or collective redistirbutionor collective of this by of any article portion Th THE INDONESIAN published in been has is article Oceanography

Progress in , Volume 4, a quarterly journal of Th 18, Number

Oceanography of the or other means reposting, photocopy machine, is only w permitted Indonesian Seas e Oceanography Society. Copyright e Oceanography 2005 by Th A Historical Perspective ith the approval of Th BY JOHN I. PARIWONO, ABDUL GANI ILAHUDE, AND MALIKUSWORO HUTOMO e Oceanography Society. All rights reserved. Permission reserved. Society. All rights is e Oceanography gran e Oceanography Society. Send all correspondence to: Society. Send e Oceanography [email protected] or Th

IN RECENT YEARS there has been imagery) and by increased communica- ning of the 17th century to Indonesian ted in teaching to copy thisand research. for use Repu article a marked advance in our understand- tion among scientists brought about by independence in 1945), and post-inde- ing of Indonesian seas oceanography. the Internet. In the early days, studies of pendence (from 1945 to 2000). Van Aken e Oceanography Society, PO Box 1931, Rockville, MD 20849-1931, USA. 1931, Rockville, Box PO Society, e Oceanography This progress is a result of the grow- the were made for navigational (this issue) discusses the colonial period ing interest of the oceanographic com- purposes. Increasingly, the economic in detail. Here we focus on the earlier munity in the unique characteristics importance of marine resources is being and later periods. of these tropical seas (see Gordon, this recognized and climate prediction en- issue) and the support and openness of courages continued research. THE PRECOLONIAL PERIOD the Indonesian government to interna- The evolution of oceanography of the The pre-colonial period begins with the tional scientifi c collaborations. The pace Indonesian waters is clustered into three earliest recorded history and continues of research is also accelerating due to major periods: pre-colonial (from earli- until the presence of western colonial- blication, systemmatic reproduction, the application of new technologies (in est recorded history until the end of the ism at the end of the 16th century. Dur- situ observational methods and satellite 16th century), colonial (from the begin- ing this period, pre-Indonesian history

42 Oceanography Vol. 18, No. 4, Dec. 2005 Figure 1. A wooden ship that existed during the Sriwijayan period, as shown from a relief on the temple of Borobudur, Central . Th is temple, one of the largest Buddhist temples in the world, was built when the Syailendra dynasty (closely related to Sriwijaya kingdom) reigned the island of Java between approximately 750 and 850 AD). Photo credit: J.I. Pariwono.

was marked by two golden ages. The “oceanographers” who were expert in remnants deals with scientifi c matters. A fi rst golden age was between 863 and tidal information and ocean currents of kind of wooden ship existed during the 1225 AD when the maritime south Su- the Southeast Asian and adjacent wa- Sriwijayan time as depicted from a relief matran Kingdom of Sriwijaya ruled ters, because this knowledge would have on the wall of the Borobudur temple in over the entire island of and been essential to effi cient operation of (Figure 1). the western part of the present Indo- their wind-powered fl eets. Accordingly, To achieve his vision of becoming a nesian . The second golden era knowledge of the physical oceanogra- maritime empire spanning the , was between 1293 and 1389 under the phy of the Indonesian seas in this period the Emperor of the Ming Dynasty of eastern Javanese Kingdom of Majapa- was limited to tides, monsoon-driven China, Zhu Di, appointed the Grand hit. To maintain their hegemonies, these currents, and ocean circulation. Unfor- Eunuch, Cheng Ho (Zheng He), to be- two kingdoms required strong mari- tunately, carefully compiled records of come Commander-in-Chief of the larg- time powers. Pariwono (1986) postu- these kingdoms are scarce (Robertson est fl eet (over 300 ships) ever built at that lated that these empires would have had and Spruyt, 1967), and none of these time (Menzies, 2003). In his fi rst voyage

Oceanography Vol. 18, No. 4, Dec. 2005 43 in the Asian waters from 1405 to 1407, information regarding the currents and Several important oceanographic Cheng Ho visited Java and Sumatra, and tides of the waters between Beijing and features were observed during these from there went to Sri Lanka and India. the . The source of this expeditions, including: (1) water mass His fl eet started its expedition in 1421, oceanographic information, particularly characteristics of the waters cruising southward to the South China that of the Southeast Asian waters, likely (van Riel, 1932, 1934, and 1938); (2) hy- drographic conditions of the Indonesian waters (Tydeman, 1903; van der Stok, 1922; Schott, 1935); (3) monsoon-driven currents in the Java (Berlage, 1927); In the early days, studies of the ocean were made for and (4) climate-related characteristics of navigational purposes. Increasingly, the economic the region (Braak, 1921). Note that van importance of marine resources is being recognized and Riel (1932), using data from the Snel- lius Expedition, is considered to be the climate prediction encourages continued research. fi rst person to suggest that the transport within the East Indies waters is directed into the . Furthermore, the Snellius Expedition contributed impor- Sea through the Malacca Strait into the originated mostly from the Sriwijaya and tant data and information on hydrogra- Indian Ocean. Returning to China via kingdoms. phy and bottom topography of the deep , part of the fl eet under the eastern waters of the East Indies (van command of the Chinese Admiral Zhou THE COLONIAL PERIOD Riehl, 1934; Kuenen, 1935). Man sailed through the eastern waters The colonial period (the beginning of In 1905, the Netherlands East Indies (possibly the ) to visit Ambon, the 17th century until gained government established a fi shery station Ternate, and Tidore for spices and exotic independence in 1945) is when western at Pasar Ikan in Batavia (now Sunda Ke- food from the seas, such as sea cucum- countries occupied most of the South- lapa in ). Later, the fi shery station bers (Menzies, 2003). It is thought that east Asian region, and detailed observa- became the Laboratory for the Investiga- the armada started their voyage along sea tions of marine biology and physical tion of the Sea, which was commissioned lanes they were familiar with before em- oceanography of the Southeast Asian to promote marine research for fi sheries barking into unknown waters. The com- and adjacent waters were recorded. Be- purposes. Hardenberg (1952) reported mander would have gathered suffi cient ginning in 1768, when the Boudeuse and on the activities carried out from 1939 Etoile Expedition from France made to 1950 by this laboratory. Monumental John I. Pariwono ([email protected]) is some measurements in the East Indies works that emerged during this period Senior Lecturer and Researcher, Depart- (now Indonesian) waters, several coun- were by Bleeker with his publications of ment of Marine Science and Technology, tries sent oceanographic expeditions to Atlas Ichthyologique in six large volumes Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Sciences, this region. About 38 expeditions were (from 1819 to 1878); by Weber and de Agricultural University (IPB), Bogor, carried out within a span of 173 years Beaufort (1911, 1913, 1916, 1922, 1929, Indonesia. Abdul Gani Ilahude is Senior (Pariwono, 1986; van Aken, this issue), 1931) with their publication of The Fish- Research Scientist, Center for Oceanograph- including expeditions by the following es of the Indonesian Archipelago; by van ic Research, Indonesian Institute of Sciences ten countries: Austria (1 expedition), Bosse (1928) who studied marine bota- (LIPI), Jakarta, Indonesia. Malikusworo Britain (10), Denmark (1), The Nether- ny, particularly marine algae (succeeded Hutomo is Senior Research Scientist, Center lands (8), France (10), Germany (3), Italy by Zaneveld, 1950); and by Delsman for Oceanographic Research, Indonesian In- (1), Japan (1), Soviet Union (1), and the (1939) who studied pelagic fi sh eggs and stitute of Sciences (LIPI), Jakarta, Indonesia. United States (2). planktons. Note that Bleeker initiated the

44 Oceanography Vol. 18, No. 4, Dec. 2005 fi rst scientifi c journal in Indonesia (i.e., fi rst research vessel, the R/V Samudera Indian Ocean Expedition, the Coopera- Natuurkundig Tijdschrift voor Nederland- (see Wyrtki, this issue), a 25-m-long ship tive Study of the Kuroshio, and the six sch Indie [Nontji, 2005]). equipped with Nansen bottles, revers- PELITAs (the Indonesian fi ve-year de- ing thermometers, and oceanographic velopment programs from 1969 to 1999, THE POSTINDEPENDENCE wires for marine surveys. This vessel known as PELITA Expeditions I-VI). PERIOD was used to collect west monsoon hy- During these expeditions, shipboard sci- This period begins when Indonesia be- drographic data (Wyrtki, 1958, 1961). entists measured hydrographic, chemi- comes independent in 1945 and ends In 1961, the laboratory (then the Insti- cal, biological, and physical oceano- at the beginning of the 21st century. On tute of Sea Research) received another graphic parameters related to fi sheries August 17, 1945, the former East Indies oceanographic vessel, the 60-m-long R/V activities in Indonesian and adjacent archipelagic region became offi cially Jalanidhi. With this ship, the Institute of waters. For detailed description of Indo- known as Indonesia. After independence, Sea Research participated and made a nesian oceanographic cruises between the Laboratory for the Investigation of contribution to the International Indian 1960 and 1995, see Ilahude (1998). the Sea changed its name three times, Ocean Expedition (Wyrtki, 1971). This Among the scientifi c articles devoted from the Institute of Sea Research (Lem- ship was also part of the national expedi- to the physical oceanography of the Indo- baga Penelitian Laut, 1950 to 1970s), to tions of Baruna I in 1965 (Ilahude, 1964; nesian waters published before the 1960s, the National Institute of Oceanology Rahardjo and Ilahude, 1965) and Baruna there are three articles worth mention- (Lembaga Oseanologi Nasional, 1976 to III in 1970 (Ilahude, 1970a,b, 1998) that ing. R.E. Soeriaatmadja, who studied the 1999), to the Center for Oceanographic carried out hydrographic measurements salinity off the north coast of Java and Research under the Indonesian Institute in the eastern Indonesian seas. the coastal current south of Java, wrote of Science (Pusat Penelitian Oseanografi , It is interesting to note that the num- two articles (Soeriaatmadja, 1956, 1957). LIPI, 1999 to present). ber of scientifi c expeditions conducted These articles are considered the fi rst From 1950 to 1956, Hardenberg (the within this relatively short post-in- oceanographic papers written by an In- director of the Laboratory for the In- dependence period (a time span of donesian scientist. The other is a mono- vestigation of the Sea), together with Soeriaatmadja (a chemist from the same laboratory), collected observations on the surface salinity and temperature of The increasing quantity and range of studies on the entire Indonesian and adjacent wa- the oceanographic aspects of the Indonesian ters. The Royal Dutch Shipping Com- pany collected salinity samples monthly and adjacent waters in recent decades is leading along their regular sailing tracks with to a quickening pace of understanding. the assistance of the ships’ captains and crew. These samples were analyzed at the Laboratory and the results published by Veen (1953) and Hardenberg and Soeri- 45 years) is almost twice that of the graph written by Klaus Wyrtki (1961), aatmadja (1956). Results from these previous period (the colonial period, which is, to date, the most comprehen- analyses was further utilized by Wyrtki which spanned 173 years). During the sive study ever written on the physical as part of his studies on monthly aver- post-independence period, 75 expedi- oceanography of the Indonesian waters. age surface salinity distribution in the tions took place, whereas in the colonial In Wyrtki’s (1961) article, the progress Indonesian and adjacent waters (Wyrtki, period only 38 occurred. Since 1945, of physical oceanographic studies during 1957, 1961). Indonesia conducted 40 out of the 75 the Western-occupation period was thor- In 1950, the laboratory received its expeditions, including the International oughly presented. In his report, Wyrtki

Oceanography Vol. 18, No. 4, Dec. 2005 45 pointed out that oceanic transports in the Java to Sumbawa (Ilahude, 1992). known in Indonesia, draws much atten- Indonesian waters were signifi cantly in- From the 1980s onward, there was tion from the oceanographic community. fl uenced by the monsoon, and concluded an upsurge of interest in the Indonesian Three major international oceanographic that there was a continuous fl ow from the waters among oceanographers and me- research collaborations were conducted Indonesian waters into the Indian Ocean teorologists. This escalation is due to re- at this time: (1) JADE (Java-Australia throughout the calendar year with a mag- search conducted from 1975 to 1985 that Dynamic Experiment), a joint research nitude of 1.0 to 2.5 Sv (1 Sv [= Sverdrup] linked the Indonesian waters to local and program between Indonesia and France is equivalent to 106 m3s-1). global phenomena. From 1985 onward, from 1989 to 1995 whose goal was to Between the 1960s and the 1980s, oceanographic research activities con- investigate the Arlindo transports and studies of the oceanographic aspects of cerning the Indonesian waters and adja- its variability at its entrance into the In- the Indonesian waters were mostly on lo- cent seas fl ourished in quantity and spec- dian Ocean between and Australia cal phenomena and specialized processes trum covered. Gordon (2001) and refer- (Fieux et al., 1994, 1996) and at its out- related to fi sheries activities. Using two ences therein provide a detailed review let passages through the various straits research vessels, Samudera and Jalani- of the Indonesian throughfl ow (ITF). of the (Molcard dhi, the Institute focused its research on Soegiarto and Stell (1998) review the ma- et al., 1994, 1996); (2) ROD (Regional upwelling areas in the Indonesian and rine research activities in Indonesia and Oceanographic Dynamic) Current Me- adjacent waters, namely the conclude that the building of Indonesia’s tering Experiment, a joint oceanographic Strait (Ilahude, 1970c, 1978); offshore marine capability and the increase in the expedition, which had similar objectives Bali (Ilahude, 1975; Nontji and Ilahude, number of marine scientists are the main and was carried out jointly by Australia and ASEAN countries from 1993 to 1995 (Cresswell and Wells, 1998); and (3) Ar- lindo expedition, a joint oceanographic Once the magnitude and variations of the expedition between Indonesia and the United States from 1991 to 1998, whose ITF are quantified more accurately, modeling overall goal was to resolve mixing (from will become an increasingly important tool in 1991 to 1994) and circulation (from 1996 to 1998), and generally monitor physical understanding the dynamics and variation of oceanographic features within the Indo- the Indonesian waters, and its influence on the nesian seas (Figure 2). The latter moni- adjacent waters and on the larger-scale ocean toring goal had to be aborted due to the political and economic crisis encountered and climate system. More detailed studies of by the Indonesian administration from part of the Indonesian seas have already begun 1997 to 1998. The Indonesian Institute of Science (LIPI) was the focal agency for in the opening years of the 21st century. the Arlindo expedition, and its counter- part was LDEO (Lamont-Doherty Observatory of Columbia University, New York, USA). The U.S.-Indonesia Ar- 1975); the Banda, Maluku, Halmahera, factors contributing to the fl ourishing of lindo expedition produced several publi- and Seram Seas (Birowo and Ilahude, research in Indonesian waters. cations regarding water mass distribution 1977); the (Ilahude and Er- In the second half of this third period and throughfl ow pathways (e.g., Gordon maitis, 1992); the (Ilahude in Indonesian marine history, the ITF or and Fine, 1996; Ilahude and Gordon, et al., 1990); and along the south coast of Arlindo (Arus Lintas Indonesia) as it is 1996; Gordon et al., 1996; and Susanto

46 Oceanography Vol. 18, No. 4, Dec. 2005 Figure 2. Stations of CTD (conductivity-tempera- ture-depth) casts during the 1993–1994 Arlindo Expedition as described in Ilahude and Gordon (1996). Data from Stations 1 to 103 were obtained during the southeast monsoon 1993, and that from 104 to 209 during the southwest monsoon 1994. Th e 209 stations covered by the Arlindo Expedition are only a fraction of the total 2608 oceanographic stations covered from 1960 to 1995 (Ilahude, 1998).

and Gordon, 2005). The Arlindo expe- ing: Indonesia (Department of Fisheries 1. ITF (Indonesian throughfl ow): How dition also provided a good estimate of and Marine Affairs, Indonesian Institute do you monitor the ITF with reason- the contribution of the of Science [LIPI] and the Indonesian able accuracy by means of affordable throughfl ow to the total Indonesian Agency for Assessment and Applica- and reliable instruments and tech- throughfl ow (Gordon, this issue). tion of Technology [BPPT]), the United niques? What is the magnitude of the States (Columbia University [LDEO] contribution of upwelled water in the THE 21ST CENTURY and University of California, San Diego Banda Sea to the ITF? How crucial is Indonesian seas oceanography now rests [Scripps Institution of Oceanography]), the role of ITF on the inter-oceanic on a solid scientifi c foundation. The next Australia (CSIRO), France (LODYC), heat transfer? phase of research can better focus on and the Netherlands (NIOZ). INSTANT core problems. Gordon (this issue) re- will measure the velocity, temperature, 2. Terrestrial effects: Does the Indo- minds us that some ambiguity as to the and salinity of the ITF in both the in- nesian island confi guration have a ITF’s magnitude and variability remains. fl ow and outfl ow passages. This exercise signifi cant effect on the heat and To acquire the data needed to better is expected to provide data to improve moisture budget in the atmosphere of quantify the ITF, a more targeted obser- understanding of ocean processes of In- the region? How crucial is the role of vational approach, with long-term mon- donesian and adjacent waters, and their freshwater fl ux from the Indonesian itoring, is being carried out. This ITF role in regional (e.g., monsoon) and rivers on the air-sea interactions in monitoring is being conducted under the global (e.g., ENSO) phenomena. the Indonesian seas and the variabil- auspices of the international INSTANT ity of ITF? (International Nusantara Stratifi cation Key questions regarding Indonesian and Transport) program. This program, seas oceanography that are likely to be 3. Internal waves: How do internal which will last until 2007, is a collabora- tackled in the future include (in order waves infl uence the mixing of water tion among several countries, includ- of interest): mass in the Indonesian seas, par-

Oceanography Vol. 18, No. 4, Dec. 2005 47 ticularly along ITF pathways (such as recent decades is leading to a quickening Braak, C. 1921. Het Klimaat van Nederlandsch Indie. Verhandelingen Magnetisch en Meteo- in the )? Do internal pace of understanding. This is due to a rologisch Observatorium Vol. 8. Batavia, Indo- waves have signifi cant effect on the number of factors, including the rapid nesia. variability of ITF? development of technology (computers, Cresswell, G., and N. Wells, eds. 1998. The measuring gauges, satellites), commu- ASEAN–Australia Regional Ocean Dynamic Experiment Expedition 1993–1995. In: Pro- 4. Modeling: How do you incorporate nication (for exchange of information), ceeding of Symposium held in Lombok, Indone- physical, chemical, geophysical, and growing interest from the oceanographic sia June 1995. Amsat Ltd., Canberra. biological aspects into a model to community (Indonesian and their for- Delsman, H.C. 1929. The study of pelagic fi sh eggs. Fourth Pacifi c Science Congress, Batavia- study the Indonesian seas? How can eign counterparts), and support from Bandoeng (Java), May-June 1929. this model be improved to be more the Indonesian government for its assis- Fieux, M., C. Andrie, P. Delecluse, A.G. Ilahude, effi cient in method and in computer tance with and openness to international A. Kartavtseff, F. Mantisi, R. Molcard, and J.C. Swallow. 1994. Measurements within the Pa- time? scientifi c collaboration. cifi c-Indian Oceans throughfl ow region. Deep- Once the magnitude and variations Sea Research 41(7):1,091–1,130. 5. Hydrographic conditions: How do of the ITF are quantifi ed more accurate- Fieux, M., R. Molcard, and A.G. Ilahude. 1996. Pacifi c thermal conditions affect the ly, modeling will become an increasingly Geostrophic transport of the Pacifi c-Indian Oceans throughfl ow. Journal of Geophysical intensity of the East Asian monsoon? important tool in understanding the Research 101(C5):12,421–12,432. How are oceanic temperature and dynamics and variation of the Indo- Gordon, A.L. 2001. Inter-ocean exchange. Pp. salinity variability related to El Niño nesian waters, and its infl uence on the 303–314 in Ocean Circulation and Climate, G. Siedler, J. Church, and J. Gould. Academic and the Indian Ocean Dipole Mode? adjacent waters and on the larger-scale Press. ocean and climate system. More detailed Gordon, A.L., and R. Fine. 1996. Pathways of wa- 6. Climate change: How are the ITF studies of part of the Indonesian seas ter between the Pacifi c and Indian oceans in the Indonesian seas. Nature 379:146–149. pathways linked to the desiccation have already begun in the opening years Gordon, A.L., R.D. Susanto, and A.L. Ffi eld. 1996. in East ? How does the ITF af- of the 21st century. Throughfl ow within Makassar Strait. Geophys- fect monsoon variability? Does the ical Research Letters 26:3,325–3,328. Hardenberg, J.D.F. 1952. Report of works carried increase in CO concentration of the ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 2 out since 1939 in the by the Labo- atmosphere have a signifi cant effect We gratefully acknowledge Drs. Arnold ratory for Investigation of the Sea, Batavia. on the fi shery productivity of the In- Gordon and Ellen Kappel for their con- Proceedings, The 7th Pacifi c Science Congress donesian seas? structive comments, which greatly im- 3:190–192. Hardenberg, J.D.F., and Rd. E. Soeriaatmadja. proved this article. We also wish to thank 1956. Monthly mean salinities in the Indone- 7. Fisheries: How signifi cant is the con- the reviewers for their valuable inputs on sian Archipelago and adjacent waters, for the tribution of physical processes in the the draft. Our appreciation goes to Drs. months March 1950–February 1953. Bulletin Organization Scientifi c Research (Indonesia) Indonesian seas to fi shery productiv- Anugerah Nontji, M. Kasim Moosa, and Vol. 21. ity of the region? What is the mag- Mr. Suyatno Birowo for the useful dis- Ilahude, A.G. 1964. Laporan Ekspedisi Ilmiah nitude of contribution of upwelling cussions in the initial stage. Laut “Operasi Baruna” (Report of the Marine Scientifi c Expedition “Operation Baruna”). processes to the nourishment of the Section: Oceanography. KOTI, Department of upper layer in the Indonesian waters? REFERENCES Defense, 143 pp. Do internal waves have a similar con- Berlage, H.P. 1927. Monsoon current in the Java Ilahude, A.G. 1970a. Operasi Baruna III Perairan Sea and its entrances. Verhandelingen Magne- tribution as upwelling? Laut Banda Maret-April 1970 (Operation tisch en Meteorologisch Observatorium. Batavia, Baruna III Banda Sea Region March-April Indonesia, 28 pp. 1970). Section: Oceanography. Indonesian CLOSING REMARKS Birowo, S., and A.G. Ilahude. 1977. On the up- Naval Hydrographyc Offi ce (HIDRAL). The increasing quantity and range of welling of the Eastern Indonesian Waters. Ilahude, A.G. 1970b. 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