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Evaluation of Letsoku and Related Indigenous Clayey Soils

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Evaluation of Letsoku and Related Indigenous Clayey Soils EVALUATION OF LETSOKU AND RELATED INDIGENOUS CLAYEY SOILS by Refilwe Morekhure-Mphahlele 96276313 Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Chemical Technology In the Faculty of Engineering, Built Environment and Information Technology University of Pretoria Pretoria Supervisor: Prof. WW Focke November 2017 DECLARATION I, Refilwe Morekhure-Mphahlele, the undersigned, declare that the thesis that I hereby submit for the degree PhD in Chemical Technology at the University of Pretoria is my original work. Acknowledgement has been given and reference made in instances where literature resources were used. The work has not been previously submitted by anyone for a degree or any examination at this or any other academic institution. __________________ _________________ Signature Place __________________ Date ii ABSTRACT The nature of letsoku and related clayey soils, traditionally used by indigenous Southern African communities for a wide range of purposes, was explored. Thirty-nine samples were collected from Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, South Africa and Zimbabwe. They were analysed to determine their composition and physical properties. Structured interviews were used to establish the purpose of use and the location of sourcing sites. The samples were in the form of either powder or rocks, and some were supplied as dry rolled clay balls. Cosmetic applications were almost universally indicated. However, other functions, related to artwork, medicinal use, cultural symbolism and traditional beliefs, were also mentioned. The samples covered a wide range of colours from bright red to yellow, but also from off-white to black, with some having a light grey colour. It was therefore not surprising that the mineral composition of the letsoku samples also varied widely. A black sample, and the yellow and reddish pastel-coloured samples, contained significant quantities of the corresponding, colour- imparting iron oxides. Clay minerals featured prominently, although kaolinite and muscovite were more often encountered as the dominant minerals than smectites. All the samples contained silica and in some instances the content exceeded 90 % m/m SiO2. The presence of high contents (more than 40 % m/m) of gibbsite in the samples from Venda represents a new finding for clayey soils in traditional usage. Keywords: Clayey soil; traditional knowledge; letsoku, composition, clay minerals Highlights • Letsoku is a mineral product used for cosmetic applications in Southern Africa • Letsoku samples vary greatly in colour and in mineral composition • Clays, especially kaolin, feature prominently as does silica • The black and the yellow-to-red pastel colours derive from iron oxides • Gibbsite (>40 % m/m) detected previously undocumented in traditional cosmetics • Substantial amounts of muscovite in Botswana and Eastern Cape samples iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thanks and praise to my Lord who through His Grace brought this project to this stage. Acknowledgement and sincere gratitude are expressed to the following people who contributed each in their exceptional way to make this research a success: Prof. WW Focke who successfully turned the myth into a research project by means of endless questions with the potential to lead to other studies. The IAM Chem Eng team, especially Dr Afonso Macheca, my office mate, who endured my endless need for help with the graphs. Dr Mthokosizi Sibanda and Dr Shepherd Tichapondwa who patiently continued after Dr Macheca left. Thank you so much Suzette and Isbe for all the help provided promptly. Marnues, thank you for assistance with the BET and I will always remember your mom’s healing wisdom about sickness! Deveshnie for your exceptional patience with the Malvern 3000 Mastersizer. Prof. P Ngobeni for the encouragement and support, especially when the path was too rough and disconcerting for me. My dearest daughters for their moral support, the nourishing meals from Tebogo, and the tireless help from Motshabi and Lehlogonolo with Excel and other computer needs. The extra-terrestrial professor, Reagile Pududu, for inspiring and energizing me in his unique way that only a grandson can do. Dr Aubrey Parsons for nudging me on when my project was just a paragraph. I will always cherish the opportunity to co-supervise an MTech student with Prof. P Ngobeni and Dr Aubrey Parsons with the sunscreen project provided by Dr Parsons. Prof. K Mandiwana– thank you for your assistance with the MTech student. Karabo Molapo for assistance with unfamiliar geology concepts and procedures. Prof. P Marais and Dr FA Marais for their support and confidence in me. The TUT TIA team, Vincent Tau and Reitumetse Khabeng, who virtually pushed me to do the Cosmetics Science course. The Cosmetic Science Society’s approach and impartation of iv knowledge encouraged me to take advantage of these opportunities, first to co-supervise a cosmetic science research project and later to venture into my own research project. Dr Heidi Rolfes for introducing me to Prof. WW Focke. Ms Dilla Wright for coordinating the TUT Generic Research Support Course that instilled a desire in me to pursue and persevere in this research project, albeit at my seasoned age in an unfamiliar field of study. Dr Makhubela and Mrs Jane Molapo for linking me with mme Grace Masuku and Ntikwe Motlotle who were highly involved in sample collection and validation. My previous TUT students, now fellow researchers: Kuliso, Yvonne, Zach and Katlego. Thank you for your inspiration and help when needed. Last but not least, my TUT colleagues: Mabu, Presley, Aileen and Prof. NS Mokgalaka. v DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my late parents Joseph Motjile and Christine Grace Seruane Morekhure for planting the seed of learning in me amidst all kinds of challenges. In addition to Mr Fanyana Mazibuko for laying a sound matric science foundation in spite of the then prevailing poor teaching conditions. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION...................................................................................................................... ii ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................ iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................................... vii LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................ xi THESIS OVERVIEW .......................................................................................................... xiv LIST OF ABBEVIATIONS ................................................................................................. xvi GLOSSARY........................................................................................................................ xviii CHAPTER 1 : BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY.............................................................. 1 1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT ......................................................................................... 4 1.2.1 Research questions ............................................................................................... 5 1.2.2 Objectives ............................................................................................................ 5 1.3 OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH DESIGN ........................................................... 6 1.4 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS ................................................................. 6 1.4.1 Epistemology ....................................................................................................... 6 1.4.2 Characterization ................................................................................................... 7 1.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................................................ 7 1.5.1 Ethical considerations .......................................................................................... 8 1.5.2 Determination of clay properties and composition .............................................. 8 1.6 CONTRIBUTION ....................................................................................................... 8 CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................. 9 2.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 9 2.2 PROPERTIES OF COSMETICS .............................................................................. 10 2.2.1 Physicochemical properties ............................................................................... 10 2.2.2 Chemical properties ........................................................................................... 12 2.3 SOILS, CLAYS AND CLAY MINERALS .............................................................. 13 vii 2.3.1 Soils.................................................................................................................... 14 2.3.2 Clays .................................................................................................................. 15 2.3.3 Clay minerals ..................................................................................................... 16 2.4 TOXICITY AND SAFETY ...................................................................................... 24 2.4.1 Toxicity
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