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Sea Surface Temperature and Its Variability in The or collective redistirbution of any portion article of any by of this or collective redistirbution Th THE INDONESIAN SEAS articleis has been in published Oceanography SEA SURFACE 18, Number journal of Th 4, a quarterly , Volume photocopy machine, reposting, or other means is permitted only w is photocopy machine, reposting, means or other TEMPERATURE AND ITS VARIABILITY IN THE INDONESIAN REGION 2005 by Th e Oceanography Copyright Society. ith the approval of Th approval the ith BY TANGDONG QU, YAN DU, JANE STRACHAN, GARY MEYERS, AND JULIA SLINGO gran e Oceanography is Society. All rights reserved. Permission Lying at the confl uence of the Eurasian sequently, regional ocean dynamics and lationship to SST fascinating to study. or Th e Oceanography [email protected] Society. Send to: all correspondence Plate, the Indo-Australian Plate, and SST are important factors in regional The SSTs across the Indonesian region the Pacifi c Plate is the Indonesian ar- climate, with important consequences are of paramount importance to convec- chipelago. It is composed of more than for global climate. tion and, hence, precipitation distribu- 3,000 islands, covering a global surface The Indonesian region, also known tion (Figure 1b). Warm SSTs around the area equivalent to the continental United as the “Maritime Continent,” has been islands of the Maritime Continent lead States and with a cumulative coastal pe- identifi ed as an area of major climatic to vast amounts of evaporation trigger- rimeter that is more than twice Earth’s importance both locally and globally. ing surface heat fl ux, which drive the circumference. The mechanisms that The region, along with equatorial Af- deep convective cell over the region. The generate and maintain sea surface tem- rica and South America, is recognized as relationship between SST and convec- ted to copy this article Repu for use copy this and research. to in teaching ted perature (SST) (Figure 1a) within the a primary energy source for the entire tive activity is highly sensitive; modeling Indonesian seas are a consequence of the global circulation system. The main sup- studies (Miller et al., 1992) and observa- e Oceanography Society, PO Box 1931, Rockville, MD 20849-1931, USA. complex topography and connectivity ply of energy is latent heating, released tions (McBride et al., 2003) show that between the Pacifi c and Indian Oceans. from the condensation of water vapor small changes in the SST within the Mar- In addition to surface heat fl uxes, intense when clouds and precipitation form due itime Continent can result in signifi cant tidal mixing of surface and thermocline to cumulus convection. Convective ac- changes in precipitation patterns across waters and variability in thermocline tivity, which dominates weather in the the Indo-Pacifi c region (Ashok et al., depth driven remotely by winds over the tropics, is variable on a range of spatial 2001; Neale and Slingo, 2003). The effect Pacifi c and Indian Oceans play a role in and temporal scales, making the climate of these changes on the economy and en- generating and maintaining SST. Con- of the Maritime Continent and its re- vironment of the region is widespread. blication, systemmatic reproduction, reproduction, systemmatic blication, 50 Oceanography Vol. 18, No. 4, Dec. 2005 Figure 1. Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission’s (TRMM) (Kummerow et al., 1998) (a) sea surface temperature (°C) and (b) precipitation (103 mm/yr) averaged from December 1997 to December 2003. Warm sea surface tempera- ture in the region leads to strong convection and signifi cant precipitation. Oceanography Vol. 18, No. 4, Dec. 2005 51 The Maritime Continent, with its huge providing a new view of SST fi elds and peak-to-peak amplitude exceeds 4°C range of variability in atmospheric and other ocean-atmosphere variables in (Figure 2a). The amplitude is much larg- oceanic activity, is a major modeling the Indonesian region at unprecedented er than in the surrounding heat pools challenge. Many sophisticated atmo- resolutions in both time and space. This in both the western Pacifi c and eastern spheric General Circulation Models paper provides a brief overview of the Indian Ocean, where the amplitude (GCMs) do not agree with observa- recent studies that have identifi ed pro- is less than 1.5°C. On the interannual tions. With improving data on regional cesses controlling SST variability and time scale (Figure 2b), the highest SST variability (> 4.0°C) occurs along and offshore the Java and Sumatra coasts, indicative of a strong remote infl uence of The Indonesian region SST is of major the equatorial Indian Ocean combined importance to atmospheric state, not only with local upwelling (discussed later). The interannual variability in the Timor, over the region itself, but globally. Convection, Arafura, and Banda Seas is smaller (less which is dependent on the SST, is the dominant than 2.0°C). atmospheric process over the region. INFLUENCE OF THE MONSOON ON SST The Asian monsoon has a dominant precipitation, and model validation, we related interactions with the atmosphere. infl uence on SST variation. In August, recognize that rainfall is systematically We begin with a description of general when the southeast monsoon prevails underestimated. Neale and Slingo (2003) characteristics of SST variability, present (Figure 3a), a broad area south of 5°S argue that the defi cient rainfall over the data on the sensitivity of the atmosphere cools, with the temperature minima in Maritime Continent could be respon- to underlying SST, and then continue the upwelling zone south of Java and sible for systematic errors elsewhere, with a survey of local and remote oce- over the Arafura Shelf. The cool waters both in the tropics and extratropics. anic mechanisms that affect SST. Finally, appear to be carried into the eastern Java The discrepancy in rainfall suggests in- we discuss the issues that need to be ad- adequate representation of the physical dressed by further research. Tangdong Qu ([email protected]) is system. Having a good understanding Associate Researcher, International Pacifi c of observed SST variability as it relates GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS Research Center, School of Ocean and Earth to regional ocean dynamics is key to im- OF SST VARIABILITY Science and Technology, University of Ha- proved model simulations. SST variability in the region is gener- waii, Honolulu, HI, USA. Yan Du is Postdoc- SST variability is also an important ally small compared with that in the toral Fellow, International Pacifi c Research infl uence on Indonesia’s marine ecologi- tropical eastern Pacifi c due to the lack of Center, School of Ocean and Earth Science cal systems, which harbor more than 20 strong equatorial upwelling. However, and Technology, University of Hawaii, percent of the world’s species of plants as with the surrounding western Pacifi c Honolulu, HI, USA. Jane Strachan is Ph.D. and animals. The inhabitants of the and eastern Indian Ocean warm pools, student, NCAS-Centre for Global Atmo- region, or at least a signifi cant part of the mean SST is high (Figure 1a), and spheric Modelling, University of Reading, UK. them, depend on these marine resources relatively small variations play an impor- Gary Meyers is Senior Principal Research for food, and many for their livelihood. tant role in coupled ocean-atmosphere Scientist, CSIRO Marine Research, Hobart, The rapid advance in space-based mi- processes. The largest seasonal SST cycle Tasmania, Australia. Julia Slingo is Director, crowave remote sensing is revolution- occurs in the Timor, Arafura, Banda, and NCAS-Centre for Global Atmospheric Mod- izing ocean observations, in particular the South China Seas, where the SST elling, University of Reading, UK. 52 Oceanography Vol. 18, No. 4, Dec. 2005 Sea, then fl ow northwestward and enter accurate forcing of convective processes, and Slingo, 2003). The land-sea surface the South China Sea through Karimata particularly on the diurnal time scale. temperature contrasts, along with the Strait. To compensate the outfl ow in the The complex system of islands, nar- coastal and orographical detail, are cru- surface layer, relatively cold water is draw row peninsulas, and shallow seas give cial for this complex diurnal cycle, one of from below, which apparently contrib- rise to extensive land-sea breeze circu- the most important modes of convective utes to the cooling in the southern Java lations and gravity wave effects (Yang variability in the region. However, global and Flores Seas (Wyrtki, 1961). In the and Slingo, 2001) that can infl uence the atmospheric models currently misrepre- Makassar Strait, where Coriolis param- energy and moisture budgets and hence sent the diurnal cycle over the islands in eter is close to zero, surface water fl ows the mean climate of the region (Neale both phase and amplitude. This shortfall northward, primarily in the direction of the wind. The effect of the surface fl ow is reduced by the enhanced subsurface fl ow from the Pacifi c (Susanto and Gor- don, 2005), and as a result, the SST in the Makassar Strait is still higher than 29°C during this season. The monsoon wind reversal drives the surface layer of the Java Sea south- eastward (Figure 3b), bringing relatively cool, fresh South China Sea water into the region (Wyrtki, 1961). Within the internal Indonesian seas, the SST is low- est in the western Java Sea, while the enhanced surface heat fl ux makes SST higher than 28°C in the rest of the archi- pelago. The South Java Current (Quadfa- sel and Cresswell, 1992; Bray et al., 1996) 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 warms the area south of Java in this sea- son, as discussed in more detail later. SENSITIVITY OF THE ATMOSPHERE TO UNDERLYING SST The Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mis- sion (TRMM) Microwave Imager (TMI) has provided a description of the SST patterns in Indonesia in much greater spatial detail than ever before.
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