, 333 schools, 109–10; and Islamic revival movements, 836; Ethical Policy (Dutch), 731 and jadid movement, 671–2; and Muslim communities Ethiopia, 275, 482–3, 489, 789–90 in modern Europe, 817, 820, 821–2; and Muslim Ethiopian Orthodox Church, 790 communities in U.S., 807; and Ottoman reforms, Ethiopian Peoples’ Revolutionary Democratic Front 528–9; and post-independence era in North Africa, (EPRDF), 790 650; and religious communities in post-‘Abbasid era, ethnicity and ethnic groups: in Afghanistan, 721; and 218; in Saudi Arabia, 613–14; and Soviet Union in assimilation in Arab-Muslim empire, 59; and Caucasus and Inner Asia, 678–9, 680; in Tunisia, 639; “autonomous” national regimes in Soviet Union, 676; in West Africa, 756; of women in Iran, 658; of women and conflicts in Nigerian society, 775; and diversity of in post-‘Abbasid era, 210, 218; of women in Islam in Africa, 799, 801; and military slavery in post-World War II era, 661–2; women and reforms in post-‘Abbasid era, 197; Turks and concept of, 530–1. nineteenth century, 653, 654; of women in Turkey, See also non-Muslim minorities 657.Seealsocolleges; law and legal systems Euro-Islam, 816 Educational Reform Act (Britain), 817 Europe: and colonialism in Africa, 451, 488–9; and Eqypt: and ‘Abbasid Empire, 79–80, 89, 91; and control of Asian trade, 365; economic and political Arab-Muslim conquests, 49; and Arab-Muslim empire, intervention in Southeast Asia, 438; and feudalism, 57–8, 61; and Arab Spring, 577–8; and Ayyubids, 198–9; historical changes and increase in world power 194–5, 209; and British colonial rule, 563–4; and of, 501–502; imperialism and beginning of modern era conversion to Islam, 223–4, 272; and early Islamic legal in Muslim world, 504–507, 511–23; and Iran in studies, 127; and education of women, 654; and family nineteenth century, 546; Jews and Judaism in, 161; law, 654; and Fatimid regime, 188–92, 292; Muslim population of, 845; Muslims in contemporary, independence and early years of republic, 565–8; 813–25; and Napoleonic wars, 438, 441, 442; and Islamic modernism and nationalism, 564–5; and Ottoman Empire, 338, 339, 363, 369, 525; and Islamic reform movements, 517, 518; and Islamic synthesis of Arabic, Hebrew, and Latin cultures in revival, 572–6, 836; Islamic society and neo-Islamic Spain, 310–11; and trade in Morocco, 324; trade, naval state in, 851–2; Jews and Geniza era in, 163; and power, and emergence of colonial empires, 502–504, Mubarak regime, 571–2; Nasser era in, 568–70; and 580.Seealsocolonialism; Crusades; specific countries nationalism, 520; and neofundamentalism, 835, 836; European Union, 542, 691 and non-Muslim minorities, 159–60, 163; and Ottoman Evliya Chelebi, 345 Empire, 354, 356, 373–4, 376, 527, 561; reforms in extremist sects (ghulat), 139, 140 nineteenth-century, 561–3; and Sadat administration, Ezzat Heba Ra’ouf, 664 570–1; secular opposition movements in, 576–7; and slave trade, 450; and Sudan, 780–1; and war with Israel Fadlallah, Muhammad Husayn, 598

Index 959

Fadlallah Astarabadi, 378 folk culture: and Anatolian resistance to Ottoman Fahd (Saudi Arabia), 615 Empire, 357–8; and Kazakhs, 420 Faidherbe, Louis, 487 foreign policy: of Egypt, 570; of Iran, 559, 560; of Iraq, Fakhr al-Din, 246 594; of Marwanids, 70; of Morocco, 645; of Pakistan, Fakhr al-Din Razi, 376 720–1; of Safavid Empire, 382; of Saudi Arabia, 616–17; Fall, Shaykh Ibra, 766 of Syria, 592 family: in Arab-Muslim empire, 147–8; extended in Fourth Lateran Council (1215), 161, 313 contemporary Arabian Peninsula, 624; in late antique France: Arab advance into, 72, 298; and colonialism in Arabia, 145–7; and legal reforms in Iran, 552; and legal Africa, 451, 468, 475, 476, 485, 487, 488, 489, 755–61, reforms in nineteenth century, 653–4; and legal 764, 766; and colonialism in Morocco, 325, 641–5; and reforms in post-World War II North Africa, 660–1; and colonialism in Syria, 584, 586; and colonialism in legal reforms in Turkey, 535; and legal system in Tunisia, 638–40; and creation of modern Arab states, Ottoman Empire, 359–60, 653–4; in post-World War I 583, 586; expulsion of Jews from, 161; and feudalism, nation-states, 656, 659.Seealsodivorce; kinship 199; and Libya, 647; Muslims in contemporary, 813, systems; marriage; women 814, 819–21; and occupation of Algeria, 320, 627, fana’ (mystical concept), 584 630–5; and Ottoman Empire, 355, 527; and faqis (holy men), 479 protectorate over Tunisia, 319; and trade in India, 412. al-Farabi, 111, 234, 247 See also French Revolution Fara’idi movement, 282, 515, 700 Francis Raymond, 310 Farangi Mahall, 706–707, 708 Franco-Prussian war, 629 Fard, Wallace D., 804 Frederick II, 195 Farghana, 427, 431 Free Syrian Army (FSA), 593 Farhat ‘Abbas, 631, 633 free will, in early Muslim theology, 121 Farid al-Din Ganj-i Shakr, 395 French East India Company, 384 Farrakhan, Louis, 805 French Revolution, 506 Faruqi, Isma‘il, 806 frontier, between steppes and settled areas of Inner Asia al-Fasi, Ahmad b. Idris, 781, 788 in post-‘Abbasid era, 180 Fatah, 606 Fulani, 469–70, 475, 770, 771 Fatawa-i ‘Alamgiri, 406–407 fundamentalism: and sociocultural versions of Islamic Fath ‘Ali Shah, 545 revival movements, 833; and Ottoman policy toward Fatherland Society, 530 non-Muslims, 370.Seealsoneofundamentalism Fatima (daughter of Muhammad), 658 funerals, and women in post-‘Abbasid era, 211 Fatma Aliye Hanem, 655 Funj, 477–9 Fatimid dynasty, 89, 120, 188–92, 209, 252, 292 Fustat (Egypt), 52 fatwa (legal decree), 218 Futa Jallon, 468 fay’ (communally owned property), 55 Futa Toro, 468, 472–3 Faysal (Saudi Arabia), 582, 616 Faysal II (Iraq), 587 Galen, 110, 361 Federation of Islamic Organizations, 809 Galla peoples, 483–4 feminism: and class in late nineteenth and early twentieth Gama, Vasco de, 481 centuries, 655; and historiography on origins of Islam, Gandhi, Mahatma, 708, 710, 715 23; in Iran, 658; and Islamism, 663–5; and pan-Arabism gangs, and urban societies of post-‘Abbasid era, 214 in nineteenth century, 655.Seealsowomen gaonim (Jewish community), 162, 164–5 Fernando II of Aragon, 312, 314 Garang, John, 786 Fertile Crescent.SeeIraq; Jordan; Lebanon; Palestine; Gasprinskii, Isma‘il, 671, 673 Syria; Turkey Gaza (Palestine), 603–604, 606 festivals: and Fatimid Egypt, 189; and mawlids, 120; and Gbagbo, Laurent, 778 popular Sufism, 254; and religious communities in Gemayel, Pierre, 597 post-‘Abbasid era, 220; and women in post-‘Abbasid Geneva Initiative (2003), 606 era, 211 Geniza era, and Jews in Egypt and North Africa, 163 feudalism, and iqta‘ system in Middle East, 197–200 Gennadius, 353 fida’i (self-sacrificing resistor), 603 Georgia, 684, 686 financial system, of Ottoman Empire, 366–7.Seealso Gerard of Cremona, 311 banks Germany, 161, 451, 488, 550, 792, 813, 814, 821–2 Fiqh Council of America, 808 Ghana, 294, 454, 757, 760, 776–7 Firdawsi, 202, 205, 415 al-Ghannouchi, Rashid, 641, 852 fire temples, and Zoroastrianism, 13–14 Ghassanids, 30, 68 firmans (legal decrees), 342 ghazal (poetry), 202 Fitrat, ‘Abd al-Rauf, 672 al-Ghazali, 231, 232, 233–4, 240–5, 246, 303 Flavius Josephus, 16 Ghazan, 186

960 Index

ghazi (Ottoman Empire), 331, 332, 339, 340, 344 Gulistan, treaty of (1813), 546 Ghaznavids, 177, 179–80, 181, 198, 207, 391 Gumbad-I Qabus, 203 ghulam (slave), 197 Gumi, Shayh Abubakar, 774 Ghurids, 391 Guri-i Mir (tomb of Timur), 204 Ghuzz peoples, 184 glasnost (openness and transparency) policy, 689 Habash, George, 603, 609 al-Glawi, Thami, 644 Habib ibn Khidmah Abu Raitah, 158 globalization, and transnational Islam, 838 Habibie, B. J., 744, 746–7 gnosticism: and alternative Islam in post-‘Abbasid era, Habibullah, Amir, 724 247–54, 256; and Safavid Empire, 385; and Shi‘is, 103, Habsburg Empire, 338, 363, 365 139 Hadi, Abed Rabu Mansour, 611 Goa, 436 al-Hadi Sayyid Shaykh, 736 Gobir, 469, 470 hadith: central place of in Muslim religious life, 237; and Gokalp Ziya, 531, 534, 653 early Islamic legal studies, 128–32; Muslim Golconda, 394, 395 historiography and study of, 107; and religious Golden Horde, 419, 421. See also Mongols education in post-‘Abbasid era, 218; and Shi‘ism, 142 Gonja, 463 Hadramawt (Hadramis), 481, 499 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 687, 689 al-Hadrami, Imam, 454 Gorus, Milli, 822 Hafiz, 203, 415 government: and administration of ‘Abbasid Empire, Hafsa, 38 76–82; and administration of Arab-Muslim empire, 50, Hafsid dynasty, 316–18 52–3, 70; and decentralization of Mughal Empire, 407; Haile Selassie, 789–90 and decentralization of Ottoman Empire, 367–8, 372; al-Hajj ‘Abdallah Mahmud, 761, 849–50 of provinces in Ottoman Empire, 343–4.Seealso al-Hajj ‘Umar, 282, 449, 450, 472–3, 515, 770 bureaucracy; foreign policy; politics; state; taxation al-Hajjaj, 55 Government of India Act of 1935, 709 Hajji Bektash, 332, 357 governors, of provinces of ‘Abbasid Empire, 79 Hajji Muhammad Yunus, 737 Grabar, O., 101 Hajji Sahri‘atallah, 700 Granada, 307 Hajji Zamzam, 737 Great Britain: and Afghanistan, 546, 722; and colonialism hakam (arbitrator), 41 in Africa, 451, 485, 487, 488–9, 755–61, 769–70, 772, al-Hakim, 160, 165 777, 788, 792–3, 794; and colonialism in Southeast Halevi, Judah, 309, 310 Asia, 438, 442, 747–50; and colonial rule of Egypt, al-Hallaj, 136–7 563–4; and creation of modern Arab states, 583; and halus (of ruling elite), 440 Gulf states, 619; and Indian Empire, 412–13, 698–712; Halveti-Jerrahi Order of America, 807 and Inner Asia, 428; and international trade in Safavid Hamad (Bahrain), 621 Empire, 383–4; and Iran, 549; and Iraq, 586–7; and Hamad, Amir, 621, 622 Kenya, 794; Levant Company and trade in Asia, 365; Hamallah, Shaykh, 759 and Libya, 647; Muslims in contemporary, 813–14, Hamalliyya, 759 816–19; and Palestine, 599, 601; and partition of HAMAS, 559, 604, 605–606, 607, 831 Ottoman Empire, 525, 527; and Sudan, 781, 782–3; and Hammuda Pasha, 318 Syria, 582; and Turkestan, 431; and Yemen, 609.See Hammurapi, 8 also England Hamza Fansuri, 443 Great Leap Forward (China), 695 Hanafis: and early Islamic legal studies, 126–7, 131, Greco-Turkish war of 1919–22, 532, 533 132–3; and inquisition, 104; and schools of law in Greece: and independence, 525, 527; and Ottoman post-‘Abbasid era, 216, 220; and state in post-‘Abbasid Empire, 371, 532; philosophy of classical, 109–12, era, 227; and theology in post-‘Abbasid era, 254 121–2; status of women in ancient, 16, 19; and World Hanbalis: and literalism, 245; and madrasa form of War I, 532.SeealsoHellenism; Hellenistic literature; instruction, 218; and schools of law in post-‘Abbasid Hellenistic world era, 216, 220; and state in post-‘Abbasid era, 227; and Greek language, 63, 157 Sufism, 136; and theology in post-‘Abbasid era, 254; Greek Orthodox Church, 353–4 and traditionalism in early legal studies, 131; and Gregory VII (Pope), 303 urban societies of early Islamic period, 152 guilds, and Ottoman Empire, 349 hanif (Arabian monotheist), 33 Gujarat, 394, 400 Haniyeh, Ismail, 605 Gul, Abdullah, 540 ul-Haq, Zia, 718, 848 Gulen movement, 538 haqiqa muhammadiyya (Muhammadan reality), 250–1 Gulf states, overview of history, 617–20.SeealsoBahrain; Haqqani Naqshbandiyya, 819 Kuwait; Oman; Qatar; United Arab Emirates haram (sanctuary), 30, 31, 209 Gulf War (1991), 541, 571, 592, 621, 808 harem, and Ottoman Empire, 358

Index 961

al-Hariri, 201 “origins” of Islam, 22–5; and overview of Islamic al-Hariri, Rafiq, 592, 598 empires and societies in Asia, 329–30; and writing in al-Harith al-Muhasabi, 137 post-‘Abbasid era, 201 Harun al-Rashid, 78, 85, 110, 155, 156 Hittites, 9 al-Hasan, Mahmud, 707 Hizb-i-Islami (Afghanistan), 725 Hasan, Sultan, 324 al-Hizb al-Islami al-Turkistani (Turkistan Islamic Party), Hasan al-Askari, 141 696 Hasan al-Basri, 135 Hizb al-Tarqiyya, 768–9 Hasdai ben Shaprut, 307–308 Hizballah, 556, 559, 598–9, 604, 607 Hassan, Sultan, 645, 646 homosexuality, in Ottoman Empire, 361 Hastings, Warren, 412 Houphouet-Boigny, Felix, 778 Hatt-i Humayun (Imperial Rescript), 528 al-Hourani, Akram, 586 Hatt-i Sherif (Noble Rescript) of Gulhane, 528 al-Hudaybiya, 42 Hattin, Battle of (1187), 194 Hui (China), 429, 691, 693, 694, 695, 854 Hausas and Hausaland, 458–9, 469–72, 758, 770, 772, al-Hujwiri, 239 773, 777 human rights: and civil war in Syria, 592–3; in Egypt Hawatmah, Nayyif, 603 under Mubarak, 572; in Iraq, 594; in Pakistan, 719; and al-Hawthi, Hussein, 610–11 politics in Turkey, 543.Seealsocharity tax; labor Hay’at (informal groups), 553 activism; poverty; social activism; student associations; Haykal, Muhammad, 567 women Hayreddin Barbarossa, 338 Hums, 30 Hayyuj, Judah b. David, 308 Hunayn b. Ishaq, 110, 158 Hazaras, 721, 725 “Hundred Flowers” campaign (China), 695 Hazrat, Inayat Khan, 806 Hungary, 338 Hebrew language, 165–6, 308–309 hurma (honor and cultivated personality), 229 Hehe kingdom, 792 Hurrem, 359 Hellenism, 15 Hurufiyya, 357, 378 Hellenistic literature, and imperial Islam, Husayn (son of ‘Ali), 69 109–12 Husayn (Jordan), 588 Hellenistic world, and pre-Islamic Arabic, 26.Seealso Husayn (Syria), 582 philosophy Husayn (Sultan), 204 Heraclius (Roman emperor), 9, 15 Husayn b. ‘Ali, 318 Herat, 187–8 Husayn Bayqara, 187–8 Herzegovina, 525, 811 al-Husayni, al-Hajj Muhammad Amin, 600 Herzl, Theodor, 599 Hidaya (Guide), 238 Ibadan, 772 hijira (migration), 35 ‘ibadat (ritual regulations), 133 Hikmat al-Ishraq (Suhrawardi), 249 Ibn al-‘Abbas, 102–106, 129 Hikmatyar, Gulbuddin, 725 Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab (Muhammad b. ‘Abd al-Wahhab), al-Hilal (the crescent), 706 611 hilm (a virtue), 69 Ibn al-‘Arabi, 250–1, 303, 310, 398, 416 Hilmi, Mona, 664 Ibn Batta, 231 himaya (protection), 87 Ibn Battuta, 433, 481 Himyarite kingdom, 30 Ibn al-Hajib, 131 Hinds, Martin, 67 Ibn al-Hajj, 211 Hinduism: in Afghanistan, 726; conflicts with Muslims in Ibn Hazm, 303 post-partition India, 715–16, 720; and conversion to Ibn Hisham, 33 Islam in India, 395, 397; and Delhi sultanate, 393, 394; Ibn Ishaq, 33 and India under British rule, 705; in Java, 439, 440; and Ibn Jurayj, 129 Malaya, 444; and Muslims as political minority in India, Ibn Khaldun, 247 854; and Mughal Empire, 401, 406, 407; and Muslim Ibn al-Mujahid, 38 rule in India, 274; and Pakistan, 712; and pre-Islamic Ibn al-Muqaffa‘, 103 Southeast Asia, 433; and Sufism, 396 Ibn Qudama, 131 Hippocrates, 110 Ibn Qutayba, 109 Hirsi Ali, Ayaan, 825 Ibn Quzman, 302 Hisham, 72, 108 Ibn Rushd (Averroes), 234, 303, 311 history and historiography: and Arabic literary culture, Ibn Sa‘ud, 611, 613 118; and ideology of Ottoman Empire, 370; and Ibn Sina (Avicenna), 234, 247–9 imperial Islam, 106–108; methodological and historical Ibn Surayj, 131, 132 assumptions in approach to Islamic societies, 1–3; on Ibn al-Tabban, 296

962 Index

Ibn al-Zubayr, 97 imperialism: beginning of modern era in Muslim world Ibragimov, Rashid, 672 and European, 504–507, 511–23; and British rule in Ibrahim Sori, 468 India, 521, 701; and Islam on Java, 441–2; and status of iconoclasm, and representational images in Islamic art, women in nineteenth century, 652–6.Seealso 101 colonialism ‘Id al-Adha, 254 Imru’ al-Qays b. ‘Amr, 29 identity: and Arab nationalism, 581; contemporary Incoherence of the Philosophers (al-Ghazali), 246 Islamic revival and expression of Muslim, 523; cultural India: British colonial Empire and rule in, 412–13, and political in Delhi sultanate, 393; cultural and 698–712; conversion to Islam and Muslim communities political in Egypt, 566; and diversity of African Muslim in, 395–7; and global expansion of Islam, 274; and populations, 798; early Islamic law and Muslim, 155; Islamic reform movements, 281, 282, 517, 519; Muslim global expansion of Islam and Muslim, 284; and conquests and Delhi sultanates, 391–5; Muslim Imperial Islam, 92–4; and mass Islamic society in population of, 843; Muslim scholars and political post-‘Abbasid era, 224; Malaysia and Islamic, 751; and authority in, 399–400; and Muslims as political Muslim immigrants to Europe, 815–16; and Muslims of minority, 854; and Muslims in post-partition era, India in early twentieth century, 707–708; and Muslim 712–16; and nationalism, 520; and neofundamentalism, societies in Caucasus and Inner Asia, 683; and Muslims 836; and Pakistan, 709–12, 720; and resistance to as political minorities, 854; of Muslims in U.S., European imperialism, 521; and Saudi Arabia, 616–17; 806–809; national movements and Islamic, 831; and and slavery, 450; and Sufism, 274, 280, 395–6, 397; national states in contemporary Arabian Peninsula, varieties of Islam in, 397–9.SeealsoBengal; Hinduism; 624–5; and Ottoman Empire, 344–6, 356, 369–71; Mughal Empire; Punjab pre-Islamic poetry and Arab, 31 Indian Councils Acts (1892, 1909), 705, 706, 707 ideology: of Imperial Islam, 95–101; and Islam in states Indian National Congress, 705–706, 708 of North Africa, 648–51; power and identity in Indian Ocean, Portuguese and trade in, 337–8 postclassic Ottoman Empire, 369–71; and reality of India-Pakistan wars (1965, 1999), 720 status of women in post-‘Abbasid era, 208 Indische Partij (Indonesia), 734 ‘Id al-Fitr, 254 individual and individualism, and pluralism in European Idris, Amir (Libya), 647 societies, 502 Idrisb.‘Ali,458 Indonesia: and Dutch colonialism, 438, 731–2, 737; and Ifat, 482, 483 global expansion of Islam, 275, 277, 435; and Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din (al-Ghazali), 242, 243 independence, 740; and Islamic reform movements, ijtihad (independent reasoning), 133 283, 519–20; Islamic society and neo-Islamic state in, Ili-Kazakh Autonomous Chou, 696 852–3; nationalism and Islamic modernism in, 733–4; Ilkhans, 184, 186, 377 in post-independence era, 740–7; and resistance to Il’minskii, Nicholas, 670 European imperialism, 521; and secular nationalism, Iltutmish, 391, 397 520; and variations in conjunction of national and Ilyas, Maulana Muhammad, 709 Muslim identities, 831.SeealsoJava al-Imam (newspaper), 736 Indonesian Nationalist Party (PNI), 739 imam: caliphate and origins of term, 67; and Fatimid industrialization: in Caucasus and Inner Asia, 678, 680, Egypt, 189; Shi‘ism and concept of, 140–2, 143; in U.S., 683; in Egypt, 570.Seealsomanufacturing; oil industry; 808 railroads imama (theory of collective organization), 133 Industrial Revolution, 506 Imamis, 139, 172, 216 inheritance.Seeproperty Imam Sayyid Sa‘id b. Sultan, 791 Innarya kingdom, 483 iman (faith), 246 Inner Asia: and Arab-Muslim conquests, 50; conversion imaret (complex of buildings), 348 to Islam and Islamization in, 272–3; deserts and immigration, and migrations: of Arabian peoples diffusion of Islam in, 499–501; and Islamic reform following Arab-Muslim conquests, 50; of Kazakhs from movements, 282, 517, 670–3; modernization and China into Soviet Union, 695; of Muslims from Spain to Soviet Union in, 676–83; and nomads in caravan traffic North Africa, 318; of Muslims to Canada, 810; of of post-‘Abbasid era, 180; overview of from Mongol Muslims to U.S., 802–803; of Muslims to Western conquests to nineteenth century, 418–19; post-Soviet Europe, 813, 815–16; of Russians into Kazakh lands, era in, 683–4; and provinces of ‘Abbasid Empire, 80, 668–9; of Turkish peoples, 331, 418 82; and Russian revolution, 673–6; Russia and tsarist Immigration Act (1947), 803 rule in, 667–70.SeealsoCentral Asia; steppes; Immigration and Refugee Protection Act (Canada), Turkestan; specific countries 810 Inonu, Ismet, 535 imperial Islam: and ‘Abbasids, 102–106; culture, inquisition (mihna): and ‘Abbasids, 104–105, 173; and legitimacy, and the state, 112–13; ideology of, 95–101; hadith scholars, 130; and Spain, 314, 315 and issues of religion and identity, 92–4; and literature, insilimen clans, 448 106–109; and Middle Eastern Islamic patterns, 259–61. institutions: as basic theme in history of Islamic societies, See also Arab-Muslim empire 3; and concept of state in post-‘Abbasid era, 206–207;

Index 963

continuity of fundamental forms from ancient world and East Africa, 485–9; conflict with Jews and into early Islamic era, 168–9, 173–4; and cultural redefinition of early, 40; and debates over law and features of pre-modern Islamic societies, 827–8; and theology in post-‘Abbasid era, 254–7; and diversity of Islamic societies in post-‘Abbasid era, 223–6; Muslim Africa, 798–801; and expulsion of Muslims from Spain, societies and separation of state and religious, 491–2; 315; and feminism, 663–5; historiography on “origins” Ottoman Empire and new political, 366–8; variations of, 22–5; history of in Caucasus, 684–7; and ideology on in North Africa, 326–8 of Ottoman Empire, 370–1; India and varieties of, intelligentsia: and Arab literary and political movements, 397–9; in Indonesia from 1998 to present, 746–7; Java 580–1; Islamic reform and modernism in Caucasus and and crisis of imperialism, 441–2; in Malaya, 444–5; in Inner Asia, 670–1; and Russian revolution, 673, 675; Minangkabau, 445–6; and Mughal Empire, 408–12; in and secular nationalism, 520–1.Seealsoelites Muslim-majority countries of West Africa, 761–79; and International Islamic Relief Organization, 616 nationalism in Arab states, 622–6; in Pakistan, 716–21; International Monetary Fund, 536 and political parties in Southeast Asia from 1900 to internet: and secular opposition movements in Egypt, 1950, 738–40; post-‘Abbasid era and scriptural, 245–7; 576–7; and transnational Islam, 838 and principles of modernism, 515–20; and relationship Inter-Service Intelligence Agency (ISI, Pakistan), 719, between scholars and state, 114–17; and religious 720–1 communities of post-‘Abbasid era, 215–23; religious intifada, 603–604, 606, 662 movements and state in post-‘Abbasid era, 226–9; and Iqbal, Muhammad, 710 Southeast Asia, 433–6; and Soviet regime in Caucasus iqta‘ (land grant), 81, 87, 197–200 and Inner Asia, 679; in state ideologies and opposition Iran: and ‘Abbasid Empire, 83, 89; and Arab-Muslim movements in North Africa, 648–51; and state in Iran, conquests, 49; and Arab-Muslim empire, 58, 60, 63; 559–60; and struggle between caliphate and urban constitutional crisis between 1892 and 1905, 547–8; ‘ulama’ over governance of Muslim community, 171; and education of women, 654; and foreign policy of and themes defining history of Africa, 447–50; trends Saudi Arabia, 617; influence of in Central Asia, 691; toward universalistic expressions of, 855–6; and and Islamic republic, 555–9; Islam and state in, 559–60, Tunisia, 640; and Turkish politics, 537–8; and Turkish 848–9; and Mongol invasions, 184, 186, 418; and state, 538–40; and Yemeni state, 611.Seealso neofundamentalism, 836; and Persian literature, 108; conversion; diffusion; fundamentalism; identity; and post-‘Abbasid era, 177–81, 220, 229; Qajars in imperial Islam; Islamic societies; Islamization; nineteenth-century, 544–7; and resistance to European missionaries; Muhammad; neo-Islamic movements; imperialism, 521; and Safavid Empire, 377–90; and Pan-Islamism; Quran; reformism revivalism; Shi‘ism; Sasanian Empire, 10; as type of Islamic society, 492–3; Sufism; Sunnis; ‘ulama’; Wahhabi movement and ‘ulama’ and revolution in 552–5; and war with Iraq, Wahhabism 595; women and political activism in nineteenth Islamic Call Society, 837 century, 655; and women in post-World War I era, Islamic Center (Washington D.C.), 808 657–9 Islamic Circle of North America, 809 Iranian Council of Guardians, 835 Islamic Courts Union (ICU), 789 Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), 558, 559, Islamic Jihad, 604 560 Islamic Mission of America, 805 Iran-Iraq war, 595 Islamic Party of Malaysia (PAS), 751 Iraq: and Arabism in colonial period, 586–7; and Islamic Salvation Party (FIS), 637, 852 Arab-Muslim conquests, 49; and Arab-Muslim empire, Islamic societies: alternative concepts of in pre-modern 54–5, 61, 156, 157; Arab nationalism in contemporary, era, 492; basic themes in history of, 1–3; characteristics 593–7; and Aramaic influences in pre-Islamic Arabia, of in Middle East, 258–65; contemporary patterns in 28; in early ‘Abbasid era, 75; and Iran, 556, 595; and relations between states and, 846–54; European impact Jewish communities in early Islamic era, 161–2; on at beginning of modern era, 506–507; and future Pahlavi era and twentieth-century, 548–52; and challenges, 855–7; global expansion of Islam and post-‘Abbasid era, 177–81, 182; as province of ‘Abbasid establishment of Muslim elites, 277–80; global Empire, 79, 89, 91; and Sasanian Empire, 10 expansion of Islam and social organization of, 283–5; Irgun, 601 influence of Islamic revival on, 832–41; institutional irrigation, and agriculture in Spain, 298–9 and cultural features of pre-modern, 827–8; and Isaac al-Fasi, 308 Islamic institutions in post-‘Abbasid era, 223–6; and Isabel I (Castile), 314 Muslims as political minorities, 854–5; in post-partition Isfahan (Iran), 382–3 India, 712–16; and resistance to European imperialism, Ishan Muhammad al-Khalifa Kabir (Ishan Madali), 670 521–2; status of women in urban prior to tenth ishans (Sufi holy men), 668 century, 144–50; transformation of in nineteenth and Iskandar, 433, 442 twentieth centuries, 828–32; varieties of, 490–6.See Islam: and Algerian state, 636; alternative forms of in also community; Islam post-‘Abbasid era, 247–51; in Bangladesh, 727; in Islamic Society of North America, 809 China, 429; coastal cities of East Africa and Swahili Islamic Spiritual Department, 684 cultures, 480–2; colonialism and expansion of in West Islamic Supreme Council of America (ISCA), 806

964 Index

Islamization: of Anatolia, 332; in Balkans, 274; and Ottoman Empire, 355; and conﬂict between Israelis conversion to Islam in Inner Asia, 272–3; of Darfur, and Palestinians, 607; and Crusades, 192, 194, 195; and 480; of Egypt, 574; and jihad in West Africa, 476; and Dome of the Rock, 96–7; marriage and divorce in secularization, 856; of Senegal, 769; in Sudan, 787; as Mamluk era, 210–11.SeealsoIsrael; Palestine theme in history of North Africa, 288; and trade in Jewish State, The (Herzl 1896), 599 Kano, 459.Seealsoconversion; diffusion of Islam Jews and Judaism: and Arab-Muslim empire, 52, 161–6; Isma‘il (son of Ja‘far), 141, 215 biography of Muhammad and relations with, 41–2; Isma‘il (Safavid), 379, 380 common vision of Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and, Isma‘il, ‘Abd al-Fattah, 609 11–12; and nationalism, 599; in North Africa, 163, Isma‘il Pasha, 562, 654 314–15; and Ottoman Empire, 343, 349–56; and Isma‘ilism: and ‘Abbasid Empire, 84, 89; in East Africa, pre-Islamic Arabia, 26; and Quran, 35–6, 38–40; 797; and Fatimid Egypt, 189, 191; and Shi‘ism, 143; and reshaping of in early Islamic period, 170; roles of social structures of Islamic societies, 283 women compared to Islamic societies in post-‘Abbasid isnads (transmission chains), 129–30 era, 211; and Sasanian Empire, 15; and Spain, 161, 163, Israel: establishment of, 601; invasions of Lebanon, 598, 300, 307–10, 312–15, 350, 352; and status of women in 607; and Palestinian movement from 1948 to 1990s, pre-Islamic era, 17, 18–19.SeealsoIsrael; Zionism 601–604; and relations with Turkey, 542; war with Jibril b. ‘Umar, 469 Egypt in 1967, 569; war with Egypt in 1973, 570.See jihad (holy struggle): and Berbers, 467; in Indonesia, also Jerusalem; Zionism 435, 747, 853; and Islamization in Central and West Istanbul, 348–9.SeealsoConstantinople Africa, 276, 449–50, 467–76, 491; and Quran, 44; in Italy, 451, 488, 489, 527, 647, 788, 789 Saudi Arabia, 615, 617.SeealsoIslamic Jihad ithna ‘ashari Shi‘i community, 797.SeealsoTwelver Shi‘is Jinnah, Muhammad ‘Ali, 709, 710 Ivory Coast, 758, 777–9 jirga (convocation of tribal elders), 722 Izetbegovic, Alija, 811 John of Damascus, 157–8 Jordan, 56, 587–8, 606 Jadid, Chadli ben, 635, 636, 637 Joseph Nasi, 350 jadid movement, 670–3, 674 judges (qadis): and ‘Abbasid Empire, 78; caliphate and Ja‘far al-Sadiq, 136, 140, 142, 215 development of Islamic law, 126; in India, 397; and jagirs (estates), 401 legal system in post-‘Abbasid era, 218; and Ottoman Jahangir, 405 Empire, 342 al-Jahiz, 109 Jumblatt, Walid, 598 Jakhanke lineage, 465 al-Junayd, 137 Jalili family, 375 Junayd, Shaykh, 378, 379, 443 al-Jama‘a al-Islamiyya (the Islamic group), 574–5 jurisconsult (mufti), 218 Jama‘at-i Islami, 685, 715, 717, 718, 725, 834, 851 justice, and theory of mirrors for princes, 232–4.Seealso jamatbandis (collective associations), 283 law and legal systems James I of Aragon, 306 Justinian (Roman emperor), 15 Jami, 203, 204, 415 al-Juwayni, 204, 246 Jami‘at al Ansar (Society of helpers), 707 Jyllands-Posten (newspaper), 825 Jami‘at al-‘Ulama’-i Hind, 711–12, 714 janissaries, 340–2, 364, 368 Ka‘ba (shrine), 30, 31, 36, 43 janjawid (Sudan), 787 al-Kabir, Shaykh Sidiya, 764 Japan, 734, 740 Kadizadeli movement, 370 Jats (India), 395 al-Kahlawi, Ablah, 664 Java: and civil war, 742; crisis of imperialism and Islam kalam (theological argumentation), 246 on, 441–2; introduction of Islam to, 275; Islamic Kalifatsstaat (Caliphal state) movement, 822 reformism and modernism in, 737; and Islamic state, Kalimantan, 741 439–41; Islamization of, 435; Netherlands and al-Kamil, 195 colonialism in, 438, 729–32, 734; pre-Islamic culture of, Kamil, Mustafa, 564, 565 432–3; and religious teachers as leaders of peasant al-Kamiliyya, 228 rebellions, 733.SeealsoIndonesia Kanem (Sudan), 456–8 Jawa Peranakan (newspaper), 735 al-Kanemi, 472 Jaysh al-Mahdi (Army of the Redeemer, JAM), 596, Kano, 458–9, 770–1, 775, 836 597 Kanpur mosque episode (1913), 708 al-Jazeera, 577, 622 kanun (legal codes), 342 Jelal (Shah Isma‘il), 357 Kaplan, Metin, 822 Jelali rebellions (1595–1610), 364 Karaman Beylik, 332 Jenne, 455 Karamoko Alfa, 468 Jerusalem: and Arab-Muslim empire, 49; and ascent of karamokos (students), 464 Muhammad to heaven, 96, 119; and Christians in Karaosmanoglu, 368

Index 965

Karim Khan, 389 al-Khayzuran, 120, 251 Karimov, Islam, 689 Khazars, 72 al-Karkhi, 132 Khazraj tribe, 35, 41 Karlowitz, treaty of (1699), 369 Khilfat movement, 708–709 Karmal, Babrak, 725 Khiva, 674 Karramiyya, 135–6, 152, 216 Khokand, 427, 428, 430, 431 Karroubi, Mehdi, 555, 557 Khomenini, Ayatollah, 553, 554, 555, 560, 817 Kartosuwirjo, 741 Khrushchev, Nikita, 680, 682 Karzai, Hamid, 726, 849 khul‘ law, 659–60 Kashani, Ayatollah, 552–3 Khurasan (Iran), 58, 62, 72, 80, 85, 89 Kashf al-Mahjuh (al-Hujwiri), 239 Khuzistan, 595 Kashgar, 419, 428, 429–30, 431 Khwaja Ahrar, 187 Kashmir, 720 Khwarizm (Iran), 58, 427 Kassites, 9 Kifaya movement, 576–7 Katip Chelebi, 369 Kilwa, 480, 481, 482 Katsina, 459 al-Kindi, 111 Kaum Muda (Young Group), 283, 515, 736, 737, kingdoms and kingship: in ancient Mesopotamia, 8; 749 Ghanaian concept of, 455; Indian-Islamic practice of, al-Kawakibi, 581 394; Javanese concept of, 439; and pre-Islamic Arabia, Kay Ka’us, 232 28–30; Sudanese concept of, 455, 477, 479.Seealso Kazakhs: in China, 696; emigration from China into courts; empires; state Soviet Union, 695; and Golden Horde, 420, 421, 423; kinship system, in Ottoman Empire, 361 rebellion of against Soviet rule, 693; and resistance to Kirgizia, 676 Russian rule, 670; and Russian colonialism, 423, 668–9; Kirman, 60 sedentarization of under Soviet Union, 678; and Kitab al-Kharaj (Abu Yusuf), 127 variations in formation of Islamic societies, 419 Kitab al-Shifa’ (Ibn Sina), 248 Kazakhstan, 542, 672, 676, 678, 687, 689, 691 kiyayis (teachers), 277, 732, 733, 738 Kazan, 420, 421, 423 al-Kiylani, Rashid ‘Ali, 587 al-Kazaruni, Shaykh Abu Ishaq Ibrahim, 224 knowledge: and al-Ghazali on puriﬁcation, 244–5; Kazaruniyya, 397 transmission of in late antiquity and early Islamic era, Kebatinan (Javanese mystical groups), 743 23–4.Seealsoeducation; philosophy Keira dynasty, 479–80 Koja, Sinan, 346 Ke¨ıta, Modibo, 763 Kong, 464 Keita dynasty, 455 Kosovo, 812 Kelantan, 749 Kosovo, Battle of (1389), 333 Kenya, 794–5 Kubrawiyya, 222, 378 Kenyatta, Jomo, 794 Kuchuk Kaynarca, treaty of (1774), 363 Kerry, John, 607 Kuder, Lawrence, 753 Khadija (wife of Prophet), 35, 146 Kufa (Iraq), 52, 55 Khadwatis, 187 Kufan uprising (687), 139 Khaled, Amr, 838 al-Kulayni, 142, 215 Khalid b. al-Walid, 49 Kumasi, 464, 776–7 al-Khalifa family, 621 Kunh al-Akhbar (Mustafa ‘Ali), 345 khalifat Allah (deputy of God), 99, 104 Kunta clan, 448, 461–3 Khalji dynasty, 391, 400 al-Kunti, Shaykh Sidi al-Mukhtar, 764 Khalwati orders, 281 Kurdish Workers’ Party (PKK), 541, 542 Khamenei, Ayatollah ‘Ali, 557, 559, 848 Kurdistan, 527 Khamsa (Nizami), 415 Kurds, 179, 533, 541, 597 Khan, Ayyub, 717 al-Kursavi, Abu Nasir, 671 Khan Berke, 419 Kuwait, 594, 595, 612, 619, 620.SeealsoGulf states Khan Yahya, 717 Kyrgyzstan, 542, 690 khanaqa (Suﬁ retreat), 221, 223, 227, 228, 398 labor activism: and labor union movement in Southeast Kharijis, 66, 67, 69, 121, 151–2, 172, 255, 290 Asia, 739; and opposition movements in Egypt, 577; al-Kharraz, 136 and women in nineteenth century, 654–6; and women Khatami, Muhammad, 555, 557–8 in post-World War II era, 661–2 Khatib, Shaykh Ahmad, 736 Lagos, 772 Khatmiyya, 781 la¨ıcite´, French policy of, 819, 820 Khayr al-Din, 638 land tenure: and ‘Abbasid Empire, 80–1; in Algeria, 630, Khayr al-Din Barbarossa, 319 636; and Arab-Muslim empire in Iraq, 55; and

966 Index

Arab-Muslim empire in Syria, 56; and Mongol regime Asia, 679, 682.Seealsomanuscript illustration; mirror in Iran, 186; and Morocco, 643; and Ottoman Empire, theory; Persian literature; poetry; puppet theater 528; and reforms in Egypt, 562, 569, 571; and reforms logic, and Aristotelianism in early Islamic jurisprudence, in Iran, 551–2; and reforms in Iraq, 594; Russian and 131 Soviet policies in Caucasus and Inner Asia, 669, 678. love poetry, 106, 202, 203 See also iqta‘ system loya jirga, 726 language and languages: and Arab-Muslim empire, 157; Lugard, Frederick, 488 and British rule in India, 699; and common culture of Lumsden Commission (1885), 722 Christianity, 13; and Delhi sultanate, 394; and diversity of Islam in Africa, 801; and elites in pre-Islamic Ma Ba, 473 societies, 8; and ethnic groups in Afghanistan, 721; and Macedonia, 365, 811, 812 Mughal Empire, 699; and non-Muslim population of Madani, ‘Abassi, 637 Spain, 300; and Ottoman Empire, 353; of Roman Madelung, Wilfred, 66 Empire, 9; and Russian rule in Caucasus and Inner al-Madina al-Fadila (al-Farabi), 234 Asia, 678, 679; of Sufism, 137.SeealsoArabic madrasa, 217–18 language; Parthian languages; Persian language; maghazi (narratives of early Muslim community), 33 translations; specific languages al-Maghili, 467 Laskar Jihad, 747 Mahathir b. Muhammad, 752, 854 Las Navas de Tolosa, Battle of (1212), 295 Mahdawi movement, 399 Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, 192 al-Mahdi, 78, 103, 110, 172 Latin language, 310 al-Mahdi, al-Sadiq, 784 law and legal systems: and debates on theology in al-Mahdi, Sayyid Sadiq, 786 post-‘Abbasid era, 254–7; development of after 950, Mahdists (Sudan), 781, 783, 784 237–8; and Dutch colonialism in Southeast Asia, 732; Mahmadu Lamin of Senegambia, 473 global expansion of Islam and schools of, 277, 279; Mahmud II, 527 and inheritance in early Islamic period, 149; and Mahmud of Ghazna, 202 Islamic institutions in post-‘Abbasid era, 225; and Ma Hua-lung, 430–1 Muslims in contemporary Europe, 814; and Maimonides, Moses, 165, 309, 310 neofundamentalism, 835; and non-Muslim minorities, Maitatsine, Mohammed Marwa, 775 154–6; and Ottoman Empire, 342–3, 528; and Pahlavi al-Majdhub, Muhammad, 781 era in Iran, 549–50; and reforms in Egypt, 562–3; Majid, Nurcholish, 743 “re-Islamization” of in post-World War II era, 664; and Maji Maji revolt (1905), 792 religious communities of post-‘Abbasid era, 216–20; Majlis Ugama (Religious council), 749 and Saudi Arabia, 614; and scripturalism in early Makhdum-i ‘Azam, 428 Muslim theology, 124–34; and women in post-‘Abbasid al-Makki, 239 era, 212–13; and women in post-World War I maktabis, 625 nation-states, 656.Seealsofamily; judges; justice; mala’ (council of clans), 30 Shari‘a Malacca, 433, 436, 438 Lawrence, T. E., 582 Malamatiyya, 135 League of Nations, 566, 582 Malaya: British Empire in, 747–50; and development of Lebanon, 375–6, 579–80, 584, 586, 592, 597–9, national identity, 734–5; integration of Islam into 607 popular culture of, 275; Islamic reformism and Muslim legitimacy: of ‘Abbasid caliphate, 102; and authority in merchant class in, 282, 283; and modernism, 736; and Mughal Empire, 403–404; and ideology of Imperial plantation economy under Dutch colonialism, 731; Islam, 95, 112–13; of Islamic states, 285–6; of Ottoman resistance to Dutch colonialism in, 734; and slavery, Empire, 344–6, 494; of states in Arabian Peninsula in 450.SeealsoMalaysia post-1967 era, 625 Malayan Communist Party, 750 Lepanto, Battle of (1571), 338 Malay Muslim Youth League (ABIM), 751–2 Le Pen, Jean-Marie, 820 Malaysia, 750–2, 836, 853–4.SeealsoMalaya liberalism, and sociocultural versions of Islamic revival Malcolm X, 805 movements, 833, 834.Seealsoneoliberalism Mali, 321, 454–5, 463, 760, 761, 763–4, 849–50 Libya, 282, 646–8, 649 Malik, 127 Likud coalition (Israel), 604, 606 Malik Shah, 184 literature: Christian in early Islamic era, 157–8; and al-Maliki, Nuri, 596 evidence for Islamic identity, 93; and Hispano-Arabic Malikis, 127, 216, 296 culture, 311; and imperial Islam, 106–112; influence of Malkum Khan, 548 pre-Islamic Arabic on early Islamic era, 169; and mallams (teachers), 773, 775 Jewish culture in Islamic context, 165; and Ottoman Ma Ming-hsin, 430 Empire, 345; and regional cultures of post-‘Abbasid Mamluk Empire, 159, 165, 195–7, 210–11, 228, 336, era, 204, 205; and Soviet Union in Caucasus and Inner 561

Index 967

Mamluks, as elites in Egypt under Ottoman rule, Mazdakism, 14, 15 374 McMahon, Henry, 582 al-Ma’mun, 80, 83, 85–6, 104, 110, 130, 172–3 Mecca, 30–1, 36, 41, 42, 129 Manchu dynasty, 429 Meccan Revelations (Ibn al-‘Arabi), 250 Ma’n family, 375 media: and Islam in popular culture of Southeast Asia, Mangit dynasty, 426, 431 746; and Kurdish rights movement in Turkey, 541; and Mani (216–76 CE), 14 Muslim militancy in India under British rule, 706; and Manichaeanism, 14, 39, 103 post-independence era in North Africa, 650; and Mansa Musa, 455 secular opposition movements in Egypt, 576–7; and al-Mansur (Sultan), 322 women’s activism in nineteenth century, 655.Seealso Mansur, Shaykh, 684–5 al-Jazeera; newspapers al-Mansur Qalawun, 196 medieval period.Seepost-‘Abbasid era manufacturing, and Ottoman Empire, 366.Seealso Medina, 35, 41, 44, 48, 52, 97, 127 industrialization Mediterranean, cross-regional connections and diffusion manuscript illustration: and ‘Abbasid era, 415; and of Islam from seventh to eighteenth century, 497–8 Mughal Empire, 415; and Ottoman Empire, 345, 415; Mehmed I, 340 and Safavid Empire, 383, 415 Mehmed II, 336, 338, 340, 344, 350, 352, 353 Manzikert, Battle of (1071), 182, 331 Mehmed IV, 351 Mao Zedong, 694 Mehmed ‘Ali Pasha, 529 Maraboutism, 297, 631–2 Mehmed Emin Belig, 369 Maratha movement, 408 Mehmed Fuad Pasha, 529 Marco Polo, 433 Mehmed Koprulu, 367 Mardawij b. Ziyar, 90 Mehsud, Baitullah, 721 al-Marghinani, 238 Melkites, 158, 356 ma‘rifa (vision), 245 mellahs (Jewish quarters), 314 Marinids, 320–1 Menderes, Adnan, 536, 589 Marjani Shihab al-Din, 671 Menelik II, Emperor, 484, 789 markets, and urban societies of post-‘Abbasid era, 214. Mengistu Haile Mariam, 790 See also trade Mesopotamia: and Arab-Muslim empire, 56–7; Maronite church, 579–80 emergence of city-state in pre-Islamic, 7–8; and Marrakesh, 294 empires, 9; and origins of institutional patterns marriage: in Arab-Muslim empire, 148; in Egypt, 660; in characteristic of Islamic societies, 1; Shi‘ism and Iran, 657–8; and Islamic law in Africa, 799–800; and resistance to ‘Abbasid Empire in, 89, 91 legal system in post-‘Abbasid era, 212; in Mamluk era Messali, Hajj, 631 of Cairo, Damascus, and Jerusalem, 210–11; in metaphysics, and early Suﬁsm, 138 pre-Islamic Middle Eastern and Mediterranean Mevlevis, 358 societies, 16–17.Seealsodivorce; polygyny Miaphysitism, 12, 13, 15 Martel, Charles, 298 Middle East: and Arab-Muslim conquests, 50; martyrdom, and death of Husayn, 69 characteristics of Islamic societies in, 258–65; and Ma‘ruf, Muhammad, 791 conversions to Islam between seventh and thirteenth Marwanids, 69–70, 192 centuries, 271–2; in Ghaznavid era, 181; iqta‘ system Masina, 472, 475 and feudalism in Europe, 197–200; Muslim population Masjumi, 740, 741, 742, 743 of, 843; and partition of Ottoman Empire, 527; political masnavi (poetry), 202 boundaries at start of Muslin era, 27; pre-Islamic ma’sum (imam), 140 Arabia as integral part of, 26; societies of pre-Islamic Mataram, 439, 440 period, 7–21.SeealsoEgypt; Iran; Iraq; Israel; Materi, Mahmud, 639 Lebanon; Palestine; Saudi Arabia; Syria; Turkey mathematics, and Hellenistic literature, 111–12 migration.Seeimmigration matrilineality, in Minangkabau, 445, 446 military: of ‘Abbasid Empire, 76, 85; and government of al-Maturidi, 124 Nigeria, 773; and government of Sudan, 784–7; and Maturidism, 124, 245, 254 Iran, 549; and Libya, 647; and Morocco, 322–3; of Maulana ‘Abd al-Bari, 707 Ottoman Empire, 339, 340–1, 363–4; and Pakistan, 719; Maulay Isma‘il, 323 and politics in Egypt, 561, 577, 578; and politics in Mau Mau revolt (1952), 794 Turkey, 543; and slavery in Mamluk Empire, 195; and Mauritania, 276, 467, 764–5, 849 slavery in post-‘Abbasid era, 179–80, 197; and slavery al-Mawardi, 230–1 in Safavid Empire, 381–2; and transnational political Mawdudi, Abul ‘Ala, 717 organizations, 840–1; and Uganda, 796.Seealsonavy mawlid (celebration of birth of Prophet), 120, 252–3 milla (religious community), 584, 623 Maydan-i Shah, 382–3 millet system, and Ottoman Empire, 351, 356, 580 Mazar-i Sharif (mosque), 723 Milli Gorus (National vision) movement, 538

968 Index

Milosevic, Slobodan, 812 847; and Marinids, 320–1; and Muslim states to Minangkabau, 445–6, 733, 736 eleventh century, 290, 292; post-independence era in, Ming dynasty, 429 645–6; and Sa‘dians, 322–3; and Songhay Empire, 456; minorities.Seeethnicity and ethnic groups, non-Muslim and Suﬁsm, 321–2; and variations on theme of Islam minorities and state formation, 327–8; and Wattasid period, 321 Mir ‘Ali Shir Nava’i, 204–205 Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), 753 Mirasism, 682 Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), 753 Mir Damad, 385 Morsi, Muhammad, 577–8, 852 Mirdasid, 192 Mosaddeq, Muhammad, 551 al-Mirghani, Muhammad ‘Uthman, 781 Moscow, 419 mirror theory, of state, 232–4, 235–6 Moses ibn Ezra, 310 Mirza Husayn Shirazi, 547, 548 Mosque of Cordoba, 301 Mirza Mazhar, 409 mosques: and Delhi sultanate, 393; design and Mishneh Torah, 309 construction of in U.S., 808; and early Muslim identity, missionaries: and Islam in Southeast Asia, 436; and 93; and Mamluk Empire, 196; and regional cultures of Isma‘ilism in Fatimid Egypt, 191; Ottoman Empire and post-‘Abbasid era, 203; in Umayyad period, 97–9 Catholic, 355; and Suﬁsm, 224, 436; and trade in West Mosul (Mesopotamia), 57, 194 Africa, 463–5 Moussavi, Mir-Hossein, 557, 559 Mithraism, 11, 14 Mozambique, 793 mobads (magi), 13–14 Mozarabs, 300, 306, 310–11 modernity and modernism: in Afghanistan, 722, 724; in mu‘amalat (rules of social relations), 133 Egypt, 564–5, 566, 576; in Gulf states, 619–20; and Mu’awiya, 55, 56, 66, 67–9, 95, 102, 172 impact of European imperialism on Muslim world, 511, Mubarak, Gamal, 576, 577, 659, 851 513, 507; Indonesia and Islamic, 733–4; in Iran, 547, Mubarak, Husni, 571–2, 577 551, 552; and Islamic reformism in Caucasus and Inner Muda Sulayman, Raja, 749 Asia, 670–3; and Islamic reformism in Southeast Asia, Mudejars, 306–307, 312, 315 735–7; and Muslims in India under British rule, 704; Mughal Empire, 400–412, 414–17, 494–5, 698–9, 701, principles of Islamic, 515–20; and reforms in Ottoman 702 Empire, 527, 528; in Saudi Arabia, 616; and Soviet era muhajirun (exiled Meccans), 35, 115 in Caucasus and Inner Asia, 676–83; and Muhammad (Prophet): ascent of to heaven, 96, 119; transformation of Islamic societies in nineteenth and biography of, 23, 33–45, 119; and community (umma), twentieth centuries, 830; in Tunisia, 641; and Turkish 114; cult of Prophet and veneration of, 251–2; and Republic, 534; women as symbols of, 653.Seealso establishment of caliphate, 46, 48, 65; and Muslim postmodernism identity, 92; Muslim lineages and descent from, Mogadishu, 480, 481 279–80; and status of women, 146, 147; Sunnis and Mohammadan Anglo-Oriental College, 704 veneration of, 119–20 Moi, Daniel arap, 794 Muhammad V, Sultan, 644, 645, 646 Moluccas, 435, 436, 438 Muhammad VI (Morocco), 645, 661 Mongols: and connections between Iran and Inner Asia, Muhammad, Elijah, 804–805 418; and diffusion of Islam, 500; empires of in Muhammad, Warith Deen, 805 thirteenth century, 185; and invasion of Anatolia, 332; Muhammad b. ‘Abdallah (Abdille Hassan), 788 and non-Muslim minorities, 159; and Persian-Islamic Muhammad b. ‘Abdallah b. Tumart, 294–5 literature, 204; post-‘Abbasid era and invasions of, Muhammad Ahmad, Shaykh, 781 184–6; and steppes, 419, 421; and Turkestan, 428, Muhammad ‘Ali, 525, 561–2, 563, 706 429 Muhammad b. ‘Ali al-Baqir, 142 monotheism, and pre-Islamic religions in Middle East, Muhammad b. ‘Ali al-Sanusi, 647 11 Muhammad Baqir al-Majlisi, 388 Montenegro, 525, 811 Muhammad Bello, 470 Moorish Science Temple of America, 804 Muhammad Bey (Tunisia), 638 morality: and changes in post-World War II era, 662–3; in Muhammad b. Karram, 221 Ottoman Empire, 361–2; in Pre-Islamic societies of Muhammad al-Korau, 459 Middle East and Mediterranean, 17–18, 148.Seealso Muhammad b. Masarra, 301 values Muhammad al-Mustafa Saghanughu, 464 moriscos, 315 Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyya, 83 Mori-Ule Sise, 473 Muhammad Rahim I, 427 Morocco: and ‘Alawi dynasty, 323–5; and Almohad Muhammad Reza Pahlavi, 551 movement, 294–5; and Almoravids, 294; and colonial Muhammad Rumfa, 459 rule, 641–5, 649; and conquest of Timbuktu, 461; Muhammad Salih (Arabia), 494 independence movement in, 644–5; Islamic reformism Muhammad Salih Bitikchi, 380 and modernism in, 519; Islamic state in contemporary, Muhammad b. Tughluq, 393–4, 400

Index 969

Muhammadiyya movement, 283, 515, 737, 743–4 Mwanga II, 488 Muharram procession (Calcutta), 513 Mwiniyi, ‘Ali Hassan, 793 mujaddid (renewer of Islam), 467 mysticism: and Jewish scholarship in Spain, 310; and mujahid (warrior for the faith), 600, 603 philosophical concepts of Ibn Sina, 248; and Sunnis, mujahidin (Muslim warriors), 594, 725 134–8.SeealsoSufism mujtahid (jurisconsult), 218 mullahs, 277 Nabatean kingdom, 29 Mulla Sadra, 385 Nabiev, Rakhmon, 690 multiculturalism: in Canada, 810; in U.S., 804; in Western Nadir (Afghanistan), 724 Europe, 814.Seealsopluralism Nadir (Iran), 389, 408 Munsif Bey, 639–40 Nagid, 165 al-Muqanna‘ (the Veiled One), 83 Nagomo-Karabakh, 686 Muqatil b. Sulayman, 136 Naguib, Muhammad, 568, 851 al-Muqrani, 629 Nahdatul ‘Ulama’, 738, 742, 743, 745–6 al-Murabitun, 294 Najm al-Din Kubra, 378 Murad, 426 Namik Kemal, 529 Murad I, 318, 340 Nana Asma‘u, 470 Murad II, 341 Nanautawi Maulana, Muhammad Qasim, 702 Muridiyya (Murid movement), 766–7, 768 Napoleon III, 630 Murji‘a, 121, 152 Napoleonic wars, 438, 441, 442 Musa al-Kazim, 161, 215 Naqshbandi, 281, 282, 409, 425, 733 Museveni, Yoweri Kaguta, 796 al-Nasafi, 189 Musharraf, Pervez, 719, 848 Nasibin, school of, 109 music: and Islamic revival movements, 833; and Islam in Nasihat-nama (Book of advice), 703 popular culture of Southeast Asia, 746; and Muslim al-Nasir, 222 communities in Britain, 819 Nasir al-Din, 467, 545, 546 Muslim(s).Seeidentity; Islam; Islamic societies; Nasiri, ‘Abd al-Qayyim, 671 population; specific countries Nasiriyya, 323 Muslim Board for Central Asia and Kazakhstan, 681–2 Nasr, Sayyid Hosein, 806 Muslim Brotherhood, 574, 576, 577–8, 685, 839, 852.See Nasrid dynasty (Granada), 307 also Muslim Brothers al-Nasser, Jamal ‘Abd, 568–70, 589, 659, Muslim Brothers, 588, 637, 784, 785, 786, 821.Seealso 851 Muslim Brotherhood; Society of Muslim Brothers Nasyid (Arab vocal genre), 746 Muslim Council of Britain (MCB), 817 Nation of Islam (NOI), 804–805 Muslim Judicial Council (MJC), 779 nationalism: and European colonialism in Africa, 488–9; Muslim League, 710–12 and Islamic modernism in Egypt, 564–5; and Islamic Muslim Mosque Inc., 805 modernism in Indonesia, 733–4; and Islam in Arab Muslims of the Soviet East (journal), 682 states, 622–6; Islamic modernism and secular, 520–1; in Muslim Students’ Association, 809 Malaya, 749–50; and Muslims in India, 712; and “Muslim world,” and international Islamic community, Nigeria, 772–3; and secularism in Indonesia, 734–5; 283 and transformation of Islamic societies in nineteenth Muslim World League, 616, 837 and twentieth centuries, 829–32; Zionism and Jewish, Muslim Youth Organization, 818 599.SeealsoArab nationalism Mustafa, Shukri, 575 navy: of Ottoman Empire, 338; trade and emergence of Mustafa ‘Ali, 345 European colonial empires, 502–504.Seealsomilitary Mustafa b. ‘Azzuz, Shaykh, 629 Nawaz Sharif, 719 Mustafa Kemal.SeeAtaturk Nawruz (festival), 254 Mustafa Kochu Bey, 369 Nef’i, 345 Mustafa Naima, 369 Nehru, Jawaharlal, 710 Mustafa Reshid Pasha, 529 Nehru Report (1928), 709 al-Musta‘li, 191 neofundamentalist movements, 835, 836 al-Mustansir, 191 neo-Islamic movements: in Europe, 816, 820, 821; and Mustarshidin, 768 relations between states and Islamic societies, 847–9; al-Mutanabbi, 201 in Turkey, 538, 539 al-Mu‘tasim, 85–6, 110 neoliberalism, and Turkey, 540 al-Mutawakkil, 87, 104–105, 155, 156, 173 neo-Nazis, 823 Mu‘tazilis, 121–3, 136, 245 neo-Platonism, 138, 248, 309–10, 385 Mutesa I (Buganda), 485, 796 neo-Sufism, 522, 833, 834 Mutiny of 1857 (India), 701 neo-Wahhabism, 847 Muwatta’ (Malik), 127 Nessana (Syria), 56

970 Index

Nestorians, 12, 14, 15, 532 Nyerere, Julius, 793 Netanyahu, Benjamin, 606, 607 Netherlands: and colonialism in Southeast Asia, 436, 438, Obasanjo, Olusegun, 773, 775 439, 442, 446, 729–40; Muslim immigrants to Obote, Milton, 796 contemporary, 823–4, 825; and Sumatra, 729; and trade Ocalan, ‘Abdallah, 541 in India, 412; and trade in Safavid Empire, 384 Oghuz peoples, 180, 182, 331 Neuwirth, A., 37 oil industry: and Central Asia, 691, 692; in Gulf states, “New Economic Policy” (Soviet Union), 678 619; in Iran, 550, 551, 554; in Iraq, 587; in Kuwait, 620; newspapers: and resistance to Dutch colonialism in in Saudi Arabia, 613, 617; in United Arab Emirates, Southeast Asia, 735; women’s in nineteenth century, 622; in Yemen, 610 655.Seealsomedia Oirats, 428, 429 New Teachings (Hsin-chiao), 430 Olmet, Ehud, 607 Niass, Ibrahim, 766, 770, 772 Oman, 481–2, 612, 619, 620.SeealsoGulf states Niffari, 137 Omar, Mullah Muhammad, 726 Niger, 779 oral tradition: and early Islamic legal studies, 127, 128–9; Niger Company, 488 and Muslim societies of Caucasus and Inner Asia, 682; Nigeria, 458–9, 468, 755, 757, 760, 769–76, 836, and origins of Quran, 37, 38; and transmission of 854–5 knowledge in early Islamic era, 23–4; and Umayyad Nisanbai, Radbek, 689 period, 95 Nishapur, 135–6, 220 Organization of African States, 789 Nizam-i Jedid (New Organization), 527 Organization of the Islamic Conference, 616, 837 Nizam al-Mulk, 218, 227, 232, 235 Orhan, 333, 341 Nizami Ganjavi, 203, 415 orientalism, and historiography on origins of Islam, 23 Nizar, 191 Oslo accords (1993), 604, 606 Nizaris, 410 Osman, 333 Nkumah, Kwame, 757, 777 Ottoman Empire: and Aceh, 442; and Algeria, 319–20; non-Muslim minorities: and adoption of Muslim beliefs and Arab nationalism, 579; Arab provinces under rule and practices in Africa, 449; and Arab-Muslim empire, of, 373–6; center and periphery of, 371–2; and 153–4; fundamentalism and Ottoman policies toward, commercialization, 364–6; and cross-regional 370; and legal system of Ottoman Empire, 351; and connections in Mediterranean, 498; development of Muslim legal views, 154–6.SeealsoChristianity; ghazi state into, 332–6; economy of, 347–9; and ethnicity and ethnic groups; Jews and Judaism; education of women, 654; and Egypt, 561; expansion Zoroastrianism of, 334–5, 336–9; foreign wars and changes in, 363–4; North Africa: Almoravids and Almohads, 293, 294–6; and and Indian Ocean, 498–9; and Islamic reform Arab-Muslim conquests, 49, 50; Christians as movements, 518; Jews and Christians in, 349–56; and non-Muslim minority in, 160–1; and conversion to Libya, 646–7; and Mughal Empire, 414–17; and Muslim Islam, 272; family law in post-World War II period, communities, 357–8; nationalism and establishment of 660–1; Fatimid and Zirid empires and Banu Hilal, 292; Turkish Republic, 520; partition of, 524–7; and and Islamic reform movements, 517; and Islamic patrimonial regime in fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, religious communities, 296–7; Islam in state ideologies 339–44; and political institutions, 366–8; and political and opposition movements of, 648–51; and Jews, 163, networks, 368; and political reform, 527–32; power, 314; Muslim population of, 843; and Muslim states ideology, and identity in postclassic period of, 369–71; prior to eleventh century, 288–92; and provinces of royal authority, cultural legitimization, and identity in, ‘Abbasid Empire, 80, 84, 89; state formation and 344–6; and Safavid Empire, 388–9, 414–17; and Islamization as themes in history of, 288, 326–8; Sufism steppes, 420; and Tunisia, 318–19; and varieties of and tribal unification in, 284–5; and trans-Saharan trade Islamic societies, 493–4; women and family in, 358–62, routes, 452.SeealsoAlgeria; Libya; Morocco; Tunisia 653–4; and World War I, 432–3; and Yemen, 608–609 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 536, 541, Ottomanism, 540–1 569, 648, 811, 812 Ouattara, Alassane, 778 notables: and Mughal Empire, 403; and Ottoman Empire, Ould Daddah, Mukhtar, 764 368, 371, 375; and rise of Arab nationalism, 579–83.See Ould Taya, Sid-Ahmed, 765 also elites Ozal, Turgut, 538–9 Nour, Ayman, 572 Nubia, 477 Padri movement, 282, 515, 733 nuclear weapons: and Iran, 559; and Pakistan, 720 paganism: and pre-Islamic societies of Middle East, 11, al-Numayri, Ja‘far, 784–6, 787 15; and traditional belief systems in Africa, 800.See Nur al-Din, 194, 196, 228 also animism Nurbaksh, 378 Pahlavi dynasty, 549–52, 657 Nurcis, 822 Pakistan, 616, 709–12, 716–21, 726, 835, 836, 843, Nursi, Said, 538 848

Index 971

Palestine: Arabization and Islamization of, 159; and pilgrimages: and Islamic reformism in Southeast Asia, Arab-Muslim empire, 56, 57, 156, 157; and Crusades, 735; and Islamic reformism in West Africa, 761; to 192; and establishment of Jordan, 587, 588; and Ka‘ba, 43; and Mecca in pre-Islamic era, 30; and European trade, 580; and Islamic reformism, 518; and Shi‘ism, 142 Israel from 1948 to 1990s, 601–604; as mandate of Piri Re’is, 337, 345 League of Nations, 582; nationalism and Islamic Plassey, Battle of (1757), 412 identity in, 831; and Ottoman Empire, 355, 356, 518, Plato, 109, 234, 301.Seealsoneo-Platonism 527; and refugees in Lebanon, 597; and Saudi Arabia, Plotinus, 138 617; and two-state solution, 604–607; women and pluralism, and social organization of European societies, activism in post-World War II era, 662; and yeshivas, 501–502.Seealsoculture; multiculturalism 164–5; Zionism and struggle for, 599–601.Seealso poetry: and ‘Abbasid court, 105, 106; Arab identity and intifada; Jerusalem pre-Islamic, 31, 169; and bedouins in pre-Islamic Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), 592, 598, 603, Arabia, 29; and Hebrew language in Spain, 308–309, 604, 605, 831 310; and Hispano-Arabic culture, 301, 302; and Mughal Palestinian National Authority, 607, 662 Empire, 399, 415; and Ottoman Empire, 345, 369, 415; Palmyra, 29, 30 and regional cultures of post-‘Abbasid era, 200–203; Pamuk, Orhan, 543 and Safavid Empire, 415; and Sunni veneration of pan-Arabism, 584, 594, 623–4, 655 Prophet, 120; Umayyad caliphate and Arabic, 68–9, 95, pançasila principles, 741, 743, 853 99.Seealsolove poetry Pangkor engagement (1874), 748 Poitiers, Battle of (732), 298 Panipat, Battle of (1761), 408 political parties: and Islamic revival movements, 839; in Pan-Islamism, 531, 816 Ottoman Empire, 368; in Pakistan, 718; in post-Soviet Pan-Malayan Islamic Party (PMIP), 750–1 Russia, 684; Somalia and clan-based, 788; in Southeast Paris, Treaty of (1856), 525 Asia from 1900 to 1950, 738–40; in West Africa, 757 Parsi (Pahlavi) language, 201 politics: AKP and current status of in Turkey, 543; and Parthian Empire, 9 anti-immigrant reactions in Europe, 824–5; and Parthian languages, and Sasanian Empire, 11 biography of Muhammad, 40–4; and contemporary Parti du peuple algerien´ (PPA), 631 Islamic revivalism, 838–40; and cultural-communal Pashtuns, 700, 720, 721, 722, 725, 726 movements in modern Islam, 834; and diversity of patronage, and ‘Abbasid Empire, 82 sub-Saharan African Islam, 800–801; and Islamic Paul of Antioch, 158 revivalism in Egypt, 575–6; Islam and Turkish, 537–8; Payam-I Hajar (Hagar’s message), 557, 658 “logic” of Egyptian, 579; and Muslim immigration to Peace of Jassy (1792), 363 Germany, 823; and Muslims in India in early twentieth penghulus, 445, 446 century, 707–709; and Muslims as minorities, 854–5; Perak, sultanate of, 748 and networking in Ottoman Empire, 368; and new periphery.Seecenter/periphery theories institutions in Ottoman Empire, 366–8; in Saudi Arabia, Permanent Settlement (1793, India), 412 615–16; transnational Islam and military or terrorist Persatuan Islam, 737, 739 organizations, 840–1; women and activism in Persian Empire.SeeSasanian Empire nineteenth century, 654–6.SeealsoArab Spring; Persian invasion of 611–19 (Syria), 56 communism; liberalism; political parties; radicalism; Persian language, 63, 200, 201, 202, 404, 415, separatist movements; socialism; state 699 polygyny: and Judaism in pre-Islamic era, 18; and Persian literature: and imperial Islam, 108–109, 112; and marriage in pre-Islamic Arabia, 145, 146 dominant culture in Asian empires, 415; and tradition polytheism, and pre-Islamic societies of Middle East, of manuals of statecraft, 232–4 11 pesantrens, 732–3, 737 Pomaks, 812–13 Peter the Great (Russia), 363, 420, 423 Poole, Elijah (Elijah Muhammad), 804–805 Petra, 29, 30 popular culture: and boundaries between Islam and Philip II (Spain), 315 Hinduism in India, 396; and conversion to Islam in Philip III (Spain), 315 Southeast Asia, 275; and Islamic revival movements, Philippines, 752–4 833; and music in Muslim communities in Britain, 819; philosophy: and alternative Islam, 247–54; and and music in Southeast Asia, 746; and women in Christianity in early Islamic era, 158; and early Muslim post-‘Abbasid era, 210–12 theology, 121–2; imperial Islam and Hellenistic, Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, 109–12; influence of pre-Islamic on early Islamic era, 603 169, 171; and Jewish culture in Spain, 309; Spain and popular Islam, and Sunni tradition, 256 Arabic scholars, 301; synthesis of theology with in popular Sufism, 297 Islamic religious culture, 246; and theory of ideal state, population: agriculture in Java and growth of, 730; 234–6.Seealsologic; rationalism and reason; countries with largest numbers of Muslims as theosophy minorities, 846; global distribution of Muslim, 842;

972 Index

increase of in northern Nigeria, 770; of Muslims by Qarakhanid Empire, 180, 418 country, 843–6 Qarakhitay, 184 Porphyry, 110 Qaramanli, Ahmad, 646 Portugal: and colonialism in Africa, 450–1, 481, 485; and Qaramita, 612 colonialism in Southeast Asia, 436; expulsion of Jews Qarluq peoples, 180 from, 161, 312–15; and Morocco, 321; and trade in Qarmatian state (Bahrain), 89, 91 Indian Ocean, 337–8, 412, 481 qasbah elites (India), 704–705, 707 post-‘Abbasid era, and state system in Middle East: and qasida (literary form), 202 concept of state, 206–207; and Crusades, 192–5; and Qasr Shirin, treaty of (1639), 336 debates over law and theology within Islam, 254–7; al-Qassam, Shaykh ‘Izz al-Din, 600–601 and Fatimid Egypt, 188–92; and al-Ghazali, 240–5; Qassim, ‘Abd al-Karim, 593 ideology versus reality in lives of women during, Qatar, 621–2.SeealsoGulf states 208–13; institutions and mass Islamic society in, 223–6; qawmiyya, 583 in Iraq and Iran, 177–81, 182; and iqta‘ system in Qayrawan, 163 Middle East, 197–200; and Mamluk Empire, 195–7; and Qing Zhen, 691, 693 Mongol invasions, 184–6; and religious communities, Qizilbash, 379 215–23; and religious movements, 226–9; royal courts quarters, and urban societies of post-‘Abbasid era, and regional cultures of, 200–206; and Saljuq Empire, 213–14 182–4; and scriptural Islam, 245–7; and Sufism, 239–40; Qum (Iran), 58 and Syria, 192–5; and urban societies, 213–15 Quran: Al-Ma’mun and doctrine of created, 104; and postmodernism, and historiography on origins of Islam, feminism, 663–4; and Islamic identity, 93; 23 Judeo-Christian and Arabian heritage of, 38–40; and poverty, in Yemen, 610 Libya, 648; and Mu’tazilis, 122–3; presentation of power, and issues of ideology and identity in postclassic Muhammad in, 119; scripturalism and law in early Ottoman Empire, 369–71, 372.Seealsoauthority; Muslim theology, 124–34; and Sufis, 136; theories legitimacy about origin of, 36–8; translation of into Latin, 310; prayer, Islamic practice of, 39 ‘Uthman and standard edition of, 66 predestination, and early Muslim theology, 121 Quraysh, 30–1, 35, 36, 41 privateering, and Algeria, 320 Qusayr ‘Amr, 100 priyayi (aristocracy), 440, 732, 733, 734–5, 738, 739 al-Qushayri, 239 property, and inheritance rights of women: in early Qut al-Qulub (al-Makki), 239 Islamic period, 148–50; in late antique societies, 18–19; Qutb, Sayyid, 574 in post-‘Abbasid era, 209, 213; in post-World War I Qutb al-Din Aybeg, 391 Egypt, 659.Seealsoland tenure Qutb Shah dynasty, 395 prophets, and Shi‘ism, 143.SeealsoMuhammad (Prophet) Rabbani, Burhanuddin, 725 provinces: of ‘Abbasid Empire, 79–80, 88–91; of Ottoman Rabbinic Judaism, 162, 163–5 Empire, 343–4, 367 Rabi‘a, 136 Ptolemy, 311 radicalism: Islamic in Kenya, 795; and transnational public health, and Egypt under Mubarak, 572 political organizations, 841 Pumbedita (yeshiva), 164 radical skepticism, and early Islamic studies, 23–4 Punjab, 274, 408, 710, 716 Raffles, Thomas Stamford, 442 puppet theater, and Ottoman Empire, 361, 362 Rafsanjani, Ayatollah, (Iran) 557 Putin, Vladimir, 686 Rahman, Fazlur, 806 Rahman, Shaykh Mujib, 727 al-Qabisi, 296 Rahman, Zia, 727 Qabus b. Sa‘id, 630 Rahmat ‘Ali, Chaudhari, 710 “Qabus-nameh” (Kay Ka’us), 232 railroads: in Iran, 550; and Russian colonialism in Qadaris, 121 Caucasus and Inner Asia, 668, 669; in West Africa, al-Qaddafi, Mu‘ammar, 647–8 756 al-Qadir, 226–7 Rais, Amin, 746 al-Qadiri, Muhammad Tahir, 718 Ramadan, 39 Qadiriyya, 222, 409, 733, 788, 791 Ramadan, Tariq, 819 Qadisiyya, Battle of (637), 49 Rashid al-Din, 204 Qadizade Mehmed Efendi, 370 Rassemblement democratique´ africain (RDA), 757 al-Qaeda, 596, 611, 615, 726, 795, 841, 849 Rasta Sufis, 833 al-Qa’im, 227 Rasulid dynasty, 609 Qajars, 389, 544–7 rationalism and reason: in early Muslim theology and Qanun fi al-Tibb (Ibn Sina), 248 legal studies, 123, 124, 131; and usuli in Safavid al-Qaradawi, Shaykh Yusuf, 837 Empire, 388.Seealso‘Aql; philosophy

Index 973

ra’y, people of, 131 Rightly Guided Caliphs, 46, 65–7, 171–2 Reconquista (Spain), 192, 303–304 Ripon Local Council Act of 1882, 705 Red Guards (China), 695 Risala (al-Qushayri), 239 reformism (tajdid), Islamic: in Algeria, 631–3; and Risala (al-Shafi‘i), 131 beginning of modern era, 514–15, 517; in Caucasus Risale-i Nur (Said Nursi), 538 and Inner Asia, 670–3; and Egypt under Ottoman rule, ritual laws, and Quran, 128 373–4; and global expansion of Islam, 280–3; in India, Roderic (Visigoth King), 298 399, 702; Islamic belief and practice in Africa and, 800; Rogova, Ibrahim, 812 in Minangkabau, 445–6; in Morocco, 644; in Nigeria, Roman Empire: and Christianity, 15; and history of 774; resistance and nationalism in Egypt and, 564; and pre-Islamic Middle East, 9–10; influence of on early revolution in Iran, 553; in Southeast Asia, 735–7; in Islamic societies, 20; and institutions of early Islamic West Africa, 760–1, 761, 768–9, 774.Seealsorevivalism period, 173–4; and marriage, 17; and pre-Islamic religion: and authority of Safavids, 380; of Bedouins in Arabia, 29–30; and status of women, 16, 18, 19.See pre-Islamic Arabia, 29; and empires of pre-Islamic also Byzantine Empire Middle East, 15–16; and gods in pre-Islamic Arabia, 31; Romania, 338, 363, 371, 525 and government policies in western Europe, 813–14; Roy, Olivier, 836 and politics in Saudi Arabia, 615–16; and pre-Islamic ruba‘i (poetry), 202 societies of Middle East, 11–15; and state in medieval Rudaki, 202 Islamic paradigm, 264–5; and state in Safavid Empire, Rum, sultanate of, 331 386–8.Seealsoanimism; atheism; Buddhism; Rumi, 203, 415 Christianity; gnosticism; Hinduism; inquisition; Islam; Rumi, Jalal al-Din, 358 Jews and Judaism; Manichaeanism; missionaries; Rushdie, Salman, 808, 817 Mithraism; monotheism; mysticism; paganism; Russia: and absorption of Tatar states, 419; and pilgrimages; polytheism; saints; secularism and Afghanistan, 722; Caucasus and Inner Asia in secularization; shamanism; theology; Zoroastrianism post-Soviet era, 683–4; Caucasus and Inner Asia under representational images, and Muslim public art, 101 tsarist rule, 667–70; and Chechen wars, 686; and resistance: and ‘Abbasid Empire, 82–4, 89; to British control of Black and Caspian seas, 338–9; expansion of colonial rule in Egypt, 564–5; to colonialism and in Inner Asia, 422, 427–8; gas and oil pipelines from Islamic reform movements, 283; and contemporary Central Asia and, 691; and Iran, 388–9, 546, 547, 548, Islamic political movements, 839–40; and French 550; Muslim population of, 843; and Ottoman Empire, occupation of Algeria, 629, 630–3; of Islamic societies 338–9, 363, 525; and revolution, 672, 673–6, 685; and to European imperialism, 521–2; and mass politics in Turkestan, 431; and Turkey, 542, 707.SeealsoSoviet India in post-World War I era, 708; Moroccan to French Union rule, 643–4; and Muslim movement in Philippines, 753; Russo-Japanese war, 734 to Ottoman Empire in Anatolia, 357–8; to Russian rule Russo-Turkish war (1876–1878), 707 in Turkestan, 670; to Soviet Union in Caucasus and rustaq (local government), 80 Inner Asia, 674.Seealsorevolutions Ruthven, M., 39 revisionism, and history of Islamic empires and societies in Asia, 329 Sa‘adawi, Nawal, 664 revivalism: in Caucasus, 685; in contemporary Islam, Saadya Gaon, 165, 309 522–3; and Egypt, 566–7, 572–6; and Hinduism, 705, Sabah b. Jabr, 619 715; and Indonesia in 1970s, 744; influence of on al-Sabah family, 620 Islamic societies, 832–41; in Kenya, 795.Seealso Sabaheddin, Prince, 530 reformism Sabri, ‘Ali, 569 revolutions, and rebellions: and ‘Abbasid movement, Sadat, Anwar, 568, 570–1, 575, 601, 659, 72–3; in Algeria, 633–5; in Iran, 552–5, 657; and Islamic 851 traditionalism in Southeast Asia, 732–3; in Libya, 648; Saddam Husayn, 593–4, 595, 596, 604 Mahdist in Sudan, 781; Mau Mau in Kenya, 794; and Sa‘di, 203, 415 Muslims in China, 430; in Ottoman Empire, 357, 364, Sa‘dians, 322–3 525; of peasants in nineteenth-century Egypt, 562; in Sadok b. al-Haji, Sidi, 628–9 Spain, 302, 303, 306; in Tanzania, 792; Tatars and Sadozai, Ahmed Shah, 722 Russian Empire, 423.SeealsoAmerican Revolution; al-Sadr, Muqtada, 597 French Revolution; resistance; Russia al-Sadr, Musa, 598 Reza Shah Pahlavi, 549, 551, 654, 655 Sadr al-Din, 378 ribats (meeting houses), 221, 222, 227, 228, 290 Sa‘d Zaghlul, 564, 565 Richard the Lion-Heart, 194 Safavid Empire: dissolution of, 388–90; Mughal and Rida, Rashid, 622–3, 806 Ottoman empires compared to, 414–17; origins of, Rif (Morocco), 643 377–9; and reign of Shah ‘Abbas, 381–4; and Shi‘ism, Rifa‘i, Haji Ahmad, 735 380–1, 384–6; state and religion in, 386–8; and varieties Rifa‘iyya, 222, 735 of Islamic societies, 493

974 Index

Saffarids, 89 seclusion, and status of women in Pre-Islamic societies of Safi al-Din, Shaykh, 378 Middle East and Mediterranean, 19 Saghanughu lineage, 464–5 secularism and secularization: and Islamization, 856; of Sahara desert, and diffusion of Islam, 500–501 legal administration and education in Iran, 550; and Sahl al-Tustari, 137–8 nationalism in Arab states, 623; and nationalism in al-Sa‘id, Nuri, 587, 589 Indonesia, 734–5; and nationalism in modern era, Sa‘id b. Taymur, 620 520–1; and opposition movements in Egypt, 576–7; in saints: and Islam in Mughal India, 409; Jews and post-independence Indonesia, 742; and Soviet era in veneration of, 166; and mawlids of Prophet, 120; Caucasus and Inner Asia, 679–80, 683; and Muslim elites and descent from, 279–80; popular transformation of Islamic societies in nineteenth and Sufism and veneration of, 251–4 twentieth centuries, 830, 832; and Tunisia, 641; and Salafis, 578, 591, 689, 744, 833, 835 Turkish Republic, 540; and women in nineteenth Salah al-Din (Saladin), 194, 196–7, 228 century, 655 Salamat, Hashim, 753 sedentarization, and Arab-Muslim empire, 60 Saleeby, Najeeb M., 753 Selangor, 749 Saleh, Suad, 664 self, al-Ghazali on abandonment of, 243, 244 Salih, ‘Abdullah, 609, 610–11 Selim I, 351 Salih b. Tarif, 290, 292 Selim III, 368, 527 Salihiyya, 788 Senegal, 468, 766–9, 850 Salisbury, Lord, 488 Senegambia, 465–6, 468–72, 473, 475, 487 Saljuq Empire, 182–4, 192, 198, 206, 207, 227, Senghor, Leonard,´ 767 331–2 separatist movements: in Caucasus and Inner Asia, 686; Salman movement, 744 and Muslim enclaves in Europe, 815–16; in Samadid dynasty, 80, 89, 177, 179, 202 Philippines, 753 Samanhudi, Hajji, 738 September 11, 2001 (9/11 terrorist attacks), 596, 726, 747, Samanid mausoleum (Bukhara), 203 808, 810, 841 Samarqand, 187 Serbia, 343, 525, 811, 812 Samarra’ (Iraq), 86 Seyahat-name (Evliya Chelebi), 345 Sammaniyya, 781 Shabbatai Zvi, 353 Samori Ture, 449, 468, 473, 475 al-Shadhili, 222, 317 Samudra, 433 Shadhiliyya, 222, 791 Samuel ibn Naghrela, 307, 309 al-Shafi‘i, 44, 131, 155, 196 al-Sanhuri, ‘Abd al-Razzaq, 659 Shafi‘is, 127, 131, 216, 220, 227, 254 San Stefano, Treaty of (1878), 525 Shagari, al-Hajji Shehu, 773 Sanusiyya, 647 Shah ‘Abbas, 381–4, 386 Saparmurat Niyazov, 690 Shah Bano case (1985), 715–16 Sarekat Islam congress (1917), 738–9 Shah Ghulam ‘Ali, 409 Sargon of Akkad, 8 Shah Husayn, 386, 388 sarmad, 385 Shah Jahan, 405 Sasanian Empire: and Achaemenid Empire, 9; and Shah Rukh, 187, 205 Arabian kingdoms, 30; and Arab-Muslim conquests, 49; Shah Sulayman, 388 and marriage, 17; religion and state in, 14, 15–16, 103; Shah Tahmasp, 381, 383 structure of state in, 10–11; and Umayyads, 100; and Shah Waliallah, 411 veiling of women, 19; women and property in, 18 Shah-en-shah (King of Kings), 207, 383 Satanic Verses (Rushdie), 808, 817 shahid (martyr), 600, 603 Saudi Arabia, 611–15, 661, 720, 744, 759, 847.Seealso Shah-i Zinda, 204 Arabia Shah-nama (Firdawsi), 415 Sawdah bint Zam’ah, 146 Shah-Name-i-Al-i Osman (Arifi), 345 Sayf, Ayda al-Dawla, 664 Shailendra dynasty, 433 Sayyid Ahmad Barelwi, 282, 515, 700 Shajar ad-Durr, 209 Sayyid Ahmad Khan, 519, 703–704, 706 Shakiriyya, 59 Sayyid ‘Ali Muhammad, 545–6 shamanism, 180, 420, 683 al-Sayyid Lutfi, 564–5 Shamil, 685 Sayyid Muhammad, 399 Shamir, Yitzhak, 604 Sayyid Muhammad Baqir, 545 Shams al-Din Pasai, 443 Sayyid Sa‘id b. Sultan (Imam), 482, 797 Shaqiq al-Balkhi, 136 scholars.Seeeducation; hadith; intelligentsia; law and Sha’rawi, Huda, 655 legal systems; Sufism; ‘ulama’ Shari‘a: and Muslim Brotherhood, 574; and science: and Hispano-Arabic culture, 301; imperial Islam neofundamentalism, 835; in Nigeria, 775.Seealsolaw and Greek heritage, 111–12; and Sufism, 239 and legal systems scripturalism, and early Muslim theology, 124–34 Shari‘ati, ‘Ali, 553

Index 975

Sharon, Ariel, 606, 607 caliphate, 471; as theme in African history, 450; and shartiyya, 629 Zanzibar, 792 shashiyya, 318–19 Snouck Hurgronje, Christiaan, 733 Shatt al-Arab, 595 social activism: and Islamic revival movements, 522; and Shattar, Shaykh ‘Abdallah, 397 women in nineteenth century, 654–6; and women in Shattari order, 397 post-World War II period, 661–2.Seealsohuman Shaukat ‘Ali, 707 rights; labor activism al-Shaybani, 126 socialism: and Egypt, 569–70; and Syria, 590 Shaybanid dynasty, 420, 424–5 social organization: and conversion to Islam, 283–5; and shaykh (chief), and pre-Islamic Arabian societies, 28 diversity of sub-Saharan African Islam, 800–801; and Shehu Watara, 464 Hispano-Arabic society in Spain, 299–301; and Sheng Shih-ts’ai, 693 pluralism in European societies, 501–502; of Sufism, Sherley, Anthony and Robert, 384 281. See also clans; class; community; Islamic societies; Sher Shah, 394 tribes; urbanization Shi‘i Kho‘i foundation, 806 Society for the Defense of the Rights of Women, 655 Shi‘ism: and Bahrain, 621; caliphate and origins of, 67, Society for the Elevation of Women, 655 103, 115; and conflicts with Sunnis, 840; countries with Society of Muslim Brothers, 591, 834, 851.Seealso large populations of, 846; and debates on law and Muslim Brothers theology in post-‘Abbasid era, 256–7; development of Sokoto, caliphate of, 282, 469–72, 515 expression of Islam, 139–43; in East Africa, 796–7; and Solomon bin Gabirol, 309 Iraq, 596–7; and Isma‘ilis, 143; and Mughal Empire, Somalia, 275, 276, 483–4, 787–9, 790 410; and Nigeria, 775; and opposition to ‘Abbasid Songhay, 455–6 Empire, 83–4, 89–90; and religious communities of Soroush, Abdol Karim, 834 post-‘Abbasid era, 215–16, 220; and revolution in Iran, South Africa, 485, 779 554; and Safavid Empire, 380–1, 384–6, 493; in Saudi South America, 845 Arabia, 615–16; in Senegal, 769; and succession in Southeast Asia: establishment of Portuguese, Dutch, and caliphate, 71, 172 Muslim states in, 436–8; and global expansion of Shinasi, Ibrahim, 529 Islam, 274–7; introduction of Islam in, 433–6; and shrines, Sufism and veneration of, 280, 281 Islamic reform movements, 282, 515, 517; Islamic and Shu‘ubiyya (literary movement), 108, 171 secular nationalist political parties from 1900 to 1950, Sibawayhi, 110, 118 738–40; Islamic societies and neo-Islamic states in, Siberia, 420, 421 852–4; Muslim population of, 844; Netherlands and Sidi al-Mukhtar al-Kunti, 461 colonialism in, 729–40; pre-Islamic history of, 432–3; Sidiya Baba, 462 and varieties of Islamic societies, 495–6.Seealso Sidiya al-Kabir, Shaykh, 461–2 Indonesia; Java; Malaya; Malaysia; Philippines; Sierra Leone, 758 Singapore Siffin, Battle of (657), 66 Southern People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM), 786, Signs of the Road (Sayyid Qutb), 574 787 Sijistan (Iran), 89 Soviet Union: and Afghanistan, 724–5; Caucasus and Sikhs, 408 Inner Asia during revolutionary years, 673–6; al-Simnani, 222, 378 dissolution of, 684, 687; and foreign policy of Syria, Simon Report (1930), 709 592; and Iran, 549; and modernization in Caucasus and Sind, 274 Inner Asia, 676–84; regional influence of after World Sindhi Maulana, ‘Ubaydallah, 707 War II, 589 Singapore, 282, 438, 734, 736, 748 Spain: and ‘Abbasids, 72; and Almohad movement, 295; Singh, Hari, 720 and Arab-Muslim conquests, 50; and caliphate type of sira (biographical narratives of the Prophet), 33 early Islamic civilization, 298; and convivencia, 304, Sirhindi, Shaykh Ahmad, 399, 411 306, 311–12; and emigration to North Africa, 318; and al-Sisi, Abdal-Fattah, 578 expulsion of Muslims, 315; and Hispano-Arabic Sitt al-Mulk, 209 culture, 301–303; and Hispano-Arabic society, 299–301; Siyad Barre, 788, 789 and Jews, 161, 163, 307–10, 312–15, 350, 352; and slametan feast (Java), 441 Morocco, 642; Muslim immigration to contemporary, slavery and slave trade: and Arab-Muslim empire in Iraq, 824; and Muslims under Christian rule, 304–307; North 55; and colonialism in West and East Africa, 485, 487; Africa and conquest of, 288, 294; and Philippines, 753; and family in Arab-Muslim empire, 147; and global and Reconquista, 192, 303–304 expansion of Islam and Islamic states, 286; and military Srivijaya, 433 of ‘Abbasid Empire, 86; and military of Mamluk state: contemporary patterns in relations between Islamic Empire, 195; and military of post-‘Abbasid era, 179–80, societies and, 846–54; formation of as theme in history 195, 197; and military of Safavid Empire, 381–2; in of North Africa, 288, 326–8; global expansion of Islam Morocco, 323; and Muslim immigration to U.S., 802; and establishment of Islamic, 285–7; imperial Islam and Ottoman Empire, 340–1, 358–9, 360–1; and Sokoto and legitimacy of, 112–13; Islam in ideologies of North

976 Index

African, 648–51; and Islam in Iran, 559–60; and Islam Suharto, 742–6, 853 in Turkey, 538–40; and Islam in Yemen, 611; Java and Suhrawardi, Shihab al-Din, 249–50 Islamic, 439–41; and Middle Eastern Islamic patterns, Suhrawardiyya, 222, 397, 399, 400 261–2; mirror theory of, 232–4, 235–6; and Mughal, Sukarno, 739, 740, 742 Ottoman, and Safavid empires as Islamic models of, Sukarnoputri, Megawati, 747 416–17; Muslim communities and formation of, 490–6; Sulawesi, 435 nationalism and Islam in Arab states, 622–6; Sulayman Bal, 468 philosopher-king and theory of ideal, 234–6; provincial Sulaymancis, 822 autonomy in ‘Abbasid Empire and rise of independent, Suleiman, Michel, 599 88–91; relationship between Islamic scholars and, Suleyman I, 340, 341, 342, 344, 359, 675 114–17; and religion in medieval Islamic paradigm, sultans and sultanates: and concepts of Islamic society in 264–5; and religion in Safavid Empire, 386–8; and pre-modern era, 828; roles of in Ottoman Empire, religious movements in post-‘Abbasid era, 226–9; and 339–40, 344–5, 367; and secular state, 492; use of title, Sunni theory of caliphate, 230–2.Seealsocaliphs and 207 caliphates; city-states; constitution(s); empires; Sumatra, 282, 284, 438, 450, 729, 730–1, 734, 741 government; kingdoms and kingship; post-‘Abbasid Sumeria, 7–8 era; sultans and sultanates Summam, congress of (1956), 634 Statut d’Algerie´ (1947), 633–4 sumptuary codes, in Ottoman Empire, 351 steppes: and diffusion of Islam, 499–500; and Mongol Sunjata, 455 conquests, 419–20; and Russian expansion, 420, 422, Sunni ‘Ali, 455–6 423.SeealsoCrimea; Kazakhs Sunnis: asceticism and mysticism in, 134–8; and authority student associations: in Egypt, 573, 574; in Indonesia, of caliphs, 103; and Bahrain, 621; caliphate and origins 737; in Iran, 836; in Morocco, 644; in Sudan, 786.See of, 67, 115; and debates on law and theology in also Muslim Students’ Association post-‘Abbasid era, 255–6; and early Muslim theology, sub-Saharan Africa: and global expansion of Islam, 120–4; and Iraq, 593, 596, 597; Mamluk Empire and 274–7; Islamic states in eleventh to fourteenth revival of, 196, 228; and Mughal Empire, 408; and centuries, 453; Islamic states in sixteenth to eighteenth religious communities of post-‘Abbasid era, 220; and centuries, 457; Muslim population of, 844–5; trade Safavid Empire, 381; and scripturalism, 124–34; and across Sahara desert and diffusion of Islam into, Shaybanid khanate, 425; and state in post-‘Abbasid era, 500–501.SeealsoEthiopia; Ghana; Ivory Coast; Kenya; 227–8, 230–2, 235–6; and succession in caliphate, 71, Mali; Nigeria; Senegal; Somalia; South Africa; Sudan; 172; and Sunni-Shi‘i sectarian conflicts, 840; and Syria, Tanzania; Uganda 591; and ‘ulama’, 493; and veneration of Prophet, Sudan, 452–6, 456–8, 469, 477–9, 780–7 119–20, 252–3 Suez Canal, 324, 525, 563, 569 Sunpadh, 83 sufigare (code of conduct), 379 Supreme Council for the Islamic Revolution in Iraq Sufism: in Aceh, 443; alternative Islam and popular, (SCIRI), 596, 597 247–51; and Bukharan state, 427; in Caucasus, 685; Suwari, al-Hajj Salim, 465 definition of Islamic states by relationship to, 287; Swahili, 480–2, 791–6 development of in post-‘Abbasid era, 239–40; in Egypt Sweden, 823 under Ottoman rule, 373, 563; in Ethiopia, 484; and Switzerland, 823 al-Ghazali, 242–5; and global expansion of Islam, 279; Sy, al-Hajj Malik, 766 in India, 274, 280, 395–6, 397; and Jewish Sy, Shaykh Tidiane, 768 neo-Platonists, 309–10; and late fifteenth-century Sykes-Picot agreement (1916), 527, 582 Persian painting, 205; and lineages in Africa, 798–9; Syria: and ‘Abbasid Empire, 79; and Arabism in colonial and lineage societies after thirteenth century, 284; and period, 584, 586; and Arab-Muslim empire, 49, 55–6, mass Islamic society in post-‘Abbasid era, 225; 57, 63, 156, 157; Arab nationalism in contemporary, missionaries and conversions to Islam, 224; in 590–3; and Byzantine Empire, 158–9, 192; and Morocco, 321–2, 323; in Mughal Empire, 408–10, 702; Christians in Ottoman Empire, 355, 356; and in North Africa, 296–7; origins and early history of, conversion to Islam, 272; Crusades and post-‘Abbasid 135–8; and Ottoman Empire, 357, 370; and poetry of era in, 192–5; and early Islamic legal studies, 127; post-‘Abbasid era, 203; and relationship between law imperial Islam and literature of, 110; and Lebanon, and theology in post-‘Abbasid era, 254–7; and religious 598; notables and centralization of state power in, communities of post-‘Abbasid era, 220–3; and Safavid 581–2; restoration of to Ottoman rule, 525; and Sufism Empire, 381, 385; social organization of, 281;in under Ottoman rule, 375; and Turkey, 542 Somalia, 788; in Spain, 303; in Tanzania, 793–4; and Syrian National Coordination Committee (NCC), 592 Timurid regime, 187; and tribal unification in North Syrian National Council (SNC), 592–3 Africa, 284–5; in Tunisia, 317–18; and Turkestan, 428; and U.S., 806–807; vocabulary of, 241;inWestAfrican Taal, Shaykh ‘Umar, 468 context, 462–3, 768; and women’s orders in al-Tabari, 202 post-‘Abbasid era, 210.Seealsoneo-Sufism Tabaristan, 80

Index 977

Tabligh and Tablighi Jama‘at movements, 709, 715, post-‘Abbasid era, 216; and scriptural Islam in 751–2, 806, 815, 818, 821 post-‘Abbasid era, 245–7; sociopolitical implications of Taghlib, 61 positions on in early Islamic period, 152; Sunnis and Taha, Muhammad, 785 early Muslim, 120–4.Seealsoreligion Taha Husayn, 566 theosophy: and Islamic philosophy, 247–50; and Safavid Tahdhib al-Akhlaq (journal), 704 Empire, 385 Tahert, 290 third world studies, and historiography on origins of Tahir (governor of Khurasan), 82, 85 Islam, 23 Tahir, Shaykh Muhammad, 736 Thomas Aquinas, St., 311 Tahirid family, 80, 201 Tibet, 695 taifa kingdoms, 309 Tibetan Lamaism, 429 tajalliyat (theophanies), 250 Tijani order (Tijaniyya), 282, 320, 515, 759, 770–1, Tajikistan, 542, 676, 689, 690, 691 773 Tajiks, 721 timar system, 339, 343, 363, 366, 367 Taj Mahal, 405 Timbuktu, 455, 456, 459, 461 takfir, 839 Timur (Tamerlane), 186–7, 204, 333 Takrur, 454 Timurids, 186–8, 204, 229, 400–401, 424 Talas, Battle of (751), 50 Tippu Tip, 485 Taliban, 725–6, 841 al-Tirmidhi, 138, 253 talji’a (commendation), 87 Tito, 811 Tall, Tyemo Bokar Salif, 759 Titu Mir, 700 Taman Siswas (Garden of learning), 734 Tjokroaminoto, ‘Umar Sa’id, 738 Tanganyika, 792, 793, 794 Tobacco Rebellions of 1890, 655 Tanzania, 792–4 Toledo (Spain), 310, 311 Tanzim movement, 709 Topkapi Saray, 339 Tanzimat (reorganization) period, in Ottoman Empire, torodbe, 468 528, 529, 530 trade: and British Empire in India, 412; and decline of taqlid. See reformism Inner Asian routes, 425; and diffusion of Islam in Tariq, 298 Mediterranean, 498; and diffusion of Islam in Indian tariqa (Sufi order) 223, 280 Ocean, 498–9; and diffusion of Islam in West Africa, Tariqa-i Muhammadi (Way of Muhammad) movement, 460; East Africa and Indian Ocean, 480; Funj kingdom 700 and gold, 479; and Islam in Central Africa, 484; and tariqat, 781, 793 Islamic states of North Africa, 292; and Islam in West Tarjuman (newspaper), 671 Africa, 756; and missionaries in West Africa, 463–5; tasdiq (truth), 246 and Morocco, 321, 324; naval power and emergence of Tatar Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, 673 European colonial empires, 502–504; North Africa and Tataristan, 676 trans-Saharan routes of, 452; and Ottoman Empire, Tatars, 419, 420, 423, 671, 672, 673, 685 347–8, 364–6; in pre-Islamic Arabia, 28, 29, 30–1; and tawhid (unity), 122, 123 Safavid Empire, 383–4; and Tunisia, 317.Seealso taxation: and ‘Abbasid Empire, 80, 81–2, 87; and economics and economy; markets Arab-Muslim empire, 53, 55, 56, 57–8; and global traditionalism: and akhhari in Safavid Empire, 388; and expansion of Islam and Islamic states, 286; and iqta‘ hadith scholars, 130; and Islamic resistance to Dutch system, 199; and Mughal Empire, 403; and Ottoman colonialism in Southeast Asia, 732–3, 738.Seealsooral Empire, 343, 367 tradition al-Tayyib, 410 Transcaucasia, 667 tekkes (Sufi hospices), 348, 358 Transjordan, 582, 587–8 Teodros (Ethiopia), 789 translations: of Persian and Hellenistic literatures, 112; of Ternate, 435, 436, 438 Quran, 310–11 terrorism: and anti-immigrant politics in Europe, 825; and transmission chains (isnads), 129–30 Muslim communities in U.S., 809; and transnational transnational Islam, and Islamic revival, 837–41 politics, 840–1.Seealsoal-Qaeda; September 11 Transoxania, 62, 80, 89, 179, 419, 424, 431.Seealso Tertullian, 19 Turkestan al-Tha‘alibi, ‘Abd al-‘Aziz, 639 Transvaal (Gauteng), 779 thawrah (revolution), 603 Transylvania, 338 Theodore of Abu Qurra, 63, 158 tribes: and ethnic groups in Afghanistan, 721–2; and Theodore bar Koni, 158 pre-Islamic history of Arabia, 26–32, 145–7, 271; in Theodosian Code, 161 Somalia, 787–8.SeealsoAws tribe; Bakr tribe; theology: and debates on law in post ‘Abbasid era, bedouins; Berbers; clans; Zawaya tribes 254–7; and Jewish scholarship in Spain, 309; and Mir Tripoli, 292, 646 Damad, 385; and religious communities in Truman, Harry, 536

978 Index

trusts (awqaf ), 210, 213, 217, 229, 359 ‘Umar (caliph), 38, 52, 55, 65, 66, 126 Tso Tsung-t’ang, 431 ‘Umar II (caliph), 62, 71, 102, 155, 156, 172 Tuanku Nan Rincheh, 446 ‘Umar al-Suhrawardi, 222 Tuanku Nan Tua, 445–6 Umayyad period: and ancient empires, 100–101; and Tuaregs, 763–4 Arab-Muslim empire, 67–9; and architecture, 96–9; Tughluq dynasty, 393 court and palaces of, 99–100; and imperial culture, 95 Tughril Beg, 182, 207 umma. See community Tulunid dynasty, 89, 188 Uniate churches, 356 Tunisia: and Arab-Muslim conquests, 288, 290; and Banu Union of Noble Bukhara, 672 Hilal, 292; economy of in late eighteenth and early United Arab Emirates, 590, 609, 622.SeealsoGulf states nineteenth centuries, 318–19; French colonial era in, United East India Company, 438 638–9, 649; and Hafsid dynasty, 316–18; and United Kingdom.SeeGreat Britain independence, 639–40; and nationalism, 520; and United Malay National Organization, 750 Ottoman Empire, 518; post-independence era in, United Nations, 595, 601, 645, 647, 811 640–1; secular state and Islamic opposition in United States: and Afghanistan, 725, 726; assimilation of contemporary, 852; state formation in, 326 Muslims in, 803–804; converts to Islam in, 804–805; al-Turabi, Hasan, 784, 785, 786 history of Muslim immigration to, 802–803; and Iran, Turkestan, 419, 421, 423–31, 667, 668, 669, 670, 676. 551, 555, 556; and Iraq, 595–6, 597; and Kenya, 795; See also Transoxania Muslim identity issues in, 806–809; Muslim population Turkey: and AKP party, 540–2; and civil war in Syria, of, 803, 845; and Philippines, 753; regional inﬂuence 593; and immigrants to Germany, 822; and of in Fertile Crescent states after World War II, 589; independence, 527; Islamic society and neo-Islamic and Saudi Arabia, 617; and Syria, 593; and war in state in, 850–1; and Muslims in Balkans, 813; Afghanistan, 849.SeealsoAmerican Revolution; Gulf nationalism and establishment of Turkish Republic, War 520, 533–43; nationalism and Islamic identity in, 831; Unkiar Skelessi, Treaty of (1833), 525 and neofundamentalism, 836; oil industry and Black Unsuri, 202 Sea, 691; and women in post-World War I era, 656–7. Upper Volta.SeeBurkina Faso See also Turkish peoples ‘Uqaylid, 192 Turkish language, 203, 531, 534 ‘Urabi, 563 Turkish peoples: conversion to Islam and Islamization of, Urban II (Pope), 192 272; migrations of, 331–2, 418 urbanization: and Arab-Muslim empire, 60; and Baghdad Turkmanchai, Treaty of (1828), 546 as capital of ‘Abbasid Empire, 74; and Gulf states, 619, Turkmenistan, 542, 668, 669, 676, 687, 690 622; and Islamic societies of post-‘Abbasid era, 213–15; Turkmens, 721, 725 and Muslim societies from seventh to tenth centuries, Tu Wen-hsiu, 430 150–2; and Soviet era in Caucasus and Inner Asia, 683; twelfth imam, 141–2 and United Arab Emirates, 622; in West Africa, 760, Twelve Heroes, Battle of, 273 768; and women in post-‘Abbasid era, 210 Twelver Shi‘is, 139–43 Urdu Defense Association, 706 Urdu language, 399, 404, 415, 704 ‘Ubaydallah Ahrar, 425 usul-i jadid (New Method), 515, 671 Uganda, 488, 795–6 Usulis, 142 Uhud, Battle of (625), 35, 41, 42 ‘Uthman (caliph), 38, 55, 66, 172 Uighurs, 430, 431, 693, 696, 854 ‘Uthman don Fodio, 282, 449, 450, 468, 469–72, 491, 515 UK Action Committee on Islamic Affairs (UKACIA), 817 Utomo, Budi, 734 ‘Ukaz (Arabia), 28, 30 ut-Tahrir, Hizb, 689, 744 Ukraine, 339 Uttar Pradesh, 710 ‘ulama’: and Egypt, 562; and Gulf states, 623; and Uwaysiyya, 791 Indonesia, 743; and Iran, 545–6, 547, 548, 549–50, uymaq (household state), 377–8, 380, 388 552–5, 559; and Islamic reform movements, 515; and Uzbekistan, 542, 676, 687, 689–90 Islamic state in Java, 439–41; and Malaya, 749; in Uzbek Khan, 419 Morocco, 325; and Mughal India, 495, 702; and Muslim Uzbeks, 420, 421, 424–5, 721, 725 populations of Caucasus and Inner Asia, 682; and nationalism, 521; and Ottoman Empire, 494, 531; values: and contemporary Islamic revival, 522–3; and relationship with state in Islamic societies, 493; and Muslim communities in Europe, 816; and new Islamic Saljuq succession states in Syria and Egypt, 196; and meanings for traditional Arabian, 40.Seealsomorality Saudi Arabia, 614, 615, 625; struggle with caliphate van Den Bosch, Graaf, 729 over governance of Muslim community, 171–4; and van Gogh, Theo, 825 Syria, 591–2; of Timbuktu, 459; and Tunisia, 638; and veiling: and class in post-‘Abbasid era, 209; and gender urban societies of post-‘Abbasid era, 214 in pre-Islamic Middle Eastern and Mediterranean Ulugh-beg, 187, 204 societies, 19; in Indonesia, 746; and Muslims in U.S.,

Index 979

808; in Senegal, 769; and women in post-World War II 614–15; in Senegal, 769; and Soviet Union in Caucasus era, 665–6 and Inner Asia, 680, 687; status of in early Islamic violence: anti-Christian in Nigeria, 776; and societies, 144–50; in Sudan, 786; in Tunisia, 640; and anti-immigrant movement in Germany, 823; between Turkey, 534–5, 541.Seealsofamily; feminism; veiling Muslims and Hindus in India, 716; and contemporary Women’s Committees to Defend Palestine, 655 Islamic revival, 522, 839; and Islamic movements in Women’s Freedom Society, 655 Algeria, 637; and religious minorities in Pakistan, 721. World Assembly of Muslim Youth, 616 See also civil wars; revolutions; terrorism World Uighar Congress (WUC), 696 Volksraad, 731–2 World War I: and Egypt, 565; and Iran, 549; and Ottoman Empire, 525, 527, 532–3; and Russian rule in Caucasus Wade, Abdoulaye, 769 and Inner Asia, 670 wahdat al-wujud (unity of being), 250 World War II: and Algeria, 633; and China, 693; and Wahhabi movement and Wahhabism: and Bosnia, 617; Egypt, 566, 567, 569; and Iran, 550–1; and Iraq, 587; and contemporary Islam, 833, 835; influence of in and Morocco, 644; and Muslim communities in U.S., Africa, 759, 761; in Ivory Coast, 778; and Kuwait, 759; 803; and Palestine, 601; and Southeast Asia, 740, 741; and mawlid celebrations, 120, 253; and reformist and Soviet Union, 685; and West Africa, 757; and associations in Africa, 799; as reformist movement, Zanzibar, 792 282; and Saudi Arabia, 514, 611, 613, 614, 615, 616, 661, 759, 847; in West Africa, 836 Xinjiang (China), 431, 693, 695, 696, 854 Wahid, Abdurrahman, 747 Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Chou, 696 Wahyu (divine radiance), 439 al-Walid (caliph), 38, 69–70, 97–9 Yahya, Imam, 609 al-Walid II, 99 Yahya ibn ‘Adi, 158 Wangara, 448, 459 Yahya Efendi, 345 al-Waqidi, 33 Yaji (Hausaland), 458–9 warfare, and life of Muhammad, 44.Seealsocivil wars; Yang Tseng-hsin, 693 military; nuclear weapons; revolutions; specific wars Yan Ízala, 774 wasi (prophets), 143 Yao peoples, 484–5 Wasulu, 473 Ya‘qub Beg, 431 Wattasids, 321 al-Yasavi, Ahmad, 418, 425 wazir (chief minister), 78, 86, 87 Yazid, 69 Wazir Indie (newspaper), 735 Yazid II, 155 weddings, and women in post-‘Abbasid era, 211 Yaziji, Nasif, 581 West Africa: colonialism and Muslim communities in, Yemen, 29, 30, 209, 608–11, 612 485–9, 755–61; and global expansion of Islam, 275, Yeni Bukharlar (Young Bukharans), 672 276, 280, 447; and Islamic reform movements, 282, Yerima, Sani, 775 515, 517;andjihads, 467–76; non-state Muslim yeshivas (rabbinic academies), 162, 163–5 communities in, 459–63; role of Islam in Yoruba, 771, 772 Muslim-majority countries of, 761–79; and slavery, 450; Young Ottomans, 518, 520, 529–30 trade and missionaries in, 463–5; and Wahhabism, 836. Young Tunisians, 639 See also Ghana; Mali; Nigeria; Senegal Young Turks, 520, 530–2 West Bank (Palestine), 603–604, 607 Yuan dynasty, 429 Western Sahara, and Morocco, 645 Yudhoyono, S. B., 747 White Paper (1932), 709 Yugoslavia, 811, 812 William V (Holland), 438 Yugoslav Muslim Organization, 811 Wilson, Woodrow, 639 Yunus Emre, 358 Wingate, Reginald, 782 Yusuf, Muhammad, 776 Wittfogal, Karl, 329 Yusuf Hamadhani, 425 Wolofs, 465–6, 766, 767 women: in Algeria, 632, 636; in Egypt, 573; and ideology Zahir al-‘Umar, 375 versus reality in post-‘Abbasid era, 208–13; impact of Zahir Shah, 724 imperialism and reform in nineteenth century, 652–6; zakat (alms tax), 42 in Iran, 552, 557, 558; in Kuwait, 620; and Muslim zaman, 385 American communities, 807–808; and Muslim zanadiqa (atheists), 103 communities in France, 821; in Nigeria, 776; in Zanan (journal), 658 Ottoman Empire, 358–62; in Pakistan, 718–19; and Zanj revolts (690), 55 post-World War I nation-states, 656–60; in post-World Zanzibar, 450, 480, 482, 484, 488, 791–2 War II Arab states, 660–3; in pre-Islamic Middle Eastern Zardari, Ali, 719 and Mediterranean societies, 16–19; in Qatar, 621; al-Zawahiri, Ayman, 575 Safavids and female religiosity, 381; in Saudi Arabia, zawaya lineages, 448, 461, 764

980 Index

Zayd b. ‘Ali, 71 Ziya Pasha, 529 Zaydis, 139, 172 Zongo, 777 Zeinab Society, 558 Zoroastrianism: and ‘Abbasid Empire, 83; and Zengi, 194 Arab-Muslim empire, 52; common vision of Zeroul, Liamine, 637 Christianity, Judaism, and, 11–12; description of, Zia, Khaleda, 727 13–14; and Sasanian Empire, 10, 11, 15; and status of Zia Rahman, 727 women, 18, 19 Zionism, and Palestine, 599–601 Zsitva Torok, treaty of (1606), 338 Zirid Empire, 292 Zutt rebellions (eighth century), 55