or collective redistirbution of any portion article of any by of this or collective redistirbution Th THE INDONESIAN SEAS articleis has been in published Oceanography Progress in 18, Number journal of Th 4, a quarterly , Volume Oceanography of the permitted only w is photocopy machine, reposting, means or other Indonesian Seas 2005 by Th e Oceanography Copyright Society. A Historical Perspective ith the approval of Th approval the ith BY JOHN I. PARIWONO, ABDUL GANI ILAHUDE, AND MALIKUSWORO HUTOMO gran e Oceanography is Society. All rights reserved. Permission or Th e Oceanography [email protected] Society. Send to: all correspondence IN RECENT YEARS there has been imagery) and by increased communica- ning of the 17th century to Indonesian ted to copy this article Repu for use copy this and research. to in teaching ted a marked advance in our understand- tion among scientists brought about by independence in 1945), and post-inde- ing of Indonesian seas oceanography. the Internet. In the early days, studies of pendence (from 1945 to 2000). Van Aken e Oceanography Society, PO Box 1931, Rockville, MD 20849-1931, USA. This progress is a result of the grow- the ocean were made for navigational (this issue) discusses the colonial period ing interest of the oceanographic com- purposes. Increasingly, the economic in detail. Here we focus on the earlier munity in the unique characteristics importance of marine resources is being and later periods. of these tropical seas (see Gordon, this recognized and climate prediction en- issue) and the support and openness of courages continued research. THE PRECOLONIAL PERIOD the Indonesian government to interna- The evolution of oceanography of the The pre-colonial period begins with the tional scientifi c collaborations. The pace Indonesian waters is clustered into three earliest recorded history and continues of research is also accelerating due to major periods: pre-colonial (from earli- until the presence of western colonial- blication, systemmatic reproduction, reproduction, systemmatic blication, the application of new technologies (in est recorded history until the end of the ism at the end of the 16th century. Dur- situ observational methods and satellite 16th century), colonial (from the begin- ing this period, pre-Indonesian history 42 Oceanography Vol. 18, No. 4, Dec. 2005 Figure 1. A wooden ship that existed during the Sriwijayan period, as shown from a relief on the temple of Borobudur, Central Java. Th is temple, one of the largest Buddhist temples in the world, was built when the Syailendra dynasty (closely related to Sriwijaya kingdom) reigned the island of Java between approximately 750 and 850 AD). Photo credit: J.I. Pariwono. was marked by two golden ages. The “oceanographers” who were expert in remnants deals with scientifi c matters. A fi rst golden age was between 863 and tidal information and ocean currents of kind of wooden ship existed during the 1225 AD when the maritime south Su- the Southeast Asian and adjacent wa- Sriwijayan time as depicted from a relief matran Kingdom of Sriwijaya ruled ters, because this knowledge would have on the wall of the Borobudur temple in over the entire island of Sumatra and been essential to effi cient operation of Central Java (Figure 1). the western part of the present Indo- their wind-powered fl eets. Accordingly, To achieve his vision of becoming a nesian region. The second golden era knowledge of the physical oceanogra- maritime empire spanning the oceans, was between 1293 and 1389 under the phy of the Indonesian seas in this period the Emperor of the Ming Dynasty of eastern Javanese Kingdom of Majapa- was limited to tides, monsoon-driven China, Zhu Di, appointed the Grand hit. To maintain their hegemonies, these currents, and ocean circulation. Unfor- Eunuch, Cheng Ho (Zheng He), to be- two kingdoms required strong mari- tunately, carefully compiled records of come Commander-in-Chief of the larg- time powers. Pariwono (1986) postu- these kingdoms are scarce (Robertson est fl eet (over 300 ships) ever built at that lated that these empires would have had and Spruyt, 1967), and none of these time (Menzies, 2003). In his fi rst voyage Oceanography Vol. 18, No. 4, Dec. 2005 43 in the Asian waters from 1405 to 1407, information regarding the currents and Several important oceanographic Cheng Ho visited Java and Sumatra, and tides of the waters between Beijing and features were observed during these from there went to Sri Lanka and India. the Strait of Malacca. The source of this expeditions, including: (1) water mass His fl eet started its expedition in 1421, oceanographic information, particularly characteristics of the East Indies waters cruising southward to the South China that of the Southeast Asian waters, likely (van Riel, 1932, 1934, and 1938); (2) hy- drographic conditions of the Indonesian waters (Tydeman, 1903; van der Stok, 1922; Schott, 1935); (3) monsoon-driven currents in the Java Sea (Berlage, 1927); In the early days, studies of the ocean were made for and (4) climate-related characteristics of navigational purposes. Increasingly, the economic the region (Braak, 1921). Note that van importance of marine resources is being recognized and Riel (1932), using data from the Snel- lius Expedition, is considered to be the climate prediction encourages continued research. fi rst person to suggest that the transport within the East Indies waters is directed into the Indian Ocean. Furthermore, the Snellius Expedition contributed impor- Sea through the Malacca Strait into the originated mostly from the Sriwijaya and tant data and information on hydrogra- Indian Ocean. Returning to China via Majapahit kingdoms. phy and bottom topography of the deep Australia, part of the fl eet under the eastern waters of the East Indies (van command of the Chinese Admiral Zhou THE COLONIAL PERIOD Riehl, 1934; Kuenen, 1935). Man sailed through the eastern waters The colonial period (the beginning of In 1905, the Netherlands East Indies (possibly the Banda Sea) to visit Ambon, the 17th century until Indonesia gained government established a fi shery station Ternate, and Tidore for spices and exotic independence in 1945) is when western at Pasar Ikan in Batavia (now Sunda Ke- food from the seas, such as sea cucum- countries occupied most of the South- lapa in Jakarta). Later, the fi shery station bers (Menzies, 2003). It is thought that east Asian region, and detailed observa- became the Laboratory for the Investiga- the armada started their voyage along sea tions of marine biology and physical tion of the Sea, which was commissioned lanes they were familiar with before em- oceanography of the Southeast Asian to promote marine research for fi sheries barking into unknown waters. The com- and adjacent waters were recorded. Be- purposes. Hardenberg (1952) reported mander would have gathered suffi cient ginning in 1768, when the Boudeuse and on the activities carried out from 1939 Etoile Expedition from France made to 1950 by this laboratory. Monumental John I. Pariwono ([email protected]) is some measurements in the East Indies works that emerged during this period Senior Lecturer and Researcher, Depart- (now Indonesian) waters, several coun- were by Bleeker with his publications of ment of Marine Science and Technology, tries sent oceanographic expeditions to Atlas Ichthyologique in six large volumes Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Sciences, this region. About 38 expeditions were (from 1819 to 1878); by Weber and de Bogor Agricultural University (IPB), Bogor, carried out within a span of 173 years Beaufort (1911, 1913, 1916, 1922, 1929, Indonesia. Abdul Gani Ilahude is Senior (Pariwono, 1986; van Aken, this issue), 1931) with their publication of The Fish- Research Scientist, Center for Oceanograph- including expeditions by the following es of the Indonesian Archipelago; by van ic Research, Indonesian Institute of Sciences ten countries: Austria (1 expedition), Bosse (1928) who studied marine bota- (LIPI), Jakarta, Indonesia. Malikusworo Britain (10), Denmark (1), The Nether- ny, particularly marine algae (succeeded Hutomo is Senior Research Scientist, Center lands (8), France (10), Germany (3), Italy by Zaneveld, 1950); and by Delsman for Oceanographic Research, Indonesian In- (1), Japan (1), Soviet Union (1), and the (1939) who studied pelagic fi sh eggs and stitute of Sciences (LIPI), Jakarta, Indonesia. United States (2). planktons. Note that Bleeker initiated the 44 Oceanography Vol. 18, No. 4, Dec. 2005 fi rst scientifi c journal in Indonesia (i.e., fi rst research vessel, the R/V Samudera Indian Ocean Expedition, the Coopera- Natuurkundig Tijdschrift voor Nederland- (see Wyrtki, this issue), a 25-m-long ship tive Study of the Kuroshio, and the six sch Indie [Nontji, 2005]). equipped with Nansen bottles, revers- PELITAs (the Indonesian fi ve-year de- ing thermometers, and oceanographic velopment programs from 1969 to 1999, THE POSTINDEPENDENCE wires for marine surveys. This vessel known as PELITA Expeditions I-VI). PERIOD was used to collect west monsoon hy- During these expeditions, shipboard sci- This period begins when Indonesia be- drographic data (Wyrtki, 1958, 1961). entists measured hydrographic, chemi- comes independent in 1945 and ends In 1961, the laboratory (then the Insti- cal, biological, and physical oceano- at the beginning of the 21st century. On tute of Sea Research) received another graphic parameters related to fi sheries August 17, 1945, the former East Indies oceanographic vessel, the 60-m-long R/V activities in Indonesian and adjacent archipelagic