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Expert Opinion on Petroleum Tanker Accidents and Malfunctions in Browning Entrance and Principe Channel:
Potential Marine Effects on Gitxaała Traditional Lands and Waters of a Spill During Tanker Transport of Bitumen from the Northern Gateway Pipeline Project (NGP)
Contributors: CJ Beegle-Krause B. Emmett M. Hammond J. Short R. Spies
Editor: L. Beckmann
Prepared for: JFK Law Corporation, Counsel to Gitxaała First Nation 340 – 1122 Mainland Street Vancouver, BC V6B 5L1
December 2011
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Table of Contents
1.0 Background, Purpose and Scope of Work...... 1 2.0 Report Structure ...... 1 3.0 Nearshore Habitats, Biological Communities, and Key Marine Resources ...... 2 3.1 Overview ...... 2 3.2 Nearshore Physical Features...... 3 3.3 Nearshore Habitats ...... 5 3.4 Nearshore Habitat Types and Oil Residency...... 9 3.5 Potentially Affected Marine Resources ...... 12 3.6 Critique of the Application with Respect to Habitat Issues ...... 13 4.0 A Primer on Petroleum Composition, Fate, and Toxicology...... 15 4.1 Overview ...... 15 4.2 Saturated Hydrocarbons ...... 16 4.3 Aromatic Hydrocarbons...... 18 4.4 Resins and Asphaltenes ...... 20 4.5 Properties and Toxicity of Petroleum Products...... 22 4.6 Implications of Composition on the Environmental Fate of Accidentally Released Petroleum Products ...... 25 4.7 Composition and Properties of Alberta Oil Sands Bitumen ...... 27 4.8 Effects of Adulterants ...... 29 4.9 Critique of the Application ...... 30 5.0 Hydrocarbon Toxicology...... 32 5.1 Overview ...... 32 5.2 Exposure Routes...... 32 5.3 Toxicity ...... 32 5.4 Timing of Toxic Effects...... 34 5.5 Lifestyle Stages and Toxic Effects ...... 35 5.6 Unknowns vs. Laboratory Findings...... 35 5.7 Secondary Ecological Consequences...... 36 5.8 Recovery of Ecological Function...... 36 5.9 Conclusions...... 38 5.10 Critique of the Application ...... 38 6.0 Computer Modelling for Oil Spill Trajectory Analysis and Planning...... 39 6.1 Overview ...... 39 6.2 Trajectory Modelling of Individual Spills...... 39
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6.3 Importance of Seasonal to Multi-Year Statistical Analysis...... 47 6.4 The Difference Between, GNOME, TAP and Mass Balance Scenario Modelling ...... 48 6.5 Results ...... 48 6.6 Alternative Spill Scenarios ...... 73 6.7 Critique of the Application ...... 82 7.0 Risk-based Impact Assessment...... 85 7.1 Impact Assessment Method for Assessing Accidental Effects ...... 85 7.2 Basics of Risk Assessment ...... 86 7.3 Using Risk Assessment in Environmental Impact Assessment...... 88 7.4 Judging the Adequacy of Emergency and Contingency Planning ...... 90 7.5 How is Risk Determined?...... 91 7.6 What is an Acceptable Risk? ...... 92 7.7 Critique of the NGP Application: Deficiencies in the Risk Assessment Approach ...... 93 8.0 Expert Opinion on Consequences of Spill or Malfunction in Modelled Location ...... 94 8.1 Overview ...... 94 8.2 Diluted Bitumen Spill Scenarios ...... 94 8.3 Habitats and Marine Resources affected by the Spill Scenarios ...... 97 8.4 Intertidal Resources ...... 101 8.5 Subtidal Resources ...... 102 9.0 Conclusions ...... 103
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LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Shore Types within the Study Area (from the BC ShoreZone dataset) ...... 4 Table 2 Summary of Biological Community Composition of Nearshore Habitats within the study area...... 10 Table 3 Summary of oil residency by shore length in the study area...... 12 Table 4 Sunrise Sunset Calculations...... 75 Table 5 Sunrise Sunset Calculations...... 79 Table 6 Shore Types (from BC ShoreZone) on the outer coast of Dolphin/Goschen Islands (Boys Pt. to Joachim Point) subject to bitumen product fouling from either spill scenario 1 or 2.0 ...... 97 Table 7 Oil residency index (ORI) values for the outer coast of Dolphin/Goschen Islands (Boys Pt. to Joachim Point) subject to bitumen product fouling from either spill scenario 1 or 2.0 ...... 98 Table 8 List of marine resources of importance to Gitxaala First Nation considered most vulnerable to oil spill impacts resulting from spill Scenarios 1 and 2...... 99
LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Gixtaala Nation Traditional Territory Figure 2 Study area used to describe habitats features and resources of concern to the Gitxaala Nation...... 3 Figure 3 Exposed Rocky Nearshore Habitat ...... 6 Figure 4 Semi-Sheltered Rocky Habitat ...... 7 Figure 5 Sand Beach Habitat...... 8 Figure 6 Oil Residency Index for shore areas within the study area (from BC ShoreZone data)...... 11 Figure 7 Documented herring spawning areas within the focus area (DFO and GeoBC)...... 15 Figure 8 Saturated Hydrocarbons (Alkanes) ...... 17 Figure 9 BTEX, Other Monocyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Naphthalenes ...... 19 Figure 10 Other Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Ring Systems ...... 21 Figure 11 Typical Asphaltene Structure ...... 22 Figure 12 Surface Area: Volume Relationships...... 23 Figure 13 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene...... 29 Figure 14 Windrose for 2001 to 2010 for North Hecate Strait buoy #C46183...... 40 Figure 15 Wind speed (m/s) for the ten year time period of this analysis ...... 41 Figure 16 Map of Hecate Strait and vicinity with the domain of the TAP subdomain highlighted in red ...... 43 Figure 17 Map of a subset of the model domain to show how smaller islands are joined into larger land areas for simplification of computation...... 44 Figure 18 Map of the area of interest for these analyses ...... 45 Figure 19 NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory Multivariate EL Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) Index 1950–2010...... 47 Figure 20 Impact Analysis for Hecate Strait TAP II implementation Spill Start Site 8 for each season (Winter, Spring, Summer, Fall) and four different analysis times (12 hours, 1, 3 and 5 days)...... 50 Figure 21 TAP II Impact analysis for individual years (~25 random time Spill Strat Tmes) and the final 2001-2010 analysis (250 random Spill Start Times) ...... 51 Figure 22 Response time analysis for spill start site 9 for Fall Season ...... 52 Figure 23 Response time analysis for spill start site 9 for Spring Season ...... 53
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Figure 24 Response time analysis as in the picture above for Spring Season, however a different grid cell has been selected for Site Oiling Analysis...... 54 Figure 25 Response time analysis for Spill Start Site 10 during spring...... 55 Figure 26 Response time analysis for Spill Start Site 6 during spring...... 56 Figure 27 Response time analysis for Spill Start Site 8 during spring...... 57 Figure 28 For the selected area (red square), this shows the probability of oil from each of the 23 Spill Start Sites to bring oil above the Level of Concern to the selected area within five days ...... 64 Figure 29 For the selected area (red square), this shows the probability of oil from each of the 23 Spill Start Sites to bring oil above the Level of Concern to the selected area within five daysa...... 68 Figure 30 There is a period during April 2007 when the winds have a sustained onshore component. Winds are primarily onshore (generally from the south) through early April 18, 2007...... 74 Figure 31 Wind speeds for the same April 9–18, 2007 as in Figure 30 ...... 74 Figure 32 Average April ocean temperature profile...... 75 Figure 33 April average ocean salinity profile...... 76 Figure 34 Annual monthly mean ocean temperature profiles...... 77 Figure 35 Monthly mean ocean salinity profiles ...... 78 Figure 36 Wind Speed for Feb 11-20, 2007 ...... 80 Figure 37 Wind Direction for Feb 11-20, 2007 ...... 80 Figure 38 Average April ocean temperature profile...... 81 Figure 39 February average salinity profile ...... 82 Figure 40 Risk-based EIA Process)...... 89
LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A Expert Group Credentials Appendix B Case Study 1: A Large, Rapid Spill Appendix C Case Study 2: Moderate Spill, Long Duration: SS Jacob Luckenbach, Gulf of the Farallones Appendix D Case Study 3: Small Spill, Critical Timing: Breton Sound, Louisiana, June 2005 Appendix E The “Exxon Valdez” Oil Spill Appendix F Literature Cited Appendix G Albian Heavy Synthetic (AHS) Analysis Appendix H Wabiska Heavy (AHS) Analysis
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Expert Opinion on Petroleum Tanker Accidents and Malfunctions in Browning Entrance and Principe Channel: Potential Marine Effects on Gitxaała Traditional Lands and Waters of a Spill During Tanker Transport of Bitumen from the Northern Gateway Pipeline Project (NGP)
1.0 BACKGROUND, PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF WORK 1.1 The Gitxaala Nation (GFN) retained Pottinger Gaherty Environmental Consultants Ltd. (PGL) in early 2011 to assist it with participation in the Northern Gateway Pipeline (NGP) Project Joint Review Panel process. In particular, PGL was asked to assemble and facilitate an experts group to help the Gitxaała identify and understand the ways in which the NGP Project might affect marine species and ecosystems in Gitxaała territory. Given time and financial limits, one small area of Gitxaała territory (Figure 1) was chosen for review (the “study area”); this should not suggest that this area is in any way more important than other areas within Gitxaała traditional territory. 1.2 Questions put to the experts group were as follows: a) What are the requirements and/or best practices for impact assessment of accidents and malfunctions? b) What are the shoreline and habitat types present in a subset of the Gitxaała traditional territory hereafter referred to as “the study area”? c) What species/species assemblages of concern to the Gitxaała do these habitat types support? d) What is the nature of the petroleum products being transported by tanker through the study area? e) How are the petroleum products being transported by tanker through the study area likely to behave when released to the environment? f) What is the likelihood (probability) that oil from a spill in the study area will come into contact with the shoreline in the study area? g) What is the likelihood (probability) that oil from a spill in the study area will come into contact with species of concern in the study area? h) What are the potential effects (consequences) of spilled oil on species or concern in the study area? 1.3 As well, based on the experts’ conclusions in relation to items (a)-(h), the experts were asked to provide their opinion on the adequacy of the Application with respect to identifying and mitigating impacts from tanker accidents and malfunctions.
2.0 REPORT STRUCTURE 2.1 Section 3.0, prepared by Brian Emmett, provides an overview of the nearshore habitat types in the study area in order to provide a general understanding of habitat structure and function, species of particular interest or concern, and key seasonal issues and interactions. The habitat types discussed are based on those from the same Provincial Government data sets used by the Proponent. This section concludes with a critique of related portions of the Application. Section 4.0, prepared by Jeff Short, provides an overview of petroleum chemistry and the way in which petroleum products travel and break down when exposed to the
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DECEMBER 2011 PGL File No.: 3488-01.05 TANKER ROUTE GITXAAŁA NATION TRADITIONAL TERRITORY BOUNDARY DWG No.: 3488-01.05 F1.2
STUDY AREA
GITXAAŁA NATION TRADITIONAL TERRITORY Gitxaała Nation
Pottinger Gaherty ENVIRONMENTAL CONSULTANTS FIGURE 1 (A37952) Expert Opinion December 2011 Gitxaala First Nation Page 2
environment (referred to as “fate”) and discusses the way in which chemistry affects spill response planning and cleanup. This section concludes with a critique of related portions of the Application. Section 5.0, prepared by Bob Spies and Jeff Short, provides an overview of the ways in which petroleum in the environment can adversely affect the health of living organisms (referred to as “toxicology”). This includes a discussion of expected types of exposure, the way in which season and life-cycle stage can influence toxicity, and ecosystem recovery times. This section concludes with a critique of related portions of the Application. Section 6.0, prepared by CJ Beegle-Krause, presents an oil-spill probability model, the Trajectory Analysis Planner (TAP), built for a subset of the study area (Dolphin Island and environs). Section 7.0, prepared by Matt Hammond, summarizes standard practices of using a risk assessment approach in impact assessment to evaluate potential accidental effects. Section 8.0, prepared by Brian Emmett, Jeff Short, and Bob Spies, discusses, based on preceding sections, the consequences that can reasonably be expected from a petroleum spill in the study area.
3.0 NEARSHORE HABITATS, BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES, AND KEY MARINE RESOURCES (B. Emmett)
3.1 Overview 3.1.1 The severity of oil spill impacts in the nearshore environment is dependent on: (a) the oil composition, (b) physical and biological characteristics of the shoreline, (c) the co-occurrence of valued or sensitive species and (d) the response of these species to petroleum contamination. 3.1.2 This section of the Expert Report summarizes key nearshore physical and biological features within one of the key areas of concern for the Gitxaała First Nation (Dolphin/Goschen/Spicer Islands and the Kitkatla Inlet portion of Porcher Island and the northwest coast of Banks Island, Figure 2, referred to as the study area)1. As indicated earlier, this is not the only area of concern to the Gitxaala but time and resources required that the study area be narrowed. 3.1.3 In addition this section summarizes the physical shore types, nearshore marine habitats and key resource features and identifies areas of particular sensitivity to oil spills. 3.1.4 The “study area” encompasses most of the Gitxaala Nii Luutiksm Kitkatla and Banks Nii Luutiksm Conservancies, areas identified by Gitxaala and the BC government as having important marine values requiring an enhanced level of protection from potentially damaging activities. These areas were designated in 2006 for protection as a Conservancy under the BC Park Act. The area has a wide range of nearshore features from exposed rocky islets and wave swept beaches to protected inlets with productive eelgrass and marsh vegetation. It is identified by Gitxaala (Calliou 2011) as a key resource harvesting area, due to the richness and diversity of marine resources present as well as the proximity of the community of Lach Klan on Dolphin Island.
1 Ray Nelson described the area around Lach Khan, Kitkatla Inlet and Banks Island as “Our table: breakfast, lunch and dinner.” Calliou 2011, pg 88)
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3.2 Nearshore Physical Features 3.2.1 The coastal sensitivity atlas (Polaris 2010a and b) prepared on behalf of the Proponent characterizes units of shoreline within the study area into 16 shore types derived from the 35 coastal classes of the BC ShoreZone classification system (GeoBC). A wave exposure class is also assigned to each shore unit. This has been done using standard methodology for shoreline classification and oil spill sensitivity modeling in British Columbia. 3.2.2 A request for electronic copies of these data was made on behalf of the Gitxaała but the data were not provided on the grounds that they were proprietary information. Figure 2: Study area used to describe habitats features and resources of concern to the Gitxaala Nation
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In the absence of the Polaris data and in order to describe habitats within the study area, we queried the BC ShoreZone database to summarize the shore types within this area (Table 1).
Table 1: Shore Types within the Study Area (from the BC ShoreZone dataset)
ShorelineLength Shoreline Shore Type (km) Percentage Rock platform <1 <1 Rock cliff 34 4 Rock with gravel beach 150 19 Rock, sand and gravel beach 313 40 Rock with sand beach 12 2 Gravel beach 5 1 Gravel flat 1 <1 Sand and gravel beach 26 3 Sand beach 2 <1 Sand and gravel flat 66 9 Sand flat 166 21 Mud flat 1 <1 Estuary, marsh or lagoon 9 1 Channel 0 0 Man-made <1 <1 Total 785 100
3.2.3 As Table 1 illustrates, Most of the shore length (61%) is a combination of rock (generally in the upper intertidal and immediate backshore zones) and sand or gravel (in the lower intertidal zone). Only a small percent of the shoreline (5%) is exclusively rock Approximately 10% is sand beach or sand/gravel flat, located on the outside of the Porcher Peninsula and Goschen Island and the northwest coast of Banks Island. The remaining area (approximately 23%) is primarily protected sand flat with a small amount of estuary and mudflat shore. 3.2.5 In contrast, according to the Proponent about 21% of the Confined Channel Assessment Area2 (CCAA) is rocky shore, with a corresponding reduction in mixed rock and sediment shores (56%) and protected sand and mud flats and estuaries (15%) (from Table 3-1, Polaris 2010a). Approximately 33% of the Open
2 The Study Area straddles the Confined Channel Assessment Area (CCAA) and the Open Water Area (OWA) as defined by the proponent, with the Dolphin/Goschen/Pocher Island complex lying within the CCAA while the northwest coast of Banks Island falls within the OWA. Separate impact assessments have been prepared for the CCAA and the OWA.
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Water Area is rocky shore with a corresponding reduction in mixed rock and sediment shores (37%) and protected sand and mudflats and estuaries (12%) (from Table 3.1 Polaris 2010b). This suggests that the overall CCAA or OWA are not representative of the study area of interest to the Gitxaala with a larger proportion of the Study Area shoreline formed of shore types potentially sensitive to longer term oil residency (see below). 3.3 Nearshore Habitats 3.3.1 With a knowledge of the physical characteristics of the shoreline (shore types as described above) and nearshore wave energy, it is possible to describe the likely biotic communities (plants and animals) that will colonize any given shoreline type and exposure using descriptive inventory information from similar areas. 3.3.2 The BC ShoreZone database includes a habitat type classification based on observations of characteristic biota for the south coast, but this attribute has not yet been incorporated into the central or north coast areas of the ShoreZone database (M. Morris, Archipelago Marine Research Ltd. pers. comm.). As a result, in order to understand the marine habitats in the study area, it is appropriate to use a broader area approach. This approach uses shoreline physical typing combined with wave energy to identify areas expected to have similar habitats. When applied, this approach distils the 15 shore types into five habitat categories, as follows: Exposed rocky shore and islets – areas of rocky shore exposed to higher wave energy, such as the southwest shore of Goschen Island and the associated rocky islets (see Figure 3). These shores often include gravelly beaches below the rocky upper intertidal zone or small gravelly pocket beaches. Exposed sand beaches – wide beaches subject to high wave energy often bounded by rocky headlands. The outer shore of the Porcher Peninsula and the northwest corner of Goschen Island belong in this category. Semi-sheltered rocky shore – both moderately and steeply sloped rocky shorelines again often associated with sand/gravel or gravel beaches below the upper rock shoreline. (see Figure 4). The rocky shorelines within Kitkatla Inlet fall into this category. Sand/gravel and gravel beaches – usually found in areas not exposed to open ocean conditions, including sections of shore within Kitkatla Inlet (see Figure 5). Mudflats, sandflats, estuaries and marshes found in sheltered, low lying areas at the head of inlets and embayments, often associated with freshwater input and sediment deposition, such as the head of Kitkatla Inlet, parts of Dolphin Inlet, and the various creeks draining to Kitkatla Inlet.
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Figure 3: Exposed Rocky Nearshore Habitat
(Illustrative Shore Profiles of Typical Central/North Coast Nearshore Habitats; fm Emmett et al., 1995)
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Figure 4: Semi-Sheltered Rocky Habitat
(Illustrative Shore Profiles of Typical Central/North Coast Nearshore Habitats, fm Emmett et al., 1995)
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Figure 5: Sand Beach Habitat
(Illustrative Shore Profiles of Typical Central/North Coast Nearshore Habitats, fm Emmett et al., 1995)
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3.3.3 The biological communities associated with these habitats in the study area have not been systematically surveyed and described, but some illustrative work has been done in the central and north coast areas of British Columbia: Jamieson and Davies (2004) have summarized the state of knowledge of marine habitats in the north coast region. Specific survey data and descriptive summaries have been made for several of these habitat types for the Goose Islands on the BC central coast (Emmett et al. 1995) which are comparable to those in the study area. Figures 5–7 are taken from the Goose Islands survey. Morris et al (2006) have summarized various biological features (biobands) within similar habitat types for the north coast area. In addition the Gitxaala Nation Use Study (Calliou 2011) provides specific information on resource harvesting within this area. 3.3.4 These information sources have been used in Table 2, below, to describe the biotic communities associated with the nearshore habitat types identified above. Table 2 provides cross references between the five nearshore habitats and the ShoreZone shore types used by Polaris (2010a and b) for spill sensitivity mapping. 3.4 Nearshore Habitat Types and Oil Residency 3.4.1 Understanding the types of shoreline in a given area is a key step in understanding the way in which oil may remain in the nearshore area. 3.4.2 While the determinants of oil residency are complex and depend, to a significant extent, on the type of oil spilled (discussed in the next section of this report), the type of shoreline and exposure will also influence the amount of time oil remains on the shore. 3.4.3 In general, shores with lower wave energy, porous (gravelly) substrates or substrates high in organic material (estuaries and marshes) have longer oil residency times. The BC ShoreZone system provides an oil residency index (ORI) for each shore unit based on the combination of shore type and exposure rating. ORI is a five-point scale ranging from weeks to years of oil residency within the intertidal zone. The ShoreZone database was queried to identify the ORI number for the shore units within the study area. The results are shown in Figure 6 and summarized in Table 3. Over 81% (635 of 785km of shoreline) are classified with “medium to long term oil residency times” of several months to several years. These longer residency areas encompass most of Kitkatla Inlet as well as much of the shores of Dolphin and Spicer Islands, primarily due to the high degree of mixed rock and sand/gravel or gravel beach shores in these areas. 3.4.4 Polaris (2010a and b) provide an alternative approach to assessing oil residency based on two categories of shore considered sensitive to oil spills and oil spill countermeasures: Coarse beach/gravel flat areas with low wave exposure – where oil will persist due to penetration within the sediment. Vegetated flats, marsh areas (generally low energy) where oil persistence can be long term.
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Table 2: Summary of Biological Community Composition of Nearshore Habitats within the study area
Nearshore3 Community Composition Typical Shore Type Habitat Type Plants Invertebrates Fish and Features Exposed rocky Rock cliff Fucus California mussel/ Lingcod shore and islets Rock platform Bladed Kelps4 Gooseneck barnacle complex Diverse rockfish species Rock and gravel beach Diverse mix of red algae including Purple sea Star Kelp greenling Rock and sand/gravel coralline species Purple and red sea urchins Striped perch beach Nereocystis (bull kelp) offshore Chitons Key intertidal harvesting area Exposed sand Sand beach Surfgrasses Sand dollars Pipefish beaches Sand and gravel flat Polycheate worm mats Black rockfish Macrocystis (giant kelp) and other Mobile invertebrates Juvenile flatfish kelps on boulders (Dungeness crab) Key crab harvesting area Semi sheltered Rock and gravel beach Fucus Abalone Rockfish rocky shore Rock and sand/gravel Bladed Kelps5 Red sea urchins Lingcod and other greenlings Beach Macrocystis (giant kelp) Acorn barnacles Rock Cliff Nereocystis (bull kelp) Blue mussels Key intertidal harvesting area Sea cucumbers Important habitat for spawning Diverse sea star species herring Sand/gravel and Gravel beach Eelgrass Cockles and horseclams Juvenile flatfish rearing gravel beaches Sand and gravel beach Bladed kelps Littleneck and butter clams Green algae (Ulva sp.) Geoducks subtidally Upper beaches can be forage fish spawning areas Herring spawn of eelgrass Important bivalve harvesting areas Mudflats, Estuary, marsh or Sedges, rushes arrowgrass, Barnacles Highly productive habitats sandflats, lagoon silverweed, sea asparagus6 Juvenile crabs important for juvenile salmonid estuaries and Mud flat Fucus/Green algae (Ulva sp.) Burrowing anemones rearing, herring spawning marshes Sand flat Eelgrass Lugworms Bivalves
3 This description is applicable to depths of approximately 5m below lowest low tides. 4 Lessoniopsis litoralis, Alaria nana, Hedophyllum sessile, Laminaria setchelii 5 Egregia sp. Alaria marginata,. Laminaria sechelli and L. saccharia, Pteroygophera californica, Agarum fimbriatum 6 Carex lyngbyei, Juncus sp., Triglochin maritimum, Potentilla anserine, Salicornia sp.
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Figure 6: Oil Residency Index for shore areas within the study area (from BC ShoreZone data)
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Table 3: Summary of oil residency by shore length in the study area
Shoreline Shoreline Oil Residency Length (km) Percentage Long 246 31 (months to years7) Medium-Long (months to years) 389 50 Medium (weeks to months) 123 16 Short-Medium (weeks to months) 15 2 Short (weeks to days) 12 1 Total 785 100
3.4.5 The oil residency in each of these shore types is considered to be months to years. Not unreasonably, this approach discounts the oil residency times for the more exposed gravel/sand beach areas within the study area. Because the request for these data was refused by the proponent, it has not been possible to summarize shoreline sensitivity for the study area using this approach. A scan of the hard copy maps provided in the Coastal Sensitivity Atlas, however, suggests that approximately 50% of the shoreline in the study area would be considered sensitive using this approach. 3.4.6 We note that both approaches outlined above underestimate oil residency in certain beach environments where oil persistence can be decadal in scale. Li and Boufadel (2010) have demonstrated that oil from the Exxon Valdez on two layered beaches (beaches with a porous, gravelly upper layer and a less porous gravel/sand underlying layer) has persisted in the underlying layer for over 15 years. The extent of two layered beaches in the study area is not known as the shoreline classification was done from aerial video imagery with limited ground surveys. In response to an Information Request regarding ground-survey results to quantify this, the Proponent indicated that these surveys had not been done. However, these types of beaches are considered to be common in mid latitude regions (Li and Boufadel 2010) such as BC’s north coast and the southeast Alaska coast and can be expected to be present in the study area. Also, Reddy et al (2002) and Peacock et al (2005) have shown that oil contaminating salt marshes may persist for over 30 years. 3.5 Potentially Affected Marine Resources 3.5.1 With a knowledge of the shoreline types present, and an understanding of the species assemblages that occur on these shoreline types and the way in which oil moves into different shoreline areas, it is possible to identify those species groups that may be oiled in the event of a spill. 3.5.2 Locally harvested marine resources important to the Gitxaała – both those that are important economically such as herring spawn-on-kelp and/or are a critical
7 Li and Boufadel (2010) suggest that residency may extend beyond “years” to “decades,” suggesting that an additional category of “very long” residency might be appropriate. See also (1) Peacock EE, Nelson RK, Solow AR, Warren JD, Baker JL, Reddy CM. 2005. The West Falmouth oil spill: ~100 kg oil found to persist decades later. Environ. Forensics 6:273-281, AND (2) Reddy CM, Eglinton TI, Houndshell A, White HK, Xu L, Gaines RB, Frysinger GS. 2002. The West Falmouth oil spill after thirty years: the persistence of petroleum hydrocarbons in marsh sediments. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36:4754-4760.
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local food source8 – are identified on the Gitxaala Nation Use Study (Calliou 2011). Key marine resources harvested for consumption within the study area include: Intertidal clams – Littleneck and butter clams as well as cockles are harvested from many of the lower energy sand and gravel beaches indentified as sensitive to oil spills due to long term oil residency Herring – Harvested both for local consumption and for stocking commercial spawn-on-kelp impoundments. Herring spawn – Herring eggs deposited naturally on seaweeds or conifer branches. Kitkatla Inlet is a very important north coast herring spawning area (see below) and spawning does occur on shore areas indentified as sensitive to oil spills due to long term oil residency. Chitons, sea urchins, sea cucumbers (and potentially abalone) – Harvested from both exposed and semi-sheltered rocky shores throughout the study area. Some of these areas are identified as sensitive to oil spills due to long-term oil residency. Seaweeds – Harvested primarily from rocky shoreline, both in the study area and particularly from the northwest shore of Banks Island. Some of these areas are identified as sensitive to oil spills due to long term oil residency. Giant Kelp (Macrocystis) – Harvested in late March and April from a number of sites in the focus area and west coast of Banks Island and placed in herring spawn on kelp impoundments. Many of these areas are identified as sensitive to oil spills due to long term oil residency. Dungeness Crab – Harvested from shallow sandy sea beds off the exposed southwestern shore of the focus area as well as within Kitkatla Inlet. Again, some of these areas are identified as sensitive to oil spills due to long-term oil residency. 3.5.3 The environmental assessment and the underlying Technical Data Report on Fisheries (Watson and Vaughan 2010) prepared for the Proponent acknowledge that information on First Nation fisheries and resource use is lacking. The Gitxaala Nation Use Study provides valuable additional information on marine resource use, however, to date, this information has not been considered in the environmental assessment process 3.6 Critique of the Application with Respect to Habitat Issues 3.6.1 The following points are relevant with respect to both the need for augmentation and refinement of the oil spill sensitivity mapping in areas of Gitxaala First Nation interest as well as the adequacy of the level of detailed information used in the environmental assessment process. 3.6.2 The information provided for coastal habitat sensitivity mapping of the northwest coast of Banks Island is at too coarse a scale for meaningful interpretation. Calliou (2011) identifies the northwest coast of Banks Island as a critical resource harvesting area for the Gitxaala Nation9, in particular for geoducks, cockles, intertidal clams, sea urchins, seaweeds, and kelp (Macrocystis).
8 “Gitxaala members, particularly those living in Lach Klan, are heavily dependent on traditional foods for subsistence….Estimates ranged from 50 to 90% reliance on food harvested by themselves or other community members” (Calliou, 2011, pg 123) 9 “Often the west coast of Banks Island was referred to as “the table of the Chief’s”…and it was noted that everything can be found there.” Calliou, 2011, pg 88
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This area falls within the Open Water Assessment Area (OWA) and is mapped at 1:250,000 scale for coastal operations and sensitivity mapping (Polaris 2010b). Without access to the electronic GIS files, which are considered proprietary by the Proponent, this information is of limited use for critical analysis of completeness and for oil spill response planning. 3.6.3. Several sensitive species and their associated habitats are not accounted for in the oil sensitivity mapping. Harvest areas for bivalves (littleneck and butter clams, cockles, geoduck), sea urchins and intertidal seaweeds should be indentified on the oil spill sensitivity maps, particularly species such as clams, which are known to occur in habitats with medium to long term oil residency. 3.6.4. Herring spawning areas in the study area do not appear to be adequately identified on the oil spill sensitivity maps. Kitkatla Inlet area is historically one of the largest and most important herring spawning areas on the north coast of British Columbia (Haegele and Fitzpatrick 1983) 10 Figure 7 below shows the aggregate (1928 to 2010) extent of herring spawn in the Kitkatla area (DFO and GeoBC websites). The oil sensitivity maps provided by Polaris (2010) show a much smaller extent for herring spawning in this area. As hydrocarbons are highly toxic to herring eggs and larvae (see following chapters), it is important that herring spawning areas are correctly identified on the oil spill sensitivity maps. 3.6.5 Marine Invertebrate and Fish, Fish Habitat information provided in Application Volume 8C – Marine Transportation Risk Management and Assessment of Spills (Sections 8.6 and 8.7) is incomplete and, in places, misleading. The Proponent appears to rely heavily on information available from the Coastal Resource Information Management System (CRIMS), available for download on the GeoBC website, as well as data requests to DFO (Watson and Vaughan 2010). This information is synoptic in nature and reported at a spatial scale far too coarse for the subsequent environmental assessment (in particular Figures 8.1 and 8.2 which refer to both the open Water and Confined Channel Assessment Area). By way of example, the north end of Banks Island is one of the most important commercial geoduck harvesting areas on the north coast (E. Rome, Archipelago Marine Research Ltd., pers. comm.), but no geoduck harvest is indicated for this area in Figure 8-1. The same figure refers to native (Olympia) oyster and manila clam harvest areas, which are predominantly south coast species, but does not provide information on native littleneck or butter clams, which are the common intertidal clam species on the north coast. Section 8.6.1 suggests that “intertidal species diversity of the rocky intertidal community is generally low,” without providing a supportive reference for this statement. In fact, with the possible exception of rock cliffs in coastal fjords, the species diversity of British Columbia rocky shore areas is high on a global scale and includes one of the richest and most diverse marine flora (Hawkes, 1994) and invertebrate fauna (Lambert 1994) in the temperate regions of world. In general, the spatial resolution provided on Figures 8.1 and 8.2, particularly to the Confined Channel Assessment Area (CCAA) is far too coarse for meaningful interpretation.
10 “Doug Brown….recalled that in the past the whole of Kitkatla Inlet was one big spawn” Calliou, 2011, pg 98
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Figure 7: Documented herring spawning areas within the focus area (DFO and GeoBC)
4.0 A PRIMER ON PETROLEUM COMPOSITION, FATE, AND TOXICOLOGY 4.1 Overview 4.1.1 Petroleum and products derived from it are exceedingly complex mixtures of innumerable chemical compounds. Their economic value, physical properties and environmental effects depend on the proportions of various components and component classes. The following brief summary of the more important
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components of petroleum provides a foundation for evaluating the likely behaviour of products shipped through the Project pipeline if released into the environment. 4.1.2 Petroleum refineries often categorize and monitor petroleum feedstocks on the basis of a SARA (Saturates, Aromatics, Resins & Asphaltenes) analysis, which provides a rudimentary indication of major components. The results of a SARA analysis are directly relevant to evaluating the environmental behaviour of petroleum. For example, the quantity and nature of the resins and asphaltenes present determine the extent to which an oil product emulsifies (incorporates water). This, in turn, determines how the mixture (the emulsification) behaves in the environment and the most appropriate clean-up methods. Emulsified oil is much more difficult to disperse with chemical dispersing agents, and may foul or clog equipment designed to recover oil collected from the sea surface by skimmers. 4.1.3 Results for the SARA components provide broad indications of other properties and behaviour, summarized as follows. 4.2 Saturated Hydrocarbons 4.2.1 Chemically speaking, the term hydrocarbon refers to any compound that contains only carbon and hydrogen. Hydrocarbons may be further categorized according to whether they are saturated or unsaturated. Saturated hydrocarbons include compounds that have a network of carbon atoms linked (or bonded) to each other, and that are also bonded to the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible (i.e., they are saturated). These compounds are called alkanes, and include methane (1 carbon atom), ethane (2 carbons), propane (3 carbons), two kinds of butane (4 carbons), and many more complicated structures (e.g., Figure 8)11. The number of different possible structures containing the same number of carbon and hydrogen atoms (called isomers) increases dramatically as the number of carbon atoms increases. When one of the hydrogen atoms of these compounds is replaced by something else, the name of the remaining hydrocarbon part is modified by replacing the –ane with –yl, as in methyl, ethyl, propyl, etc. (see structures), which are referred to generally as alkyl groups. 4.2.2 If the carbon atoms are all linked to form an un-branched chain, they are called normal alkanes (indicated by the prefix “n”, e.g., n-butane). Alkanes may also be branched, as in iso-butane (Figure 8), or form rings. Rings are called cycloalkanes, and may be attached to one or more normal or branched alkanes (as in methylethylcyclohexane, Figure 8).
11 Chemists use a shorthand convention to represent hydrocarbons and related structures (see Fig. JS-1). The convention is based on the fact that carbon can form up to four chemical bonds with other atoms. One bond joining two carbon atoms together is represented by a short line segment. Two bonds between the same two carbon atoms is represented by two parallel lines, and three such bonds by three parallel lines. The difference between four and the number of bonds represented by line segments is assumed to consist of bonds to hydrogen, and are not represented explicitly. Hence, ethane (C2H 6) is represented by a single line segment, where the endpoints each represent a carbon atom attached to three hydrogen atoms; and propane (C3 H8) is represented by two line segments meeting at an angle, where the vertex represents a third carbon atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms. In aromatic hydrocarbons, the carbon atoms of the aromatic ring system are assumed to have 3 bonds if bonded to two adjacent carbons, or 4 bonds if bonded to three adjacent carbons (which occurs when aromatic rings fuse to form an extended system of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, or PAH – see Figures JS-2 and JS-3).
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Figure 8: Saturated Hydrocarbons (Alkanes)
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4.2.3 Normal and branched alkanes are among the most abundant components of most crude oils. They are collectively called paraffins by the oil industry, a category that excludes cycloalkanes. Paraffins typically account for 10–40% (by weight) depending on the type of crude oil involved, with the n-alkanes more somewhat more abundant than the branched alkanes (Hunt 1980). 4.2.4 Cycloalkanes are even more abundant than the paraffins, and because they may be attached to paraffins may also called cycloparaffins. The oil industry often refers to these compounds as naphthenes, and they may account for 40–50% of crude oil (Hunt 1980). These saturated hydrocarbons (i.e., paraffins and naphthenes) are the most economically valuable components of crude oil, constituting the bulk of refined fuels including gasoline, diesel oil, kerosene, etc., as well as providing essential feedstocks for the industrial chemicals industry. 4.2.5 Crude oils may also contain very small proportions of unsaturated alkanes, which contain carbon atoms bonded together with two or three bonds. The reason they are called unsaturated is because they could react with hydrogen to form additional carbon-hydrogen bonds, so they contain less hydrogen than they could. These compounds usually account for well under 1–2 % of crude oil. 4.3 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 4.3.1 The carbon atoms in aromatic hydrocarbons are joined together to form unsaturated rings. To be aromatic, the carbon rings must have clouds of electrons above and below them that contain a particular number of electrons (i.e., 6, 10, 14,..., 4n+2), in addition to the electrons between the carbon atoms that bind them together. These de-localized electrons add bonding strength, making aromatic hydrocarbons more stable than saturated hydrocarbons. 4.3.2 The simplest aromatic hydrocarbon is benzene, which contains six carbon atoms and six hydrogen atoms (Figure 9). The hydrogen atoms on the benzene ring may be replaced by an alkyl group. Addition of a methyl group produces toluene, an ethyl group produces ethylbenzene, and two methyl groups produces xylene (Figure 9). Note there are three different kinds of xylene, depending on the relative positions of the two methyl substituents. These six monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are often abbreviated as “BTEX,” and they typically constitute 1–2% percent or so of most crude oils. 4.3.3 More complicated monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons may be formed through more alkyl substitution (Figure 9). As with the saturated hydrocarbons, the number of possible isomers increases dramatically with the number and size of the alkyl substituents. 4.3.4 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are formed when two or more aromatic rings are joined together. The compound biphenyl results when two benzene rings replace a hydrogen atom on each other, while naphthalene results when two benzene rings fuse (Figure 9). As with the benzene compounds, the number of PAH isomers increases rapidly with the number and complexity of saturated hydrocarbons that replace the hydrogen atoms. Hence, methylnaphthalene has two distinct isomers (Figure 9), dimethylnaphthalene has 10, and trimethylnaphthalene has 11. Even more isomers result when the substituting groups are different (e.g., methylethylnapthalene with 14).
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Figure 9: BTEX, Other Monocyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Naphthalenes
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4.3.5 Environmental chemists usually combine results for PAH according to the number of carbon atoms in the substituting groups. For example, the 10 dimethylnaphthalenes are lumped together under the label “C2-N,” where the “N” denotes the naphthalene ring system, and the “C2” denotes the two carbon atoms of the substituting alkyl groups (i.e., two methyl groups or one ethyl group; “C3-N” includes the 11 trimethylnaphthalenes, the 14 methylethylnaphthalenes, and the 4 propylnaphthalenes: see Figure 9). This convention applies to more complicated ring systems such as those depicted in Figure 10 where each of these ring systems may have varying degrees of alkyl substitution as with the naph Taken together, the PAH containing up to four alkyl carbon thalenes. For example, C0-P–C4-P denotes all the phenanthrenes (including unsubstituted phenanthrene, C0-P) through those containing four alkyl carbon atoms. These alkyl-substituted series based on the same aromatic ring system but differing by the number of alkyl carbon atoms are called homologous series, and their members are called alkyl homologues. 4.3.6 The other important PAH in most crude oils include luorine and alkyl-substituted fluorenes, the phenanthrenes, pyrenes, chrysenes, and other 4- and 5-ring PAH (Figure 10, see also the PAH distributions for Albian Heavy Synthetic and Wabiska Heavy bitumen presented in the Environment Canada analyses in Appendix G and H). atoms may account for another 1–2% or so of most crude oils. Combined with the BTEX and other alkyl-substituted benzenes, and with PAH containing more than four alkyl carbon atoms, aromatics compounds as a class typically account for 10–25% of most crude oils, depending on type (Hunt 1980). 4.4 Resins and Asphaltenes 4.4.1 Resins and asphaltenes have similar chemical compositions but distinctly different properties. Both are mainly hydrocarbons that typically contain from three to more than ten rings, including both aromatic and saturated rings, with paraffinic substituents and molecular weights that may exceed 30,000. Carbon atom replacement by sulphur, nitrogen or oxygen may occur anywhere within these molecules (e.g., Figure 11). Resins are distinguished from asphaltenes by their solubility in crude oil. Resins may be present in any of the distillate fractions of crude oil depending on their molecular weight. 4.4.2 In contrast, asphaltenes are colloid dispersions that readily precipitate when crude oil is diluted by a low viscosity hydrocarbon solvent such as pentane or heptane, and are typically associated with the residuum of crude oil after fractional distillation. Resins and asphaltenes together typically account for 2–20% or so of most crude oils (Walsh and Lake 2003). 4.4.3 The smallest members of the resins include “NSO” compounds, which are hydrocarbons containing nitrogen, sulphur or oxygen and usually have molecular weights below about 300 (Figure 10). These compounds include a variety of organic acids, bases, and cyclic compounds. 4.4.4 When the carbon atoms of aromatic rings are replaced, they are called heterocyclic compounds. These are often important toxicologically, for example dibenzothiophene (Figure 10). Aromatic heterocyclic compounds such as the homologous series of alkyl-substituted dibenzothiophenes are often lumped with PAH that have comparable molecular weights. Overall these NSO compounds rarely account for more than 1–2% of crude oil, and are primarily responsible for the color and odour of crude oil (Walsh and Lake 2003).
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Figure 10: Other Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Ring Systems
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Figure 11: Typical Asphaltene Structure
4.5 Properties and Toxicity of Petroleum Products 4.5.1 Both the physical properties and the toxicity of petroleum products are determined by their composition. Oil viscosity depends primarily on the proportion of low-molecular weight hydrocarbons present. Oil adhesion (or “stickiness”) is determined primarily by the resin content, because neither saturated nor aromatic hydrocarbons, which constitute the bulk of most crude oils, are very sticky, whereas the non-hydrocarbon parts of resins interact with other molecules more strongly through, for example, hydrogen bonding. Similarly, the surface tension of oil also depends largely on resin content through the capacity for hydrogen bonding. Finally, as noted above, the resin and asphaltene content is an important factor governing emulsification. Emulsions in turn strongly affect viscosity and surface tension: emulsified oils tend to congeal into more compact masses, setting the stage for tarball formation. 4.5.2 Emulsification also inhibits weathering processes. Weathering refers to processes that alter the composition of oil once released into the environment. The most important weathering processes include evaporation, dissolution, microbial degradation and, in regions with high insolation (exposure to sunlight), photo-oxidation. The first three processes are modulated most strongly by the relative surface area (i.e., the ratio of surface area to volume) of the oil, which is in turn mostly determined by the viscosity and, to a lesser extent by the surface tension of the oil. For example, the rate that weathering causes the composition of spilled oil to change is on the order of 1,000 times faster for a thin surface slick of 10um when compared with a 2cm diameter tarball (Figure 12). This relationship simply reflects the fact that the rate at which components are lost from a parcel of oil depends directly on its surface area, whereas the rate that components are depleted depends on its volume. Thus, weathering changes that take a year for the tarball occur in less than half a day for the slick.
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Figure 12: Surface Area: Volume Relationships
Surface Area:Volume Relationships Relative Weathering S:V Rate
Tarball: -1 r = 1 cm 3 cm 1
Oil Micro-
droplets: 3,000 cm-1 1,000 r = 0.001 cm
Oilslick: 3,000 cm-1 1,000 d = 0.001 cm
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4.5.3 Typically during marine oil spills the relative surface area of the oil is highest initially, as the oil spreads into an initially thin surface slick or is dispersed into small droplets by wave-induced turbulence. The high relative surface area accelerates weathering-induced composition changes, leading directly to increases in viscosity and surface tension, which causes the slick to congeal and promotes droplet coalescence. The high resistance to weathering losses of resins and asphaltenes leads to increases in their concentration in oil as other components are lost, which may lead to oil emulsification with water. Emulsification dramatically congeals oil into compact masses, slowing weathering processes by orders of magnitude, and creating a persistent contact hazard for biota on contaminated sea surfaces and shorelines. 4.5.4 Physical contact with crude or refined oils poses one of the most damaging effects of marine oil spills (e.g., Spies et al. 1996). The degree of hazard depends largely on the viscosity and adhesive properties of the oil. Floating, highly weathered tarballs are far less likely to adhere to the plumage of seabirds or the pelage of marine mammal than are fresh or emulsified oils. Also, low- viscosity and low-adhesion oils are more readily removed by preening. 4.5.5 Crude and refined oils are also chemically toxic through a number of pathways to fish, wildlife and other biota. Inhalation of hydrocarbon vapours consisting mainly of the volatile paraffins and aromatics may induce narcosis in marine mammals, which may lead to drowning (St. Alban and Geraci 1994). Ingestion of oil reduces growth rates of fish, in part by reducing appetite and in part by interfering with metabolism (Carls et al. 1996, Luquet et al. 1983, 1984). Laboratory studies have clearly demonstrated that the paraffins cause these effects, although other oil components may exacerbate them. The BTEX fraction is lethal to a wide variety of aquatic organisms through a narcosis-like mechanism, but only at high (e.g., part per million) concentrations that are unlikely to be encountered during actual oil spills (DiToro et al. 2000). 4.5.6 The toxic effects of the PAH and related heterocycles are less immediate but may be considerably more potent. Exposure as embryos to the 3- and 4-ring members of these compounds (including their alkyl homologues) can result in impaired development of fish at concentrations below one part per billion (Carls et al. 1999, Heintz et al. 1999). The effects are manifold and do not consistently appear together in affected individuals, and some effects may be delayed, not appearing until late in the lifetime of the exposed fish (Heintz et al. 2000). There is some evidence that a similar syndrome affects bird eggs as well (Hoffman and Gay 1981). Biochemically these effects largely result from impaired initial development of the circulatory system, with deformed hearts in more extreme cases, and more than one biochemical damage pathway is likely involved, triggered by different members of the PAH and heterocycles involved (Incardona et al. 2004, 2005, 2006; Khan 2007). Exploration of these biochemical damage pathways is an active field of research, and it will not be surprising if additional damage pathways are discovered that direct our attention to other effects in exposed field populations that currently escape notice because we do not as yet know what to look for. 4.5.7 Certain PAH and related heterocycles may also cause photo-enhanced toxicity (Diamond 2003). This may occur when certain of these compounds are absorbed or ingested by translucent organisms inhabiting surface waters or shorelines. Once inside cells, absorption of ultraviolet light by these compounds excites an aromatic electron to an energized state, which may then exchange the energy with molecular oxygen. The energy exchange not only makes the oxygen more reactive in itself, but it also removes a quantum mechanical constraint that
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prevents molecular oxygen from reacting immediately with biomolecules. This combination of effects dramatically promotes random oxidation within cells, damaging them. After the energy exchange the compound returns to the ground state, where the cycle may be repeated, in effect making the compound a catalyst for producing energized oxygen within cells when exposed to sunlight. Only certain PAH are capable of this effect, because it depends on the energy and quantum configuration of the excited electronic state with respect to the ground state. But as such, the effect is strictly a function of the aromatic ring configuration, and is not affected by the identity, position or number of alkyl substituents. In crude oils, fluoranthene, chrysene and probably dibenzothiophene rings are especially photo-active. When present, this effect may increase the apparent toxicity of the compound involved by several orders of magnitude, and has been shown to kill zooplankton at concentrations near one part per billion is marine waters of southeast Alaska (Duesterloh et al. 2002). 4.5.8 Finally, aromatic hydrocarbons and heterocycles are notorious for causing cancer, a family of diseases to which all vertebrates are susceptible, including fish (Malins et al. 1988). While this may not matter much for species with short life spans, marine mammals and long-lived fish have lifespans of decades, and cancer may reduce their reproductive capacity. While the role of PAH in carcinogenesis in fish is clearly established, effects at the population level are poorly understood. 4.6 Implications of Composition on the Environmental Fate of Accidentally Released Petroleum Products 4.6.1 The rate of changes caused by weathering processes on spilled oil depends on the interaction of the various oil component groups with environmental conditions. Here these interactions with the major weathering processes – evaporation, dissolution, microbial degradation and photo-oxidation – will be summarized, followed by a discussion of the way these processes affect oil spill response options and the long-term fate of spilled oils. 4.6.1.1 Evaporation affects the most volatile components of oils, which generally correlate inversely with molecular weight. The most volatile components include the paraffins and the monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons having molecular weights below about 200. Hence, oils or oil mixtures containing high proportions of these components will likely experience large losses from evaporation, with low molecular weight refined products such as gasoline susceptible to complete losses within a few hours under conducive conditions (i.e., high relative surface area and exposure to steady winds). Because they may be lost relatively rapidly, the losses of these compounds may have the effect of increasing the concentrations of the remaining components in the oil, such as PAH, resins and asphaltenes. 4.6.1.2 Dissolution losses are confined to the low molecular weight paraffins and aromatic hydrocarbons. The BTEX compounds and saturated alkanes that contain less than seven carbon atoms are the most soluble components of oil in water, followed by the NSO, PAH and corresponding heterocycle compounds. Long-term exposure of thin oil films to flowing water will eventually remove PAH and corresponding heterocycles, with compounds that have fewer rings and alkyl substituents lost preferentially (Carls et al. 1999). Because they have functional groups that can hydrogen-bond with water, the NSO
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compounds dissolve relatively rapidly, at rates that vary inversely with molecular weight. 4.6.1.3 Microbial decomposition affects mainly the paraffin, naphthene and aromatic components of oils. Normal alkanes are more readily degraded than branched alkanes, followed by the aromatics and saturated cyclic alkanes (Prince and Walters 2007). The high stability conferred by the aromatic ring makes these rings resistant to microbial oxidation, and saturated cyclic hydrocarbons are also not readily accessible to the enzymes used by microbes to initiate degradation. Hence, these ring systems tend to be persistent, although saturated alkyl groups attached to them may be more readily degraded. Oxidation of these attached groups makes the products more water soluble, promoting their losses from the oil. But the higher molecular weight naphthenes, resins and asphaltenes are especially resistant to microbial degradation, and the PAH may be toxic to many of the microbes, enhancing PAH persistence as well. Some of the more complex naphthenes are so resistant to microbial degradation and other weathering processes that they serve as “fingerprint” molecules for oil source identification. 4.6.1.4 To be effective, microbial degradation requires a continuous supply of inorganic nutrients to support microbial growth. The most important of these include oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorous. Limitations imposed by any one of these can reduce degradation rates substantially. 4.6.1.5 Photo-oxidation most readily affects aromatic hydrocarbons, through mechanisms related to that of photo-enhanced toxicity described above. The energy transferred to molecular oxygen from a PAH molecule photo-activated by absorption of UV light may lead to direct oxidation of the PAH or of other oil components in the immediate vicinity. Direct photo-oxidation may also occur on saturated hydrocarbons, but at slower rates than for aromatics. 4.6.2 Weathering processes may have dramatic effects on the efficacy of response options for dealing with spilled oil. The most widely used response methods at sea include mechanical retrieval, application of chemical dispersants, and in situ burning (Fingas 2000). Oil may not be accessible to any of these approaches if losses of the lower molecular weight components increases the density enough to sink, and formation of emulsions may clog machinery used to remove oil collected into boomed areas on the sea surface. Dispersants must be compatible with the oil to which they are applied, and relatively small changes in oil composition caused by weathering may render their use ineffective, especially as oil viscosity increases. The efficacy of in situ burning depends on the ability to corral oil into slicks greater than about 2mm thick, retention of most of the volatile components and absence of emulsification, as otherwise the oil will fail to ignite. On shorelines, cleanup methods are so ineffective that variation of oil composition from weathering is largely immaterial (see, for example, Wolfe et al. 1993). 4.6.3 Weathering processes also strongly affect the environment fate and persistence of oil that escapes cleanup. Left to itself at sea, most oils will lose their volatile and soluble components fairly rapidly (i.e., on time scales of days), and other components will be more slowly lost through microbial degradation and perhaps photo-oxidation. The dramatic increases in viscosity entailed by these processes will cause the remaining oil to congeal into progressively more compact masses, eventually becoming tarballs that either drift on the surface of the open ocean
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where they will eventually accumulate enough inorganic matter (suspended sediments, shell fragments of zooplankton, etc.) to sink to the seafloor, or become stranded on distant shorelines. If the oil emulsifies, the initial coalescence is accelerated. 4.6.4 The fate and persistence of oil carried to shorelines depends strongly on the interaction of oil properties with beach geomorphology and the tidal regime. In regions such as the western coast of Canada, the considerable range of tidal excursion (the net vertical distance over which the sea surface moves during one tidal cycle of flood and ebb) is conducive to oil accumulation on shorelines when winds drive oil slicks to the shore at high stages of the tidal cycle, which may then become stranded on the beach surface on the out-going tide. Depending on the viscosity of the oil at the time of stranding and the porosity of the beach surface, oil may either remain on the beach surface coating it, or percolate into underlying sediments that are dehydrated by the falling tide. Depending on the adhesive properties of the oil, which may well increase as the relative concentration of resins increases because of volatility and dissolution losses of other components, the oil may stick to surface sediments or be captured by capillary forces in subsurface sediment before the tide returns. Once so adhered, the oil will remain in place until it is removed by some cleanup method, is mechanically abraded and advected by wave action, or is degraded microbially. If oil percolates into porous interstices of beaches and reaches into hypoxic layers, it may remain there with little further change in composition for decades (Reddy et al. 2002, Peacock et al. 2005, Short et al. 2007, Li and Boufadel 2010). 4.7 Composition and Properties of Alberta Oil Sands Bitumen 4.7.1 Environment Canada has recently released the first publicly available results of detailed determinations of the properties and composition of two types of bitumen from the Alberta oil sands – the fundamental material that will be processed for export through the proposed Northern Gateway pipeline. The two bitumen types analyzed are Albian Heavy Synthetic (www.crudemonitor.ca oil code AHS) and Wabiska Heavy (WH). AHS is a diluted synthetic bitumen that has been partially upgraded by Shell Corp. facilities, and WH is a diluted bitumen produced mainly by Cenova Energy and by Canadian Natural Resources. Both AHS and WH are heavy sour bitumen, meaning they contain relatively low proportions of low- viscosity components and are relatively high in sulphur compounds. Because the results of these analyses bear so directly on this discussion, they are appended herein as Appendices H and I. The most important results with respect to the toxicity and environmental behaviour of these products is presented as follows. 4.7.2 Inspection of the results for the density determination of these bitumen samples shows that environmental contingency plans must include the possibility that they might sink. The density of WH at 0C and weathered to evaporative losses of 10.7% by weight is 1.0158, and of AHS weathered to 22.6% is 1.0271. Given that the density of coastal seawater is about 1.02, these values imply that AHS would sink outright, and WH might sink in brackish salinity regimes commonly encountered in the coastal waters of British Columbia. Even if they do not sink outright, the density difference between these bitumens and coastal seawater may at times be so slight that the bitumen is readily entrained into the water column, perhaps to considerable depths and for considerable periods, under the action of even mild surface turbulence induced by winds. And, these bitumens would need to associate with relatively little suspended particulate material to cause them to sink. Although the density of products based on these bitumens may be considerably lower initially because of admixture with low-viscosity oils, losses of the admixed oils may be fairly rapid once the admixed product is spilled
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onto marine waters, leaving the original bitumen essentially re-constituted in its higher-density state. 4.7.3 Inspection of the results of the SARA analysis indicates that both AHS and WH are especially rich in resins and asphaltenes. With resin contents of ~26% for the unweathered bitumens, rising to ~37% after weathering, these bitumens may be expected to be especially adhesive and difficult to remove from the plumage or pelage of birds or marine mammals that become oiled. These high resin contents may also promote initial spreading when admixed with lower-viscosity oils, enhancing weathering processes. The relatively high asphaltene contents (~6.8–8.4%) of the weathered bitumens suggest they are prone to emulsification, confirmed by the results of emulsification tests included in the Environment Canada report. 4.7.4 The presence of little or no material in the most volatile F1 fraction of the unweathered AHS or WH bitumen, and scant material in the next most volatile F2 fraction, suggests that virtually all of the volatility and dissolution losses of products created by admixture of these bitumens with lower-viscosity oils will be the result of losses of the lower-viscosity oils per se. Such losses could be quite rapid, depending on the nature of the diluent used. For example, use of gas condensate to reduce the viscosity of bitumen would produce an essentially 2 pseudo-component mixture, wherein one of the pseudo-components (gas condensate) is extremely susceptible to volatility losses, while the other (bitumen) is extremely resistant. Hence, anticipating much of the likely behaviour of admixed materials once spilled in the environment may be quite sensitive to the material used as the diluent. 4.7.5 Analysis of the AHS and WH bitumen samples for n-alkanes shows these compounds are unusually low in AHS, and apparently below detection limits in WH, in contrast with typical crude oils. For example, the concentration of n-C18 (i.e., n-octadecane) in unweathered Alaska North Slope crude oil is 2.68mg/g, but only 0.36mg/g in AHS. This is consistent with descriptions of the geochemical formation of the Alberta oil sands bitumen, wherein the oil migrated through surface sediments from near the base of the Rocky Mountains where they formed initially to their present location, exposed to microbial degradation along the way (NEB 2000). As a result, it is clear that the bitumen component of admixed products shipped through the Northern Gateway pipeline will likely be inordinately resistant to microbial degradation, because most of the more readily degradable components have already been degraded. This in turn suggests that the bitumen will be especially persistent on shorelines or as tarballs at sea, and that remediation attempts based on microbial degradation are less likely to be effective. 4.7.6 The concentrations and distribution of the PAH in the AHS and WH bitumen samples also reflects the effects of weathering processes that acted prior to mining. At 1.7–5.7mg/g (i.e., 0.17–0.57%), the total PAH content of these samples is rather low in comparison with typical crude oils. However, most of the difference is because of the much lower proportion of naphthalenes in the PAH of AHS and WH. The 3- and 4-ring PAH concentrations of AHS and of WH are more nearly comparable with corresponding concentrations in typical crude oils, and these compounds are among the most potent toxic components of crude oils. As a result, the toxicities of these bitumens are also likely to be comparable with other crude oils.
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4.8 Effects of Adulterants 4.8.1 In addition to the normal components of petroleum, the products analyzed as typical of those to be shipped through the Northern Gateway pipeline appear to be routinely adulterated with chlorinated solvents. According to the analysis presented in the document identified as “B9-24 Marine Ecological Risk Assessment for Kitimat Terminal TDR Part 6 of 6 A1V5U8.pf,” concentrations of 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene (hereafter, TCB; see Figure 13) were detected in all three oil samples analyzed, including the gas condensate to be used presumably for diluting the bitumen for shipment, as well as the synthetic oil and the diluted bitumen. Since natural formation of TCB is quite rare, requiring inefficient combustion with chlorine- or chloride salt-laden fuels, and in any case could not be formed under the highly reducing chemical conditions typical of petroleum reservoirs, it would appear that this industrial solvent was added as an adulterant (references for TCB sources are provided as a subset of references to this section in Appendix F). The fact that the TCB concentration is highest in the gas condensate sample suggests that the adulteration occurred initially with this material, which was then perhaps carried into the other oils during admixture with the gas condensate during dilution with it. In any case, the concentrations measured are considerable, about 0.34% for the gas condensate. This corresponds to addition of about 170ml of pure TCB to a 50L gas tank, and far exceeds, by many orders of magnitude, analytical detection limits for such compounds in hydrocarbon solvents. In particular, the concentrations reported are sufficiently great as to raise a number of unique concerns regarding both the environmental effects of spilled oils containing them, and human health risks for people exposed to them. Figure 13: 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene
4.8.2 Environmentally, TCB contained in spilled oils will act similarly to the more highly substituted monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (Figure 9), so it will be lost relatively rapidly to the atmosphere through evaporation. Hence the primary exposure pathway to marine mammals and to seabirds is through inhalation. The acute toxicity of TCB has been evaluated for a number of aquatic species (references for TCB toxicity are provided as a subset of references to this section in Appendix F), but its capacity to cause less apparent but still deleterious effects such as embryotoxicity is largely unknown. Its low water solubility (~ 40mg/L) 4 but substantial octanol-water partition coefficient (Kow, ~ 10 ) indicate a moderate tendency to accumulate in fat tissues of exposed biota (references regarding TCB bioaccumulation are provided as a subset of references to this section in Appendix F). The environmental persistence of chlorinated hydrocarbons is
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protracted in comparison with ordinary hydrocarbons (references regarding TCB persistence are provided as a subset of references to this section in Appendix F, because the carbon-chlorine bond cannot be oxidized by reactions involving molecular oxygen. So, once incorporated into tissues of exposed mammals, birds or fish, TCB may be metabolized into chlorinated intermediates, the toxic effects of which are poorly understood (although the high toxicity associated with compounds such as pentachlorophenol suggests that such toxic effects may be serious – pentachlorophenol is classified by the US Environmental Protection Agency as a group B2, or probable, human carcinogen). 4.8.3 In addition to the health risks raised for biota exposed to TCB, humans may also risk exposure to polychlorinated dibenzodioxin compounds if spilled oils containing TCB are burned as part of the response effort, and the resulting smoke is inhaled. Chlorinated dibenzodioxin compounds form under wide temperature limits whenever chlorinated compounds are burned along with organic fuels such as hydrocarbons. 4.8.4 Detection of such substantial concentrations of TCB also raises concerns whether other halogenated organic compounds are also present in the oils to be shipped through the Northern Gateway pipeline. The samples analyzed were only examined for a relatively small number of industrial halogenated solvents, raising concerns that there may also be related (and much more toxic) compounds such as halogenated pesticides or other industrial wastes that may have been added as adulterants but were not considered during the analyses conducted. 4.9 Critique of the Application 4.9.1 The information provided by the Proponent for evaluating likely consequences of accidental spills is inadequate for doing so., . 4.9.2 Furthermore, the information provided assumes that 4.9.2.1 The materials to be shipped through the pipeline are broadly comparable with crude or refined oils shipped through pipelines or transported in marine tankers elsewhere, when in fact they are unique; 4.9.2.2 The materials may be adequately characterized by relatively simple tests and analyses despite the unique nature of the products tested; 4.9.2.3 Characterization of mixtures reflects the likely behaviour of the components admixed; and 4.9.2.4 The four oils tested are fully representative of the range of products likely to be shipped. 4.9.3 None of these assumptions is warranted. 4.9.4 Rather, comparison of the analytical results provided by Environment Canada for AHS and WH bitumen confirms that these materials are very unusual in comparison with typical crude oils. Hence, it is not unreasonable to expect that a marine spill involving these materials might lead to unique challenges that have few if any precedents for guidance. It would seem prudent in such a situation to adhere to an especially high standard for characterizing the materials involved. This might usefully begin with separate, detailed characterization and analysis of the materials likely to be used for admixture, an indication of which combinations of bitumen products, possibly upgraded, are compatible with which diluents used to reduce viscosity for pipeline transport, and what the likely range of mixing ratios of these combinations are. While a limited characterization of two solvents
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that might be used as diluents are given in the Confined Channel Assessment Area Technical Data Report (CCAA TDR; Belore 2010), the other information just indicated is not, either in the CCAA TDR or elsewhere in the application. 4.9.5 In addition to providing information on the prospective ingredients of admixtures prepared for pipeline shipment, more detailed characterization of each of the ingredients would allow a much more realistic assessment of environmental behaviour, fate and effects. Clearly, such testing and analysis is not beyond the scope of the industry, as Environment Canada routinely provides this information for a wide variety of crude and refined oils. The failure of the Proponent to provide analyses at a similar level of detail, despite requests, which would include for example analysis of the n-alkanes, the 2- through 5-ring PAH and their alkyl-homologues through 3 or 4 alkyl carbons, and a SARA analysis unnecessarily circumscribes the scope for proper consideration of environmental behaviour. 4.9.6 Also, by presenting (limited) results for admixtures of bitumen with diluents but not the bitumens themselves, the data provided give a misleading picture of possible environmental consequences. Perhaps the most glaring example of this lies in comparison of results for the Cold Lake bitumen diluted with condensate (“CLB” in the CCAA TDR, see Belore 2010) with Environment Canada’s results for Wabisca Heavy. According to classification system on Crude Quality Inc.’s website (www.crudemonitor.ca), these two bitumens are placed in the same category as “heavy sour dilbit” (dilbit = diluted bitumen). Yet the density of weathered CLB as presented in the CCAA TDR (i.e., 0.99) is substantially lower than Environment Canada’s result for weathered WH (1.0158), and the discrepancy is likely because of the effect of the diluent present in the CLB sample. Hence, cursory examination of the densities presented by the Proponent, based on the CCAA TDR report, would lead one to conclude that oil sinking would not be a likely possibility, when in fact the bitumen itself is prone to it. 4.9.7 Another defect in the information provided is that it is not clear how representative the oils selected by the Proponent for characterization are of materials likely to be shipped through the pipeline. What is relevant here is the degree of variation of the bitumen products generated by mining the Alberta oil sands (and perhaps the Peace River and Saskatchewan deposits as well, since they may eventually also be shipped through the Northern Gateway pipeline), the range of materials likely to be used as diluents to enable these bitumen products to be shipped, and their compatibilities. Presentation of results for two diluents and for two mixtures of diluents with bitumen, as given in the CCAA TDR, may appear to represent the range of a limited number of properties presented (sulphur content, vapour pressure, density and viscosity) on the list of products shipped by the Proponent in 2010 (i.e., Attachment Gitxaala Nation IR 1.8.2), yet may well not be representative of the ranges of other characteristics, including especially those not even measured, such as SARA analyses, n-alkanes and PAH homologues. Also, the densities of the products listed in Attachment Gitxaala Nation IR 1.8.2 appear to reflect products after dilution with hydrocarbon solvents such as gas condensates rather than the source bitumen per se prior to dilution. 4.9.8 Absent more detailed characterization of the basic products that may be admixed for transport, their compatibilities, likely mixing ratios and especially the extent to which such highly unusual adulterants such as TCB are to be used, affected parties and regulators are forced to guess at the range of likely environmental consequences of an accidental spill.
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5.0 HYDROCARBON TOXICOLOGY (R. Spies, J. Short)
5.1 Overview 5.1.1 As freshly spilled oil mixes with seawater and spreads on the surface of the ocean some fractions and components of the oil are preferentially lost through evaporation and dissolution (McAuliffe, 1977; NRC, 1985). This results in: 1) a water-soluble fraction of oil in seawater containing predominantly lower- molecular-weight aromatic hydrocarbons (e.g., benzene, toluene, xylene, and the alkylated benzenes), 2) the contamination of the atmosphere over the slick, mainly with lower-molecular-weight hydrocarbons, and 3) whole oil in the form of slicks, paddies, pieces, and droplets as forces acting on the thinning oil tend to break it into progressively smaller forms. As the spreading oil slick begins to disperse, the water-soluble fraction, the evaporated hydrocarbons in the atmosphere over the slick, and the whole oil remaining as slicks, or as buoyant parcels temporarily submerged, are sources of exposure to marine animals, plants and microbes (NRC, 1985). Oil will adsorb to particles in the water, including to fecal pellets formed by zooplankton after ingesting oil, which will, along with any oil that is more dense than water, sink to the bottom. Oil- contaminated sand from the intertidal zone carried offshore, will also contribute to hydrocarbons in the sea bottom. All these physical forms of hydrocarbons are also subject to microbial degradation, metabolism by animals and photolysis, transforming them into other organic and inorganic molecules (NRC, 1985). However, oil buried in sediments without exposure to oxygen will not appreciably degrade. 5.2 Exposure Routes 5.2.1 Animals and plants can be exposed to petroleum hydrocarbons by: direct contact with the outer surface of their bodies, absorption through the gills or skin, breathing oil fumes (air-breathing marine birds and mammals), and ingesting droplets of oil or oil-contaminated sediments or prey. Depending on the circumstances and the type of organisms, some of these routes of exposure will be more important than others. The exposure routes will also determine the types of hydrocarbons that are accumulated. For example, organisms exposed to the water-soluble fraction will be exposed to predominantly aromatic hydrocarbons, whereas intertidal organisms exposed to an oil slick will be exposed to a greater proportion of saturated hydrocarbons. Fish in oil-spill-contaminated environments will often show biochemical indications of oil accumulation through ingestion (e.g., by induction of P4501A enzymes in intestine), as well as through the gills, where the same enzymes are activated in the cells of the gill lamella (e.g., Spies et al., 1996; Whitehead et al., 2011). 5.2.2 Oil will also stick to the exterior of animals and this is a problem for animals that use the ocean surface, such as seabirds, sea otters and other marine mammals. 5.3 Toxicity 5.3.1 Mechanisms of toxicity form two broad categories: the physical effects of contact with whole oil and chemical toxicity, where the oil acts as a poison. 5.3.2 With regard to physical effects of contact, oil can smother animals and plants. In large coastal spills there will likely be a great deal of the oil grounded in the intertidal zone, which may form a coat over the diverse biological communities there, preventing these organisms from obtaining oxygen from the water and eliminating wastes. This will lead to the death of many intertidal organisms.
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5.3.3 Oil on the pelage of sea birds or marine mammals is an important route of lethal exposure. The amount of oil on the exterior of marine animals that can lead to death has not been the subject of much study, however Kooyman and Costa (1978) determined that oiled pelage of over about 20–30% of the body’s surface in sea otters results in hypothermia and probably eventual death. Harbour seals and other marine mammals, which have a layer of blubber beneath the skin, are apparently immune to this sort of effect, but external oil would be absorbed through the skin and add to the load of internal petroleum hydrocarbons accumulated through eating contaminated prey and breathing fumes. 5.3.4 There has been much learned about the mechanisms of hydrocarbon toxicity, including through studies of chemical carcinogenicity, and while much of this information is beyond the scope of the present assessment, it bears some brief discussion in this section for completeness. A relatively recent review of petroleum toxicity provides an overview (Wilson and LeBlanc, 1999). 5.3.5 The main toxic component of oil is the aromatic fraction. This fraction has: 5.3.5.1 Effects on ion balance, disrupting the normal functioning of ion channels in cells, leading to narcosis and circulatory impairment (Hicken et al., 2011), 5.3.5.2 Effects on the immune system probably caused by down regulating certain genes (Reynard and Deschaux, 2006; Whitehead et al., 2011), 5.3.5.3 Effects on growth by down regulating some genes involved in growth (Whitehead et al., 2011), and carcinogenicity by the metabolism of some polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons to highly reactive intermediate chemicals that form adducts on DNA, leading to a lack of normal cell cycle regulation (Klassen et al., 2001). 5.3.6 The toxicity of oil is usually proportional to the dose of aromatic hydrocarbons. The most work on dose relationships has been done on the concentrations of water-accommodated hydrocarbons that lead to effects in marine animals. There have been far fewer studies of doses in air or in food that might lead to toxic effects in marine animals. Luquet et al. (1983, 1984) showed that ingestion of aliphatic hydrocarbons reduces growth rates of fish, in part by suppressing appetite and in part by interfering with metabolism, and Carls et al. (1996) showed that ingestion of crude oil also suppresses growth of pink salmon. Capuzzo (1987) has summarized much of the large amount of work done in the 1970s and 1980s on hydrocarbon toxicity to marine organisms. The Exxon Valdez spill in 1989 and the Deep Horizon oil spill in 2010 have spurred further work on hydrocarbon toxicity and revealed more subtle effects at lower concentrations than had been previously described. 5.3.7 Hydrocarbon toxicity to early life stages of pink salmon and Pacific herring has been correlated with the exposure to alkylphenanthrenes and other 3- and 4-ring PAH (Barron et al., 2004, Incardona et al. 2006, Hodson et al. 2007, Kahn 2007, Turcotte et al. 2011). These PAH now appear to act biochemically through multiple toxic pathways that are not yet fully understood (Incardona et al. 2005, 2006), indicating that toxic effects may occur but not be recognized in species exposed to oil pollution in the field because vulnerable species are not appropriately monitored. 5.3.8 The water-accommodated fractions used in most hydrocarbon toxicity studies are usually prepared in the laboratory by stirring a layer of crude oil on top of a larger volume of seawater for about 24 hours. Marine organisms are exposed to this fraction either under static or flow-through (with replacement of the water)
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conditions. Often the assays are carried out for 24–96 hours, but some may be for shorter or longer periods of time. Experimental oil exposures for more than 96 hours are relatively rare, but may detect subtler effects that only appear after long-term exposures. There are other important methods of developing hydrocarbon exposures, for example running seawater through a column of rocks contaminated with oil and weathered to mimic conditions experienced by fish in the field after oil has weathered in their natal environments (Marty et al. 1997, Carls et al. 1999, Heintz et al. 1999). 5.3.9 Most studies of toxicity have shown adverse effects of water-accommodated crude oil in the range of low parts per million down to tens of parts per billion (e.g., see Capuzzo, 1987). While there are challenges in interpreting actual organism exposure from all sources (water-accommodated, from ingestions and breathing) in spill situations, the large body of work on water-accommodated hydrocarbons has been used as a guide for predicting or interpreting the toxicity of oil. This approach may lead to overly conservative estimates of effects. So, exposure pathways and timing that have not been captured by the large body of work on short-term exposures to water need to be considered in interpreting realistic spill scenarios. 5.3.10 Oil concentrations in water in the low parts per million can occur after a spill in some circumstances for short periods of time. More usually water- accommodated concentrations in the parts-per-billion range are encountered under oil slicks (Steurmer et al, 1982; Neff, 1987; Short and Harris 1996). In the wake of the Exxon Valdez spill the effects of low concentrations of oil in experimental exposures to developing eggs of have been examined (Carls et al. 1999, Heintz et al. 1999). These studies have established that concentrations of oil in the very low parts-per-billion range (0.4–19 ppb) can have adverse effects on embryos of these species. And, at least with pink salmon, concentrations of 19 ppb will affect the lifetime survival of pink salmon, the cumulative effects reducing spawning population sizes by ~50% (Heintz et al., 2000). 5.3.11 Recently completed studies of field-exposed Gulf Killifish (Whitehead et al, 2011) have shown that these marsh-edge dwellers have experienced altered gene expression that has implications for fitness and survival. The exact doses received by these animals have not been determined, but it is apparent that ingestion of contaminated food and water-borne hydrocarbons did play a role in total dose of oil. 5.3.12 One process that may have a profound effect on the concentrations of PAH that adversely affect animals is photo-enhanced toxicity. Animals that accumulate certain PAH in their tissues and are relatively transparent (e.g. larval fish, some shrimp) are most susceptible. Sunlight can activate these compounds to highly reactive forms. This process can make PAH in tissues tens to thousands of times more toxic than otherwise would occur (Barron et al., 2001, 2003, Diamond 2003). 5.4 Timing of Toxic Effects 5.4.1 Effects of hydrocarbons can range from acute through chronic. Acute effects are manifested soon after exposure, are expressed in proportion to the dose of hydrocarbons received, are probably a result of high exposure concentrations to more volatile hydrocarbons, and are often lethal within a short period of time. Chronic effects, by contrast, are often a result of ongoing exposure, develop over longer times, are often a result of relatively low concentrations of less volatile hydrocarbons (Capuzzo, 1987), and may not be immediately fatal or their effects even obvious.
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5.5 Lifestyle Stages and Toxic Effects 5.5.1 In nearly all cases younger organisms, e.g., developing embryos and larvae, are more sensitive to hydrocarbon exposure than are older individuals. Major organ systems are being formed during embryological development and exposure to hydrocarbons during this period, for example in fish, can lead to abnormalities in the skeleton (e.g., craniofacial abnormalities and scoliosis in Pacific herring), malformation in gills, edema, and permanent damage in the circulatory system (Carls et al. 2002; Hicken et al., 2011;Incardona et al, 2004, 2009). Many of these abnormalities will be lethal during development, but surviving individuals will probably have reduced fitness and will be less likely to survive to complete their lifecycle, as likely occurred when pink salmon spawning streams were contaminated from the Exxon Valdez spill (Carls et al., 2005; Heintz et al., 2000). 5.6 Unknowns vs. Laboratory Findings 5.6.1 While the literature from field-based studies of past oil spills can help define what happens in the future, every spill is different. So, it is useful to incorporate information from experimental work to supplement data from the study of accidents in the ocean. What happened in the field after the Exxon Valdez spill is useful information , and what was learned in the laboratory to supplement those findings is extremely useful as a guide to what could happen along coastal British Columbia (Spies, 1996; Peterson et al. 2003). Therefore, a better mechanistic understanding of toxicity to species of the Northeastern Pacific coastal zone, will help predict the outcome of future spills under different circumstances. Unfortunately, despite a large number of field investigations and laboratory experiments there are still many gaps in our knowledge of oil toxicology applicable to the marine species in the area of interest. 5.6.2 The information provided by the Proponent is almost exclusively circumstantial, that is derived from past spills, and does not fully convey the unanswered questions that arise when one considers the actual risks to many of the valuable species in the Gitxaala territory. For example, one can model the likely concentrations of PAH in air over and water beneath a oil slick under a particular set of circumstances (time, place, type of product spilled, volume, etc.) but we do not know what concentrations are harmful to: 1) air-breathing marine mammals (e.g., killer whales, seals, sea lions, river otters and sea otters), 2) Sockeye and chum salmon in all of their life stages, or 3) many of the important invertebrate species (octopus, clams, chitons, etc.). 5.6.3 Even when there is specific relevant data on the toxicity of petroleum hydrocarbons to important species present in coastal British Columbia, it is only in one case, i.e., pink salmon, where the implications of oil exposure in the early life of the organism are reasonably well known for the lifetime of that organism. Field experiments with pink salmon clearly showed that exposure that ceased after early embryological development resulted in manifold adverse effects that appeared throughout the whole rest of the life cycle of the exposed population (Heintz et al. 2000). 5.6.4 The foregoing suggest that there are very large and important unknowns in assessing risk of a major oil spill, not just from the standpoint of the chances of a spill happening, but also to the actual full effects. The science is very incomplete for predicting a full picture of oil spill effects and there are good reasons for this, but it still means that by shipping large quantities of oil through this environment we would be taking risks with very important resources and without knowing the full extent of damage from a large spill.
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5.7 Secondary Ecological Consequences 5.7.1 Relatively little attention has been paid to the potential secondary effects of primary impacts from an oil spill. By way of example, if a spill has a large impact on the Pacific herring population in this portion of coastal British Columbia, what would the impacts be to herring-dependent populations? 5.7.2 Herring prey on and are the prey of other pelagic fish. In some cases adult herring eat the larvae of other fish, and in other cases juvenile herring are eaten by other pelagic fish, marine mammals and seabirds. What the outcome of these multi-dimensional interactions would be if one or more of the pelagic fish populations are depleted by a spill are not really predictable with much confidence. 5.7.3 With hindsight there was an apparent secondary interaction in the intertidal zone of Prince William Sound following the initial mortality of intertidal organisms in the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Following the spill and the cleanup of the beaches, much of the brown algae Fucus that once formed a canopy in the middle to upper intertidal zone of Prince William Sound was destroyed and took some time to recover (van Tamelen and Stekoll, 1996). This canopy had provided shelter for a number of organisms including limpets. In the absence of the Fucus canopy limpet predators, i.e., oystercatchers, were able to more efficiently prey on limpets. So the limpets had to recover from both the direct effects of the oil spill and the cleanup activities as well as from the indirect effects of making things easier for their predators. 5.7.4 These are but two examples of the indirect effects that could occur as result of the primary damage from oil. 5.8 Recovery of Ecological Function 5.8.1 Following large oil spills in the 1960s, 1970s and into the 1980s, the recovery of marine ecosystems was commonly framed as a return to baseline conditions. It has become increasingly apparent that this view of nature is too simplistic to apply to many marine populations, as they are always changing under a variety of influences, especially long-term changes in climate that have now been convincingly established as real sources of variability in the Pacific ocean (Miller et al., 2004; Spies et al., 2006). Baseline condition is probably not an appropriate concept for considering recovery from an oil spill in a Northeast Pacific coastal ecosystem if that system is constantly changing under other influences. 5.8.2 Another concept is to consider ecological recovery as the return of an ecosystem to what it would have been in the absence of an oil spill. While this is in theory a better way to conceptualize recovery, our ability to predict the fluctuations in an ecosystem is poor at best, and being able to define what an ecosystem might have been in the absence of spill is therefore very challenging. 5.8.3 Comparison of marine populations in oiled and unoiled areas post-spill (and hopefully with pre-spill data on the marine ecosystem in the area) is perhaps the best approach, but still this has limitations. One limitation is that ecosystems are not everywhere the same and local variability is difficult to account for in the absence of a historical record in the areas being considered.
5.8.4 Given the uncertainties involved in understanding total ecosystem dynamics to the extent of being predictive, there are potential outcomes that could lead to very long-term recoveries that would have an impact on important resources in the spill area under consideration. Three examples from EVOS that are
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especially relevant, both from population changes that occurred after the spill and that have persisted for several decades follows.
5.8.5 The first example involves the ecological effects of unexpectedly persistent and well-preserved oil just beneath the surface of the most heavily contaminated beaches of Prince William Sound. A small proportion of the oil landing on porous gravel beaches percolated into finer-grained sediments beneath, where hypoxia caused by slow water exchanged strongly inhibited oil weathering (Li and Boufadel 2010). This allowed establishment of persistent toxic oil reservoirs that remained for more than a decade (Short et al. 2004), and are likely to remain for decades more (Short et al. 2006). These oil reservoirs presented a toxic hazard to sea otters that excavate pits in the intertidal while foraging for invertebrate prey, impairing their recovery for at least a decade (Bodkin et al. 2002), and possibly impairing the recovery of other species that forage in the intertidal as well (Trust et al. 2000, Esler et al. 2002).
5.8.6 The second and third examples – declines in herring and killer whale populations, respectively – are more controversial. Some scientists that think that these changes were not necessarily spill-related but were due to other causes. Full accounts of the crash in the herring populations in Prince William Sound in 1993, and the loss of many individual killer whales in AB and AT pods are available elsewhere (Carls et al., 2002 for Pacific herring; Matkin et al., 2008 for killer whales). Only the aspects of these long-term declines are presented that are relevant to make the point that long-term recoveries are complicated in unexpected and perhaps unknown ways. 5.8.7 Pacific Herring, 1993
5.8.7.1 In 1993 the Pacific herring population went from an estimated 120 metric tonnes to less than 30 metric tonnes in Prince William Sound (Carls et al., 2002). The nearest comparable population in Sitka Sound did not experience this severe decline. The Prince William Sound herring population is still below 30 metric tonnes. The population of herring and the relevant ecosystem process, including prey and predator populations, has been under study for some years now. One hypothesized reason for lack of recovery relates to the concept of a predator pit (Bakun, 2006). That is, there are still about as many predators of herring now, or even possibly more in the case of humpback whales, than there were when the herring population was many fold larger and that these predators are able to prevent any expansion of the population of herring by way of a highly successful year class.
5.8.8 Killer Whales
5.8.8.1 The final example involves two pods of killer whales that were in Prince William Sound at the time of the spill and have both lost substantial numbers of whales from their respective pods (Matkin et al., 2008). These pods are not producing calves very quickly because killer whales have long life cycles and the losses of reproductive females from these pods further handicapped their recovery. Killer whale biologists expect that decades more will be required to see the recovery of AB pod and that AT-1 pod may be headed for extinction (Matkin et al., 2008).
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5.9 Conclusions 5.9.1 Given these challenges in considering the course of recovery, it still presents a less than complete picture of spill impact if some idea of the time for such a system to return to conditions that might have existed had a spill not occurred is absent. Still it is likely that this sort of prediction is very difficult to make with a high degree of confidence, pointing once again to the unknown, but potentially large, consequences of a sizable oil spill. 5.10 Critique of the Application 5.10.1 The information provided by the Proponent is almost exclusively circumstantial, that is derived from analyses of field work in past spills, and does not fully convey the unanswered questions that arise when one considers the actual risks to many of the valuable species in the Gitxaala territory. For example, one can model the likely concentrations of PAH in air over and water beneath a oil slick under a particular set of circumstances (time, place, type of product spilled, volume, etc.) but we do not know what concentrations are harmful to: 1) air- breathing marine mammals (e.g., killer whales, seals, sea lions, river otters and sea otters), 2) Sockeye and chum salmon in all of their life stages, or 3) many of the important invertebrate species (octopus, clams, chitons, etc.). 5.10.2 Even when there is specific relevant data on the toxicity of petroleum hydrocarbons to important species present in coastal British Columbia, it is only in one case, i.e., pink salmon, where the implications of oil exposure in the early life of the organism are reasonably well known for the lifetime of that organism. Field experiments with pink salmon clearly showed that exposure that ceased after early embryological development resulted in manifold adverse effects that appeared throughout the whole rest of the life cycle of the exposed population (Heintz et al. 2000). 5.10.3 The foregoing suggests that there are very large and important unknowns in assessing risk of a major oil spill, not just from the standpoint of the chances of a spill happening, but also to the actual full effects. The science is very incomplete for predicting a full picture of oil spill effects and there are good reasons for this, but it still means that by shipping large quantities of oil through this environment we would be taking risks with very important resources and without knowing the full extent of damage from a large spill. The unknowns have clearly been de- emphasized in the Proponent’s application. 5.10.4 The Proponent gives insufficient attention to the issue to secondary effects and the highly unknown nature of such potential effects. These unknowns, especially with regard to resources relied upon as food, are of great concern to the Gitxaala people. 5.10.5 The Proponent gives insufficient attention to the issue of the recovery of the ecosystem in the area of concern following a major spill. In the instance of the Exxon Valdez oil spill, a large oil spill in an ecosystem similar in may ways to that of the study area, there were some long-term recoveries and resources were judged not fully recovered 20 years after the spill.
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6.0 COMPUTER MODELLING FOR OIL SPILL TRAJECTORY ANALYSIS AND PLANNING12 CJ Beegle-Krause
6.1 Overview 6.1.1 Computer modeling can be used to expand our understanding during oil spill related planning and response by providing geospatial and timing information related to potential or real spill scenarios. Computer modeling of the spatial and temporal aspects of potential spills related to the proposed development described in the Proponent’s application is important because this type of information provides additional scientific analysis with which to discuss some concerns. The statistical information provided in this chapter is based on realistic transport scenarios. Though no computer model is an exact replica of the real world, careful work provides information useful in decision support. The basic requirements are wind, ocean currents, and shoreline information. 6.1.2 A spill model was constructed in order to describe some examples of the Gitxaala concerns regarding the Proponent’s application in quantitative terms. This chapter provides information on spill trajectory simulation results from a statistical perspective and two spill scenarios. Statistical information related to trajectory (where spills could go) and timing (how fast) were developed and a sample of these results are presented here (Section 5.4). The two spill scenarios were selected from the Hecate Strait winds and modeled to provide quantitative information on spills scenarios of concern to Gitxaala (Section 5.5). Time and budget constraints limited the modeling and analysis for this project. 6.2 Trajectory Modelling of Individual Spills 6.2.1 A spill model for a portion of Hecate Strait was constructed in the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) General NOAA Operational Modeling System (GNOME) (Beegle-Krause, 2001)13. This computer model is publically available. Ten years (2001-2010) of wind observations in Hecate Strait were obtained from Environment Canada’s North Hecate Strait buoy (#C46183, 53.62°N, 131.10°W). Plots of wind speed and a wind rose showing wind direction are show in Figures 14 and 15, respectively. Note that wind directions at this station are primarily bi-modal, constraining the directions in which oil is likely to travel long distances quickly under higher wind conditions. Gaps in the wind data were quantified, so that no trajectories were run with inappropriate wind information. 6.2.2 Currents for the area were simulated using a previously developed hydrodynamic model develop for the Living Oceans Society (LOS). This hydrodynamic model was used to provide hourly surface currents over the area of interest for the ten- year time period from 2001–2010. Some data errors in the LOS model current fields in the narrow channels on either side of Spicer Island and in Principe channel were corrected for this work (Figure 17). GNOME was used to calculate surface spill trajectories for 23 different spill start locations (Figure 18), at 250 random start times in each of four seasons, over the ten year period from 2001- 2010 for a total of 23,000 trajectory model runs. Each trajectory was run for five
12 Gitxaala Nation acknowledges Living Oceans Society’s contribution to the modeling work that was undertaken. 13Within this document, two terms will be used to describe the two computer models used. “Application” is used to describe the individual computer model, and is not region specific. “Implementation” is used to describe the region specific data files used by these models to calculate regionally relevant quantities.
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days, with output at one, two, four, six, 12, 24, 48, 72, 96, and 120 hours. Surface oil was simulated as the Proponent has indicated this to be the case.
Figure 14: Windrose for 2001 to 2010 for North Hecate Strait buoy #C46183
Wind direction is primarily a bimodal distribution, limiting the directions in which oil is likely to travel long distances under high wind conditions.
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Figure 15: Wind speed (m/s) for the ten year time period of this analysis Yearly graphs are presented in order to demonstrate variability.
2001 Wind Speed, m/s
2002 Wind Speed
2003 Wind Speed
2004 Wind Speed
2005 Wind Speed
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2006 Wind Speed
2007 Wind Speed
2008 Wind Speed
2009 Wind Speed
2010 Wind Speed
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Figure 16: Map of Hecate Strait and vicinity with the domain of the TAP subdomain highlighted in red
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Figure 17: Map of a subset of the model domain to show how smaller islands are joined into larger land areas for simplification of computation.
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Figure 18: Map of the area of interest for these analyses
Crosses and numbers represent the location of the twenty-three Spill Start Sites.
6.2.3 Floating oil moves along the water’s surface at a velocity that combines the local currents and a percentage of the wind speed. This percentage is called a “windage factor” or “leeway.” Dissolved oil constituents move with the water. Hence, no information is provided in this report on trajectories of sinking oils or for subsurface released oil (leaking sunken vessel). This TAP II analysis could be redone without winds in order to simulate dissolved components traveling within the surface waters. Example spills from one of Proponent’s pipeline indicates that the product may separate into sunken and surface components. For example, a spill from one of the Proponent’s pipeline on July 26, 2010 near Marshall, Michigan, USA indicates both surface and submerged product recovery (source: http://www.epa.gov/enbridgespill/ accessed December 19, 2011). 6.2.4 The Trajectory Analysis Planner (TAP II) was developed by the U.S. National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to help oil spill planners statistically analyze potential spill transport for an implementation area (Barker and Galt, 2000). The analyses in TAP II are designed to provide information relevant to a variety of stakeholders and planners in order to develop better response plans (NOAA, 2000, and Barker, 2010). An implementation of TAP II provides geospatial statistical analyses of biological resource information (e.g.
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meters of particular habitats along beach segments) and response equipment information (e.g. meters of boom required for particular beach segments). This report only discusses trajectories, as the Proponent’s shoreline biological resource data were not made available, and geospatial equipment requirements data are not available at this time. If geospatial biological resource data are made available, calculation of statistics related to potential contact of these resources with oil could be computed. Similarly, calculation of response equipment statistics could be discussed if spatial information on response equipment needs were available. 6.2.5 Since TAP II uses computed forward trajectories, TAP II statistical analyses can provide information both forward in time (Where could oil go?) and backward in time (Where could oil come from that could reach this resource area?). TAP II analysis also calculates response times based on how long the simulated trajectories take to reach areas within the domain. Below is a list of analysis calculation types within the TAP II application. Shoreline Impact Analysis: This analysis allows the user to determine which shoreline and water surface locations are more or less likely to be contacted by oil spilled from a selected spill start location within the modeled area. Response Time Analysis: This analysis allows the user to determine how quickly a response must be mounted at a location of concern to precede the arrival of the oil. Site Oiling Analysis: This analysis allows the user to visualize the specific statistics related to any user selected grid cell to further query the Shoreline Impact Analysis or the Response Time Analysis. For example, under Shoreline Impact Analysis, the user can examine the statistics for any grid cell location within the domain. Threat Zone Analysis: This analysis allows the user to determine the probability that oil from each of the spill start sites could threaten a particular location of concern. Resource Analysis: This interface helps spill planners estimate the level or speed of response needed to adequately address impacts of modeled spills, and the quantity of a particular resource that could be impacted by given spills. 6.2.6 The GNOME and TAP II implementations for Hecate Strait have limitations due to budget constraints. Though common in oil spill modeling, a single wind data location is not an exact match to historical winds everywhere within the domain. The LOS circulation model is not as sophisticated as an operational nowcast/forecast model. More detailed wind and ocean currents models that include processes not simulated in the model described would provide more accurate trajectory analysis. For example, an operational implementation of the Advanced Circulation (ADCIRC, Leuttich and Westerink, 2004) model of the Finite Volume XXX (FVCOM, Chen et al., 2006) that included detailed freshwater fluxes would be an improvement. However, this analysis provides sufficient detail to demonstrate some concerns of Gitxaala, and to demonstrate the accessibility of sophisticated computer modeling for use in decision support.
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6.3 Importance of Seasonal to Multi-Year Statistical Analysis 6.3.1 The winds and currents in the North Pacific vary on a variety of timescales from shorter timescale (hourly and shorter changes in winds and currents) to annual (seasonal) variation and to interannual changes. Environmental conditions and natural resources vary on a similar range of timescales. To address concerns related to seasonality we have divided the statistics into seasons (“Winter”: January through March, “Spring”: April through June, “Summer”: July though September, and “Fall”: October through December). Interannual variability is discussed in more detail below. The trajectories calculated in GNOME could be processed to provide different temporal analyses such as combined annual statistics or individual seasons and/or years could be combined to distinguish specific climate variation. 6.3.2 The lifetime of the Proponent’s development is expected to be ~40 years (Document B15-2 - Northern Gateway’s Responses to the Submission filed by Government of Canada Departments A1V7R3 , October 28, 2010, p. 7), which is the time period that the tanker traffic would be active. The El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO, also known as the El Niño / La Niña cycle) is well known (Emery and Hamilton, 1985, Shinker and Bartlein, 2009). The most recent information from Fisheries and Oceans Canada can be found at http://www.pac.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/science/oceans-eng.htm). Below is a time series of the Multivariate ENSO Index from 1950 through 2010 (NOAA), (Figure 19).Global climate change research indicates that the North Pacific will experience longer periods of El Niño conditions (Timmerman et al. 1999). Pertinent also to coastal British Columbia are the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (Mantua and Hare, 2002), the North Pacific Gyre Index (NPGO http://www.o3d.org/npgo/) (DiLorenzo et al., 2008). Longer trajectory time period analysis than the 10 years presented would be required in order to provide information related to PDO and NPGO variability in response planning needs for this project in order to provide Gitxaala sufficient information to quantitatively evaluate some of their concerns over the lifetime of development. Figure 19: NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory Multivariate EL Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) Index 1950–2010.
(Source: http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/psd/enso/mei/ accessed 12 December 2011.)
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6.4 The Difference Between, GNOME, TAP and Mass Balance Scenario Modelling 6.4.1 Oil spill mass balance modeling traditionally relates to general partitioning of oil between different areas, such as air (evaporated), oil (on the water surface or on land), and water(dissolved into water below). The NOAA Automated Data Inquiry for Oil Spills” is a freely available oil weathering and fate model, which provides mass balance information for many different oils. The Stronach (2011) report for the Proponent provides mass balance information for six scenarios related to the Proponent’s development. 6.4.2 The modeling setup for the Stronach (2011) study and this study are similar is that both studies use a spatially explicit coastal ocean circulation model, and wind information in order to simulate oil spills. Stronach (2011) developed six cases for five locations (two scenarios at one of the locations), detailed within the report. In this study 23,000 spill scenarios were run for 23 Spill Start Locations over 250 random Start Times in each of four seasons. Within this TAP II study, spatially explicit summary statistics are provided over the entire region of interest. This report contains just a few examples of interest for discussion. The TAP II methodology allows natural resource information and response requirements to be integrated into the analysis to provide information on potential natural resource impacts or response equipment needs. The TAP II analysis also allows backwards-in-time analysis, identifying the probabilities of where oil could come from (Spill Start Locations) that could contact a particular area of interest. This latter type of analysis is important if a location is key for cultural, socio-economic or natural resource reasons. 6.4.3 Since the TAP II analyses are all statistical, one important consideration is the Level of Concern. In this case, each spill has been simulated with 10,000 Lagrangian Elements. Thus a single Lagrangian Element represents 1/10000th volume of a spill, or 0.01% of the total volume spilled. In GNOME the spill trajectory does not change with the volume of the spill, but the amount of oil brought to any particular area changes proportionally to the volume of the spill and any weathering. Hence for a 500,000 gallon spill, one Lagrangian Element represents 50 gallons, as with a 500,000 m3 spill, one Lagrangian Element represents 50 m3. Within this TAP II analysis, the trajectories are calculated with Lagrangian Elements that did not chemically weather over time. Model output from the trajectories contains Lagrangian Element age since release, so that weathering could be post-processed for mass balance, if desired. Analysis of these results for mass balance could be done at a later time. This is done in the scenario discussion in Chapter 8. 6.5 Results 6.5.1 The statistical modelling approach is designed to take into consideration realistic variety of surface current and wind conditions in Hecate Strait. Examples of the model results are shown below, but for the sake of brevity, only a subset of the TAP II modeling results are shown. These examples are selected to illustrate the concerns of Gitxaala within a framework of meaningful climatic variation. Full model results are available for demonstration upon request. 6.5.1.1 Shoreline Impact Analysis: this analysis allows the user to determine which shoreline and on-water locations are more or less likely to be contacted by oil spilled from a selected spill start location within the modeled area. The analysis shows the probability that a volume of oil (equal to or greater than the Level of Concern) reaches the selected
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grid cell within the time period of interest (e.g. 2, 6, 12 hours, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 days). 6.5.1.2 The statistical potential impact area is much greater in surface area than any individual spill. The Shoreline Impact Analysis calculates for each grid cell, how many spills bring a volume of oil to that grid cell in excess of the Level of Concern (1bbl/cell for a spill of 10,000 bbls) within the time frame of the calculation. Figure 20 shows a matrix of spill impact areas by season (winter, spring, summer, fall) and time (12 hours, 1, 3 and 5 days) since release. Note that the winds in fall and spring are much more variable in direction than in winter or summer, leading to a seasonal difference in the situation space in which spills travel. In these single year analyses, ~25 spill scenarios are run in each season. This number is not constant, as 250 spills is the total number of Spill Start Times for the ten years, but due to gaps in the wind record, individual years may have proportionally more or fewer Spill Start Times. 6.5.1.3 To better understand inter-annual variability, the spring season is shown for each of the individual years (~25 Spill Start Times), and for the full 2001-2010 (250 Spill Start Times (Figure 21). The distribution becomes noticeably smoother with more samples, and with the longer time period of sampling, reflecting inter-annual variability in the environment primarily due to the winds). 6.5.2 Response Time Analysis: This analysis allows the user to determine how quickly a response must be mounted at a location of concern to precede the arrival of the oil. Contact of spilled products with subsistence shoreline natural resources is a concern. Below are several cases that illustrate a statistical analysis of response time for several Spill Start Sites simulated within the Hecate Strait TAP II implementation. Three different Spill Start Sites have been selected and two different seasons: Fall and Spring. Of concern to Gitxaala is the total area shaded in the three warmest colors in these figures, representing response times of six hours or less in grid cells where oil could reach a particular area above the Level of Concern. Six hours is the stated response time performance goal for the Proponent’s response contractors.
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Figure 20: Impact Analysis for Hecate Strait TAP II implementation Spill Start Site 8 for each season (Winter, Spring, Summer, Fall) and four different analysis times (12 hours, 1, 3 and 5 days) Each grid cell’s color represents the probability of spills from the starting location will bring at least a volume of 1 bbl/cell in a 10,000 bbl spill with the time-frame considered.
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Figure 21: TAP II Impact analysis for individual years (~25 random time Spill Strat Tmes) and the final 2001-2010 analysis (250 random Spill Start Times) With the longer time-period record and more Spill Start Times, the distribution becomes more smooth, and representative of variability including inter-annual variability.
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Figure 22: Response time analysis for spill start site 9 for Fall Season
Note that the colors within the grid cell relate to the significant response time for all spills modeled that have oil volumes above that Level of Concern of 1 bbl/cell for a 10,000 bbls spill. Site Oiling Analysis is used to show an example of a particular grid cell which is color-coded yellow (less than12 hours). Within that subsample, 15% of spill reach the grid cell in volumes above the level of concern within six hours.
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Figure 23: Response time analysis for spill start site 9 for Spring Season
Note that the colors within the grid cell relate to the significant response time for all spills modeled that have oil volumes above that Level of Concern of 1bbl/cell for a 10,000 bbl spill. Site Oiling Analysis is used to show an example of a particular grid cell which is color-coded fourth level (less than12 hours). Within that subsample, 23% of spills reach the grid cell in volumes above the Level of Concern within six hours.
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Figure 24. Response time analysis as in the picture above for Spring Season, however a different grid cell has been selected for Site Oiling Analysis
In this Site Oiling Analysis the example grid cell is color-coded fourth level (less than12 hours). Within that subsample, 4% of spills reach the grid cell in volumes above the Level of Concern (1 bbl/cell for a spill of 10,000 bbls) within six hours.
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Figure 25. Response time analysis for Spill Start Site 10 during spring
In this Site Oiling Analysis the example grid cell is color-coded fourth level (less than12 hours). Within that subsample, 81% of spills reach the grid cell in volumes above the Level of Concern of 1 bbl/cell for a 10,000 bbl spill within six hours.
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Figure 26. Response time analysis for Spill Start Site 6 during spring
In this Site Oiling Analysis the example grid cell is color-coded yellow (less than12 hours). Within that subsample, 19% of spills reach the grid cell in volumes above the Level of Concern of 1 bbl/cell for a 10,000 bbl spill within six hours.
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Figure 27: Response time analysis for Spill Start Site 8 during spring
In this Site Oiling Analysis during two seasons and three different query points (red square). Note that even farther away from the spills, there can be spills that reach a particular site quickly.
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6.5.3 Threat Zone Analysis: This analysis allows the user to determine the probability that oil from each of the start sites could threaten a particular location of concern. As weather, tides and the seasons change, so does the trajectory of the same spill scenario if released at different times. In Threat Zone Analysis, spill trajectories are analyzed so that the user can query the information from the perspective of an oil receptor, or location that oil could go, perhaps the location of a particularly important natural resource. The statistics are divided into four seasons, one shown in each picture: winter, spring, summer and fall. Below are four pictures that show receptor analysis for a single receptor in the Dolphin Island vicinity (red square) and the probabilities from 23 Spill Start Sites (circles coloured by probability). From the graphics, the distribution of highest probabilities change slightly with the seasons, while the area of where spills could come from changes dramatically. Hence the importance of seasonality, both from the perspective of the location of natural resources of interest, and from the perspective of where spills could come from that could reach a particular area.
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Figure 28 a-d. For the selected area (red square), this shows the probability of oil from each of the 23 Spill Start Sites to bring oil above the Level of Concern to the selected area within five days
Each picture shows a different season: a) winter, b) spring, c) summer and d) fall. These are summary statistics for 2007 only.
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Figure 29 a-e: For the selected area (red square), this shows the probability of oil from each of the 23 Spill Start Sites to bring oil above the Level of Concern to the selected area within five days. Each picture represents Spring season, with different selected areas (different red squares). These are summary statistics for 2010 only. A comparison analysis is presented for a single season with multiple query sites to show how the Threat Analysis area changes. Spill Start Sites can be adjusted before computation to meet with particular goals for discerning the threat area for spills to contact a particular area.
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6.5.4 Resource Analysis: This analysis helps spill planners estimate the level of response needed to adequately address potential impacts from modeled spills, and the quantity of a particular resource that could be impacted by these modeled spills. This analysis could not be performed because the Proponent’s natural resource information was not provided. Also, geospatial response equipment information, such as meters of boom required for protecting particular areas was not available. 6.6 Alternative Spill Scenarios Some concerns of Gitxaala can best be described through spill scenarios. Below are two simple spill scenarios that allow further analysis of potential natural resource impacts in Section 8 within this report.
Scenario 1: Dolphin Island Powered Grounding. There is concern that tanker loss of steerage in the vicinity of Dolphin Island could result in a powered grounding. If this occurred during continued onshore winds, the concern is that the vessel would be difficult to pull off the grounding site due to onshore winds and waves. The historical wind record from Hecate Strait was analyzed for a period of onshore winds in the vicinity of Dolphin island and the nearby proposed transit route; an example occurs during April 2007 (see Figures SC-1 and SC-2 below.)
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Figure 30: There is a period during April 2007 when the winds have a sustained onshore component. Winds are primarily onshore (generally from the south) through early April 18, 2007.
Figure 31: Wind speeds for the same April 9–18, 2007 as in Figure 30
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A simple ship drift was started at Spill Start Site 8 (Figure 30) at 12:00 PDT April 9, 2007. (This is not exactly the same as a powered grounding, but the GNOME model does not have any ship specific scenario tools). A drifting vessel could contact the vicinity of Dolphin Island by approximately 21:15 PST that night, after sunset (Table 4). Average monthly water column profiles of Temperature and Salinity are show below in Figures SC10 and SC11, with the full year of monthly mean Temperature and Salinity profiles shown above in Figures SC5 and SC6 from the nearest gridpoint available within the Live Access Server (LAS) National Virtual Ocean Data Server (NVODS) World Ocean Atlas (2005) (http://ferret.pmel.noaa.gov/NVODS/). A more complete analysis could be done with more detailed water column information for the area of interest.
Table 4: Sunrise Sunset Calculations
Date Sunrise (PST) Sunset (PST) Sunrise (PDT) Sunset (PDT) 4/09/2007 19:32 20:32 4/10/2007 05:54 19:34 06:54 20:34 4/11/2007 05:52 19:36 06:52 20:36 4/12/2007 05:49 19:38 06:49 20:38 4/13/2007 05:47 19:40 06:47 20:40 4/14/2007 05:45 19:41 06:45 20:41 (Source: NOAA Sunrise/Sunset calculator, http://www.srrb.noaa.gov/highlights/sunrise/sunrise.html)
Figure 32: Average April ocean temperature profile (Locarnini et al., 2006 and Antonov et al., 2005)
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Figure 33: April average ocean salinity profile
(Locarnini et al., 2006 and Antonov et al., 2005)
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Figure 34: Annual monthly mean ocean temperature profiles
(Locarnini et al., 2006 and Antonov et al., 2005)
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Figure 35: Monthly mean ocean salinity profiles
(Locarnini et al., 2006 and Antonov et al., 2005).
Scenario 2: Banks Island Grounding Another concern is a spill in Principle Channel due to the narrowness of the channel. The second scenario is in winter, where a tanker drifts from the center of the channel. Considering simple vessel drift of 10% wind speed with the winds and currents at midday on February 11, 2007, grounding could occur in less than an hour on Banks Island. A catastrophic release would likely stay on Banks Island until the winds began to shift on February 13th, which leads to oil reaching McCauley Island and then the Dolphin Island vicinity by February 14th.
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Table 5: Sunrise Sunset Calculations
Date Sunrise (PST) Sunset (PST) 2/11/2007 17:44 2/12/2007 08:08 17:46 2/13/2007 08:05 17:48 2/14/2007 08:03 17:50 2/15/2007 08:01 17:52 2/16/2007 07:59 17:54 (Source: NOAA Sunrise/Sunset calculator)
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Figure 36: Wind Speed for Feb 11-20, 2007
Figure 37: Wind Direction for Feb 11-20, 2007. Winds begin with a component from the north, and then shifts through a variety of directions, leading to surface oil movement in a variety of directions and contacting different coastlines.
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Figure 38: Average April ocean temperature profile
(Locarnini et al., 2006 and Antonov et al., 2005)
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Figure 39: February average salinity profile
Locarnini et al. (2006) and Antonov et al., (2005)
6.7 Critique of the Application 6.7.1 The Proponent’s application does not contain sufficient information that can be used to model all the products proposed, nor to provide quantitative analysis of potential resource impact. A more complete analysis of potential impact to natural resources of interest to Gitxaala could be obtained by adding spatial natural resource information to this TAP II implementation, if all relevant information were provided by the Proponent. This would allow Gitxaala to better evaluate their some of their concerns quantitatively 6.7.2 The analyses presented within this chapter leveraged established methodologies in the form of statistical trajectory analysis to provide initial information on potential trajectories of spills in the area of interest. These methodologies are not overly burdensome. model do take time, but the subsequent trajectory analyses is straight forward. For example, the 23,000 trajectory model runs (23 spill start sites with trajectories run for 250 random start times within each season between 2001-2010) and construction of the TAP II statistical analysis was run in less than
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3 days on an off-the-shelf personal computer. Development of more detailed historical wind fields and current fields can be accomplished given time and budget. Development of operational (24x7) ocean current and wind nowcast/forecast capability would provide development of more detailed historical surface and subsurface current fields for future analyses, provide operational spill modeling capability, and, potentially, provide environmental fields that could be leveraged into other important activities, such as computer modeling for search-and-rescue at sea. 6.7.3 The Proponent’s application does not contain information that allows an adequate statistical analysis of risk to natural resources of concern to Gitxaala. A more complete analysis could be provided with the addition of the following types of information from the Proponent: 1. Testing of the proposed synthetic crude to allow accurate modeling of the fate and transport. Coastal British Columbia waters are influenced both by seasonal freshwater inputs and more saline oceanic waters. Laboratory studies regarding behaviour of the synthetic crude in a two-layer water system. Laboratory studies that place the product into a tank with a simple two-layer system with fresh water overlaying more saline water would allow determination of whether the separated product could potentially: i. remain at the surface, ii. sink to a specific oceanic density level and be transported along this density surface, or iii. sink to the bottom, An example spill from one of the Proponent’s pipelines into a freshwater system (river) is the Proponent’s oil spill into the Kalalmazoo River in 2010 (http://www.epa.gov/enbridgespill/ accessed December 20th, 2010). This spill indicates that this product separates with the heavier portion sinking in fresh water, and the lighter product rising to the surface. How the product will behave in coastal waters has not been put forward. 2. Coastal resource data collected by Polaris is viewed as proprietary, and thus not available for use in this assessment (Proponent’s response to IR 2.2).These data could be used with the Hecate Strait TAP II implementation to provide quantitative statistical analysis of potential product contact with natural resources within Gitxaala traditional territories. Though the Proponent has indicated that updated coastal sensitivity atlases would be finalized prior to commencement of operations (response to IR 2.2.3), this timeline did not allow the information to be used in this TAP II analysis with the statistical spill trajectories developed in order to quantify lengths of sensitive shorelines that could be impacted by potentially spilled product. If these data were made available, they could be reformatted for use in the Hecate Strait TAP II implementation to provide quantitative statistical information related to contact between surface oil and natural resources. 6.7.4 The Proponent’s application does not include spatial and temporal analysis of potential spill trajectory and potential natural resource contact with the fuels, lube oils, and / or cargo of the vessels proposed to be transiting the area of interest. The types of analyses presented in this chapter are designed to develop statistical information for realistic spill scenarios within the area, independent of specific spillage scenario concerns. The type of analyses presented in this chapter provide more information than those presented within the Proponent’s application materials for the following reasons:
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1. The “mass balance approach” (Stronach, 2011) does not allow for detailed information of potential contact of products with particular resources within the area of interest to Gitxaala. 2. The coastal waters and climate of Gitxaala territory exhibit seasonal and interannual variability. Response plans and impact assessment should consider how spill trajectories and natural resources vary within a year, and between individual years. Planning should include analysis of both the most probable spill and scenarios related to highest impact to key natural resources. This type of information is needed both to assess potential impacts to natural resource and to better plan response requirements based on known variability. 3. Though there are an “infinite” number of possible spills (“Northern Gateway Response to Federal Government IR No. 2”), the movement of the ocean currents and winds have been studied. Physical processes constrain the movement of the ocean currents and winds, and though accurately predicting the weather tomorrow can be challenging, tides are commonly predicted, and, as noted earlier in the document, the windrose shown in Figure 14 indicates a bimodal distribution, limiting the number of directions that oil is likely to travel long distances quickly. The combination of historical observations and numerical models allow quantification of key physical variability within an area. These methods can be implemented with sufficient accuracy to provide decision makers and interested parties with useful quantitative information, e.g. kilometres of shoreline oiled or habitat oiled under varying spill release scenarios and environmental conditions. Consideration of where spills will go, irrespective of how these spills came about, is useful in developing understanding of the situation space for spill transport in a particular region, and understanding how spill transport influences potential risk to coastal resources. 6.7.5 In the Proponent’s response “Northern Gateway Response to Federal Government IR No. 2”, Environment Canada writes: “We also note that this request is linked to IR 90 which requires spill scenarios be identified through consideration of the potential consequences for Aboriginal current traditional uses or impacts on Aboriginal rights. A stochastic modeling approach is needed to fully explore risk of spill and associated potential consequences. It is very difficult for a reviewer to determine whether or not conditions chosen during deterministic modeling scenarios accurately reflect potential conditions that could lead to a worst case scenario (which includes consequences as well as characteristics of the spill itself).” This chapter is a first step toward an assessment of potential impacts to natural resources of interest to Gitxaala using a stochastic approach. If geospatial natural resource information were provided, further analysis as requested could be accomplished directly. More detailed circulation modeling, particularly in shallow areas of complex shoreline, would improve the quality of the results. 6.7.6 The Proponent writes: “First, Northern Gateway considered that the spill scenarios selected for discussion should be realistic and credible. Second, the primary usefulness of trajectory modelling is during actual spill response, and secondarily in the depiction of how a spill might spread given specified parameters. Third, the use of stochastic trajectory modelling in environmental assessments is counterproductive.” (page 213 or 214).
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“Second, the development of detailed, locally-specific trajectory models was intended primarily to inform the preparation of spill response plans and associated requirements for equipment and personnel, as well as for use during an actual spill response (i.e., short-term prediction of spill trajectories to aid in spill response deployment). The models are not intended for assessment purposes” (Page 183 of 214) 6.7.7 Though spill release scenarios should be credible, but informative spill scenario modeling can be accomplished without distinguishing “how” the oil was released into the environment, but by simply simulating “where”. The results shown in the study allow interested parties to discuss trajectory modeling results and potential shoreline contact with oil regardless of spill scenario. 6.7.8 In addition to the references within ““Northern Gateway Response to Federal Government IR No. 2” supplied by Environment Canada (p 180-181) in disagreement with the Proponent, we submit the Barker references within this document, and the U.S. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM, formerly MMS) statistical oil spill occurrence and contact model, Oil-Spill Risk Analysis (OSRA), which is used in National Environmental Protection Act (NEPA) analysis.
7.0 RISK-BASED IMPACT ASSESSMENT
(M. Hammond) 7.1 Impact Assessment Method for Assessing Accidental Effects 7.1.1 This section deals with the theory of impact assessment for accidental effects, and the use of risk assessment as a systematic approach for formulating and determining the acceptability or lack thereof of an activity that possesses an uncertain hazard. 7.1.2 The information provided by the Proponent to date, including the Project’s Environmental and Socio-economic Assessment, has been evaluated in the course of this expert review and has been found deficient as compared to standard practice. Specifically, it lacks a logical rationale that: Identifies a defensible assessment of risk consistent with standard methods; Supports the assertion that the risk posed by marine transportation is acceptable; or Provides a contingency plan sufficient to support the claim that the risk is acceptable. 7.1.3 To make a determination of the significance of the effects from a marine spill, the potential impacts must be thoroughly considered. The Canadian Environmental Assessment Act (CEA Act) requires that project assessments consider the possible effects from accidents and malfunctions, and that there is a determination of the significance of the effects. While effects arising from accidents are typically not as likely to occur as the effects stemming from activities that are part of the project description, the accidental effects must be considered as they can be of large magnitude if contingency planning and mitigation is not able to appropriately manage these unanticipated impacts. 7.1.4 A common tool used to assess the potential significance of impact from an accidental event is a risk assessment. A risk assessment can inform decision making and, in the case of the Application, is a tool to help address the question:
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7.1.5 Is the proposed shipping of hydrocarbons along the north coast of BC of an acceptable risk to the environment and all interested parties involved? 7.1.6 The question of whether there are risks to the environmental, social and cultural values that cannot be mitigated is critical to answer for regulators to satisfy the expectations of the CEA Act, the National Energy Board (NEB) guidelines (Subsection A.2.3 of the NEB Filing Manual) and Joint Review Panel Agreement. The significance of the effects from a marine hydrocarbon spill needs to be thoroughly assessed to meet these regulatory requirements. 7.1.7 This section will present the following: The basics of risk assessment; How and when risk assessment can be used in Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA); and How risk is estimated and how it can be determined to be acceptable or unacceptable.
7.2 Basics of Risk Assessment 7.2.1 Risk is defined by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as the “effect of uncertainty on objectives” (ISO 31000:2009 Risk Management – Principles and Guidelines). This definition shows that the emphasis is on the ‘effect’ rather than just the probability of an event (InConsult, 2009). In the case of the regulatory context for the Project, the “objectives” would include the avoidance or mitigation of a significant effect from an accident or malfunction. More precisely put: How does the uncertainty in understanding the causes and impacts of a spill affect the ability to prevent significant effects from an accident? 7.2.2 In the case of the Project, the “causes” largely relate to the likelihood of a spill, and the “impacts” relate to the consequences of a spill. Where there is significant uncertainty, an examination of both of these key components will produce an assessment of the risk of the proposed marine transportation. This approach to considering uncertainty can contribute to a clear rationale for predicting success or failure in preventing significant effects. 7.2.3 In practice, a risk assessment iteratively assesses and re-examines the results with the goal of reducing the likelihood and/or the consequences of a spill through mitigation and contingency planning (Etkin, 2006) to a point where either: The overall effect (risk) on meeting project objectives (no significant effect) is acceptable, or Feasible mitigation and contingency can not reduce the risk of preventing significant effects. 7.2.4 The latter event may be the result of either the predicted likelihood or the predicted consequences (or a combination of both) being so high that the required mitigation and contingency is not feasible, or too expensive for the project to justify (i.e., they inhibit the achievement of other financial objectives). This iterative process of risk management is explained in various sources including The Institute of Risk Management (2002), InConsult (2009), and The Oil Spill Risk Assessment for the Coastal Waters of Queensland and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (2000). This oil spill risk assessment presents a methodical process with the following steps (Queensland Transport and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, 2000):
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Hazard identification: what can go wrong and why; Frequency analysis: how often can things go wrong; Consequence analysis: how much harm can be caused by the event; and Risk calculation: frequency (or likelihood) combined with consequence. 7.2.5 The Canadian Standards Association adopted a very similar process described in the ISO 31000 Risk Management – Principles and Guidelines as a national standard that “provides principles, framework, and process for managing risk in a transparent, systematic and credible manner” (CSA Standards, 2010). Per ISO 31000, risk assessment is a process with three components: risk identification, risk analysis, and risk evaluation (adapted from Praxiom, 2011): Risk identification is a process to identify and describe the risks that could affect the achievement of objectives. Risk analysis is a process that is used to: (i) understand the nature, sources, and causes of the identified risks; (ii) estimate the level of risk; (iii) study impacts and consequences; and (iv) examine the existing controls (a measure of action that modifies risk). Risk evaluation is a process that compares risk analysis results with risk criteria in order to determine whether or not a specified level of risk is acceptable or not. 7.2.6 A logical and systematic approach to risk management and reporting may be modified for each case. To aid in developing a reliable framework, Ragheb (2011) provides the following objectives for a risk assessment methodology: Identify the initiating events and the event sequences that might contribute significantly to risk. Provide realistic quantitative measures of the likelihood of the risk contributors. Provide realistic evaluation of the potential consequences associated with hypothetical accident sequences. Provide a reasonable risk based framework for making decisions […]. 7.2.7 The methodology is established so that each of these steps contributes in a logical fashion to produce a final rationale for judging the acceptability/ unacceptability of an activity in a risk evaluation. There is no single exclusive model for risk evaluation, but in each case a decision is required to identify an appropriate methodology. 7.2.8 A formula to summarize a risk assessment has been included in many literature sources as the following or some variation thereof (Woodruff, 2005; Etkin, 2006; Queensland Transport and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, 2000; Kirchhoff and Doberstein, 2006): Risk = Likelihood x Consequence 7.2.9 A risk analysis focuses on the likelihood and consequence of an effect within a framework that concludes with a risk evaluation and includes the rationale for the risk determination. 7.2.10 The Proponent has agreed that “A semi-quantitative evaluation approach will be used to estimate risk likelihood and consequence” (Exhibit B35-2, Northern Gateway Response to Joint Review Panel Information Request No.4 dated 22
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September 2011(A2D2Z9), Response to IR 4.16 (Adobe Page 29 of 74)), but this has not been presented.
7.3 Using Risk Assessment in Environmental Impact Assessment 7.3.1 A risk assessment approach is common in many fields including EIA. 7.3.2 Environmental risk assessment is recommended for inclusion in an EIA where the uncertainty is large and important to management decisions (Carpenter, 1995; Kirchhoff and Doberstein, 2006; Suter et al, 1987). In particular, risk assessment is suitable in cases where uncertainty related to natural hazards, human error, the behaviour and fate of chemicals in the environment, and the understanding of a complex natural system contribute to the uncertainty of predicting and managing impacts (Carpenter, 1995). The EIA methods developed for the Asian Development Bank recommends environmental risk assessment to examine issues with a high level of uncertainty and specifically suggest that it be used for “potential for leaks and spills” (Lohani et al., 1997). Therefore, the marine transportation of hydrocarbons along the BC coast is an activity that can be evaluated using a risk assessment approach as described above. 7.3.3 In Pragmatic Suggestions for Incorporating Risk Assessment Principles in EIA Studies, Canter (1993) explains how risk assessment can be a useful part of the EIA toolkit. Among the benefits to EIA, he proposes that risk assessment principles can focus efforts on risk reduction measures and emergency response planning in the case of accidents. Specifically, risk assessment can be used in an EIA to evaluate low probability events with potentially catastrophic impacts (Canter, 1993). Suter et al. (1987) says that the emphasis on dealing with uncertainty in a risk assessment is a significant contribution to standard EIA practice. 7.3.4 The Environmental Protection Authority of Western Australia (2009) presents a thorough discussion of the relationship between risk assessment and EIA and proposes a method of integration. Figure 40 shows how a risk assessment can be conducted within the context of standard EIA stages. 7.3.5 Hyett (2010) explains that environmental risk assessment methods used within EIA processes in Australia typically involve: Setting the context and compiling background information; Reviewing the project and identifying risk pathways based on conceptual models; Establishing a risk framework including definitions of likelihood and consequence; Assigning risk ratings using expert input often in a risk workshop setting; Reviewing and refining risk ratings; and Identifying mitigation measures to address key risks. Finally, a decision is taken on whether the risk is acceptable or not.
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Figure 40: Risk-based EIA Process (from Environmental Protection Authority of Western Australia, 2009)
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7.3.6 The Project website14 proposes a general formula for understanding the components of an EIA: Baseline knowledge + Potential project effects – Proposed mitigation = Residual effects + Cumulative effects 7.3.7 As this relates to assessing effects (consequences) from accidents, this equation can be rewritten as: Baseline knowledge + Potential accidental effects – Proposed mitigation & contingency planning = Residual accidental effects + Cumulative effects 7.3.8 To complete a thorough risk assessment, it is critical to understand the severity of the residual effects that would occur from an accidental spill to: a) Determine whether the consequence of a spill is acceptable, given the probability of the effect occurring; and b) Justify the adequacy of emergency and contingency planning. 7.3.9 In (a) above, this is the essence of a risk assessment. The objective in (b) is explained in the next section.
7.4 Judging the Adequacy of Emergency and Contingency Planning 7.4.1 A detailed risk analysis is needed to demonstrate that a contingency and emergency response plan needs to be described in enough detail to demonstrate that the potential risk (significant effects) of a spill can be effectively addressed to an acceptable level of certainty. “Risk assessment underpins the preparation and planning for marine oil spill preparedness and response strategies” (Queensland Transport and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, 2000). 7.4.2 In reviewing the adequacy of emergency and contingency planning within an EIA context (“Environmental Risk Treatment” in Figure 40), some of the key logical questions would include: Have contingency measures and emergency programs been detailed so that a potential significant effect from an accident can be mitigated? What level of certainty is there in the understanding of the capacity of contingency plans to achieve the planned objectives in the event of an incident (i.e., certainty that the plan would succeed in preventing a significant effect)? Does the focus, investment and effort in the contingency planning appropriately reflect the relative risks (geographically, temporally and in magnitude) associated with the activity (i.e., focus on the highest risk areas)? Are the underlying data and the risk assessment results sufficient to inform a feasible contingency plan? 7.4.3 Kankara and Subramanian (2007) present a case in India where the use of modelling and GIS can produce an oil spill sensitivity map to highlight areas that
14 http://www.northerngateway.ca/environment-safety/environmental-assessment
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are at highest risk of being oiled due to: (i) the likelihood of oil reaching the shoreline in the case of a spill, and (ii) the sensitivity (ecological value) of the environment that varies along the coastline. This map was developed for the purpose of providing relative risk data to inform contingency planning and emergency response. This case illustrates the tight linkage between risk assessment and contingency planning, especially in cases where there is a high level of uncertainty involved. 7.4.4 Considering the important contribution of contingency planning to the risk assessment process (Figure 40), it must be recognized that there are cases where the risk is far-reaching, complex and unmanageable. In this case, it may be determined to be impossible to effectively mitigate the risk of an activity to an acceptable level with an acceptable level of confidence.
7.5 How is Risk Determined? 7.5.1 The methodology presented in The Oil Spill Risk Assessment for the Coastal Waters of Queensland and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (2000) focuses on examination of the likelihood and consequence of a spill. More specifically, the following elements of each category are considered:
Likelihood Consequence Data and Statistics Environmental Expert Advice Ecological Historical Records Habitat Ground Truthing Fisheries Consultation/Individual Tourism Experience Aquaculture Cultural Economic
7.5.2 A risk assessment involves a method for combining the evaluation of likelihood and consequence to produce a determination of risk (Woodruff, 2005; Etkin, 2006; Environmental Protection Authority of Western Australia, 2009). Methods may include a ranking table, matrix (graph), or other tools that present a rationale for a conclusion on the overall risk. Canter (1993) summarizes a few methods to formulate the comparison of the consequence/severity and the probability of occurrence of a hazard, including a ‘Rapid Risk Assessment Method’ described in Carpenter and Maragros (1989). Suter et al. (1987) says that a “risk estimate necessarily involves the use of some sort of mathematical or statistical model.” 7.5.3 The Environmental Protection Authority of Western Australia (2009) discussion papers on the use of risk assessment in EIA provide ranking scales and definitions for consequence and likelihood evaluations, as well as terms and definitions for identifying the level of uncertainty involved. A generic matrix shows how consequence and likelihood are assimilated into a conclusion on the level of risk, and how this may be treated as input to decision-making. Woodruff (2005) also presents an example of a risk matrix with consequence and likelihood on the x and y axes. URS (2010) included a risk assessment following these guidelines as part of an EIA for a gold mine in Australia. Individual potential impacts were assessed according to their likelihood (Rare, Unlikely, Moderate, Likely to Occur, or Almost Certain) and consequence (Insignificant, Minor, Moderate, Major, or Catastrophic) and assigned a risk ranking (Low, Moderate, Significant, High) based on a standard matrix for this project.
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7.5.4 Like the planning study in India mentioned above (Kankara and Subramanian, 2007), the Oil Spill Risk Assessment for Queensland, Australia, recognized that the likelihood and the consequence of a spill must vary geographically and that the identification of this variability of overall risk can be mapped to produce a differential risk profile for the coastline. Separate likelihood and consequence maps were created and were superimposed to show the areas of highest risk (“Marine Environment High Risk Areas”).
7.6 What is an Acceptable Risk? 7.6.1 Whether the residual risk (assuming mitigation and contingency treatment) is acceptable or not is the key decision of the risk assessment. The examination of the acceptability of the estimated risk may involve establishing ‘risk acceptance criteria’ to facilitate decision-making (Kirchhoff and Doberstein, 2006). Determining these levels requires discussions about risk tolerance, which depends on subjective judgments. Consultation with interested parties is a key component of the risk assessment process (Queensland Transport and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, 2000). 7.6.2 The risk-based EIA process developed by the Environmental Protection Authority of Western Australia (2009) includes the involvement of interested parties at each step of the process. A rationale is essential to define what is an acceptable/unacceptable level of risk so that different alternatives can be compared. 7.6.3 This paper also includes a comparison of risk acceptance criteria adopted around the world. The Oil Spill Risk Assessment for the Coastal Waters of Queensland and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (2000) provides an example of a “Risk Acceptance Graph”. There are many variations of this type of tool where likelihood and consequence are compared to rationalize the acceptability/unacceptability of a predictable scenario. The zones on the graph that distinguish between “acceptable” and “unacceptable” risk are critical to defensible decision-making. The example risk matrix in Woodruff (2005) includes zones that indicate the acceptability/unacceptability of risks. Risk acceptability zones can be established specifically for the Project based on a transparent rationale and consultation with affected parties. 7.6.4 At this stage of the risk assessment, the International Organization for Standardization recommends addressing the question: “Is the level of risk tolerable or acceptable, and does it require further treatment?" 7.6.5 Answering this question is the responsibility of regulatory agencies and their decision-making bodies. Decision-makers may require additional mitigation and contingency planning if they do not feel that the risk has been adequately defined and mitigated to a level that can be confidently defined as ‘tolerable’. In order to approve the Project’s proposed marine transportation plan, the Joint Review Panel must be convinced that: The risk is well-understood through the use of appropriate risk assessment procedures as described above; The required mitigation and contingency plans can be implemented with reasonable confidence to avoid significant effects; and The residual risk is acceptable as defined through consideration of environmental, social and cultural values.
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7.6.6 If the Joint Review Panel is not convinced of these points – that the risk is not adequately characterized, that the mitigation is insufficient to avoid significant effects, or that the residual risk is unacceptable – then the Joint Review Panel has a regulatory responsibility to deny the Application until such time as sufficient information is available to understand and manage risks to an acceptable level.
7.7 Critique of the NGP Application: Deficiencies in the Risk Assessment Approach 7.7.1 In the case of a bitumen and/or gas condensate spill off the BC coast, the Proponent has determined that the consequences include a “potential for significant adverse effects to occur to some biota and the ecosystems that support these species” (Northern Gateway Response to Joint Review Panel IR No. 5; pg 25 of 33). 7.7.2 Therefore, it is important that a risk assessment of this hazard be conducted according to recognized risk assessment approaches using a thorough and rigorous examination of the likelihood and consequences (ecological, socioeconomic and cultural) of the proposed marine transportation. A presentation of how these risks vary geographically and temporally (e.g., the identification of "Marine High Risk Areas") is extremely important to prepare a contingency plan that may manage the varying risks. An example of a technical approach to examine the consequences of a spill is provided in other sections of this report. 7.7.3 Without knowledge of the distribution of risk in geographic and temporal terms, it is not possible to speculate on the possibility that a contingency plan can address the potential effects from an accident, especially when there is an accepted potential for significant effects. In addition, an informed decision on this issue needs to consider the varying levels of uncertainty involved in each component of the decision. 7.7.4 This logical approach highlights the following gaps in the current approach taken by the Proponent: No risk assessment methodology has been developed that follows standard procedure A risk assessment that considers a thorough understanding of both the likelihood and consequence of an accident has not been provided. Despite the Proponent's conclusion that there is "potential for significant adverse effects to occur", it is not clear that there has been any weight given as to the severity of these effects in the overall risk determination. A well-researched determination of risk tolerance for this activity has not been provided No logical rationale for the adequacy of the contingency plan (i.e., a risk management plan) to achieve its objectives has been provided in sufficient detail to explain the appropriate management of risk to tolerable levels Therefore, the Proponent has not provided the information necessary to draw a decision on whether particular accidents (with specific volume, chemical composition, timing and location) are likely to cause significant adverse effects.
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8.0 EXPERT OPINION ON CONSEQUENCES OF SPILL OR MALFUNCTION IN MODELLED LOCATION (Emmett, Short, Spies)
8.1 Overview 8.1.1 In order to gain a better understanding of the potential impacts to their traditional territories, the Gitxaala commissioned the development of two spill models for diluted bitumen in their traditional territory and a TAP II implementation. The scenarios, described in detail in Section 6, were then used to provide an opinion on likely impacts. The TAP II implementation results allowed a discussion of the probability that spilled oil would reach resources of interest to the Gitxaala. 8.2 Diluted Bitumen Spill Scenarios 8.2.1 Two oil spill scenarios have been modelled.
Scenario 1: A powered grounding driven by onshore winds causes a supertanker laden with Cold Lake Bitumen diluted with gas condensate to collide with the southern shore of Dolphin Island at about 9 pm on 9 April. The oil cargo begins leaking from damaged cargo compartments at about 4,000 gal/h for the next 5 days until a total of 500,000 gal have been lost. Winds ranging from 3 – 20 m/s blowing from the southeast to the southwest over the ensuing 9 days keep almost all of the discharged oil driven along the heavily-indented shorelines to the northwest to a distance of about 10 km to the northwest from the grounding site.
Because the grounding is at night, response measures do not commence until daybreak (6:30 am) on 10 April. By the time response vessels arrive, nearly 50,000 gal of the oil have already spread along the coast, and attempts to limit further shoreline oiling through deployment of containment booms are ineffective in the 3 – 6 foot seas with breaking whitecaps that drive oil over the top of the booms. Dispersant application isn’t attempted because of the risks of exposing response personnel, the likelihood that aerially-released dispersant would miss the oil target, and the proximity to shoreline biota.
The sustained onshore winds herd increasing amounts of oil along the same reach of coastline, causing it to accumulate into a thick (~ 1 cm or more) layer where the sea meets the shore. The initial density and viscosity of the oil are about 0.94 g/cm3 and 800 mPa-s respectively, with only modest evaporative losses occurring during the <~24 h interval between discharge and shoreline contact. The wave action mixes finer-grained sediments where available with oil, promoting oil transport to the adjacent subtidal seafloor. Because of the herding action of the wind, the ratio of oil surface area to volume decreases substantially as the oil is herded into thick layers along the shoreline, decreasing weathering and emulsification rates dramatically. Hence, much of the oil that accumulates at the upper extent of the tidal excursion range becomes stranded on the shoreline with the outgoing tide, where it percolates into porous beach sediments that become dehydrated as the water table lowers, oiling sediment to depths of possibly a meter or more. Capillary forces retain the oil in these sediments, preventing it from re-floating with the following rising tide, setting the stage for long term (i.e. decadal) persistence of oil in these beaches. Oil that remains on the beach surface, from its sheer volume in relation to the available beach area of
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the oiled intertidal will present a considerable smothering hazard for anything living there.
Three processes serve to modify the oil composition over the next 9 days. First, the sustained action of breaking waves against oil lying atop a hard substrate provides the shear forces necessary to create small oil droplets that become naturally dispersed into the seawater. These small droplets weather relatively quickly owing to their large ratio of surface area to volume, loosing volatile components (mostly the gas condensate fraction) relatively rapidly to the atmosphere, and the sparingly soluble components (i.e. BTEX & PAH) less rapidly to the seawater. Second, this same wave action promotes emulsification of oil that is not sheared off as small droplets, by mixing the bulk oil with seawater under energetic conditions. Third, the sustained winds, reaching 20 m/s, promote additional evaporative losses of volatile components. The result of these processes on the bulk oil at the beach surface is to increase the density and especially the viscosity of the oil. The net effect of these composition changes is to make the oil nearly neutrally buoyant when the winds shift to from out of the north 9 days after the incident.
Small dispersed oil droplets will approach neutral buoyancy in seawater from evaporative and dissolution losses of the gas condensate components alone. The density of the coastal seawater is around 1.02 g/cm3 in mid-April, compared with a density increase from 0.94 g/cm3 to 0.99 g/cm3 following a loss of 17% evaporative loss. Given that the low-density gas condensate fraction is around 25% by volume, additional weathering losses may well cause the droplets to achieve neutral or perhaps even negative buoyancy, which would cause them to sink. Even if just entrained at nearly neutral buoyancy in the water column, these droplets will present an ingestion hazard for a wide array of biota, including fish, zooplankton and a host of suspension feeders. If the oil sinks to the seafloor, it will present an ingestion hazard to similar kinds of species inhabiting the nearshore benthic community.
For the more emulsified bulk oil generated on the oiled beaches, these same evaporative and dissolution losses will bring the net density of the emulsified mixture to very near that of the ambient surface seawater, making contamination of the surface mixed layer by emulsified oil carried off of oiled beaches a real possibility. Furthermore, by incorporating 2 – 3 volumes of water per volume of oil, the apparent size of the spill will increase dramatically following emulsification.
The sustained proximity and mixing of oil and seawater may extract substantial amounts of PAH into the seawater immediately adjacent to shorelines, which might reach concentrations sufficient to elicit embryotoxic effects on eggs deposited there or subtidally. This being spring, insolation may be sufficient to trigger photo-enhanced toxicity effects on translucent biota.
Offshore winds from the north will drive the mostly emulsified oil back into Principe Channel, where most of it will contact shorelines farther afield. Because the viscosity of this oil is now orders of magnitude greater because of emulsification and then weathering losses, this oil will tend to remain on the surface of the beaches once stranded, although subsequent de-emulsification may promote some penetration into beach sediments. But most will likely remain on the beach surface, presenting a contact hazard for biota inhabiting or traversing the intertidal.
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Dispersion over a wider area will make beach oiling more patchily distributed in comparison with the initially-impacted shoreline, so smothering will be less of a threat (although it may remain substantial where currents concentrate oil on small reaches of shorelines). The return of onshore winds on 23 April will keep the more widely dispersed oil in place on impacted beaches, causing additional weathering. Oil that subsequently re-floats off beaches with the return of northerly winds will disperse even farther afield, and much if not most of it will drift into northern Hecate Strait and then into the open ocean. After months at sea, the oil will begin forming tarballs, with surfaces that begin to harden from continued weathering losses of labile components. Eventually this process will reduce the contact hazard of the oil to biota, and the oil will sink to the seafloor in the open ocean.
Oil that remains on the surfaces of beaches will likely be unusually persistent, in large part because of the low proportions of n-alkanes and other components that are readily degraded by microbial activity. Combined with the unusually great adhesivity of bitumen from the tar sands, the oil stranded on beaches is likely to remain a noxious contact hazard to biota and to humans for months. Eventually, the thicker accumulations of surface oil will harden into asphalt pavements remaining for decades where not disturbed by unusually large crashing waves capable of moving boulders on shorelines.
Scenario 2: Scenario 2 involves a supertanker experiencing a powered grounding on the northeast-facing shoreline near the northern end of Banks Island. The grounding site is near the seaward mouth on the southern side of Principe Channel, and occurs shortly after noon on 11 Feb, with a nearly instantaneous release of the 500,000 gal of MacKay River Heavy Bitumen diluted with Synthetic Light Oil. This oil impacts about 3 km of shoreline to the northwest of the grounding site initially, under the influence of winds funnelled through the Channel toward the northwest. Because so much oil impinges on such a relatively small stretch of shoreline, oiling is so heavy that smothering is extensive, with oil pools and lenses up to a few centimetres in thickness. Prevailing winds confine the oil to this stretch of shoreline for the next two days, and response measures are ineffective for the same reasons given above for Scenario 1. During this interval the relatively low-viscosity oil readily percolates into porous beach sediments on outgoing tides, again contaminating sediments to depths that may reach a meter or more. Wave action disperses some of the oil as droplets into the adjacent seawater, mixes sediments with oil allowing it to sink, contaminating the adjacent subtidal sediments, and promotes emulsification of the bulk oil remaining on the surface of beaches.
A change of prevailing winds on 13 Feb moves much of the oil off the initially impacted shoreline onto shorelines of McCaulay Island on the other side of Principe Channel, and then on to the mainly southwestern-facing shorelines of Dolphin and Goschen Islands. Although much of the oil has emulsified, other composition changes due to weathering are limited because of the effect of the thick oil accumulations on the oil surface area to volume ratio while initially on Banks Island. As the oil disperses over the wider area, the emulsified oil again becomes stranded on shorelines. The emulsified oil again penetrates into the subsurface sediments of these shorelines, although perhaps not so deeply as on the initially impacted shoreline of Banks Island. Again, wave action at the surface disperses some of the stranded oil as droplets into the water column, mixes some
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with sediments and transports it to adjacent subtidal sediments, and sustains emulsification for weeks on these beaches. Weathering from evaporation and dissolution is slow, causing the surface oil on beaches (as well as at sea) to remain a contact hazard for biota for weeks.
As with Scenario 1, microbial degradation plays a minor role in removing oil because of the high proportion of refractory components, and oil reaching hypoxic layers beneath the surface of beaches persists for decades. Eventually, much of the surface oil on these shorelines hardens into asphalt pavements, remaining for decades where not disturbed by unusually large crashing waves capable of moving boulders on shorelines.
8.3 Habitats and Marine Resources affected by the Spill Scenarios 8.3.1 The outer shores of the Dolphin/Goschen Islands (Boys Pt. on Dolphin Island to Joachim Point on Goschen Island) encompass a complex mix of shore habitats, ranging from exposed rocky islets and beaches to protected tidal sand and mud flats. Table 6 summarizes the shore types present in this area and Table 7 summarizes the corresponding oil residency index values for these shore units. Table 6: Shore Types (from BC ShoreZone) on the outer coast of Dolphin/Goschen Islands (Boys Pt. to Joachim Point) subject to bitumen product fouling from either spill scenario 1 or 2.0
Shoreline Shoreline Shore Type Length (km) Percentage Rock platform 0 0 Rock cliff 3 3 Rock with gravel beach 40 35 Rock, sand and gravel beach 49 43 Rock with sand beach 3 3 Gravel beach 1 1 Gravel flat <1 <1 Sand and gravel beach <1 <1 Sand beach 1 1 Sand and gravel flat 1 1 Sand flat 14 12 Mud flat 1 1 Estuary, marsh or lagoon 0 0 Channel 0 0 Man-made 0 0 Totals 113 100
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Table 7: Oil residency index (ORI) values for the outer coast of Dolphin/Goschen Islands (Boys Pt. to Joachim Point) subject to bitumen product fouling from either spill scenario 1 or 2.015
Shoreline Shoreline Oil Residency Length (km) Percentage Long (months to years) 36 32 Medium-Long (months to years) 56 49 Medium (weeks to months) 18 16 Short-Medium (weeks to months) 1 1 Short (weeks to days) 2 2 Totals 113 100
8.3.2 A very high percentage (78%) of this shoreline is mixed rock and coarse sediment (gravel or gravel/sand) beach, and over 81% of the shore length is rated as medium to high with respect to oil residency, primarily due to the coarse beach sediments which can retain hydrocarbons at depth and are resistant to clean up measures (see Chapter 4). As noted in Chapter 4 this suggests that the spill scenario area is not representative of the overall CCAA, with a larger proportion of this shoreline sensitive to longer term oil residency. 8.3.3 The intertidal and shallow subtidal habitats impacted by oil in both these scenarios support important marine resources for the Gitxaala Nation (Calliou 2011). This is particularly true for the outer shores of Goschen/Dolphin Island due to the diversity of nearshore habitats and resources as well as the proximity of this area to the community of Lach Klan on Dolphin Island. Table 8 outlines the resources expected to be impacted by both the Scenario 1 and 2 trajectories.
15 Short et al. (2007) showed that residency may extend to several decades on some of these shoreline types, consistent with long-term persistence of oil in sediments noted from oil spills elsewhere (Culbertson et al. 2007, Burns et al. 1994) , and Li and Boufadel (2010) suggest that the conditions promoting oil persistence are common on temperate and sub- arctic shorelines. This suggests that an additional category of “very long” residency might be appropriate
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Table 8: List of marine resources of importance to Gitxaala First Nation considered most vulnerable to oil spill impacts resulting from spill Scenarios 1 and 2 . Information primarily from the Gitxaala Nation Use Study (Calliou Group, 2011).
Species/ Marine Life History Habitat and Primary Area of Occurrence Season of Occurrence Fish Nation Use Resource Stage Butter/littleneck Juvenile/adult Intertidal sand/gravel and gravel beaches, Year-round High Use and Importance Clams, Cockles Cockles also on more exposed sand beaches Main Harvest Season – Prager Island, Freeman Pass, Kitkatla Inlet, Dolphin Island Sept. to December (see Figure 4-8-3 Calliou 2011). Herring/herring Spawning, Semi-sheltered rocky shore, Sand/gravel and gravel Late March to early May Very High Use - roe/ larval stages beaches, estuaries and marshes Both FSC and commercial Herring spawn in the intertidal and shallow subtidal zones in (roe and roe on kelp)use in the above habitats, primarily on eelgrass, kelps and other late March/April algal species Study area is a large, important north coast herring spawning area. Outer Dolphin Island, Goschen Island, Freeman Pass (see Fig. 6, Chapter 4 Northern Juvenile/Adult Semi sheltered rocky shores, shallow sub tidal zone Year-round SARA listed species, Abalone associated with kelp vegetation currently not harvested, but Specific areas are not documented by Calliou (2010), most traditionally of high semi sheltered rocky habitats in Study Area likely supported importance abalone at one time Rock Scallops Juvenile/Adult Semi-sheltered rocky shores, primarily attached to vertical Year round rock surfaces in shallow subtidal areas. East coat of northern Banks Island, Principe Channel. Mussels Juvenile/adult Exposed and semi-sheltered rocky shores - blue mussels Year round Mussels – primarily in moderate exposed areas and California mussels in high harvested September to (both blue and exposure areas. December California), Blue Mussel/Chitons – Dolphin Island, Goschen Island, north Chitons, Chitons – year round end of Banks Island, Kitkatla Inlet, Freeman Pass(Calliou 2011, Figures 4-8-4, 4-8-2)
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Species/ Marine Life History Habitat and Primary Area of Occurrence Season of Occurrence Fish Nation Use Resource Stage Chum Salmon Spawning Estuaries - spawn in tidal estuaries at the mouths of Adults – October/November Adults harvested throughout rivers/creeks the Study Area (Calliou Fig Juvenile Egg Incubation – November All nearshore habitats during outmigation 4-7-4) outmigration to March/April Billy Creek, Kitkatla Creek and several smaller creeks in the Study Area are shown by Polaris as “Salmon” streams, Juvenile Outmigration specific species not shown April/early May Pink Salmon Juvenile Estuaries - Billy Creek, Kitkatla Creek and several smaller Adults – October/November Adults harvested throughout creeks in the Study Area are shown by Polaris as “Salmon” the Study Area (Calliou Fig Egg Incubation – November streams, specific species not shown 4-7-4) to March/April All nearshore areas in Study Area are likely used by outmigrating pink salmon Juvenile Outmigration April/early May Dungeness crab Egg/larvae, Exposed sand beaches, sand/gravel beaches, estuaries, Year round Year round juvenile adult lagoons Sandy seabeds in both exposed and sheltered areas, Kitkatla Inlet, off outer shore of Dolphin/Goschen Island (Calliou Figure 4-7-6) Red Urchins Juvenile/adult Semi-sheltered rocky shore - shallow subtidal Year-round October to May Dolphin /Goschen Islands, Kitkatla Inlet (Calliou Figure 4-8-7) Sea Cucumbers Adult Primarily Semi sheltered rocky shores but found in many Year-round Year round habitats (giant cucumber) Dolphin Island, Prager Island, north end of Banks Island, east coast of McCauley Island(Calliou Figure 4-8-6) Giant Kelp Vegetative Primarily Semi-sheltered rocky shores Vegetative growth from Vital use for spawn-on-kelp Subtidal (to about 10m) on rocky substrates, grow to the March to October, holdfasts in late March/April when the (Macrocystis sp.) water surface are perennial kelp resource is scarce Dolphin /Goschen Islands, Kitkatla Inlet, north end of Banks Island(Calliou Figure 4-8-5) Other Seaweed Vegetative Exposed and semi sheltered rocky shores Variable depending on May/June Species Rocky intertidalor shallow subtidal substrates species, most growth and diversity in late spring and Different types of seaweed West coast of Dolphin, Prager, Goschen Islands, north end of harvested when they attain Principe Channel. (Calliou Figure 4-8-8) summer (April to September) certain lengths at specific times during the year
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8.4 Intertidal Resources 8.4.1 The modeling suggests that bitumen spilled from both scenarios will wash up on intertidal beaches and rocky shorelines of Dolphin and Goschen Island over the 5-10 day period. For a ship grounding on Dolphin Island in April the oil product would initially reach the intertidal zone in an unweathered state and moves northward to intertidal areas of Goshen Island over a ten day period. Prevailing onshore winds keep the spilled product in nearshore (intertidal and shallow subtidal zones) for about 8 days, then shifting winds drive some of the more weathered, spilled product further offshore. This spill is modeled for April, an extremely sensitive time of the year for north coast nearshore habitats for the following reasons: 8.4.1.1 Herring spawning season, with herring depositing eggs on intertidal and subtidal vegetation. Marine mammals, particularly sea lions and often gray whales, as well as marine birds (surf and white wing scoters as well as many gull species) also aggregate in these areas at this time of year to feed on herring eggs. 8.4.1.2 Many invertebrate (e.g. crab) and fish (e.g. midshipman) species also spawn at this time of year, either broadcasting eggs into the water column or depositing eggs on substrates in shallow, nearshore areas 8.4.1.3 This is the season of growth initiation for many seasonal algal species, including giant kelp (Macrocystis which is used by Gitxaala for spawn on kelp operations) as well as other kelps and red algae harvested for food 8.4.1.4 Pink and chum fry emerge from spawning gravels, moving quickly to nearshore habitats where they are vulnerable to any hydrocarbon product grounding in the intertidal zone. 8.4.2 Coarse gravel/sand beach areas and protected tidal lagoons and estuaries throughout these areas support populations of intertidal clams (littleneck clams, butter clams and cockles which are a key resource for Gitxaala harvested primarily in the winter months. Mussels, chitons and seaweeds are harvested from intertidal rocky shores throughout this area, with mussels being harvested primarily in winter months. Weathered oil can be trapped in fine grained sediments of mud and sand flats and byssal mats beneath mussel beds. All these shellfish species accumulate petroleum hydrocarbons that may persist for years causing long-term contamination of these key food resources. In experimental exposures high concentrations of Prudhoe Bay crude oil killed a large proportion of littleneck clams, reduced their condition index and altered levels of tissue amino acids in surviving clams (Augenfield et al., 1981). Littleneck clams collected in oiled areas of Prince William Sound after the Exxon Valdez oil spill had elevated concentrations of hydrocarbons, lower growth rates and higher mortality rates than those collected from unoiled areas (Fukuyama et al. 2000). Mussels and clams collected 13 years after the spill showed low levels of DNA strand breakages that were likely more serious in the years immediately following the spill (Thomas et al., 2007). Since these shellfish species can accumulate relatively high concentrations of petroleum hydrocarbons, their contaminant load can be passed on to predators, such as sea ducks and sea otters. 8.4.3 Seaweeds are harvested for rocky intertidal areas primarily during spring and summer, the period of greatest seasonal growth. Although not considered among the most sensitive of marine organisms algae can be killed by exposure to oil (Carrera-Martinez et al., 2011: Spies, 1987: Wrabel and Peckol, 2000). In the case of Fucus, which is a common and often dominant intertidal species, coating
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of the upper mid and intertidal areas with oil would likely kill a significant proportion of the Fucus plants there and inhibit reproduction of surviving plants, especially if aggressive clean up methods were used (Stekoll and Deysher, 2000). In some instances recovery of Fucus may take 3-4 years, or perhaps longer (Stekoll and Deysher, 2000); this is apparently due to lower reproductive activity and recruitment rates to oiled areas up to 3 years after the spill (Van Tamelen et al., 1997). 8.4.4 This area is also an extremely important herring spawning area, with herring spawning in both rocky and sandy gravel habitats. In addition this area is an important source of giant kelp (Macrocystis) harvested in April to stock herring ponds which produce spawn on kelp product. Herring spawn in April in the Kitkatla Inlet area, depositing adhesive eggs on marine algae (kelps and red algal species), eelgrass and often gravel or rock substrate. The two spill scenarios suggest that oil will foul herring spawning areas on the outside of Dolphin Island and the south east shore of Goschen Island. It is likely that some oil will enter Kitkatla Inlet, although the resolution of the model does not permit prediction of the degree of oil entering the inlet through Schooner of Freeman Passages. Unfortunately, herring are very sensitive to oil pollution as was explained in detail in Chapter 5. Oil spilled in the vicinity of their spawning grounds poses a threat to developing eggs and larvae attached to vegetation in nearshore areas. This threat is particularly serious if a spill occurs in the late winter or spring, at or near the time of spawning, and the exposure is to fresh oil, but weathered oil on gravel and rocks has been shown experimentally to cause severely abnormal development and likely mortality in developing herring (see references in Chapter 5). 8.5 Subtidal Resources 8.5.1 Gitxaala harvest a number of species from shallow subtidal habitats both within Kitkalta Inlet and off the outer shores of Dolphin/Goschen Inlet. In addition many of these species also occur in the lower intertidal zone (abalone, sea urchins, sea cucumbers) and First Nation harvesting often targets this shallower intertidal component. Suspension feeders (e.g. bivalves) and benthic grazers (e.g. sea urchins, sea cucumbers) and detritivores in general would be at risk of ingesting sunken oil droplets whether bound or un-bound to sediments or other inorganic material. Ingestion may provide an exposure pathway for their predators, especially if the oil is adulterated with TCB or other halogenated organic contaminants that may biomagnify in the food web. If this exposure pathway results in perceptible tainting, the value of these resources as dietary components for the Gitxaala may be substantially reduced in areas where the tainting is detected. 8.5.2 Dungeness crab are harvested throughout the year from sandy seabed areas both within Kitkatla Inlet and off beaches on the outside of Dolphin and Goschen Islands. In the Strait of Georgia and Puget Sound newly settled young of the year Dungeness crab aggregate in low intertidal shell beach areas (Fernandez at al.1993) and in intertidal muddy hummock areas with aggregations of filamentous green algae (Triton Environmental 2004). These are habitats where spilled bitumen could be particularly persistent. Oil could reach the lower intertidal and subtidal areas by sticking to sediment that is washed into the ocean from the higher intertidal areas. Although the effects of oil pollution on Dungeness crab have not been well studied, one study did show that the behavioural response to food was slowed by experimental exposures to sub-part per million concentrations of oil in water (Pearson et al., 1981). Dungeness crabs are
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probably vulnerable to oil pollution in other ways as it is likely that they may be affected similarly to other marine invertebrate animals (Capuzzo, 1987). 8.5.3 Red sea urchins, sea cucumbers and, historically, the northern abalone (now a SARA listed threatened species) are harvested from semi sheltered rocky habitats within the spill area. Both abalone and red urchins can also occur within the lower intertidal zone and thus be directly impacted by grounding bitumen product. The red sea urchin is vulnerable to petroleum hydrocarbons as exposure to sub-part-per-million concentrations of crude oil caused genetic damage in a European species of the same genus (Strongylocentrotus) as the red sea urchin (Taban et al., 2004). Such concentrations might occur beneath oil slicks, especially those grounded on rocky shores, the habitat of red sea urchins. 8.5.4 Red abalone (Haliotis rufescens), which occur in California, are closely related to the northern abalone (Haliotis kamtschatkana) found in the area of concern. The larvae of red abalone have been shown to be vulnerable to oil exposure in laboratory experiments (Singer et al., 1998), and it is likely that a large oil spill in inshore waters in the spring-summer period when most abalone spawn would expose abalone larvae to toxic hydrocarbons. This exposure could come in the water beneath oil slicks or from oil-contaminated water washing into the ocean from contaminated intertidal areas. 8.5.5 The northeastern shore of Banks Island is the only area within Gitxaala territory indentified by the resource use study (Calliou 2011) as a rock scallop (Hinnites giganteus ) harvesting area. Rock scallops occur within the shallow subtidal zone on rock substrates in the area where bitumen product reaches shore under spill scenario 2. As mentioned above, bivalve mollusks accumulate hydrocarbons which can cause various kinds of damage and can their contaminant loads can also be passed on to their predators, including man. 8.5.6 Within the area of a possible spill outlined in this chapter, two species of salmon are particularly susceptible to oil pollution, pink and chum salmon. As pointed out in Chapter 3 there are a number of salmon spawning stream discharging to Kitkatla Inlet. Both pink and chum salmon move into nearshore marine habitats shortly after emerging from spawning gravels. The date of emergence is dependent on the original date of spawning and water temperature over the incubation period but, by late April on the north coast, juvenile chum and pink salmon would commonly be present in nearshore coastal areas. As discussed in chapter 5 pink salmon are particularly susceptible to spilled oil in both the egg stage and juvenile stage. During the Exxon Valdez oil spill eggs exposed to oil resulted in poorer lifetime survival to reproducing adults (see references in Chapter 5). Also, juveniles exposed to oil had slower rates of growth. 8.5.7 So the juvenile stages of both salmon species could be exposed to an oil spill entering nearshore environments as forecast in this chapter under scenario I. Such exposure could result in diminution of growth, greater rates of loss to predation and poorer lifetime survival as discussed in Section 5.
9.0 CONCLUSIONS Based on the material presented in this report, several basic conclusions are drawn:
(a) The failure to consider the potential consequences of an accidental oil spill renders the impact assessment both incomplete and insufficient to adequately address potential effects to ecological values of interest to Gitxaala
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(b) The information provided in the application is insufficient to adequately characterize the bitumen and other products likely to be transported through the proposed pipeline, and hence to understand how these materials behave when released into the environment. This is particularly problematic given that diluted bitumen is qualitatively different from most petroleum currently transported by sea. Therefore, an assessment of the potential effects of a bitumen release is incomplete.
(c) Tools are readily available to model the potential trajectories of spilled oil and provide statistical summaries of these trajectories. When applied to the area of interest to Gitxaala, results suggest that there are areas where oil, if spilled, is likely to reach shorelines important to Gitxaala. These results indicate that potential spills along portions of the proposed traffic route could lead to shoreline contact in less than six hours.
(d) A number of species important to Gitxaala are present in areas where spilled oil may accumulate and come in contact with these species.
(e) A great deal remains unknown about the potential consequences of diluted bitumen on these species, but chemical analysis, plausible spill scenarios and available toxicological evidence suggest that bitumen will remain in the environment for years to decades and can have adverse toxic effects at very low doses to specific life history stages of a number of the species important to Gitxaala.
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Appendix A – Expert Group Credentials CJ Beegle-Krause Brian Emmett Jeffrey Short Robert Spies Matt Hammond Editor, Leslie Beckmann
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CJ Beegle-Krause President Environmental Research for Decision, Inc. (Currently on p/t loan to Genwest Systems, Inc. under contract to NOAA Office of Response and Restoration for the DWH MC 252)
PO Box 77221 Seattle, WA 98177 Cell (206) 484-0004 www.Research4D.org [email protected]
Education
Ph.D., University of Washington, June 1995, Physical Oceanography. Dissertation: The Chlorofluorocarbon Transient in the North Pacific: A Model/Observation Intercomparison and Model Dynamics. NASA Global Climate Change Fellow. 1991-1994.
M.S., University of Alaska, Fairbanks, 1986, Physical Oceanography. Thesis: Time and Space Scales of Some Oceanographic and Atmospheric Parameters in the Gulf of Alaska. Graduate research assistant, Alaska Coastal Jet Project.
B.S., California Institute of Technology, Biology, 1982.
Expertise
Oil and chemical spill trajectory modeling and analysis world-wide Oil spill trajectory model development - worldwide Natural Resource Damage Assessment Modeling Biological behavioral modeling Ecological recovery modeling using cellular automata techniques Statistical trajectory planning Modeling to evaluate larval dispersal from marine protected areas Hydrodynamic modeling o Africa: Bight of Biafra and nearby coastal areas o Arctic: Beaufort Sea, Harrison Bay, Gwydyr Bay, Stefansson Sound o Alaska: Prince William Sound, Aleutians Islands, Glacier Bay o Atlantic: eastern seaboard U.S. o Caribbean: Puerto Rico o Great Lakes o Gulf of Mexico o Pacific: west coast U.S., Hawaii and Pacific Islands o Red Sea Cruise ship discharge issues Training courses taught: o Advanced oil spill modeling o Aerial observations of oil (including field exercises) o Environmental Observations for Oil Spill Response o Oil chemistry o Oil weathering and fate o Physical transport of oil spills o Shipboard techniques in physical oceanography Relevent certifications o McMillian Offshore Survival o Helicopter Emergency Egress Device (HEEDS)
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Experience
Genwest Systems, Inc. April 2010 to present
Contract Oceanographer Oceanography and oil spill modeling support for NOAA Office of Restoration for the Deepwater Horizon MC 252 incident. One of four surface trajectory forecasters Lead for subsurface trajectory forecasting and modeling Water Column Technical Group member Joint Analysis Group (JAG) member
Research4D November 2009 to present
President/CEO President of a new research nonprofit dedicated to bring the best in science to Decision Makers. Project Management MMS Pacific Synthesis of Knowledge (2008 to present) – update of oceanographic information for northern and southern planning areas on the west coast. Cascadia Research, University of California Santa Barbara, San Francisco State University and Battelle Pacific Northwest Division as subcontractors. Budget $380k.
Applied Sciences Associates, Inc. December 2007 to October 2009
Senior Scientist Project Management Essential Pelagic Fish Habitat – visualization and analysis tool “HabitatSpace”. Project manager and technical lead for project. Client: NOAA NMFS Alaska Fisheries Science Center to develop a tool for 4D visualization tool that allows the user to combine circulation profile data, circulation models, and trajectory (larval fish) data. Larval fish modeling – Web based particle model prototype for connection of trajectory model with large external circulation fields. The output from this model can be used in the Client: NOAA NMFS Alaska Fisheries Science Center.
Biological behavioral interaction with oil Enhanced SIMAP with behavioral interaction model for particular client.
Physical Oceanography Review Provide detailed analysis and context for both observational and modeled ocean circulation and forecasting.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/National Ocean Service/Office of Response and Restoration/Emergency Response Division (“NOAA HAZMAT”) 1998 - 2007
Oil Spill Trajectory Modeling – Response (Selected Major Events – NOAA HAZMAT responds to an average of 120 events each year Lead trajectory modeler for 24x7 trajectory and weather support of oil and chemical spills, airline disasters, and issues of interest to the U.S. Department of State and the U.S. Department of Defense. 2007 - Vietnam annual tarball event (February – April): The 2007 event was much larger than normal. Provided information to U.S. embassy in Vietnam on oceanographic and atmospheric conditions leading to these annual events. 2006 - Wake Island Super Typhoon (August): trajectory support during evacuation and post-event assessment. 2006 - RoRo Cougar Ace (August 8-12): the 654-foot container ship transporting over 4,800 automobiles from Japan to Vancouver British Columbia Canada, began to take on
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water for an unknown reason about 245 nautical miles southwest of Atka Alaska and started to list to its port side. The ship was initially reported listing at about 80 degrees from vertical. The ship has approximately 142,180 gallons of IFO-380 and 34,180 gallons of marine diesel fuel on board, in addition to the oil and gasoline in the autos. Provided trajectory support through vessel tow to Dutch Harbor. 2006 - Well explosion Persian Gulf (May): trajectory support for Navy Supervisory of Salvage (SupSalv). 2005 - Hurricanes Katrina and Rita 2005 - TB DBL-152, offshore Louisiana (November 11, 2005): 3 million gallons of oil heavier than seawater. Lead trajectory analyst, on-scene support, and lead on documentation for state, federal and natural resource trustees on long-term fate of the oil. (See Awards, Internal NOAA 2005.) 2004 - M/V Selendang Ayu, Unalaska Island, Aleutian Islands (December 7, 2004): soybeans and 470.000 gal bunker fuel. Also addressed safety of King Crab fishery from tarballs. 2004 - M/V Athos I, Philadelphia, Delaware River (November 27, 2004): 473,000 gallons heavy crude oil. Also address closure of nuclear power plant and safe condition for restarting (oil had been detected in cooling water intakes). 2004 - Hurricane Ivan (September 2004): 2 Pipeline leaks eastern Mississippi Delta due to hurricane passage. 2004 - M/V Bow Mariner, offshore Virginia (February 28, 2004): 3.5 million gallons ethanol, 200,000 gallons crude oil. 2003 - BP Thunderhorse Platform Riser Break (May 2003): Trajectory support for potential deep well blowout. 2003 - Second Gulf Iraq Action: Worked with Navy Oceanographic Office (NAVOCEANO) Warfare Support Center to ensure all the NAVOCEANO circulation models worked with GNOME trajectory model. 2002 - Tanker Vessel Prestige oil spill: Dr. Beegle-Krause was the only trajectory modeler among a team of nine to go on-scene to offer assistance during the response to the sinking of the TV Prestige in November. Coordinated atmospheric and oceanographic modeling in Santander, Santiago de Compostela and Mallorca, Spain. NOAA received thank you notes for assistance provided from the following agencies of Spain: The Ambassador of Spain to the U.S. to Secretary Evans, Minister of the Environment Jaume Matas Palou to the Ambassador of the U.S. to Spain, The Ministry of Foreign Affairs to the Embassy of the U.S., Jose L. Rosello of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to the U.S. Embassy in Spain. 2000 - Alaska Airlines Flight 261, Pacific Ocean near Point Mugu, California (January 31, 2000): Lead trajectory modeler for search and rescue. 2000 - M/V Westchester, Port Sulphur Louisiana, 500,000 crude oil (December 1, 2000) Received US Coast Guard Certificate of Appreciation for trajectory support.
Oil Spill Trajectory Modeling – Model Development Team Leader for development of the General NOAA Oil Spill Trajectory Model (“GNOME”, now known as the General NOAA Operational Trajectory Model”). “GNOME Wizard” – Lead Developer of GNOME Location Files (guided user interface for using GNOME in specific areas. Each Location File contains circulation fields, references, example problems and technical documentation. Arctic Region – Harrison and Gwydyr Bays, Alaska; Steffanson Sound, Alaska Atlantic Region – Boston and Vicinity, Massachusetts; Casco Bay, Maine; Central Long Island Sound; Delaware Bay; Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island; Passamaquoddy Bay; Port Everglades, Florida; San Juan, Puerto Rico; St. Johns River, Florida. Gulf of Mexico Region – Galveston Bay, Texas; Lower Mississippi River, Louisiana; Mobile Bay; Sabine Lake; Tampa Bay, Florida.
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Pacific Region – Apra Harbor, Guam; Columbia River Estuary; Glacier Bay, Alaska; Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii; Prince William Sound, Alaska, San Diego Bay, California; Santa Barbara Channel, California, Strait of Juan de Fuca. International – ROPME Sea Area (Persian Gulf). United Nations Middle East Peace Process – sent to Israel and Cyprus to develop a joint Israeli – Palestinian GNOME implementation (2000).
Training Provided Scientific Support Coordinator (SSC) training for the Panama Canal Authority (ACP). Training included science in the Incident Command, modeling techniques, and field observations: helicopter overflight and Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Technique (SCAT), 2007. Advanced oil spill modeling – one week course - at Institut Mediterrani d’Estudis Avançats (IMEDEA), 2006. Black Sea Oil Spill Monitoring and Modeling – one week course. Tiblisi, Republic of Georgia, 2001. Science of Oil Spills – Introductory 1 week course in scientific issues related to oil spill response. Classes taught: Aerial Observations of Oil; Environmental Observations for Oil Spill Response; Environmental Sensitivity Index Maps; Modeling Products During Oil Spill Response; Modeling Strategy for Oil Spill Response; Physical Processes of Oil Transport; Oil Chemistry and Weathering; Satellites and Oil.
Invited talks and presentations • Invited by the Government of the Balearic Islands, Spain, and the Spanish Research Council to present a synthesis of major U.S. oil spills at an environmental conference on advancements in spills response since the TV Prestige incident. Also taught a one-week course on advanced spill modeling at Institut Mediterrani d’Estudis Avançats (IMEDEA), 2006.
Awards and Special Recognition External Awards and Citations 2006 Individual - Joint Warfare Analysis Center. Presented by JWAC Commander Captain David T. Ott, USN. Type of Award: JWAC Challenge Coin for accuracy of the GNOME trajectory model and supporting data. 2005 Group - USCG, Captain J.D. Sarubbi, Commander, Sector Delaware Bay. Coast Guard Meritorious Team Commendation to the Athos I Unified Command Team (certificate) for response to the T/V Athos I oil spill response (November 27, 2004 - May 1, 2005). I did the trajectory modeling. More serious spill than the volume of 30,000 gallons of Brazilian crude oil might indicate because of the nuclear power plant (shut down safely to prevent emergency shut down when oil detected at water intakes - when safely to reopen was a big question), and closed port in winter was getting close to running out of oil for refinery, and refrigerated foodstuffs because incoming vessels were on hold outside the port. 2004 Group - Department of Homeland Security US Coast Guard Public Service Certificate of Merit to the NOAA Office of Hazardous Materials Response. 2002 Group - I was the only trajectory modeler among a team of nine to go on-scene to offer assistance during the response to the sinking of the TV Prestige in November. NOAA received thank you notes for assistance provided from the following agencies of Spain: The Ambassador of Spain to the U.S. to Secretary Evans, Minister of the Environment Jaume Matas Palou to the Ambassador of the U.S. to Spain, The Ministry of Foreign Affairs to the Embassy of the U.S. Jose L. Rosello of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to the U.S. Embassy in Spain. 2001 Individual - USCG, Captain S.W. Rochon, Commanding Officer MSO New Orleans. Type of Award: USCG Certificate of Appreciation for trajectory modeling and other
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scientific support during the T/V Westchester spill (accident occurred November 28, 2000) of 544,400 gallons of Nigerian Crude Oil in to the Mississippi River south of New Orleans.
Awards and Special Recognition Internal NOAA Awards 2007 Special Act of Service – Citation “NOAA and UNH co-hosted the workshop “Innovative Coastal Modeling for Decision Support: Integrating Physical, Biological and Toxicological Models” in September, 2006. The workshop was well received by participants and provided a good opportunity for NOAA/ERD scientists to cloister and discuss modeling needs and direction. As the NOAA led on the workshop, Dr. Beegle- Krause worked tirelessly to develop an agenda and select participants that would make this workshop a success. During the period from March to September the scope and objectives of the workshop changed, expanded, contracted and finally converged. Dr. Beegle-Krause did a consistently great job of addressing these changes and ensuring that by the time of the workshop ERD needs were met with the final agenda and participants. Thanks!” 2007 – Special Act of Service – Citation “Dr. Beegle-Krause deserves recognition for her contributions to the Safe Seas 2006 exercise. On 7 – 9 August, the San Francisco Bay area hosted the largest most complex exercise ever collaboratively undertaken by the Coast Guard and the NOAA. This $4 million exercise involved over 500 Federal, State, local, industry, volunteer, and international participants from 80 agencies/organizations working in two major field commands. CJ worked tirelessly to ensure that disparate data sources were tracked, properly formatted, and ingested into numerical trajectory models. The relationships she built with external partners during this process will pay dividends to NOAA for years to come. Her contributions led directly to the success of the exercise and were exceptionally beneficial to NOAA.” 2005 – Special Act of Service – Citation “On 11 November 2005, an Integrated Tug/Barge System – ITB DBL 152 and the T/V Barge REBEL – collided with an unknown submerged obstruction approximately 32 miles offshore of the Western Louisiana Coast. The vessel carried a heavy oil that resulted in subsurface oiling both at the collision site and at the eventual salvage site. In addition to coordinating trajectory analysis and providing on-scene field support, Dr. Beegle-Krause spearheaded a document on the long-term fate of the remaining subsurface oil. Her contributions were critical in assuring State, Federal and Trustees of near shore resources that the oil did not pose a threat to the Texas coastline. Dr. Beegle-Krause’s commitment to providing the community with this assurance, representing NOAA on-scene and coordinating all trajectory activities is appreciated!” 2005 – M/V Selendang Ayu and M/V Athos I Spill Response. Group narrative “The award is presented for outstanding effort in support of the M/V Selendang Ayu and the M/V Athos I spill responses as part of the NOAA HAZMAT Scientific Support Team. The NOAA HAZMAT Team provided essential scientific support for these spill responses and each team member played a critical role in the success of the efforts. The NOAA HAZMAT scientific support enhanced the efficiency and effectiveness of the response efforts and minimized the environmental impacts of the spills.” 2003 – Special Act of Service - Citation “In May of 2003 a BP exploration well in the Gulf of Mexico suffered a pipe break. This even posed a unique problem for HAZMAT as we have never before been requested to look at the trajectory implications of oil and /or gas from a deepwater event. Over the last year HAZMAT has been working with the deepwater blowout model developed at Clarkson University, CDOG. Dr. Beegle-Krause has coordinated this effort. Her consistent attention to the details of ensuring that the work meets HAZMAT needs was evident during this response. In addition to the background work she has done, her thoughtful approach to providing guidance to our SSC and to BP will lead to better support from HAZMAT in the future. Thanks for a job well done!” 2003 – Appreciation for participation in Hazmat Duty Officer program
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Professional Memberships
American Geophysical Union American Meteorological Society American Physical Society Marine Technology Society The Oceanography Society
Committee and Panel Appointments
U.S. Minerals Management Service – Modeling Review Board. 2009 - present. Oil Spill Recovery Institute, Science and Technical Committee. 2009 - present. Washington Oil Spill Advisory Council, Technical Advisory Committee, 2008, and office under the Governor’s office. Report “Washington State’s Capacity to Respond to Large-Scale Oil Spills” is currently in draft form and available at http://www.governor.wa.gov/osac/. Co-Chair Ocean.us Modeling and Assessment Steering Team, 2006-2008. MAST developed an initial national strategic plan for integrated oceanographic research. Ocean.us reported to the Interagency Working Group on Ocean Observations (IWGOO), under the Joint subcommittee on Ocean Science and Technology (JSOST) of the National Science and Technology Council (NSTC) Committee on Environmental and Natural Resources (CENR) and Committee on Science (CS), under the President’s Cabinet. Ocean.us was replaced by the Integrated Ocean Observing System (IOOS) program, housed at NOAA. “Alaska Cruise Ship Science Advisory Panel” 2001-2006. Scientific advice regarding potential pollution issues from the cruise ship industry in Alaskan coastal waters "Education in Ocean Sciences: Career and Curricula" The Oceanography Society Fourth Scientific Meeting, April 18th -21st, 1995. One of four graduate students selected nationally. My discussion was "What graduate students really need from the curriculum and faculty."
Community Activity Examples
Ballard Maritime Academy – Since January 2002 have supplied customized trajectory models and other materials for use in Mr. John Foster’s high school classroom for a week long oil spill scenario and visited the classroom on an inter-annual basis. The Maritime Academy is a learning center that combines English, History and Science around a maritime theme. GNOME allows the students to create realistic response model products for the exercise. Virginia Middle School Teachers – Since December 2004 have working with Mike Newman of the Virginia Institute of Marine Science to develop a teaching tool for middle school teachers using GNOME in the Chesapeake Bay with the NOAA/CSDL Chesapeake Bay nowcast/forecast model. Bryant Elementary School – spring 2001 volunteered as a science mentor for 4th and 5th graders preparing for their science fair. Worked weekly with a group of 5 students to design and execute experiments, and prepare a presentation on how rock crystal size relates to rock strength for various rock types.
Other Activities
1992-1993 Member U.S. Fencing Association World Cup Team 1991 U.S. Fencing Association North American Cup Winner
Publications
Kaplan, B., CJ Beegle-Krause, D. French McCay, A. Copping, S. Geerlofs, eds. 2010. Updated Summary of Knowledge: Selected Areas of the Pacific Coast. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation, and Enforcement, Pacific OCS Region, Camarillo, CA. OCS Study BOEMRE 2010-014.
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Beegle-Krause, C.J., T.C. Vance, D. Reusser, D. Stuebe, and E. Howlett (2009). Pelagic Habitat Visualization: The Need for a Third (and Fourth) Dimension: HabitatSpace. Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Estuarine and Coastal Modeling, November 4-6, 2009, Seattle, Washington. Mesnick, S.M., T.C. Vance, CJ Beegle-Krause, and D. Steube (2009). HabitatSpace: Multidimensional Characterization of Pelagic Essential Fish Habitat. Ocean 2009 MTS/IEEE Biloxi, Biloxi, Mississippi, USA, October 26-29, 2009. Beegle-Krause, C., Allen, A., Bub, F., Howlett, E., Glenn, S., Kohut, J., Schofield, O., Terrill, E., Thomas, J., Tomlinson, M. and Tintoré, J., (2010). "Observations as Assets in Decision Support" in Proceedings of OceanObs’09: Sustained Ocean Observations and Information for Society (Vol. 2), Venice, Italy, 21-25 September 2009, Hall, J., Harrison, D.E. & Stammer, D., Eds., ESA Publication WPP-306, doi:10.5270/OceanObs09.cwp.03. de La Beaujardière, J., Beegle-Krause, C., Bermudez, L., Hankin, S., Hazard, L., Howlett, E., Le, S., Proctor, R., Signell, R., Snowden, D. and Thomas, J., (2010). "Ocean and Coastal Data Management" in Proceedings of OceanObs’09: Sustained Ocean Observations and Information for Society (Vol. 2), Venice, Italy, 21-25 September 2009, Hall, J., Harrison, D.E. & Stammer, D., Eds., ESA Publication WPP-306, doi:10.5270/OceanObs09.cwp.22 French-McCay, D., CJ Beegle-Krause, J. Rowe, and D Schmidt Etkin (2009) “Oil Spill Risk Assessment – Relative Impact Indices by Oil Type and Location” Arctic and Marine Oil Pollution Conference “AMOP”, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, June 9-11. Arnone, R. and CJ Beegle-Krause (2007) “Hazardous Material Spill Response” a case study in Embracing the Full Spectrum of IOOS Environmental Information for MDA: Summit Proceedings, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC, September 24-26,2007, Ocean.us Publication No. 17. Beegle-Krause, CJ, C O’Connor and G Watabayahi. “NOAA Safe Seas Exercise 2006: new data streams, data communication and forecasting capabilities for spill forecasting” AMOP 2007 Proceedings, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, June 5-7, 2007. Ottawa, Ont: Environment Canada. Beegle-Krause, CJ, C Barker, G Watabayashi and W. Lehr. “Long-Term Transport of Oil from the T/B DBL-152: Lessons Learned for Oils Heavier than Seawater” AMOP 2006 Proceedings, Vancouver B.C., Canada, June 6-8, 2006. Ottawa, Ont: Environment Canada. Loehr, LC, CJ Beegle-Krause, K. George, CD McGee, AJ Mearns and MJ Atkinson. “ The Significance of Dilution in Evaluation Possible Impacts of Waste Water Discharges From Large Cruise Ships”. 2006 Marine Pollution Bulletin, Volume 52 (6) pp. 681-688. Beegle-Krause, CJ, M Fonseca and G. Shigenaka 2005 “NOAA Habitat Recovery Models using Cellular Automata Techniques” International Oil Spill Conference, Miami Florida, 15-18 May 2005. Beegle-Krause, CJ, and Walton (Tad) Lynch, [Sr HSE Advisor – BP Exploration and Production] 2005 “Combining Modeling with Response in Potential Deep Well Blowout: Lessons Learned from Thunder Horse.” International Oil Spill Conference, Miami Florida, 15-18 May 2005. Beegle-Krause, CJ “Advantages of Separating the Circulation Model and Trajectory Model: GNOME Trajectory Model Used with Outside Circulation Models”. AMOP 2003 Proceedings, Victoria B.C., Canada, June 10-12, 2003. Ottawa, Ont: Environment Canada. 2003. Vol 2: pp. 825-840. Beegle-Krause, CJ, J Callahan, and C O’Connor. “NOAA Model Extended to Use Nowcast/Forecast Currents”. IOSC 2003 Proceedings, Vancouver. B.C. Canada, April 6-11, 2003 API Publication No. 14730. Yapa, P.D., F.H. Chen, and C.J. Beegle-Krause. Integration of the CDOG Deep Water Oil and Gas Blowout Model with the NOAA GNOME Trajectory Model. AMOP 2003 Proceedings, Victoria, B.C., Canada, June 10-12, 2003. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. 2003. Vol 2: pp. 935-951. Alan Mearns, Michael Stekoll, Kenneth Hall, Error! Contact not defined., Michael Watson and Marlin Atkinson: “Biological and Ecological Effects of Wastewater Discharges from Cruise Ships in Alaska” Oceans 2003 conference. Lincoln Loehr, Marlin Atkinson, Kenwyn George and CJ Beegle-Krause: “Using a Simple Dilution Model to Estimate Wastewater Contaminant Concentrations Behind Moving Passenger Vessels” submitted Oceans 2003 conference. Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation, Commercial Passenger Vessel Environmental Compliance Program (2002) Science Advisory Panel “The Impact of Cruise Ship Waste Water Discharge on Alaska Waters” 272 pp.
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Beegle-Krause, C.J. Advantages of Separating the Circulation Model and Trajectory Model: GNOME Trajectory Model Used with Outside Circulation Models. AMOP 2003 Proceedings, Victoria, B.C., Canada, June 10-12, 2003. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. 2003. Vol 2: pp. 825-840. Beegle-Krause, C.J., J. Callahan, and C. O'Connor. NOAA Model Extended to Use Nowcast/Forecast Currents. IOSC 2003 Proceedings, Vancouver, B.C., Canada, April 6-11, 2003. API Publication No. 14730. Beegle-Krause, C.J. General NOAA Oil Modeling Environment (GNOME): A New Spill Trajectory Model. IOSC 2001 Proceedings, Tampa, FL, March 26-29, 2001. St. Louis, MO: Mira Digital Publishing, Inc. Vol. 2: pp. 865-871. Beegle-Krause, C.J. 1999. GNOME: NOAA's Next-Generation Spill Trajectory Model. Oceans '99 MTS/IEEE Proceedings. Escondido, CA: MTS/IEEE Conference Committee. vol. 3: pp. 1262- 1266. Beegle, C.J., 1995: "Fires and Funds: A Young Scientist's Perspective", Oceanography 8, 34. Beegle, C.J. 1993: Coaches Column, "Training Tips to a Top Performance: Athlete Hydration Lev- els", American Fencing 43(3):12. MacLeod, I. A., N. A. North and C. J. Beegle: "Preventative measures during excavation and site protection", Bulletin of the Maritime Archaeological Association, November 1985: 113-132.
- 8 - 525 Head Street (A37952) Victoria, BC, Canada V9A 5S1 Phone: (250) 383-4535 Fax: (250) 383-0103 www.archipelago.bc.ca
BRIAN EMMETT, M.Sc., R.P.Bio. Vice-President and Senior Advisor, Research and Development
Education Bachelor of Science (Biology and Biochemistry (1974) Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS Master of Science, (Biology) (1980) University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC
PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE Mr. Emmett has over thirty five years of experience in coastal marine and fisheries biology in British Columbia, primarily in the field of marine habitat and environmental assessment. He has a broad interest in the development of sound and sustainable approaches to marine habitat and resource management. He has extensive experience in the development of innovative survey, sampling and monitoring methods for coastal marine resources. Over the past fifteen years he has focused on marine environmental assessment, fishery sustainability issues, coastal planning and management. He has been involved in the development of guidelines for coastal stewardship, analysis of sustainable fishing practices in British Columbia, documentation of fisheries interactions with other marine user interests and environmental assessment of major marine development projects. He is a founding member of the Green Shores program, a shore development rating and certification program (www.greenshores.ca) modelled after the highly successful LEEDtm Green Building certification program. Mr. Emmett maintains excellent professional relationships with both regulatory agencies and the commercial fishing sector. He has authored over 50 consultant reports and refereed publications.
SELECTED PROJECT EXPERIENCE Development of the Green Shores rating and certification system for coastal development based on LEEDtm Green Building principles. (2005 to present) (www.greenshores.ca). Marine environmental assessment for the proposed NaiKun wind farm in Hecate Strait, British Columbia (2007 - 2010) Senior advisor for the marine environmental assessment team for the Nai Kun wind farm project proposed for Dogfish Bank, Hecate Strait. Technical team leader of the Green Shores shore development rating and certification program (www.greenshores.ca) Lead consultant for Neptune Canada fisheries consultation program, responsible for coordinating fisheries information to the route design team, identifying areas of potential conflict and developing mitigation strategies. Project team leader and senior author of “An analysis of the requirements, current conditions and opportunities for traceability in the BC seafood sector” (2005 and 2010 update). Conducted for the BC Seafood Alliance http://www.bcseafoodalliance.com/documents/Traceability.pdf Group leader for fisheries review section of “Overview of BC fisheries resource and assessment issues for a study of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) for the BC seafood and recreational fishing sectors”(2004)
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http://www.agf.gov.bc.ca/fisheries/reports/SWOT2004.htm Project head for the marine environmental assessment component of the proposed Juan de Fuca transmission line between Victoria and Port Angeles. Participated in the National Energy Board hearings with respect to fisheries resource and fishing activity interactions. Project Manager for Victoria and Esquimalt Harbours intertidal and subtidal habitat mapping, available on CRD’s Harbour atlas (www.harboursatlas.ca). Conducted an assessment of progress towards sustainability in the BC seafood sector. Project leader for the development of standards for the identification of Marine Sensitive Zones in British Columbia for the BC Land Use Coordination Office (1997/98). Project Lead and senior author for “An assessment of progress towards environmental sustainability in British Columbia’s seafood (fisheries and aquaculture) sector” conducted for the BC Seafood Alliance (2001). Leader of an ongoing research program to develop video (ROV) survey monitoring protocols for finfish farm sites in British Columbia.
Professional Associations Registered Professional Biologist (BC) American Fisheries Society
Committee Activities Past Chair - City of Victoria Environment and Shoreline Advisory Committee (2003- 2006) Project Neptune Science Advisory Committee (2006 to present) Camosun College Environmental Technology Program Advisory Committee (2005 to present) University of Victoria Restoration of Natural Systems Advisory Committtee Coordinator – Green Shore Technical Working Group
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Matt Hammond, B.Sc., P.Dip.E.Sc., R.P.Bio. Senior Environmental Assessment Specialist
SPECIFIC EXPERTISE/SKILLS . Environmental Impact Assessment . Wildlife assessment and ecological studies . Regulatory reporting and compliance monitoring . Project management
BACKGROUND/QUALIFICATION EDUCATION Mr. Hammond is a biologist and environmental assessment Post-graduate Diploma specialist with 10 years of experience. He is focused on the in Environmental Science management of ecological, socioeconomic and cultural studies, and and Management Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) for projects requiring Capilano University, 2004 environmental approvals. His experience includes: B.Sc. in Zoology Authoring and reviewing complex EIA reports following University of Calgary international standards and best practice 1998 Conducting wildlife and ecological studies for a variety of EIAs, delivering strategic advice on EIA projects, regulator and client PROFESSIONAL liaison, project scoping, study design, data collection and analysis, report preparation, mitigation design, and stakeholder ACHIEVEMENT consultation. Presenter of Paper on Small Hydro Matt has a detailed understanding of EIA methodologies, and Best Practices at the Annual regulatory requirements and processes. He is experienced in EIA Conference for IAIA, Puebla, policy and guidelines, and has developed a solid working Mexico, 2010 relationship with many regulatory agencies. Matt has worked on Delivered training course on hydro projects for a variety of private sectors, governmental agencies, and and wind energy as part of Clean international groups. Energy BC 2010 conference
EMPLOYMENT HISTORY Panellist on Cumulative Effects Assessment as part of Clean 2004 to Present Environmental Assessment Specialist/ Biologist, Energy BC 2010 conference Pottinger Gaherty Environmental Consultants Ltd., Vancouver, BC Presenter of Paper on Role of EIA Policy in a Green Economy at the 2007 Project Coordinator Annual Conference for IAIA – Soropta Leatherback Conservation Project, Hosted by UNEP, Geneva, Panama Switzerland, 2010 2000 to 2003 Project Coordinator Pacuare Nature Reserve, Costa Rica Species at Risk Workshop – Training for Professionals, 2008 2000 to 2001 Project Coordinator Sea Turtle Protection Society of Greece, Greece Workshop on Screenings under the CEAA, Canadian MEMBERSHIPS AND CERTIFICATION Environmental Assessment Agency, 2006 Program Director – International Association of Impact Assessment (IAIA) – Western and Northern Canada Affiliate LANGUAGES Association of Professional Biologists of British Columbia – Intermediate fluency in French and Registered Professional Biologist (R.P.Bio) Spanish. (A37952)
Matt Hammond, B.Sc., P.Dip.E.Sc., R.P.Bio. Senior Environmental Assessment Specialist
REPRESENTATIVE PROJECT EXPERIENCE Quottoon Hydro Cluster Environmental Impact Assessment (near Prince Rupert, BC) – EIA coordinator for a proposed 60MW cluster of seven hydroelectric facilities on the BC north coast. Preliminary environmental baseline studies are informing the preliminary feasibility studies and design. The project will be undergoing a provincial Environmental Assessment (EA) review. (2011– ongoing). Strategic Environmental Assessment for Ladysmith Master Plan (BC) – Project Manager for the SEA of a large property undergoing master planning for a neighbourhood. With the application of an SEA process, environmental and social values will be incorporated early on in the planning and provide a strong basis for future Environmental Impact Assessment within the municipal process. (2011–ongoing) Vedder Mountain Quarry Environmental Impact Assessment (BC) – Project Manager for an EIA of a proposed expansion of an aggregate quarry. The project will be going through a provincial EA process (2010–ongoing). Ruskin Dam Hydroelectric Dam Upgrade EIA Expert Review (BC) – Conducting an expert review of the EIA for a proposed dam-upgrade project by BC Hydro on behalf of a First Nation stakeholder. (2010–ongoing) Strategic Environmental Assessment for Malahat and Shawnigan Master Plan – Primary author of an SEA for the planning of large properties in the Shawnigan area of Vancouver Island. The SEA has identified key areas of environmental value and prescribed design and management objectives to promote sustainable development (2009-ongoing). Jamie Creek Hydro Project (near Gold Bridge, BC) – Project Manager for an EIA and regulatory approvals for a 20MW run-of-river hydroelectric plant. (2007–ongoing) Culliton Creek Hydro Project (near Squamish, BC) – Senior review of EA and strategic advice regarding regulatory process. (2009 – ongoing) Foreshore Remediation Environmental Impact Assessment (Whitehorse, Yukon) – Lead author of the EIA for a technically complex remediation project on the Yukon River for review by territorial and federal regulators. The project completed the Yukon Environmental and Socio-economic Assessment Board process in 2010. (2009–ongoing) Fairwinds Neighbourhood Plans Environmental Impact Assessment (Nanoose Bay, BC) – Lead author of a comprehensive EIA for a proposed neighbourhood development on Vancouver Island. The EIA included assessments of potential impacts to species and ecosystems at risk and provided detailed mitigation plans to manage possible adverse effects. (2009–ongoing) Kinskuch Hydro Project Environmental Impact Assessment (near Stewart, BC) – Project Manager for the environmental assessment (EA) of an 80MW hydroelectric project going through a harmonized BC and Canadian Environmental Assessment regulatory process. Tasks include project team management, liaison with multiple regulatory agencies, strategic advice, technical studies, First Nations consultation, and directing the stakeholder consultation program. (2008–ongoing) NaiKun Offshore Wind Energy Project Environmental Impact Assessment (Haida Gwaii, BC) – Project Manager for the biological and cultural studies, and conducted and authored the terrestrial ecology studies for the EIA for provincial and federal EA approvals. Work included the management of a large multi-disciplinary team of elite scientists and archaeologists to produce a multi-volume EIA report that achieved provincial approval. (2005–2009) Phantom Lake Hydro Project (near Sechelt, BC) – Conducted wildlife field surveys and prepared reports to support an EA for CEAA approval of a proposed energy project at a subalpine lake. (2008-ongoing) Silvermere Development (BC) – Lead author of a comprehensive EIA of a 100-unit housing development with complex fisheries, wildlife, and socioeconomic issues. Detailed assessments were conducted and mitigation plans were prepared in consultation with a local stewardship group. (2005– ongoing)
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Matt Hammond, B.Sc., P.Dip.E.Sc., R.P.Bio. Senior Environmental Assessment Specialist
Concord Pacific and Squamish Nation’s Porteau Cove Development (BC) – Lead author of a comprehensive EIA for a proposed 1,400-unit housing development on a 1,177-acre site at Porteau Cove, BC, including fish and wildlife assessments and development of environmental management plans for federal (DFO, CEAA) and district approvals (2006). Tamihi Creek Hydro Project (near Chilliwack, BC) – Conducted wildlife impact assessment for proposed run-of-river hydro project. (2004–2006) Pavilion Quarry (BC) – Completed a comprehensive EIA study of a limestone quarry for federal and First Nation review, following CEAA guidelines. (2005) Site C Hydroelectric Project (Peace River, BC) – Conducted a critical data review and gap analysis to scope the future EIA application for a 900MW Site C hydroelectric project on the Peace River for BC Hydro. Wrote the terms of reference for studies needed to complete the EIA. (2004) Thunderbird Creek (BC) – Co-authored the EIA report for a community development in Squamish, BC. (2004–2005)
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Jeffrey W. Short 19315 Glacier Highway Juneau, Alaska 99801 (907) 789-0579 (h) (907) 789-6065 (w) (907) 209-3321 (cell) [email protected]
Professional Experience:
Scientific Support Coordinator, Multidistrict Litigation Plaintiffs following the Deepwater Horizon Blowout in the Gulf of Mexico, 2010 (July 2010 to Present). I was retained beginning summer 2010 to coordinate the scientific support for the multidistrict litigation, a process involving over 100 law firms and tens of thousands of clients, which include local and regional governments. The scientific support coordination includes: (1) identifying, evaluating and recommending scientific experts for consideration as expert witnesses, (2) identifying data sources for incorporation into the overall data management system for litigation support; (3) identifying needs for targeted scientific studies, designing them and identifying research organizations to execute them; (4) advising the legal team as to the scientific basis for contemplated litigation; and (5) other duties as identified by the Plaintiffs Steering Committee. The firms and clients constitute the largest group of plaintiffs following the event.
Pacific Science Director, Oceana (November 17, 2008 to December 30, 2010). My main focus was to foster and coordinate the collaborative development and articulation of the scientific rationale for ocean policy recommendations of the Pacific Team of Oceana. My responsibilities included ensuring that policy recommendations have a firm scientific basis, identifying the most compelling scientific arguments for these recommendations, and providing scientific advice regarding advocacy and litigation priorities. As supervisor of the Pacific Team’s scientific staff, I was also responsible for the scientific defense of Oceana’s advocacy positions at scientific, litigation and policy venues relevant to Pacific and Arctic Ocean issues, including their articulation in media ranging from op/ed articles and news releases to peer-reviewed scientific manuscripts, and for supporting these activities through grant writing. Finally, I promoted our contacts with the scientific community engaged in ocean and climate research, with relevant government agencies and with other environmental organizations.
Expert Witness, Cosco Busan Oil Spill (April 2009 to present). Retained by Cotchett, Pitre & McCarthy LLP to provide advice and testimony on behalf of fishing industry plaintiffs injured by the 2008 Cosco Busan oil spill in San Francisco Bay, California.
Expert Witness, Lake Wabamun Oil Spill (October 2007 to November 2008). On loan from the US Government to the Government of Canada, I designed and supervised a study to estimate the amount of oil remaining in Lake Wabamun , Alberta following a Canadian National derailment a year earlier, and wrote an expert opinion on the implications of the results. Case settled out of court in favor of the government.
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Supervisory Research Chemist, Alaska Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service (1982 through November 2008). My four basic responsibilities include acting as principal investigator (PI) on research projects, managing the Center’s marine chemistry laboratory, advising the government’s legal team on the long-term fate and effects of the1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill, and reviewing research products that touch on the environmental chemistry of oil for the Center and for numerous peer-reviewed environmental journals.
Research Project Principal Investigator. This includes conceiving, designing, securing funding, executing, analyzing and publishing results for environmental research projects, usually in collaboration with numerous colleagues and support staff. Most of my work has been on the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Major projects included: (1) assessment of the initial distribution and persistence of the spilled oil in seawater; (2) discovery and elucidation of a cryptic toxicity mechanism through which oil pollution is nearly 1,000- fold more toxic to fish eggs than previously thought; (3) definitive refutation of alternative hydrocarbon pollution sources advanced by scientists employed by Exxon Corp. as plausible causes of biological effects in the Exxon Valdez impact area; (4) discovery of a natural hydrocarbon trophic tracer in the marine food web of the northern Gulf of Alaska; and (5) quantitative measurement of the amount and loss rate of Exxon Valdez oil lingering in beaches 12 years or longer after the incident. Each of these was funded at $500K to $5M, and I played the leading role on all but the second. A summary of these projects appeared in Science as a review article I co-authored in 2003 (See Peterson, C.H et al.). A list of salient publications from these efforts is attached.
Manager, AFSC Marine Chemistry Laboratory. I presided over a major expansion of the AFSC marine chemistry laboratory in the aftermath of the Exxon Valdez spill, when the government urgently needed additional capacity capable of meeting the stringent standards imposed by impending litigation. Staff increased nearly tenfold from two, and successfully qualified as one of only three such facilities nationally to participate, generating revenues of $500K - $1M annually. Today the facility is internationally recognized, specializing in the environmental analysis of hydrocarbons, biogenic lipids in support of nutritional ecology studies, and high-precision characterization of the marine carbonate buffer system in support of incipient studies on ocean acidification.
Scientific Advisor to the Exxon Valdez Legal Team for the Governments of Alaska and the United States. The civil settlement between Exxon Corp. and the governments of Alaska and the US created a $900M fund administered by the Exxon Valdez Trustee Council that supported scientific studies, habitat acquisition and other impact offsets. I was one of four scientists selected to design the Council’s scientific review policy and administrative structure, and I have since provided policy guidance on request on numerous occasions. Other implemented advice includes publication of the 1993 symposium presenting the initial findings of the Exxon Valdez oil spill impacts as a book, establishment of and support for the annual Alaska Marine Science Conference begun in 1993, and (until recently) retention of the peer-review system for proposal evaluation.
Reviewer and Advisor for the AFSC on Chemistry Issues. In addition to providing peer-review of dozens of manuscripts submitted to scientific journals and proposals submitted to various funding agencies, I provided scientific advice to or on
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behalf of NMFS management. This includes providing occasional invited testimony to the Alaska Legislature and Governor, NOAA management and the Scientific and Statistical Committee of the North Pacific Fisheries Management Council, and advice to government agencies in Canada, China, Norway and Russia.
Education:
Bachelor of Science, Biochemistry and Philosophy, University of California at Riverside, 1973
Master of Science, Physical Chemistry, University of California at Santa Cruz, 1982
Doctor of Philosophy, Fisheries Biology, University of Alaska at Fairbanks, 2005
Languages: Mandarin Chinese (speak, read and write)
Selected Activities and Honors:
Bronze Medal, U. S. Department of Commerce, "For scientific research and publications describing the long-term, insidious effects of oil pollution on fish embryos at parts per billion levels"
Appointment as Visiting Professor for the Key Laboratory of Oil Spill Identification and Damage Assessment Technology, State Oceanic Administration, Qingdao, People’s Republic of China
Appointment as Science Advisor, Alaska Marine Conservation Council, who sponsor presentations I make around Alaska on the prospective impacts of climate change and ocean acidification on Alaska’s fisheries
Appointment to the Governor’s Sub-Cabinet Adaptation Advisory Group on Climate Change in Alaska
Coordinating scientist for an on-going, privately-funded $470K study of the impacts of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and toxic metals on the Athabasca River system from tar sands mining, in conjunction with the University of Alberta and Queen’s University in Canada
Selected Publications:
Kelly, E.N., Schindler, D.W., Hodson, P.V., Short, J.W., Radmanovich, R., Nielsen, C.C. 2010. Oil sands development contributes elements toxic at low concentrations in the Athabasca River and its tributaries. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, (in press).
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Kelly, E.N., Short, J.W., Schindler, D.W., Hodson, P.V., Ma, M., Kwan, A.K., Fortin, B.L. 2009. Oil sands development contributes polycyclic aromatic compounds to the Athabasca River and its tributaries. Proceedings National Academy Science 106:22346-22351.
Springman, K.R., Short, J.W., Lindeberg, M.R., Maselko, J.M., Kahn, C., Hodson, P.V., Rice, S.D. 2008. Semipermeable membrane devices link site-specific contaminants to effects: Part I—induction of CYP1A in rainbow trout from contaminants In Prince William Sound, Alaska. Marine Environmental Research 66:477-486.
Short,J.W., Springman,K.R., Lindeberg,M.R., Holland,L.G., Larsen,M.L., Sloan, C.A., Khan,C., Hodson,P.V., Rice,S.D. 2008. Semipermeable membrane devices link site-specific contaminants to effects: Part II – a comparison of lingering Exxon Valdez oil with other potential sources of CYP1A inducers in Prince William Sound, Alaska. Marine Environmental Research 66:487-498.
Short, J.W. 2007. Application of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in chemical fingerprinting. Ch. 9 in Environmenal Impact of Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons, C. Anyakora, (ed.) Research Signpost.
Short, J.W., Kolak, J.J., Payne, J.R., Van Kooten, G.V. 2007. An evaluation of petrogenic hydrocarbons in northern Gulf of Alaska continental shelf sediments – the role of coastal seep inputs. Organic Geochemistry 38:643-670.
Short, J.W., Irvine, G.V., Mann, D.H., Maselko, J.M., Pella, J.J., Lindeberg, M.R., Payne, J.R., Driskell, W.B., Rice, S.D. 2007. Slightly weathered Exxon Valdez oil persists in Gulf of Alaska beach sediments after 16 years. Environmental Science & Technology 41(4):1245-1250.
Carls, M.G., Short, J.W., Payne, J. 2006. Accumulation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by Neocalanus copepods in Port Valdez, Alaska. Marine Environmental Research 52:1480-1489.
Short, J. W., Springman, K. R. 2006. Identification of hydrocarbons in biological samples for source determination. Ch. 12 in Oil Spill Environmental Forensics - Fingerprinting and Source Identification, Wang, Z and Stout, S. (eds) Elsevier.
Short, J.W., Maselko, J.M., Lindeberg, M.R., Harris, P.M., Rice, S.D. 2006. Vertical Distribution and Probability of Encountering Intertidal Exxon Valdez Oil on Shorelines of Three Embayments within Prince William Sound, Alaska. Environmental Science & Technology 40(12):3723-3729.
Irvine, G.V., Mann, D.H., Short, J.W. 2006. Persistence of 10-year old Exxon Valdez oil on Gulf of Alaska beaches: The importance of boulder armoring. Marine Pollution Bulletin 52:1011-1022.
Barron, M.G., Carls, M.G., Short, J.W., Rice, S.D., Heintz, R.A., Rau, M., Di Giulio, R. 2005. Assessment of the phototoxicity of weathered Alaska North Slope crude oil to juvenile pink salmon. Chemosphere 60:105-110.
Carls, M. G., Holland, L. G., Short, J. W., Heintz, R. A., and Rice, S. D. 2004. Monitoring polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in aqueous environments with passive low-density polyethylene membrane devices. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 23:1416-1424
Clark, L., Khan, C. W., Akhtar, P., Hodson, P. V., Lee, K, Wang, Z., Short, J. 2004. Comparative toxicity of four crude oils to the early life stages of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Proceedings of the Twentyseventh Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program (AMOP) Technical Seminar, Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ont. pp. 785-792.
Short, J. W., Lindeberg, M. R., Harris, P. M., Maselko, J. M., Pella, J. J., and Rice, S. D. 2004. An estimate of oil persisting on beaches of Prince William Sound, 12 years after the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Environmental Science and Technology, 38:19-26.
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Petersen, C. H., Rice, S. D., Short, J. W., Esler, D., Bodkin, J. L., Ballachey, B. E., and Irons, D. B. 2003. Emergence of ecosystem based toxicology: Long term consequences of the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Science, 302:2082-2086.
Barron, M. G., Carls, M. G., Short, J. W., and Rice, S. D. 2003. Photoenhanced toxicity of aqueous phase and chemically dispersed weathered Alaska North Slope crude oil to Pacific herring eggs and larvae. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 22:650-660.
Duesterloh, S., Short, J. W., and Barron, M. G. 2002. Photoenhanced toxicity of weathered Alaska North Slope crude oil to the calanoid copepods Calanus marshallae and Metridia okhotensis. Environmental Science and Technology 36:3953-3959.
Van Kooten, G. W., Short, J. W., and Kolak, J. J. 2002. Low maturity Kulthieth Formation coal: A possible source of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in benthic sediment of the northern Gulf of Alaska. Environmental Forensics 3:227-242.
Heintz, R. A., S. D. Rice, A. C. Wertheimer, R. F. Bradshaw, F. P. Thrower, J. E. Joyce, and J. W. Short. 2000. Delayed effects on growth and marine survival of pink salmon Oncorhynchus gorbuscha after exposure to crude oil during embryonic development. Marine Ecology Progress Series 208:205-216
Heintz, R.A., J.W. Short, and S.D. Rice. 1999. Sensitivity of fish embryos to weathered crude oil: Part II. Incubating downstream from weathered Exxon Valdez crude oil caused increased mortality of pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) embryos. Environ. Toxicol Chem 18: 494-503
Murphy, M.L., R.A. Heintz, J.W. Short, Larsen, M.L., and S.D. Rice. 1999. Recovery of pink salmon spawning after the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 128:909-918.
Short, J.W., K.A. Kvenvolden, P.R. Carlson, F.D. Hostettler, R.J. Rosenbauer, and B.A. Wright. 1999. The natural hydrocarbon background in benthic sediments of Prince William Sound, Alaska: oil vs. coal. Environ. Sci. Tech. 33: 34-42.
Irvine, G. V., D. H. Mann, and J. W. Short. 1999. Multi-year persistence of oil mousse on high energy beaches distant from the Exxon Valdez spill origin. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 38:572-584.
Brown, E.D., B.L. Norcross, and J.W. Short. 1997. An introduction to studies on the effects of the Exxon Valdez oil spill on early life history stages of Pacific herring, Clupea pallasi, in Prince William Sound, Alaska. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 53: 2337-2342.
Marty, G. D., J. W. Short, D.M. Dambach, N.H. Willits, R.A. Heintz, S.D. Rice, J.J. Stegeman, and D.E. Hinton. 1997. Ascites, premature emergence, increased gonadal cell apoptosis, and cytochrome P4501A induction in pink salmon larvae continuously exposed to oil-contaminated gravel during development. Canadian Journal of Zoology 75: 989-1007.
Short, J. W. and R. A. Heintz. 1997. Identification of Exxon Valdez oil in sediments and tissues from Prince William Sound and the Northwestern Gulf of Alaska based on PAH weathering. Environmental Science and Technology 31: 2375-2384.
Brown, E.D., T.T. Baker, J.E. Hose, R.M. Kocan, G.D. Marty, M.D. McGurk, B.L. Norcross, and J. Short. 1996. Injury to the early life history stages of Pacific herring in Prince William Sound after the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Pages 448-462 in Rice, S. D., R. B. Spies, D. A. Wolfe, and B. A. Wright (eds). Proceedings of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Symposium. American Fisheries Society Symposium 18. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland
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Carls, M.G., A.C. Wertheimer, J.W. Short, R.M. Smolowitz, and J. J. Stegeman. 1996. Contamination of juvenile pink and chum salmon by hydrocarbons in Prince William Sound after the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Pages 593-607 in Rice, S. D., R. B. Spies, D. A. Wolfe, and B. A. Wright (eds). Proceedings of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Symposium. American Fisheries Society Symposium 18. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland.
O’Clair, C. E., J. W. .Short, and S.D. Rice. 1996. Contamination of intertidal and subtidal sediments by oil from the Exxon Valdez in Prince William Sound. Pages 61-93 in Rice, S. D., R. B. Spies, D. A. Wolfe, and B. A. Wright (eds). Proceedings of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Symposium. American Fisheries Society Symposium 18. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland
Short, J.W. and M.M. Babcock. 1996. Prespill and postspill concentrations of hydrocarbons in mussels and sediments in Prince William Sound. Pages 149-166 in Rice, S. D., R. B. Spies, D. A. Wolfe, and B. A. Wright (eds). Proceedings of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Symposium. American Fisheries Society Symposium 18. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland.
Short, J.W. and P.M. Harris. 1996. Petroleum hydrocarbons in caged mussels deployed in Prince William Sound after the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Pages 29-39 in Rice, S. D., R. B. Spies, D. A. Wolfe, and B. A. Wright (eds). Proceedings of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Symposium. American Fisheries Society Symposium 18. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland.
Short, J.W. and P.M. Harris. 1996. Chemical sampling and analysis of petroleum hydrocarbons in near- surface seawater of Prince William Sound after the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Pages 17-28 in Rice, S. D., R. B. Spies, D. A. Wolfe, and B. A. Wright (eds). Proceedings of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Symposium. American Fisheries Society Symposium 18. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland.
Short, J.W., T.J. Jackson, M.L. Larsen, and T.L. Wade. 1996. Analytical methods used for the analysis of hydrocarbons in crude oil, tissues, sediments, and seawater collected for the Natural Resources Damage Assessment of the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Pages 140-148 in Rice, S. D., R. B. Spies, D. A. Wolfe, and B. A. Wright (eds). Proceedings of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Symposium. American Fisheries Society Symposium 18. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland.
Short, J.W., D.M. Sale, and J.C. Gibeaut. 1996. Nearshore transport of hydrocarbons and sediments after the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Pages 40-60 in Rice, S. D., R. B. Spies, D. A. Wolfe, and B. A. Wright (eds). Proceedings of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Symposium. American Fisheries Society Symposium 18. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland.
Wolfe, D.A., M.J. Hameedi, J.A. Galt, G. Watabayashi, J. Short, C. O’Clair, S. Rice, J. Michel, J.R. Payne, J. Braddock, S. Hanna, and D. Sale. 1994. The fate of the oil spilled from the Exxon Valdez. Environmental Science and Technology 28 (13): 561A-568A
Karinen, J.F., M.M. Babcock, D.W. Brown, W.D. MacLeod, Jr., L.S. Ramos, and J.W. Short. 1993. Hydrocarbons in intertidal sediments and mussels from Prince William Sound, Alaska, 1977- 1980: Characterization and probable sources. United States Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Technical Memorandum NMFS-AFSC-9. 69 p.
Stickle, W.B., J.L. Sharp-Dahl, S.D. Rice, and J.W. Short. 1990. Imposex induction in Nucella lima (Gmelin) via mode of exposure to tributyltin. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 143: 165-180.
Short, J.W., S.D. Rice, C.C. Brodersen, and W.B. Stickle. 1989. Occurrence of tri-n-butyltin caused imposex in the North Pacific marine snail Nucella lima in Auke Bay, Alaska. Mar. Biol. 102: 291- 297
Short, J.W. and J.L. Sharp. 1989. Tributyltin in bay mussels (Mytilus edulis) of the Pacific coast of the United States. Environ. Sci. Technol. 23(6): 740-743.
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Rice, S.D., M.M. Babcock, C.C. Brodersen, M.G. Carls, J.A. Gharrett, S. Korn, A. Moles, and J. Short. 1987. Lethal and sublethal effects of the water-soluble fraction of Cook Inlet crude oil on Pacific herring Clupea harengus pallasi reproduction. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS F/NWC-111, 63 p.
Short, J.W. 1987. Measuring tri-n-butyltin in salmon by atomic absorption: analysis with and without gas chromatography. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 39: 412-416.
Short, J.W. and F.P. Thrower. 1987. Toxicity of tri-n-butyltin to chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, adapted to seawater. Aquaculture 61: 193-200.Short, J.W. and F.P. Thrower. 1986. Tri-n-butyltin caused mortality of chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, on transfer to a TBT-treated marine net pen. Pages 1202-1205 in: Oceans 86 conference record. IEEE Service Center, 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ.
Short, J.W. and F.P. Thrower. 1986. Accumulation of butyltins in muscle tissue of chinook salmon reared in sea pens treated with tri-n-butyltin. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 17: 542-545.
Brodersen, C.C., S.D. Rice, J.W. Short, T.A. Mecklenburg, and J.F. Karinen. 1977. Sensitivity of larval and adult Alaska shrimp and crabs to acute exposures of the water-soluble fraction of Cook Inlet crude oil. Pp. 575-578 in API, EPA, and USCG, 1977 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), Proceedings of a symposium March 8-10, 1977, New Orleans. American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C.
Rice, S.D., J.W. Short, and J.F. Karinen. 1977. Comparative oil toxicity and comparative animal sensitivity. In Fate and Effects of Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Marine Organisms and Ecosystems (Edited by D.A. Wolfe), pp. 78-94. Proceedings of a symposium. New York, Pergamon Press.
Rice, S.D., R.E. Thomas, and J.W. Short. 1977. Effect of petroleum hydrocarbons on breathing and coughing rates and hydrocarbon uptake-depuration in pink salmon fry. In Physiological Responses of Marine Biota to Pollutants (Edited by F.J. Vernberg, A. Calabrese, F.P. Thurberg, and W.B. Vernberg), pp. 259-277. Academic Press Inc., New York. 462 p.
Rice, S.D., J.W. Short, C.C. Brodersen, T.A. Mecklenburg, D.A. Moles, C.J. Misch, D.L. Cheatham, and J.F. Karinen. 1976. Acute toxicity and uptake-depuration studies with Cook Inlet crude oil, Prudhoe Bay crude oil, No. 2 fuel oil and several subarctic marine organisms. Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., Proc. Rep., May 1976.
Rice, S.D., J.W. Short, and J.F. Karinen. 1976. Toxicity of Cook Inlet crude oil and No. 2 fuel oil to several Alaskan marine fishes and invertebrates. In ERDA, EPA, ELM, and API, Sources, Effects and Sinks of Hydrocarbons in the Aquatic Environment, Proceedings, pp. 395-406. Washington, D.C., American Institute of Biological Sciences, 578 p.
Short, J.W., S.D. Rice, and D.L. Cheatham. 1976. Comparison of two methods for oil and grease determination. In Assessment of the Arctic Marine Environment: Selected topics (Edited by D.W. Hood and D. C. Burrell). Institute of Marine Science, University of Alaska, Fairbanks.
Rice, S.D., D.A. Moles, and J.W. Short. 1975. The effect of Prudhoe Bay crude oil on survival and growth of eggs, alevins, and fry of pink salmon Oncorhynchus gorbuscha. In Proceedings of the 1975 Conference on Prevention and Control of Oil Pollution, pp. 503-507. American Petroleum Institute, Environmental Protection Agency, and U.S. Coast Guard, San Francisco.
Monitoring Reports
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Short, J.W., Holland, L.G., Larsen, M.L., Moles, A., Rice, S.D. 2006. Identification of PAH discharging into Eyak Lake from stormwater drains. Final Report to Copper River Watershed Project, P.O. Box 1430, Cordova, Alaska, 26 p.
Short J, Rice J, Moles A, Helton D. (2005) Results of the M/V Kuroshima oil spill shellfish tissue analysis 1999, 2000 & 2004. Final Report to the M/V Kuroshima Trustee Council. 7 pp.
Carls MG, Short JW, Payne J, Larsen M, Lunasin J, Holland L, Rice SD. 2005. Accumulation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by Neocalanus copepods in Port Valdez, Alaska (PWSRCAC Contract 956-04-01). Final Report to Prince William Sound Regional Citizens' Advisory Council, Anchorage, Alaska. 46 pp.
Payne JR, Driskell WB, Short JW. 2005. Prince William Sound RCAC Long Term Environmental Monitoring Program, 2003-2004 Final Report (PWSRCAC Contract 951.04.01). Final Report to Prince William Sound Regional Citizens' Advisory Council, Anchorage, Alaska. 123 pp.
Payne, J. R., Driskell, W. B. and J. W. Short. 2003. Prince William Sound Regional Citizens' Advisory Council Long-Term Environmental Monitoring Program: 2002-2003 LTEMP Monitoring Report (PWSRCAC Contract No. 951.03.1). 3709 Spenard Road, Anchorage, Alaska 99503.
Short, J. and P. Harris. 2002. Pristane monitoring in mussels and predators of juvenile pink salmon & herring, Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Restoration Project Annual Report (Restoration Project 01195), Auke Bay Laboratory, Juneau, Alaska.
Salazar, M, Salazar, S., Payne, J. and Short, J. 2002. Final report, 2001 Port Valdez integrated monitoring. Prince William Sound Regional Citizens' Advisory Council. 3709 Spenard Road, Anchorage, Alaska 99503.
Short, J. and P. Harris. 2001. Pristane monitoring in mussels and predators of juvenile pink salmon & herring, Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Restoration Project Annual Report (Restoration Project 00195), Auke Bay Laboratory, Juneau, Alaska.
Short, J. and P. Harris. 2000. Pristane monitoring in mussels and predators of juvenile pink salmon & herring, Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Restoration Project Annual Report (Restoration Project 98195), Auke Bay Laboratory, Juneau, Alaska.
Short, J. and P. Harris. 1999. Pristane monitoring in mussels and predators of juvenile pink salmon & herring, Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Restoration Project Annual Report (Restoration Project 98195), Auke Bay Laboratory, Juneau, Alaska.
Short, J. and P. Harris. 1998. Pristane monitoring in mussels and predators of juvenile pink salmon & herring, Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Restoration Project Annual Report (Restoration Project 97195), Auke Bay Laboratory, Juneau, Alaska.
Short, J. and P. Harris. 1997. Pristane monitoring in mussels and predators of juvenile pink salmon & herring, Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Restoration Project Annual Report (Restoration Project 96195), Auke Bay Laboratory, Juneau, Alaska.
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ROBERT B. SPIES, Ph.D [email protected] PO Box 315 Little River, CA 95456 (707) 937-6212
EDUCATION
Saint Mary’s College, 1965, B.S. Biological Science University of Pacific, 1969, M.S. Marine Biology University of Southern California, 1970, Ph.D. Marine Biology
SUMMARY OF EXPERIENCE
Recent experience/ current involvement, 2010-2011
Senior Environmental Advisor, Presidential Commission, BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill Oil Spill and Offshore Drilling, 2010 Responsible for advising staff and commissioners on environmental impacts of oil spills and restoration options. No public documents developed associated with my work for the Commission. I did not contribute written material to the Commission’s reports.
Consultant, to Ocean Conservancy on the BP Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill and restoration, 2010 to present. Includes preparation of description of Gulf of Mexico ecosystem, due to be further developed and posted on the OC’s web site.
Expert testimony presented to the US Senate Committee on the Environment and Public Works, July 27, 2010. Testimony consisted of a short oral presentation and submission of “Lessons Learned from the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill”.
Consultant, to Pew Trust Environmental Group on Arctic Science needs, 2010 to present. Will include comments on government identified scientific work needed relating to offshore drilling in the Arctic Ocean. This will involve a written critique that I will be developing with a group of Arctic experts.
Consultant to Los Angeles County Sanitation District with regard to marine protected areas off the Palos Verdes Peninsula. Prepared a report slated to go a judge with regard to appealing a nomination of a marine protected area designated by the State of California.
Pre-2009
Conservation Science Director, Alaska SeaLife Center, 2007-2009 Responsible for the $5M program in marine conservation science. Duties include: identifying and prioritizing research needs, directing staff, charting strategic direction, coordinating scientific review, serve on animal use and care committee, budget, and external communications.
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Chief Scientist, Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council, 1990-2001. Responsible for all aspects of the scientific program with a total budget of $6 to $30 million annually.
Synthesis and program development—Identified program accomplishments and needs through a workshop process. Organized and carried out numerous workshops with managers, scientists, attorneys and various interest groups to identify needed actions within the scientific program. Scientific workshops were on a wide variety of topics: survey techniques for marine mammals, harbor seal biology, pink salmon management, contaminant biomarkers, hydroacoustics, herring biology, sea bird biology and others. Helped organize and direct 3 major ecosystem-level programs in the Gulf of Alaska.
Editorial and Peer review-Maintained contacts with 200 plus peer reviewers, including procedures for assigning, contracting and assuring on time delivery of reviews of proposals, reports and publications. Organized and conducted annual meeting of core peer review team to evaluate 120+ proposals. Interacted with proposers and authors to revise papers.
Adaptive management-Helped construct program elements for an adaptive program including, evaluation of reports, the annual science symposium, the annual invitation for proposals, peer review of proposals, and some oversight of field work. Together with the Executive Director, made budgetary recommendations.
Status of resources-Responsible for reports to the Trustee Council on status of resources injured by the spill and their recovery.
Research and monitoring-Key participant in designing the Gulf Ecosystem Monitoring Program, a long-term monitoring program designed to run off the interest from the Exxon Valdez Trust Fund.
Scholarly- Syntheses of ecosystem information in preparation for the book: “Long-term ecological change in the northern Gulf of Alaska”, R.B. Spies (editor and contributor), Elsevier Press, Amsterdam, 589 pp. December 2006.
Other duties-Met frequently with the Public Advisory Committee, the press and government representatives to communicate findings.
President, Applied Marine Sciences, Livermore, California, 1990-present. Started company in 1990 and hired key staff through the 1990s. Obtained contracts, maintained familiarity with markets, and provided strategic guidance. Company averages about $1.9 million per year (gross revenues).
Research- reproductive impairment of kelp bass in southern California from PCB and DDT, effects of contaminants on fish in San Francisco Bay, effects of contaminants on arctic fishes and fishes in the Gulf of Alaska. Effects of
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contaminants on shiner surfperch in SF Bay, endocrine disruption in San Francisco Bay and Bay-Delta fish, environmental chemistry, natural petroleum seeps, stable isotopes as tracers and other topics.
Consulting work-Effects of PAH in sediments, Marine Protected Area EIS, management of intertidal areas at Fitzgerald Marine Reserve, review of Reports for San Francisco Estuary Institute, advising on study of potential effects of endocrine disrupting chemicals in municipal wastewater, dredging issues. Part of integration team to establish Marine Life Protected Areas in California, advising Ocean Conservancy on Deep Horizon oil spill.
Research Marine Scientist, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 1973-1990 (on leave of absence 1990-1993, early retirement 1994). Carried out research on radionuclides in coastal and atoll environments, effects of heavy metals, ecology of oil seeps, isotope tracers, application of accelerator mass spectrometry to marine ecology, and reproductive impairment of starry flounder in San Francisco Bay. Responsible for obtaining funding for research and supervising several laboratories, including an environmental chemistry laboratory.
Senior Research Officer, Marine Studies Group, Ministry for Conservation, Melbourne, Australia, 1970-1973-Carried out multi-disciplinary investigations of eutrophication of Port Phillip Bay, Victoria, including extensive benthic ecological studies..
Instructor, University of California , Los Angeles, 1968-Taught extension course on nearshore marine biology.
Other Professional Activities:
Editor in Chief, Marine Environmental Research , 1987-1993; 2001-
Editorial Board, Marine Environmental Research , 1993-2001
Editorial Board, Aquatic Toxicology, 1996-2008
US Regional Editor, Marine Environmental Research , 1980-1986
Member, National Research Council, Panel on Oil in the Sea III, 2000-2003
Member, San Francisco Estuary Institute Effects Studies Committee, 2002-2004
Member, Consulting Board, Southern California Coastal Water Research Project, 1986-1989
Member, Environmental Biology Review Panel, US Environmental Protection Agency, 1982-1984
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Member, Regional Effects Technical Advisory Committee, California Regional Water Quality Control Board, 1983-1986
Contributor, National Research Council's Report, Oil In the Sea , 1985
Chairman, Technical Advisory Committee, San Francisco Bay-Delta Project, 1987-1989.
Member, National Research Council, Panel on Particulate Wastes, Committee on Systems Assessment of Marine Environmental Monitoring, 1987-1989
Member, Scientific Peer Review Committee, Orange County Sanitation Districts, 1988
Member, Technical Review Committee, San Francisco Bay-Delta Aquatic Habitat Institute, 1990-1995
Member, Striped Bass Health Monitoring Review Committee, California Department of Fish and Game and State Water Resource Control Board, 1989- 1990
Member, Steering Committee, University of California at Santa Barbara, MMS Educational Initiative, 1990
Member, Workshop Panels on Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons (1988) and Genetic Effects of Sediment Contaminants (1990), Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station
Participant, Workshop to Assess NOAA's National Status and Trends, Program, 1987
Invited Speaker, NIEHS Conference on Marine Contaminants, 1986, Research Triangle, North Carolina
Participant, National Research Council, Workshop on Science and Litigation, September, 1991
Participant, National Research Council, Workshop on Coastal Science and Policy Interactions in the United States, Irvine, CA, 1992
Presenter, National Research Council, Committee on Exploitation of the Outer Continental Shelf, Anchorage, Alaska, 1992
Invited by the Minister of Transport in Great Britain and Govenor of Alaska to visit the site of the Sea Empress Oil Spill in Wales, March, 1996
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Member, Scientific Advisory Committee, UC System-wide Lead Campus Program in Exotoxicology, UC Davis. 1998-2001
Member, Public Advisory Committee, University of California Toxic Substances Research and Teaching Program, 2000-2003
Member, Interim Science Board, CALFED Restoration Program, Sacramento, CA. 1999-2004
Consultant, Global Environmental Facility and World Bank, Targeted Coral Reef Research and Capacity Building for Management Programme, 2003-2005
Board of Directors of the Romberg Tiburon Center for Environmental Studies, 1993-2002
Board of Directors, Alaska SeaLife Center, 1994-2007
President of the Board of Directors, Alaska SeaLife Center, 2004-2006
Review of proposals, papers and dissertations for:
Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Science Grants Program Environmental Protection Agency, National Center for Environmental Research and Quality Assurance National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration National Science Foundation National Research Council Natural Environment Research Council (United Kingdom) European Congress of Limnology and Oceanography International Joint Commission (Great Lakes) Aquatic Habitat Institute Citizens for a Better Environment Massachusetts Sea Grant Georgia Sea Grant State of Alaska Estuarine Research Federation Department of Energy Marine Review Committee, Inc. National Undersea Research Center University of California, Davis University of California, Santa Barbara
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University of Maryland CRC Press American Chemical Society, Petroleum Research Fund Southern California Coastal Water Research Project Hudson River Foundation John Simon Guggenheim Foundation San Francisco Estuary Project
Aquatic Toxicology Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry Hydrobiologia Journal du Conseil (international Council for the Exploration of the Sea) Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology Marine Biology Marine Ecology Progress Series Marine Environmental Research Marine Pollution Bulletin Marine Environmental Research Science Nature
Honors
American Men and Women of Science, 1977 Who's Who in California, 1982 Commendation Letter from US Attorney General, 1992
RESEARCH
Major Research Interests:
The fate and effects of contaminants (especially petroleum) in the aquatic environment, with emphasis on fish and benthic invertebrates. Radiouclides in aquatic organisms and their effects; the relationships between the activities of xenobiotic- transforming enzymes, contaminant exposure and reproduction in estuarine and coastal fishes; alteration of hormone production and balance by receptor-mediated contaminant effects; the effects of oil spills on ecosystems; the detection and quantification of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons and chlorinated aromatic hydrocarbons in sediments and organisms; the roles of organic enrichment and toxicity in the development of marine benthic communities in contaminated sediments; the degradation and utilization of petroleum hydrocarbons in sediments; the utilization of petroleum and sewage carbon in nearshore marine food webs; the use of natural isotopes in food webs as tracers; benthic communities and processes in natural petroleum seeps; benthic-pelagic coupling; biogeochemistry of oil-contaminated sediments; chemical tracers of street runoff; detecting community change in deep-water, hard-bottom communities; effects of
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contaminated sediments on marine organisms; sediment bioassays; design of programs to detect long-term change in benthic communities; applications of accelerator mass spectrometry in marine ecology, long-term ecological change in marine ecosystems.
Selected publications:
1975 R.B. Spies Structure and function of the head of flabelligerid polychaetes. J. Morph . 147, 187-208.
1975 R.B. Spies Uptake of technetium from seawater by red abalone Haliotis rufescens, Health Phys. 29, 695-699.
1976 F. Milanovitch, R.B. Spies, M.S. Giam and E.E. Sykes. Uptake of copper by the polychaete Cirriformia spirabranchia in the presence of dissolved organic matter of natural origin. Estuar. Coast. Mar. Sci. 4, 585-588.
1979 R.B.Spies and P.H. Davis. The infaunal benthos of a natural oil seep in the Santa Barbara Channel. Mar. Biol. 50, 227-237.
1980 R.B. Spies, P.H. Davis and D. Stuermer. Ecology of a petroleum seep off the California coast. in Marine Environmental Pollution (R. Geyer, Ed.). Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 229-263.
1980 P.H. Davis and R.B. Spies. Infaunal benthos of a natural petroleum seep: a study of community structure. Mar. Biol. 59, 31-41.
1981 R. B. Spies, K. Marsh and J. R. Kercher. Dynamics of radionuclide exchange in the calcareous algae Halimeda at Enewetak Atoll. Limnol. Oceanogr. 26, 74-85.
1981 D.H. Steurmer, R.B. Spies and P.H. Davis. Toxicity of Santa Barbara seep oil to starfish embryos. I. Hydrocarbon composition of test solutions and field samples. Mar. Environ. Res . 5, 275-286.
1982 R.B. Spies and P.H. Davis. Toxicity of Santa Barbara seep oil to starfish embryos. III. Influence of parental exposure and the effects of other crude oils. Mar. Environ. Res. 6, 3-11.
1982 R.B. Spies, J.S.Felton and L.J. Dillard. Hepatic mixed-function oxidases in California flatfish are increased in contaminated environments and by oil and PCB ingestion. Mar. Biol. 70, 117-127.
1982 D.H. Steurmer, R.B. Spies, P.H. Davis, D.J. Ng, C.J. Morris and S. Neal. The hydrocarbon chemistry of the Isla Vista Marine Seep Environment. Mar. Chem. 11, 413-426.
1983 R.B. Spies and D.J. DesMarais. Natural isotope study of trophic enrichment of
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marine benthic communities by petroleum seepage. Mar. Biol. 73, 67-71.
1984 R.B. Spies. Benthic-pelagic coupling in sewage affected ecosystems. Mar. Environm. Res. 13, 195-230.
1985. P.A. Montagna and R.B. Spies. Meiofauna and chllorophyll associated with Beggiatoa mats of a natural submarine petroleum seeps. Mar. Environ. Res. 16, 231-242.
1986 P.A. Montagna, J.E. Bauer, M.C. Prieto, D.H. Hardin and R. B. Spies. Benthic metabolism in a natural coastal petroleum seep. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 34, 31-40.
1987 R. B. Spies. The biological effects of petroleum hydrocarbons in the sea: Assessments from field and microcosms, pp. 411-467 in: Long-term environmental effects of offshore oil and gas development. D.F. Boesch and N.N. Rabalais, Eds. Elsevier-Applied Sciences, London.
1987 R. B. Spies , B. Andresen and D.W. Rice, Jr. Benzthiazoles in estuarine sediments as indicators of street runoff. Nature 327: 697-699.
1987 P.A. Montagna, J.E. Bauer, J. Toal, D.H. Hardin and R.B. Spies. Temporal variability and the relationship between benthic meiofaunal and microbial populations in a natural coastal petroleum seep. J. Mar. Res . 45, 761-789.
1987 Melzian, B. D., Zoffman, C. and R.B. Spies. Chlorinated hydrocarbons in lower continental shelf fish collected near the Farallon Islands, California. Mar. Poll. Bull. 18, 388-393.
1988 R. B. Spies, D.W. Rice, Jr. and J.W. Felton. The effects of organic contaminants on reproduction of starry flounder, Platichthys stellatus (Pallas) in San Francisco Bay. Part I. Hepatic contamination and mixed-function oxidase (MFO) activity during the reproductive season. Mar. Biol. 98, 181-189.
1988 R.B. Spies and D.W. Rice, Jr. The effects of organic contaminants on reproduction of starry flounder, Platichthys stellatus (Pallas) in San Francisco Bay. Part II. Reproductive success of fish captured in San Francisco Bay and spawned in the laboratory. Mar. Biol. 98, 191-202.
1988 R.B.Spies, D. Hardin and J. Toal. Organic enrichment or toxicity? A comparison of the effects of kelp and crude oil in sediments on the colonization and growth of fauna J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 124, 261-282.
1988 J.E. Bauer, P.A. Montagna, R.B. Spies, D.H. Hardin and M. Prieto. Microbial biogeochemistry and heterotrophy in sediments of a marine hydrocarbon seep. Limnol. Oceanogr. 33, 1493-1513.
1988 D.J. H. Phillips and R.B. Spies. Chlorinated hydrocarbons in the San Francisco
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estuarine ecosystem. Mar. Poll. Bull. 19, 445-453.
1989 R.B. Spies, D.D. Hardin and J.P. Toal. Organic enrichment or toxicity? A comparison of the effects of kelp and crude oil in sediments on the colonization and growth of benthic infauna. J. Exp. Mar. Ecol. 124, 261-282.
1989 R.B. Spies, J.E. Bauer and D. H. Hardin. A stable isotope study of sedimentary carbon utilization by Capitella spp.: effects of two carbon sources and geochemical conditions during their diagenesis Marine Biology 101: 68-74.
1989 R. B. Spies, H. Kruger, R. Ireland and D.W. Rice, Jr. Stable isotope isotope ratios and contaminant concentrations in a sewage-distorted food web. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 54, 157-170.
1989 R.B. Spies, D.W. Rice Jr., P.J. Thomas, J.J. Stegeman, J.N. Cross and J.E. Hose. A field test for correlates of poor reproductive success and genetic damage in contaminated populations of starry flounder, Platichthys stellatus. Mar. Environ. Res. 28: 542-543.
1990 R.B. Spies, J.J. Stegeman, D.W. Rice, Jr., B. Woodin, P. Thomas, J.E. Hose, J. Cross and M. Prieto. Sublethal responses of Platichthys stellatus to organic contamination in San Francisco Bay with emphasis on reproduction, pp. 87-122, in Biological Markers of Environmental Contamination. Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, Michigan .
1990 J.E. Bauer, R.B. Spies, J. S. Vogel, D.E. Nelson and J.R. Southon. Radiochemical evidence of fossil hydrocarbon cycling in sediments of a nearshore hydrocarbon seep. Nature 348, 230-232.
1992 M.J. Melanacon, R. Alscher, W. Benson, G. Kruzynski, R.F. Lee, H.C. Sikka, R.B. Spies. Metabolic products as biomarkers, In: Biomarkers: Biochemical, physiological and hstological markers of anthropogenic stress (Huggett et al., Eds) Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, Florida.
1993. J.W. Anderson, D.J. Reish, R.B. Spies, M.E. Brady and E.W. Segelhorst. Human impacts, pp. 682-766, In: Ecology of the Southern California Bight (M.D. Daily, J.W. Anderson, and D.J. Reish, eds.) University of California Press, Berkeley, 926 pp.
1993. D.W. Rice, Seltenrich, C.P., Keller, M.L., Spies, R.B., Felton, J.S. Seasonal and annual distribution of organic contaminants in marine sediments from Elkhorn Slough, Moss Landing Harbor and nearshore Monterey Bay, California. Environmental Pollution 82: 79-91.
1993 R.B. Spies. So why can't science tell us more about the effects of the Exxon Valdez oil spill ?, pp. 1-5, In: Exxon Valdez oil spill symposium, EVOS Trustee Council, Anchorage Alaska.
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1994 D.W. Rice, C.B. Seltenrich, M.L. Keller, .R.B. Spies, and J.S. Felton. Mixed- function oxidase-specific activity in wild and caged speckled sandabs Citharichtys stigmaeus in Elkhorn Slough. Environ. Poll. 84, 179-188.
1995. R. Spies. Restoring Prince William Sound. Science 269, 1328-1329. (letter)
1996 R.B. Spies, R.B., J.J. Stegeman, D.E. Hinton, B. Woodin, M. Okihiro, R. Smolowitz and D. Shea. Biomarkers of hydrocarbon exposure and sublethal effects in embiotocid fishes from a natural petroleum seep in the Santa Barbara Channel. Aquatic Toxicol. 34:195-219.
1996. R.B. Spies, P. Thomas, and M. Matsui. 1996. Effects of DDT and PCB on reproductive endocrinology of Paralabrax clathratus in southern California. Mar. Environ. Res. 42, 175-176. (abstract)
1996. R. B. Spies, S. D. Rice, D. A. Wolfe and B. A.Wright. The effects of the Exxon Valdez Oil spill on the Alaskan Coastal environment, pp. 1-16, in: Rice, S.D., R.B. Spies, D.A. Wolfe, and B.A. Wright (Eds.) Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Proceedings, Anchorage, Alaska, 2-5 February 1993. American Fisheries Society Symposium No. 18.
1997. A.J.Gunther, R.B. Spies, J.J. Stegeman, B. Woodin, D. Carney, J. Oakden, and L. Hain. 1997. EROD activity as an independent measure of contaminant-induced mortality of invertebrates in sediment bioassays. Mar. Environ. Res. 44:41-49.
1997 R.B. Spies and P. Thomas. Reproductive and endocrine status of mature female kelp bass Paralabrax clathratus from a contaminated site in the Southern California Bight and estrogen receptor binding of DDTs, Chapter 9, in Chemically-induced alterations in functional development and reproduction of fishes, R.M. Rolland, M. Gilbertson and R.E. Peterson (Eds.) Society of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, Technical Publication Series, SETAC Press, Pensacola, Fl.
2005. P.R. Mundy and R. Spies. Introduction, pp. 1-14, in The Gulf of Alaska. Biology and Oceanography, Alaska Sea Grant Publication, Fairbanks Alaska, 214 pp.
2006. Spies, R.B. (editor). Long-term ecological change in the northern Gulf of Alaska. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 589 pp. (several chapters written by R. Spies).
2006. Thompson, B., et al., Biological effects of anthropogenic contaminants in the San Francisco Estuary. Environ. Res. 105: 145-155.
2007. Oros, D.R., J.R.M. Ross, R.B. Spies and T. Mumley. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) contamination in San Francisco Bay: A 10-year retrospective of monitoring in an urbanized estuary. Enviorn. Res. 105: 101-118.
2008. Kondolf, G.M., Angermeier, P.L., Cummins, K., Dunne, T., Healey, M., Kimmerer, W. , Moyle, P.B., Murphy, D. , Patten, D., Railsback, S., Reed, D.J.,
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Spies, R.l, Twiss, R. Projecting cumulative benefits of multiple river restoration projects: An example from the Sacramento-San Joaquin river system in California. Environ. Manag. 42: 933-945.
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Leslie M. Beckmann, M.A. Senior Environmental Scientist
SPECIFIC EXPERTISE/SKILLS . Environmental legislation, regulation and policy . Marine and freshwater science . Marine and freshwater conservation . Marine legislation and policy . Coastal zone and ecosystem management . Climate change science and policy
BACKGROUND/QUALIFICATION EDUCATION Ms. Beckmann is an environmental biologist with more than 15 years M.A., Political Science and of experience in marine and estuary management, with an emphasis Environmental Studies on using science for policy-making. University of Toronto Toronto, Ontario, 1992 She has experience working with federal, provincial, regional, and municipal governments and has led multi-stakeholder efforts to B.Sc. (Hons.) Biology (Botany develop and implement science-based management plans that and Zoology) coordinate land use decisions in the multi-jurisdictional riparian zone. First Class Standing Her key knowledge areas are environmental legislation, regulations Queen’s University and policies, and also coastal zone and ecosystem management, Kingston, Ontario, 1988 climate change science and policy. Her key skill areas include stakeholder consultation and multi-disciplinary decision-making. MEMBERSHIPS AND CERTIFICATIONS Leslie is also a published author: her non-fiction work has appeared in academic journals and the popular press; her short- and full-length WorkSafe Level 1 First Aid – fiction have been published nationally. October 2011 (valid for 3 years) Member, Emergency EMPLOYMENT HISTORY Preparedness Committee, Core Education and Fine Arts (2002- 2005 to Present Environmental Biologist, Pottinger Gaherty 2004) Environmental Consultants Ltd., Vancouver, BC Member, Community Editorial 2004 to 2005 Project Review Coordinator, Fraser River Board, Vancouver Sun (1997) Estuary Management Program (FREMP) and Vice-President and Member of Burrard Inlet Environmental Action Program the Board, Marine Life Sanctuary (BIEAP), Vancouver, BC Society 2000 to Present Founder and Senior Partner, Leslie Beckmann Member of the Board, Canadian Consulting, Vancouver, BC Parks & Wilderness Society 1996 to 2000 Water and Land Use Coordinator, Fraser River (CPAWS) – BC Chapter Estuary Management Program (FREMP), Vancouver, BC AWARDS 1994 to 1996 Marine Conservation Advisor and Manager, 2010 Canada Writes Award for Marine Conservation Strategy Programme, Creative Nonfiction Canadian Nature Federation(CNF)/Canadian Arctic Resources Committee (CARC), Vancouver, BC
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Leslie M. Beckmann, M.A. Senior Environmental Scientist
EMPLOYMENT HISTORY (continued) 1993 to 1994 Senior Advisor, UNCED Follow-up Task Group, Department of Environment, Government of Canada 1992 to 1993 Executive Assistant to the Senior Assistant Deputy Minister, Department of Environment, Government of Canada 1991 to 1992 Policy Manager, International Affairs Directorate, Department of Environment, Government of Canada 1990 to 1991 Project Manager, Native Circle, Team Member, Education, Ontario Roundtable on Environment and Economy
REPRESENTATIVE PROJECT EXPERIENCE Manages Environmental Impact Assessments for large comprehensive development projects in the Lower Mainland of British Columbia and throughout Vancouver Island. Tasks include project scoping, identification of environmental constraints, liaison with federal, provincial, regional and local regulators. Member of a team that conducted an Environmental Impact Assessment for BC’s first offshore wind energy generation project. Designs sustainability frameworks to guide developers wishing to develop sustainable projects. While with FREMP, worked with federal and provincial agencies, provided co-ordinated environmental review and project advice to Port Authorities, Municipalities that require a broad knowledge of legislative and regulatory requirements and appropriate working guidelines for the riparian zone. On behalf of FREMP, worked with federal, provincial and municipal governments to facilitate integrated management of environment and develop activities along shoreline and upland areas of the lower Fraser River basin, including GIS mapping, foreshore zoning, and environmental monitoring. Designed, managed and completed a $200,000 programme to gather public input on, write, and, on behalf of two national environmental non-governmental groups, recommend to Canada’s Minister of Fisheries and Oceans the contents of a national Oceans Act and a National Strategy for Marine Conservation. Organized and facilitated five two-day 20-person multi-stakeholder workshops across Canada (St. John’s, Halifax, Iqaluit, Inuvik, Vancouver) to develop consensus on cooperative local, regional and national methods to manage marine ecosystems and resources. Led three-person team assessing, and reporting on, Canada’s progress in implementing commitments made at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro in June, 1992. Managed implementation of policy decisions on international conventions, sustainable development, and co-operative government/community environmental remediation projects for senior officials. Developed Canada’s foreign environmental policy on a number of issues, including international oceans issues, and developed Canada’s official positions for participation in numerous international environmental convention negotiations.
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Leslie M. Beckmann, M.A. Senior Environmental Scientist
PUBLISHED NON-FICTION
A Marine Strategy for the Asia Pacific Region (with S. Baird, internal publication for the department of Fisheries and Oceans) Federal marine programming in the Asia-Pacific region. (internal publication for the department of Fisheries and Oceans). An inventory of cable and pipelines policy and infrastructure off the BC coast. (internal publication for the department of Fisheries and Oceans). Estuary Management Plan Update, Fraser River Estuary Management Program (FREMP) Marine Conservation in Canada The Oceans Yearbook, 1996. The Role of NGOs in Ocean Policy Oceans Policy in Canada University of Calgary. The health of the seas depends on fast action The Vancouver Sun Feb. 26, 1997. Seas the Day: Towards a National Marine Conservation Strategy for Canada. CARC/CNF. The Blue Zone – Our Troubled Oceans Nature Canada 25(3): 28-33. Don’t Toss the Oceans Act Overboard The Globe and Mail June 20, 1996 Marine Conservation-Keeping the Arctic Ocean on the Agenda Northern Perspectives 23(1): 1-2. The Coldest Coast-Marine Issues in the North Northern Perspectives 23(1): 2-4. Marine Conservation in the Canadian Arctic; Northern Perspectives 22(2-3): 33-39. Marine Conservation in the Canadian Arctic;(a paper presented at the 1994 Coastal Zone Canada Conference) in Coastal Zone Canada ‘94 Conference Proceedings eds. P.G. Wells& P.J. Rickets Halifax: Coastal Zone Canada Association.
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Appendix B – Case Study 1: A Large, Rapid Spill
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Appendix B – Case Study 1: A Large, Rapid Spill
A brief history of the Exxon Valdez Oil spill, R. Spies, author
B 1 Late on March 23, 1989 the supertanker Exxon Valdez, carrying 52 million gallons of Prudhoe Bay crude oil, left the Port of Valdez, the terminus of the Trans-Alaska pipeline. The tanker negotiated the Valdez narrows, but soon left the shipping lane to avoid calving icebergs from the Columbia Glacier. It failed to return to the lane and ran ashore on Bligh Reef just after midnight on March 24th. Two of the five oil holds were breached and over the next day 12 million gallons of oil gushed into Prince William Sound. The oil pooled close to the tanker for the next several days under calm conditions, but then a northerly gale swept into Prince William Sound and blew the oil throughout Western Prince William Sound and beyond any hope of containment and easy remediation. The Alaska Coastal Current carried the oil out the southwest passages to Prince William Sound, and southwesterly along the outer Kenai coast, into the southern portion of Cook Inlet, down Shelikof Strait and eventually out into the open northern Pacific (Rice et al., 2006 and references within).
B 2 Because Prince William Sound has so many islands, millions of gallons of spreading oil would contaminate large amounts of the Sound’s coastline as well as significant proportions of down-current coastlines in the northern Gulf of Alaska. Large floating slicks of oil grounded on the mainly cobble beaches, or benches, of Prince William Sound, were lifted off in subsequent high tides and re-grounded, often many times. The large slicks gradually broke up and were carried out the southwest passages of the Sound, but leaving grounded oil on rocky intertidal areas, some marsh habitat, sand beaches or to soak into the porous cobble beaches that dominate the coastline. Most of the floating oil was gone within weeks of the spill – grounded, evaporated, or carried out of the area to eventually degrade in the open Gulf of Alaska. Smaller sheens floated off many beaches in the warmer late spring and throughout the first summer. After leaving Prince William Sound much of the oil was in paddies of mouse, a water-in-oil emulsion. These paddies had an outer crust that slowed the degradation of the oil and many of them ended up on beaches along the Alaska Peninsula on the northwest shore of Shelikof Strait (Rice et al., 2006 and references within).
B 3 The Exxon Corporation mounted a massive cleanup operation in the summer of 1989 involving a small navy of vessels, numerous helicopters, and thousands of workers to clean up contaminated beaches. Absorbent pads, mops, hand wiping of individual rocks, washing with cold and hot seawater were all employed to clean the beaches. Smaller, but quite extensive efforts were carried out in the summers of 1990 and 1991.
B 4 The spill occurred prior to the annual plankton bloom that supplies much of the nutrition to carry this rich marine ecosystem through another year. Just after the spill there was the usual surge of spring biological activity: the annual spawning of Pacific herring in Prince William Sound, the out-migration of juvenile salmon from their natal streams, seabirds arriving at their breeding colonies, and spawning of many intertidal invertebrates and algae (Rice et al., 2006 and references within).
B 5 The spill had both immediate acute and longer-term impacts on wildlife. The immediate impacts were to marine mammals and seabirds encountering slicks on the water’s surface and to intertidal communities on the oiled shorelines of the northern Gulf of Alaska. Through a combination of hypothermia and acute hydrocarbon toxicity it was estimated that about 2,800 sea otters, 300 hundred harbour seals, 250,000 sea birds representing 90 species, and 250 bald eagles, were killed in the spring and summer of
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1989. Hundreds of kilometres of intertidal communities were greatly altered (Rice et al., 2006 and references within).
B 6 As occurs in many spills, sea birds were among the hardest hit of any the marine fauna. It was estimated that about 250,000 sea birds were killed by the spill. This count included about 90 different species of birds. The greatest toll was to the murres that lost as many as 100,000 individuals. Unlike most other species, most of the murres were killed outside Prince William Sound, well down current from the spill site in the islands and rocks along the Kenai Peninsula and in Lower Cook Inlet, victims of the slicks once they left Prince William Sound (Rice et al., 2006 and references within).
B 7 Oil impacted over 1,200 kilometres of intertidal habitat, often smothering invertebrates in a thick layer. Direct contact with oil as well as toxic mixtures of oil in water killed seaweeds and many invertebrates, including barnacles, snails, limpets, starfish, small crustaceans, and worms. Clean-up operations using aggressive washing, often with large volumes of hot water, also killed many intertidal organisms. Subtidal communities were also impacted, especially some organisms living near beds of sea grass, apparently mainly from sinking oil-laden sediment dispersed from beaches by wave action and clean-up operations. However, relative to the intertidal, less oil reached the subtidal habitats, it did not linger as long, and it had fewer effects there (Rice et al., 2006 and references within).
B 8 Pacific herring spawn in April in Prince William Sound, and within a short period after the spill miles of shoreline were inundated with spawning herring, depositing their sticky eggs on seaweeds and rocky areas in shallow water and intertidal beaches. About a third to a half of the herring eggs laid in the spring of 1989 were on oiled beaches. Developing embryos in oiled areas weighed less, had greater rates of various fatal abnormalities and poorer hatching success. The abnormalities seen in field collected developing herring were confirmed in laboratory experiments where concentrations of total polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in the range of 0.4 to 9.1 parts per billion (ppb) produced toxic effects in pre-hatch embryos. Herring larvae collected in the field and also exposed to oil in the laboratory had various toxic effects including small size, deformities, pericardial edema, delayed development and genetic damage. In addition, laboratory oil exposures of wild, adult herring in the laboratory resulted in a dose-related development of viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus expression. This is the same virus that appeared in many of the herring at the time of the population crash of Pacific herring in Prince William Sound in 1993 (Rice et al., 2006 and references within).
B 9 Killer whales were placed on the Exxon Valdez Trustee Council’s list of injured species. Two groups of killer whales, the AB pod of resident (fish-eating) and the transient (marine mammal eating) AT pod were implicated by circumstance as both pods were sighted in Prince William Sound soon after the spill. Both pods lost about 40% of their members by 1990 and have not yet recovered to pre-spill numbers (Rice et al., 2006 and references within).
B 10 Longer-term effects of the spill were a result of the lasting impact of the initial acute- phase mortalities and to oil lingering in the environment, mainly in the cobble beaches so common in the Sound.
B 11 Pink salmon were one of the species with both short- and long-term impacts from the spill. Initially juvenile salmon entering the sound after having been recently hatched in local streams grew slower in oiled areas, which made them vulnerable to predation for a longer period of time early in their life and probably led to lower survival to adulthood. Exposure of juveniles to oil was collaborated by induction of P4501A enzymes, a marker
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of hydrocarbon exposure. Modelling of early life history effects on survival indicated that return of adult pink salmon in 1990 from the1989 year class was reduced by about 1.9 million fish. In addition, eggs laid in the summers of 1989 through 1993 were less viable in salmon streams that were exposed to oil near their mouths. There were accumulations of oil in the cobble forming the bottom of some salmon streams in Prince William Sound. Laboratory exposures of developing pink salmon eggs to low concentrations of oil resulted in compromised long-term survival of pink salmon with those experiencing relatively high concentrations of oil as eggs had fewer returning adults to the spawning streams (Rice et al., 2006 and references within).
B 12 Sea otters are very vulnerable to oil as they spend most of their time on the surface of the ocean where they will encounter oil slicks after a spill. Oil-matted fur leads to excessive heat loss and, if extensive enough, hypothermia, as otters cannot keep up with the heat loss from oiled fur in addition to the already high demands for caloric intake that their lifestyle requires. There was initial acute mortality of sea otters in western Prince William Sound and also extending along the Kenai Peninsula further down-current of the Sound. Based on carcass recovery and an expansion factor for lost or eaten carcasses, it was estimated that about 3,000 sea otters were killed outright in 1989. The Sound-wide population may have lost as much as 18% to the spill. The population in Prince William Sound largely recovered to what is thought to be pre-spill numbers by 2003, but the areas around Knight Island in central Prince William Sound that were hard hit still had many fewer otters than pre-spill (Rice et al., 2006 and references within).
B 13 Harbour seals, unlike sea otters, have a layer of blubber that they rely on for warmth. However, direct contact with the oil and possible intake from food led to accumulations of hydrocarbons in seal tissues. Based on pre-spill and post-spill surveys, it was estimated that 200–300 harbour seals died as a result of the oil spill in 1989 (Rice et al., 2006 and references within).
B 14 The intertidal communities of the northern Gulf of Alaska were extensively damaged over a large area by large slicks of oil and by subsequent clean-up activities. These communities had recovered from a majority of the damage within two years, but damage lingered longer in areas aggressively cleaned. Oil killed animals on impact, often smothering under thick, grounded slicks. Chemical toxicity was also probably a large factor in deaths of mussels, limpets, snails, small crustaceans, intertidal fish, and algae. The loss of the brown algae, Fucus, by both the impact of the oil and the aggressive cleaning by beach crews, led to indirect effects that took some time to rebound. The Fucus canopy provided a protective cover for the colonization of new Fucus plants and a cover to protect invertebrates from predation. Oystercatchers, for example, were able to prey more easily on limpets in the absence of algal cover. Fucus was finally recovered by about 1994 in the higher portion of the intertidal zone where recruits finally overcame the effects of desiccation under a poor canopy (Rice et al., 2006 and references within).
B 15 Among the intertidal animals affected by the spill were little neck clams.
Literature Cited Rice, S.D., J.W. Short, M.G. Carls, A. Moles, and R.B. Spies. 2006. The Exxon Valdez oil spill, pp. 419-520, (R.B. Spies, Ed.), in Long-term ecological change in the northern Gulf of Alaska . Elsevier, Amsterdam, 589 pp.
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Appendix C – Case Study 2: Moderate Spill, Long Duration: SS Jacob Luckenbach, Gulf of the Farallones
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Appendix C – Case Study 2: Moderate Spill, Long Duration: SS Jacob Luckenbach16,17,18
L Beckmann and CJ Beegle-Krause
C1 The story of the freighter SS Jacob Luckenbach is the story of infrequent spills small enough not to be detected as cohesive slicks on the water’s surface that nonetheless caused significant mortality to coastal seabirds. C2 The freighter SS Jacob Luckenbach, formerly the SS Sea Robin built for wartime service, was an American cargo ship operating on the west coast of the United States. On July 14, 1953 the ship departed Korea en route to the Port of San Francisco fully laden with a cargo consisting of Jeep parts, railroad equipment and 457,000 gallons (almost 11,000 barrels) of bunker fuel. Approaching San Francisco in light winds, gentle swells and poor visibility (fog), the captain of the Jacob Luckenbach mistook the vessel’s sister ship, the SS Hawaiian Pilot, for the San Francisco Lightship. By the time the two vessels heard and saw each other, a collision was unavoidable. The Hawaiian Pilot suffered severe bow damage; the Jacob Luckenbach sank in 180 feet of water approximately 17 miles west-southwest of San Francisco. C3 Beginning in 1974 major oiling events in which several to significant numbers of oiled birds washed up on beaches from Bodega to Monterey Bay (Figure C-1) occurred every several winters. These events were not linked with any apparent vessel accident or spill but correlated with strong winter storms. Two particularly severe events, the Pt. Reyes Tarball Incidents in the winter of 1997–98 and the San Mateo Mystery Spill in the winter of 2001–02, resulted in known bird mortalities numbering in the thousands of individuals. (Tarball Incidents: n=2,964; San Mateo: n=1,921). During the Pt. Reyes Tarball Incident, 2–3 birds were found dead per kilometre of beach in the affected area.
Figure C-1: Oiled seabirds were found on beaches from Goat Rock to Point Lobos. The approximate location of the S.S. Jacob Luckenbach shipwreck is shown with a star.
16 http://sanctuarysimon.org/monterey/sections/other/sporadic_luckenbach.php 17 http://www.dfg.ca.gov/ospr/Science/Luckenbach.aspx 18 http://nrm.dfg.ca.gov/FileHandler.ashx?DocumentID=26328&inline=true
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C4 Documented impacts were primarily to birds but a few sea otters were also affected: from the 13-year period from 1990 to 2003 it is estimated that 8 otters and more than 51,000 birds were killed. C5 More than 50 bird species were affected; most were oiled while foraging at sea but some were oiled by tarballs on the shore. C6 Eight species were most affected: common murres, red phalaropes, northern fulmars, rhinoceros auklets, ashy storm-petrels, brown pelicans, western snowy plovers, and marbled murrelets. C7 Evaluations of the Common Murre colony at Drake's Bay in the Point Reyes area found that, while the population had been increasing at a rate of approximately 11% prior to 1997, the colony decreased by 13% from 1999 to 2000. Researchers attribute this decline in population to stress caused by the Luckenbach oil spill. C8 In many cases, very small amounts of oil were implicated: a single dime-sized tarball was all that was required to kill some seabirds. C9 In January 2002, work by a number of federal agencies determined that the source of the mystery spills was the Jacob Luckenbach. Very large swells (>22 feet) associated with severe storms that occur in the area every several years led to strong undersea currents near the wreck that either rocked the wreck or washed oil out of the corroding hull. Chemical fingerprinting subsequently revealed that the Luckenbach oil was strongly correlated with the major oiling events, matching 85% of samples taken from oiled carcasses or feathers. C10 In the summer of 2002 the US Coast Guard managed oil removal from the Jacob Luckenbach. A difficult operation because oil was located in more than 30 compartments throughout the wreck, the operation required deepwater divers breathing mixed gas to live in pressurized chambers for up to a month. C11 Approximately 100,000 gallons of oil were removed to surface barges using vacuum hoses; another 29,000 gallons of oil was impossible to reach in order to remove. Holes in the wreck were sealed at the end of the operation to prevent further leakage. C12 In the period at least since 1973, it is estimated that the Jacob Luckenbach released more than 300,000 gallons of oil, killing more than 51,000 birds and 8 otters. C13 The oil removal operation cost approximately $20 million US; an additional $21 million was allocated for damage restoration (education and habitat restoration, enhancement, and protection projects). C14 Since the owners of the Jacob Luckenbach were no longer financially viable, the cleanup and restoration were funded through the US federally-administered Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund (OSLTF) funded primarily through a barrel tax on oil produced or imported to the United States. C15 Clean-up efforts appear to have been relatively successful. In March 2004, the Office of Spill Prevention and Response (CA Dept. of Fish and Game) reported that only a handful of oiled birds were found whose death can be traced to the Luckenbach. C16 As of January 2011, 14 restoration programs were underway in Canada, the US and Mexico to compensate for damage from the Luckenbach spill to bird and otter populations.
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Appendix D –Case Study 3: Small Spill, Critical Timing: Breton Sound, Louisiana, June 2005
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Appendix D –Case Study 3: Small Spill, Critical Timing: Breton Sound, Louisiana, June 2005
L Beckmann and CJ Beegle-Krause
D1 The Breton National Wildlife Refuge (NWR) is located approximately 60 miles southeast of New Orleans, Louisiana, USA. Breton NWR is one of eight refuges in the Southeast Louisiana (SELA) Refuges Complex and is the second oldest single wildlife refuge in the United States. Established in 1904 by Theodore Roosevelt to protect breeding migratory birds, the 13,000-acre (5,260-hectare) refuge is made up of a series of sand barrier islands, lagoons and marshes. D2 Breton NWR is the most significant breeding area in Louisiana for the endangered brown pelican and one of the largest brown pelican breeding colonies in the United States. D3 In June 2005, Tropical Storm Arlene forced the evacuation of the Ameranda Hess Breton Sound 51 platform located 3 miles (4.8km) from the pelican-nesting area on West Breton Island. Workers returning to the platform on June 12, 2005 discovered that 15 barrels (630 gallons/2,385 litres) of light crude oil had leaked from a diversion tank. D4 Despite its small size, the effects of the spill were significant because it occurred during nesting season. Most nests contained juveniles ranging from 5 to 14 weeks of age that were unable to fly or fly well enough to escape the oil washing through the nesting area. D5 Some effects were age-dependent: chicks with little down experienced direct skin irritation and oil absorption; older chicks’ down was matted, reducing the chicks’ ability to regulate their temperature. In addition, parent birds who normally shade and shelter their offspring during the day, evacuated. This left their chicks without food for an extended period of time and left those without a full set of feathers at greater risk of sunburn. Many of the chicks were also discovered bloated with displaced air under their skin.19 D6 In total, 802 birds– primarily juvenile brown pelicans – were affected by the oil spill. At least 431 of these subsequently died. This represents up to a third of the young-of-the- year for Breton NWR, demonstrating the effects that even a very small spill can have during a critical time of year. D7 In 2005, state officials tracked a 35.2 percent decline in brown pelican production due to that year’s hurricanes (including Katrina) and the spill in Breton Sound. D8 More recently, as many as 2,000 nests have been reported in Breton NWR, suggesting that the population is recovering. D9 Important for the present report, most species possess one or more especially vulnerable periods during their life cycle: an accident in this period will have profound effects on the population in the long term.
19 UC-Davis veterinarian Greg Massey
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Appendix E
The “Exxon Valdez” Oil Spill (Rice, et. al, in Long-Term Ecological Change in the Northern Gulf of Alaska; Elsevier, 2007)
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Appendix F
Literature Cited
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Appendix F – Literature Cited
Section 3.0 – Nearshore Habitat, Biological Communities and Key Resources Calliou Group 2011. Gitxaala Nation Use Study (Enbridge Northern Gateway Environmental Assessment). Prepared for the Enbridge Northern Gateway Pipelines Project National Energy Board. 133pg.
Emmett, B., L. Burger, Y. Carolsfeld. 1995. An Inventory and Mapping of Subtidal Biophysical Features of the Goose Islands, Hakai Recreational Area, British Columbia. BC Parks Occasional Paper #3. 68 pg.
Haegele CW, and LC Fitzpatrick 1983. The Distribution of Herring Spawn and associated Roe Fisheries in British Columbia (1956 to 1980). Canadian Data Rept. Fish. Aquatic Sci. # 407. 245pg.
Jamieson, G.S. and H. Davies. 2004. State of Knowledge of Marine Habitats of the Northern BC Coast in Oil and Gas Lease Areas. Fisheries and Oceans Canada. CSAS Research Document 2004/009. 169 pg
Morris, M., D. Howes and P. Wainwright. 2006. Methodology for Defining BC Intertidal ShoreZone Habitats and Habitat Values for the BC Oil Spill Shoreline Sensitivity Model. Report submitted by Archipelago Marine Research Ltd. to the BC Ministry of Agriculture and Lands. 49pg.
Polaris Applied Science Inc. 2010. Coastal Operations and Sensitivity Mapping for the Confined Channel Assessment Area. Prepared for the Enbridge Northern Gateway Pipeline Project.
Section 4.0 – Petroleum Composition, Fate and Toxicology Belore, R. 2010. Properties and fate of hydrocarbons associated with hypothetical spills iatthe marine terminal and in the confined channel assessment area. Technical Data Report. SL Ross, Calgary, Alberta
Carls, M.G., Holland, L., Larsen, M., Lum, J.L., Mortensen, D.G., Wang, S.Y, and Wertheimer, A.C. 1996. Growth, feeding, and survival of pink salmon fry exposed to food contaminated with crude oil. Pages 608-618 in Rice, S. D., R. B. Spies, D. A. Wolfe, and B. A. Wright (eds). Proceedings of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Symposium. American Fisheries Society Symposium 18. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland.
Carls, M.G., Rice, S.D., Hose, J.E. 1999. Sensitivity of fish embryos to weathered crude oil: Part I. Low-level exposure during incubation causes malformations, genetic damage and mortality in larval Pacific herring (Clupea pallasi). Environ. Toxicol Chem 18: 481-493.
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Diamond, S.A. 2003. Photoactivated toxicity in aquatic environments. Chapter 7 in “UV Effects in Aquatic Organisms and Ecosystems”, E.W. Helbling and H.E. Zagarese, eds., Royal Society of Chemistry, Great Britain, 575 pp.
DiToro, D.M., McGrath, J.A., Hansen, D. J. 2000. Technical basis for narcotic chemicals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon criteria. I. Water and tissue. Environm Toxicol. Chem. 19:1951-1970
Duesterloh, S., Short, J. W., and Barron, M. G. 2002. Photoenhanced toxicity of weathered Alaska North Slope crude oil to the calanoid copepods Calanus marshallae and Metridia okhotensis. Environmental Science and Technology 36:3953-3959.
Euro Chlor. 2002. Eurochlor risk assessment for the marine environment. OSPARCOM region – North Sea. 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene.
Fingas, M.F. 2001. The Basics of Oil Spill Cleanup. J. Charles (ed), 2nd edition. Lewis Publishers, CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, Florida.
Heintz, R.A., J.W. Short, and S.D. Rice. 1999. Sensitivity of fish embryos to weathered crude oil: Part II. Incubating downstream from weathered Exxon Valdez crude oil caused increased mortality of pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) embryos. Environ. Toxicol Chem 18: 494-503
Heintz, R. A., S. D. Rice, A. C. Wertheimer, R. F. Bradshaw, F. P. Thrower, J. E. Joyce, and J. W. Short. 2000. Delayed effects on growth and marine survival of pink salmon Oncorhynchus gorbuscha after exposure to crude oil during embryonic development. Marine Ecology Progress Series 208:205-216
Hoffman, D.J., and M.L. Gay. 1981. Embryotoxic effects of benzo[a]pyrene, chrysene, and 7,12- dimethylbenz[a]anthracene in petroleum hydrocarbon mixtures in mallard ducks. Jour. Toxicol. Environ. Health 7: 775-787
Hunt, J.M. 1980. Petroleum Geochemistry and Geology. W.H. Freeman & Co., San Francisco, California.
Incardona, J.P., Collier, T.K., Scholz, N.L. 2004. Defects in cardiac function precede morphological abnormalities in fish embryos exposed to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 196:191-205
Incardona, J.P., Carls, M.G., Teraoka, H., Sloan, C.A., Collier, T.K., Scholz, N.L. 2005. Aryl hydrocarbon receptor-independent toxicity of weathered crude oil during fish development. Environ. Health Perspectives 113:1755-1762.
Incardona, J.P., Day, H.L., Collier, T.K., Scholz, N.L. 2006. Developmental toxicity of 4-ring polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in zebrafish is differentially dependent on AH receptor isoforms and hepatic cytochrome P4501A metabolism. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 217:308-321.
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Kahn, C. 2007. Identification of PAH in crude oil that are chronically toxic to the early life stages of fish. M. Sc. Thesis, Queens University, Department of Biology, Kingston, Ontario, K7L 3N6.
Luquet P, Cravedi JP, Choubert G, Tulliez J, Bories G (1983) Long-term ingestion by rainbow trout of saturated hydrocarbons: Effects of n-paraffins, pristane and dodecycyclohexane on growth, feed intake, lipid digestibility and canthaxanthin deposition. Aquaculture 34:15-25
Luquet P, Cravedi JP, Tulliez J, Bories G (1984) Growth reduction in trout induced by naphthenic and isoprenoid hydrocarbons (dodecylcyclohexane and pristane). Ecotoxicol Environ Safety 8:219-226
Li, H., Boufadel, M.C. 2010. Long-term persistence of oil from the Exxon Valdez spill in two-layer beaches. Nature Geosci. 3:96-99
Malins, D.C., McCain, B.B., Lindahl, J.T., Myers, M.S., Krahn, M.M., Brown, D.W., Chan, S.-L., Roubal, W.T. 1988. Neoplastic and other diseases in fish in relation to toxic chemicals: an overview. Aquat. Toxicol. 11:43-67
National Energy Board. 2000. Canada’s Oil Sands: A Supply and Market Outlook to 2015. National Energy Board, Calgary, Alberta
Prince, R.C., Walters, C.C. 2007. Biodegradation of oil hydrocarbons and its implications for source identification. Pages 349-379 in Z. Wang and S. Stout (eds). Oil Spill Environmental Forensics – Fingerprinting and Source Identification. Academic Press, San Diego, California.
Short, J.W., Irvine, G.V., Mann, D.H., Maselko, J.M., Pella, J.J., Lindeberg, M.R., Payne, J.R., Driskell, W.B., Rice, S.D. 2007. Slightly weathered Exxon Valdez oil persists in Gulf of Alaska beach sediments after 16 years. Environmental Science & Technology 41(4):1245-1250.
Spies, R.B., Rice, S.D, Wolfe, D.A., Wright, B.A. 1996. The effects of the Exxon Valdez oil spill on the Alaskan coastal environment. Pages 1-16 in Rice, S. D., R. B. Spies, D. A. Wolfe, and B. A. Wright (eds). Proceedings of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Symposium. American Fisheries Society Symposium 18. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland.
St. Albans, D.J., Geraci, J.R. 1994. Summary and conclusions. Pages 371-376 in Loughlin, T.R. (ed.). Marine Mammals and the Exxon Valdez. Academic Press, San Diego, California.
Walsh, M.P., Lake, L.W. 2003. A generalized approach to primary hydrocarbon recovery. Cubitt, J. (ed.). Handbook of Petroleum Exploration and Production, 4. Elsevier, San Diego, California.
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Wolfe, D.A., M.J. Hameedi, J.A. Galt, G. Watabayashi, J. Short, C. O’Clair, S. Rice, J. Michel, J.R. Payne, J. Braddock, S. Hanna, and D. Sale. 1994. The fate of the oil spilled from the Exxon Valdez. Environmental Science and Technology 28 (13): 561A-568A
References relating to 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene
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Fathepure, B.Z., Tiedje, J.M., Boyd, S.A. (1988): Reductive dechlorination of hexachlorobenzene to tri- and dichlorobenzenes in anaerobic sewage sludge. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 54, p 327-330.
Hooftman, R.N., de Kreuk J.F. (1982): Investigation of the environmental load of chlorinated benzenes (Literature study). TNO report CL 81/153a.
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Abernethy, S.G., Mackay, D., McCarty, L.S. (1988): Volume fraction: Correlation for narcosis in aquatic organisms: the key role of partitioning; Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 7, 469-481
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Calamari, D, Galassi, S, Setti, F. and Vighi, M. (1983): Toxicity of Selected Chlorobenzenes to Aquatic Organisms; Chemosphere 12 (2) 253-262.
Carlson, A.R. (1987): Effects of Lowered Dissolved Oxygen Concentration on the Toxicity of 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene to Fathead Minnows; Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 38 667-673.
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Nendza, M. and Klein, W. (1990): Comparative QSAR Study on Freshwater and Estuarine Toxicity; Aquatic Toxicol. 17:63-74.
Richter, J.E., Peterson, S.F. and Kleiner, C.F. (1983): Acute and Chronic Toxicity of Some Chlorinated Benzenes, Chlorinated Ethanes, and Tetrachloroethylene to Daphnia magna; Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 12 679-684.
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Sulaiman, A.H. (1993): Acute Toxicity Relationships for 2 Species of Fish Using a Simultaneous Testing Method; The Science of the Total Environment; Suppl. Part 2, 1001-1009.
Tagatz, M.E., Plaia, G.R., and Deans, C.H. (1985): Effects of 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene on Estuarine Macrobenthic Communities Exposed via Water and Sediment, Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 10, 351-360.
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Halfon, E. and Reggiani, M.G. (1986): On ranking chemicals for environmental hazard. Environ. Sci. Technol. 20, 1173-1179.
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Bodkin, J.L.,B.E. Ballachey, T.A. Dean, A.K. Fukuyama, S.C. Jewett, L. McDonald, D.H. Monson, C.E. O’Clair, and G.R. VanBlaricom. 2002. Sea Otter population status and the process of recovery from the 1989 ‘Exxon Valdez’ oil spill. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 241:237-253.
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Carls, M.G., L. Holland, M. Larsen, J.L. Lum, D.G. Mortenson, S.Y. Wang, and A.C. Wertheimer. 1996. Growth, feeding and survival of pink salmon fry exposed to food contaminated with crude oil. Amer. Fish. Soc. Symp. 18:608-618.
Carls, M.G., Rice, S.D., Hose, J.E. 1999. Sensitivity of fish embryos to weathered crude oil: Part I. Low-level exposure during incubation causes malformations, genetic damage and mortality in larval Pacific herring (Clupea pallasi). Environ. Toxicol Chem 18: 481-493.
Carls, M. G., C.D. Marty, and Hose, J. E. 2002. Synthesis of the toxicological impacts of the Exxon Valdez oil spill on Pacific herring (Clupea pallasi) in Prince William Sound, Alaska, USA. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 59: 153-172.
Carls, M.G., R.A. Heintz, G.D. Marty, and S.D. Rice. 2005. Cytochrome P4501A induction in oil- exposed pink salmon Oncorhynchus gorbuscha embryos predicts reduced survival potential. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 301: 253-265.
Diamond, S.A. 2003. Photoactivated toxicity in aquatic environments. Chapter 7 in “UV Effects in Aquatic Organisms and Ecosystems”, E.W. Helbling and H.E. Zagarese, eds., Royal Society of Chemistry, Great Britain, 575 pp.
Esler, D., T.D. Bowman, K.A. Trust, B.E. Ballachey, T.A. Dean, S.C. Jewett, C.E. O’Clair. 2002. Harlequin duck population recovery following the ‘Exxon Valdez’ oil spill: progress, process and constraint. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 241:271-286.
Heintz, R., S.D. Rice, A.C. Wertheimer, R.F. Bradshaw, F.P. Thrower, and J.W. Short. 2000. Delayed effects on growth and marine survival of pink salmon Oncorhynchus gorbuscha after exposure to crude oil during embryonic development. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 208: 205-216.
Heintz, R.A., J.W. Short, and S.D. Rice. 1999. Sensitivity of fish embryos to weathered crude oil: Part II. Incubating downstream from weathered Exxon Valdez crude oil caused increased mortality of pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) embryos. Environ. Toxicol Chem 18: 494-503.
Hicken, C.E., T.L. Limbo, D.H. Baldwin, M.L. Willis, M.S. Myers, L. Holland, M. Larsen, M.S. Stekoll, S.D. Rice, T.K. Collier, N.L. Scholtz and J.P. Incardona. 2011. Sublethal exposure to crude oil during embryological development alters cardiac morphology and reduces aerobic capacity in adult fish. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 49: 1122-1128.
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Hodson, P.V., Khan, C.W., Saravanvbhavan, G., Clarke, L., Brown, S. Hollebone, B., Wang, Z. 2007. Alkyl PAH in crude oil cause chronic toxicity to early life stages of fish. 28th Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program (AMOP) Technical Seminar, Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario pp. 291-300.
Incardona, J., M. G. Carls, H. L. Day, C. A. Sloan, J. L. Bolton, T. K. Collier, and N. L. Scholz. 2009. Cardiac arrhythmia is the primary response of embryonic Pacific herring (Clupea pallasi) exposed to crude oil during weathering. Environ. Sci. Technol, 43: 201-207.
Incardona, J.P., Carls, M.G., Teraoka, H., Sloan, C.A., Collier, T.K., Scholz, N.L. 2005. Aryl hydrocarbon receptor-independent toxicity of weathered crude oil during fish development. Environ. Health Perspectives 113:1755-1762.
Incardona, J., T. K. Collier, and N. L. Scholz. 2004. Defects in cardiac function precede morphological abnormalities in fish embryos exposed to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 196: 191-205.
Incardona, J.P., Day, H.L., Collier, T.K., Scholz, N.L. 2006. Developmental toxicity of 4-ring polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in zebrafish is differentially dependent on AH receptor isoforms and hepatic cytochrome P4501A metabolism. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 217:308-321.
Kahn, C. 2007. Identification of PAH in crude oil that are chronically toxic to the early life stages of fish. M. Sc. Thesis, Queens University, Department of Biology, Kingston, Ontario, K7L 3N6.
Klassen, C.D. 2001. Casarett & Duoll’s Toxicology. 6th Edition. McGraw-Hill, New York. 1235 pp.
Kooyman, G. and D. Costa. 1978. Effects of oil on temperature regulation in sea otters, pp. 216- 222, in Marine biological effects of OCS petroleum development, (D.A.Wolfe, Ed.),. NOAA ERL; Boulder, Colorado (USA). NOAA-TM-ERL-OCSEAP-1, Technical Memo.
Li, H. and Boufadel, M.C. 2010. Long-term persistence of oil from the Exxon Valdez spill in two- layer beaches. Nature Geoscience 3:96-99.
Luquet P., J.P. Cravedi, G. Choubert, J. Tulliez, and G. Bories. 1983. Long-term ingestion by rainbow trout of saturated hydrocarbons: Effects of n-paraffins, pristane and dodecycyclohexane on growth, feed intake, lipid digestibility and canthaxanthin deposition. Aquaculture 34:15-25
Luquet, P., J.P. Cravedi, J. Tulliez, G. Bories. 1984. Growth reduction in trout induced by naphthenic and isoprenoid hydrocarbons (dodecylcyclohexane and pristane). Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safety 8:219-226.
Marty, G. D., J. W. Short, D.M. Dambach, N.H. Willits, R.A. Heintz, S.D. Rice, J.J. Stegeman, and D.E. Hinton. 1997. Ascites, premature emergence, increased gonadal cell apoptosis, and
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cytochrome P4501A induction in pink salmon larvae continuously exposed to oil- contaminated gravel during development. Can. J. Zool. 75: 989-1007.
Matkin, C.O., E.L. Saulitis, G.M. Ellis, P. Olesiuk, and S.D. Rice. 2008. Ongoing population impacts on killer whales following the Exxon Valdez oil spill in Prince William Sound, Alaska. Mar. Ecol. Progr. Ser. 356: 269-281.
McAuliffe, C. D. 1977. Dispersal and alteration of oil discharged on the water surface, In Fate and effects of petroleum hydrocarbons in marine organisms and ecosystems (D.A. Wolfe, Ed.), Pergamon Press, N.Y., 478 pp.
Miller, A.J., F. Chai, S. Chiba, J.R. Moisan and D.J. Nielson. 2004. Decadal scale climate and ecosystem interactions in the North Pacific Ocean. J. Oceanogr. 60: 163-188.
Neff, J.M. 1979. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in the Aquatic Environment: Sources, Fates, and Biological Effects. London, Applied SciencePublishers, 266 pp.
NRC. 1985. Oil in the Sea. Inputs, fates and effects. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 601 pp.
Peterson, C.H., S.D. Rice, J.W.Short, D. Esler, J.L. Bodkin, B.E. Ballachey, D.B. Irons. 2003. Long-term ecosystem response to the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Science 302: 2082-2086
Reynaud, S. and P. Deschaux. 2006. The effects of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on the immune system of fish: a review. Aquat. Toxicol. 77: 229-238.
Short, J.W. and P.M. Harris. 1996. Chemical sampling and analysis of petroleum hydrocarbons in near-surface seawater of Prince William Sound after the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Amer. Fish. Soc. Symp. 18: 17-28.
Short, J. W., M.R. Lindeberg, P.M. Harris, J.M. Maselko, J. J. Pella, and S.D. Rice. 2004. An estimate of oil persisting on beaches of Prince William Sound, 12 years after the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Environ. Sci. and Technol., 38:19-26.
Short, J.W., J.M. Maselko, M.R. Lindeberg, P.M. Harris, and S.D. Rice. 2006. Vertical distribution and probability of encountering intertidal Exxon Valdez Oil on shorelines of three embayments within Prince William Sound, Alaska. Environ. Sci. and Technol., 40:3723-3729.
Spies, R.B., S.D. Rice, D.A. Wolfe and B.A. Wright. 1996. The effects of the Exxon Valdez oil spill on the Alaskan coastal environment, pp. 1-16, in Proceedings of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Symposium, (Rice et al., Eds.), American Fish. Soc. Symposium 18, 931 pp.
Spies, R.B., T. Cooney, A.M. Springer, T. Weingartner, and G.H. Kruse. 2007. Long-term changes in the Gulf of Alaska: Properties and causes, pp. 521-560, in Long-term Changes in the Northern Gulf of Alaska (R.B. Spies, Ed.), Elsevier, Amsterdam, 589 pp.
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Spies, R.B., J.J. Stegeman, D.E. Hinton, B. Woodin, M. Okihiro, R. Smolowitz and D. Shea. 1996. Biomarkers of hydrocarbon exposure and sublethal effects in embiotocid fishes from a natural petroleum seep in the Santa Barbara Channel. Aquat. Toxicol. 34: 195-219.
Steurmer, D.H., R.B. Spies, P.H. Davis, D.J. Ng, C.J. Morris and S. Neal. 1982. The hydrocarbon chemistry of the Isla Vista Marine Seep environment. Mar. Chem. 11: 413-426.
Trust, K.A., D. Esler, B. Woodin, J.J. Stegeman. 2000. Cytochome P450 1A induction in sea ducks inhabiting nearshore areas of Prince William Sound, Alaska. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 40:397-403.
Turcotte, D., P. Ahktar, M. Bowerman, Y. Kiparissis, R. Brown, and P.V. Hodson. 2011. Measuring the toxicity of alkyl-PAH to early life stages of medaka (Oryzias latipes) using partition-controlled delivery. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 30:487-495.
Van Tamelen, P.G. and M.S. Stekoll. 1996. Population response of the brown algae Fucus gardneri in Herring Bay, Prince William Sound to the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Amer. Fish. Soc. Symp. 18:193-211.
Whitehead, A., B. Dubansky, C. Bodinier, T.I. Garcia, S. Miles, C. Pilley, V. Raganathan, J.L. Roach, N, Wlaker, R.B. Walter,, C.D. Rice and F. Galvez. 2011. Genomic and physiological footprint of the Deepwater Horizon Oil spill on resident marsh fishes. Proceed. National Acad. Sci. (www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1109545108)
Wilson, V.S. and G.A. LeBlanc. 1999. Petroleum pollution. Reviews in Toxicol. 3: 77-112.
Section 6.0 – Computer Modelling for Oil Spill Trajectory Analysis and Planning Antonov, J. I., R. A. Locarnini, T. P. Boyer, A. V. Mishonov, and H. E. Garcia, 2006. World Ocean Atlas 2005, Volume 2: Salinity. S. Levitus, Ed. NOAA Atlas NESDIS 62, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 182 pp.
Barker, C.H, and J.A. Galt (2000). “Analysis of Methods Used in Spill Response Planning: Trajectory Analysis Planner TAP II.” Spill Science & Technology Bulletin 6(2):145-152.
Barker, C.H. (2011) “An Early Long Term Outlook for the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill”. In the Proceedings of Environment Canada's 35thArctic and Marine Oilspill (AMOP) Technical Seminar, Banff, Alberta, Canada, September 2011.
Beegle-Krause, C.J. General NOAA Oil Modeling Environment (GNOME): A New Spill Trajectory Model. IOSC 2001 Proceedings, Tampa, FL, March 26-29, 2001. St. Louis, MO: Mira Digital Publishing, Inc. Vol. 2: pp. 865-871.
Chen, C, R. C. Beardsley and G. Cowles, 2006. An unstructured grid, finite-volume coastal ocean model (FVCOM) system. Special Issue entitled “Advance in Computational Oceanography”, Oceanography, vol. 19, No. 1, 78-89.
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Dilorenzo, E., N. Schneider, K.M. Cobb, P.J.S. Franks, K. Chhak, A.J. Miller, J.C. McWilliams, S.J. Bograd, H. Arango, E. Curchitser, T.M. Powell, and P. Riviere. (2008). North PacificGyre Oscillation links ocean climate and ecosystem change. Geophysical Research Letters,35(L08607):1-6.
Emery, W.J., and K. Hamilton (1985). “Atmospheric Forcing of Interannual Variability in the Northeast Pacific Ocean: Connections with El Nino.” Journal of Geophysical Research 90(C1):857-868.
Locarnini, R. A., A. V. Mishonov, J. I. Antonov, T. P. Boyer, and H. E. Garcia, 2006. World Ocean Atlas 2005, Volume 1: Temperature. S. Levitus, Ed. NOAA Atlas NESDIS 61, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 182 pp.
Luettich, R. and J. Westerink (2004). “Formulation and Numerical Implementation of the 2D/3D ADCIRC Finite Element Model Version 44.XX. http://www.nd.edu/~adcirc/manual.htm accessed December 20, 2011. 74 pp.
Mantua, N.J. and S.R. Hare. 2002. The Pacific decadal oscillation. Journal of Oceanography 58(1):35-44.
Shinker, J.J. and P.J. Bartlein. 2009. Visualizing the large-scale patterns of ENSO-related climate anomalies in North America. Earth Interactions 13:1-50.
Manua, N.J., and S.R. Hare (2002). “The Pacific decadal oscillation.” Journal of Physical Oceanography 58(1):35-44.
Stronach, J. (2011). “Enbridge Northern Gateway Project. Technical Data Report: Hydrocarbon Mass Balance Estimates: Inputs for Spill Response Planning.” Hay and Company Consultants, Vancouver, BC. 91 pp.
Timmermann, A., J. Oberhuber, A. Bacher, M. Esch, M. Latif and E. Roeckner (1999). "Increased El Niño frequency in a climate model forced by future greenhouse warming." Nature398: 694-696.
U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (2000). “TAP II 1.2 User Manual.” http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/book_shelf/896_TAP_paper.pdf accessed December 20, 2011.
Section 7.0 – Risk-based Impact Assessment Lohani, B., J.W. Evans, H. Ludwig, R.R. Everitt, Richard A. Carpenter, and S.L.Tu. 1997. Environmental Impact Assessment for Developing Countries in Asia. Volume 1 - Overview. 356 pp.
Ragheb, M. 2011. Probabilistic, Possibilistic and Deterministic Safety Analysis – Nuclear Applications. Published online:
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https://netfiles.uiuc.edu/mragheb/www/NPRE%20457%20CSE%20462%20Safety%20Analysis% 20of%20Nuclear%20Reactor%20Systems/ .
InConsult. 2009. Risk Management Update - ISO 31000 Overview and Implications for Managers. Available online: http://www.inconsult.com.au/Articles/ISO%2031000%20Overview.pdf
Praxiom. 2011. ISO 31000 2009 Plain English Risk Management Dictionary. Available online: http://www.praxiom.com/iso-31000-terms.htm
The Institute of Risk Management (IRM), The Association of Insurance and Risk Managers (AIRMIC) and ALARM. 2002. A Risk Management Standard. Available online: http://www.theirm.org/publications/documents/Risk_Management_Standard_030820.pdf
Carpenter, R. 1995. Risk Assessment. Impact Assessment. Volume 13. Available online: http://www.hardystevenson.com/Articles/RISK%20ASSESSMENT.pdf
Hyett, D. 2010. Environmental Risk Assessment in Environmental Impact Assessment - optional or Mandatory? Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the International Association for Impact Assessment. 6-11 April 2010, Geneva, Switzerland.
Queensland Transport and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. 2000. The Oil Spill Risk Assessment for the Coastal Waters of Queensland and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.
Denis Kirchhoff and Brent Doberstein. 2006. Pipeline risk assessment and risk acceptance criteria in the State of São Paulo, Brazil. Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal, volume 24, number 3, September 2006, pages 221–234, Beech Tree Publishing, UK.
Canter, Larry W. 1993. Pragmatic Suggestions for Incorporating Risk Assessment Principles in EIA Studies. The Environmental Professional. Volume 15, pp 125-138. USA
Carpenter, R.A. and J.E. Maragos, eds. 1989. How to Assess Environmental Impacts on Tropical Islands and Coastal Areas. Training Manual for South Pacific Regional Programme (SPREP). Environment and Policy Institute, East-West Center, Honolulu, pp. 119-122.
Kankara, R. S. and B. R. Subramanian. 2007. Oil Spill Sensitivity Analysis and Risk Assessment for Gulf of Kachchh, India, using Integrated Modeling. Journal of Coastal Research, Number 235:1251-1258.
Etkin, Dagmar. 2006. Risk Assessment of Oil Spills to US Inland Waterways.
Suter, Glenn W., Lawrence W. Barnthouse and Robert V. O'Neill. 1987. Treatment of Risk in Environmental Impact Assessment. Environmental Management. Volume 11, Number 3, 295-303.
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Environmental Protection Authority of Western Australia. 2009. Review of the Environmental Impact Assessment Process in Western Australia.
Woodruff, Jason Michael. 2005. Consequence and likelihood in risk estimation: A matter of balance in UK health and safety risk assessment practice. Safety Science 43 (2005) 345– 353
The World Bank Environment Department. 1997. Environmental Hazard and Risk Assessment. Environmental Assessment Sourcebook Update. Number 21. December 1997.
URS. 2010. Public Environmental Report - Burnside Operations Ply Ltd - North Point and Princess Louise Open Cut Project. Available online: http://www.nt.gov.au/nreta/environment/assessment/register/burnside/per.html
CSA Standards. 2010. CSA Standards announces the Canadian adoption of "ISO 31000 Risk Management - Principles and Guidelines" Standard. Available online: http://www.csa.ca/cm/ca/en/search/article/csa-announces-canadian-adoption-of- iso31000-standard
Section 8.0 – Expert Opinion on Consequences of Spill or Malfunction in Modelled Locations Augenfield, J.M., J.W. Anderson, D.L. Woodruff and J.L. Webster. 1981. Effects of Prudhoe Bay crude oil-contaminated sediments on Protothaca staminea (Mollusca: Pelecypoda): hydrocarbon content, condition index, free amino acid level. Mar. Environ. Res. 4: 135- 143.
Burns, K. A.; Garrity, S. D.; Jorissen, D.; MacPherson, J.; Stoelting, M.; Tierney, J.; Yelle- Simmons, L. The Galeta oil spill. II. Unexpected persistence of oil trapped in mangrove sediments. Estuarine Coastal Shelf Sci. 1994, 38, 349-364.
Carrera-Martinez, D., A. Mateo-Sanz, V. Lopez-Rodas and E. Costas. 2011. Microalgae response to petroleum spill: An experimental model analysing physiological and genetic response of Dunaliella tertiolecta (Chlorophyceae) to oil samples from the oil tanker Prestige. Aquat. Toxicol. 97: 151-159.
Culbertson JB, Valiela I, Peacock EE, Reddy CM, Carter C, VanderKruik R. 2007. Long-term effects of petroleum residues on fiddler crabs Uca panax in salt marshes. Mar Pollut. Bull. 54:955-962
Fernandez, M.O., D. Armstrong. 1993. Habitat selection by young-of-the-year Dungeness crab C. Magister and predation risks in intertidal habitats. Marine Ecol Prog. Ser. 92: 171-177.
Fukuyama, A.K., G. Shigenka, and R.Z. Hoff. 2000. Effects of residual Exxon Valdez oil on intertidal Protothaca staminea: Mortality, growth, and bioaccumulation of hydrocarbons in transplanted clams. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 40: 1042-1050.
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Pearson, W.H., D.L. Woodruff, P.C. Sugarman and B.L. Olla. 1981. Impairment of chemosensory antennular flicking response in the Dungeness carb Cancer magister by petroleum hydrocarbons. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 13: 445-454.
Singer, M.M., S. George, I. Lee, S. Jacobson, L.L. Weetman, G. Blondina, R.S. Tjeerdema, D. Aurand, M.L. Sowby. 1998. Effects of dispersant treatment on the acute toxicity of petroleum hydrocarbons. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 34: 177-187.
Stekoll, M.S. and L. Deysher. 2000. Response of the dominant algae Fucus gardneri to the Exxon Valdez oil spill and cleanup. Mar. Poll. Bull. 1028-1041.
Taban, I.C., R.K. Bechman, S. Torgrimsen, , T. Baussant, and S. Sanni. 2004. Detection of DNA damage in mussels and sea urchins exposed to crude oil using comet assay. Mar. Enviorn. Res. 58: 701-705.
Thomas, R.E., M. Lindberg, P.M. Harris and S.D. Rice. 2007. Induction of DNA strand breaks in the mussel (Mytilus trossulus) and clam (Protothaca staminea) following chronic field exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from the Exxon Valdez spill. Mar. Poll. Bull. 54: 726-732.
Triton Environmental Consultants 2004. Deltaport Third Berth Project Tech Vol 5: Marine Resources Impact Assessment. February 2005.
Van Temelen, P.G., M.S. Stekoll, and L. Deysher. 1997. Recovery processes of the brown alga Fucus gardneri following the oil spill: Settlement and recruitment. Mar. Ecol. Progr. Ser. 160: 265-277.
Wrabel, M.L. and P. Peckol. 2000. Effects of bioremediation on toxicity and chemical composition of No. 2 fuel oil: Growth responses of brown alga Fucus vesiculosus. (Silva) (Phaeophycaea). Mar. Poll. Bull. 40: 135-139.
(A37952)
Appendix G
Albian Heavy Synthetic (AHS) Analysis
(A37952)
Albian Heavy Synthetic
Origin
Alberta, Canada
Notes
Dilsynbit, heavy sour. Albian Heavy Synthetic (AHS) is a partially upgraded dilsynbit produced at Shell Canada Scotford Upgrader. AHS is a heavy stream, but due to the partial upgrading, contains lower sulphur and TAN than unprocessed dilbits and synbits (from www.crudemonitor.ca).
Physical Properties
Albian Heavy Synthetic (Evaporative weathering, w/w%) 0% 22.6%
Evaporation Equation
Sulphur Content (%w/w) 2.28 2.91
Water Content (%w/w) 1.5 1.3
Flash Point (°C) -23 168
Pour Point (°C) < -30 9
Density (g/mL) 0°C 0.9457 1.0271 15°C 0.9371 1.0174 API Gravity 19.0
Dynamic Viscosity (mPa•s) 0°C 465 156 15°C 6.34 E+6 3.74 E+5
Emulsion Formation Stability Stable Entrained Tendency and Stability Complex Modulus (Pa) 1880 ---
Water Content 89.4 16.2
Chemical Dispersability (using CoreExit 9500) 15.2 < 10%
Surface Tension 0°C 29.7 NM (mN/m) 15°C 28.9 NM Interfacial Tension 0°C 29.0 NM (Oil/Water, mN/m) 15°C 26.5 NM Interfacial Tension 0°C 28.2 NM (Oil/33‰ Brine, mN/m) 15°C 23.2 NM
NM: Not Measurable
Copyright Environment Canada, Emergencies Science And Technology (A37952)
Albian Heavy Synthetic
Boiling Point Distribution
Albian Heavy Synthetic Temperature (ºC)
Yield on Crude 0% 22.6% (cum. wt. %) weathered weathered
IBP 21 232 5 59 278 10 93 304 15 119 326 20 151 346 25 191 364 30 239 380 35 278 394 40 310 406 45 340 418 50 365 429 55 387 439 60 405 448 65 421 458 70 436 467 75 449 477 80 462 486 85 476 496 90 489 506 95 504 517 99.5 519 528
Copyright Environment Canada, Emergencies Science And Technology (A37952)
Albian Heavy Synthetic
Hydrocarbon Groups
Albian Heavy Synthetic Concentration (%)
0% 22.6% Component weathered weathered
Saturates 41.5 31.4 Aromatics 27.0 29.3 Resins 26.2 36.3 Asphaltenes 6.0 6.8
Volatile Organic Compounds
Albian Heavy Synthetic Concentration (mg/g oil) 0% 22.6%
weathered weathered Benzene 0.723 ND Toluene 3.644 ND Ethylbenzene 0.808 ND meta- and para-Xylene 2.970 ND ortho-Xylene 0.996 ND ∑BTEX 9.141 ND
Isopropylbenzene 0.280 ND Propylbenzene 0.243 ND 3- and 4-Ethyltoluene 1.068 ND 1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene 0.344 ND 2-Ethyltoluene 0.508 ND 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene 1.14 ND 1,2,3-Trimethylbenzene 0.127 ND
∑C3-Benzenes 3.711 ND
Isobutylbenzene 0.026 ND 1-Methyl-2-isopropylbenzene 0.029 ND 1,2-Dimethyl-4-ethylbenzene 0.204 ND Amylbenzene 0.092 ND n-Hexylbenzene 0.012 ND
BTEX + ∑C3-Benzenes 12.85 ND All Target Alkyl-benzenes 13.22 ND
*Note that ∑C3-Benzenes includes eight isomers. ND: Not Detected
Copyright Environment Canada, Emergencies Science And Technology (A37952)
Albian Heavy Synthetic
n-Alkane Distributions
Albian Heavy Synthetic
Concentration (mg/g oil)
0% 22.6% n-Alkane Component weathered weathered
n-C8 2.33 0.00
n-C9 1.76 0.00
n-C10 1.18 0.00
n-C11 0.87 0.00
n-C12 0.55 0.02
n-C13 0.53 0.13
n-C14 0.52 0.28
n-C15 0.52 0.41
n-C16 0.49 0.43
n-C17 0.40 0.40 Pristane 0.32 0.30
n-C18 0.36 0.35 Phytane 0.27 0.27
n-C19 0.35 0.37
n-C20 0.34 0.32
n-C21 0.33 0.30
n-C22 0.30 0.30
n-C23 0.29 0.31
n-C24 0.28 0.30
n-C25 0.33 0.34
n-C26 0.29 0.35
n-C27 0.29 0.31
n-C28 0.29 0.30
n-C29 0.25 0.28
n-C30 0.30 0.29
n-C31 0.35 0.36
n-C32 0.20 0.20
n-C33 0.26 0.22
n-C34 0.15 0.15
n-C35 0.14 0.14
n-C36 0.09 0.09
n-C37 0.08 0.09
n-C38 0.07 0.08
n-C39 0.03 0.08
n-C40 0.00 0.05 ∑ n-Alkanes 15.1 7.83
Diagnostic ratios
C17/PRISTANE 1.27 1.32
C18/PHYTANE 1.33 1.32 PRISTANE/PHYTANE 1.16 1.14 ∑Odd Alkanes 6.78 3.75 ∑Even Alkanes 7.73 3.53 CPI 0.88 1.06
Copyright Environment Canada, Emergencies Science And Technology (A37952)
Albian Heavy Synthetic
n-Alkane Distributions for Albian Heavy Synthetic
Copyright Environment Canada, Emergencies Science And Technology (A37952)
Albian Heavy Synthetic
PAH Distributions Albian Heavy Synthetic Concentration (µg/g oil)
0% 22.6% Alkylated PAHs weathered weathered Naphthalene C0-N 30.5 2.43 C1-N 155 66.4 C2-N 333 267 C3-N 406 384 C4-N 354 345 ∑N 1278 1065 Phenanthrene C0-P 55.1 55.4 C1-P 195 195 C2-P 321 329 C3-P 374 388 C4-P 357 387 ∑P 1302 1354 Dibenzothiophene C0-D 36.9 35.9 C1-D 147 147 C2-D 302 328 C3-D 390.4 381 ∑D 877 891 Fluorene C0-F 14.1 13.5 C1-F 53.9 55.3 C2-F 124 127 C3-F 188 204 ∑F 380 399 Chrysene C0-C 53.2 43.9 C1-C 359 388 C2-C 502 505 C3-C 379 380 ∑C 1294 1317 ∑ alkylated PAHs 5131 5027
2-m-N:1-m-N 1.62 1.34 (3-+2-)/(4-/9-+1-m-phen) 1.57 1.63 4-:2-/3-:1-m-DBT 1.00:0.66:0.45 1.00:0.66:0.46 (C2D/C2P):(C3D/C3P) 0.94:1.04 1.00:0.98 C0N:C1N:C2N:C3N:C4N 0.09:0.44:0.94:1.15:1.00 0.01:0.19:0.78:1.11:1.00 ∑N:∑P:∑DBT:∑F:∑C 0.98:1.00:0.67:0.29:0.99 0.79:1.00:0.66:0.29:0.97
EPA Priority PAHs Biphenyl 13.0 8.21 Acenaphthylene 1.94 1.65 Acenaphthene 4.75 4.41 Anthracene 6.22 6.57 Fluoranthene 19.2 18.0 Pyrene 206 204 Benz(a)anthracene 37.8 31.9 Benzo(b)fluoranthene 25.0 23.6 Benzo(k)fluoranthene 5.66 4.92 Benzo(e)pyrene 75.3 69.6 Benzo(a)pyrene 49.6 47.9 Perylene 28.1 26.5 Indeno(1,2,3cd)pyrene 20.5 20.2 Dibenzo(a,h)anthracene 22.2 19.9 Benzo(ghi)perylene 109 93.3 ∑ EPA Priority PAHs 624 581
∑ PAHs 5755 5607
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Albian Heavy Synthetic
PAH Distribution for Albian Heavy Synthetic
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Albian Heavy Synthetic
Biomarker Distributions
Albian Heavy Synthetic Concentration (µg/g oil)
0% 22.6% Biomarker weathered weathered C21 16.0 16.2 C22 6.82 7.02 C23 46.9 46.0 C24 24.2 24.1 Ts 13.5 13.1 Tm 55.8 55.4 C29 97.1 95.8 C30 114 114 C31(S) 46.9 46.4 C31(R) 35.7 34.6 C32(S) 31.4 31.0 C32(R) 23.6 23.3 C33(S) 24.2 23.5 C33(R) 16.1 15.7 C34(S) 17.8 16.8 C34(R) 10.8 11.2 C35(S) 19.0 19.2 C35(R) 12.9 13.0 C27 steranes 76.5 78.3 C28 steranes 55.7 56.3 C29 steranes 84.9 86.8 ∑Biomarkers 829 828
Diagnostic ratios C23/C24 1.94 1.91 C23/C30 0.41 0.40 C24/C30 0.21 0.21 C29/C30 0.85 0.84 C31(S)/C31(R) 1.31 1.34 C32(S)/C32(R) 1.33 1.33 Ts/Tm 0.24 0.24 C27 /C29 0.90 0.90 C30/∑(C31...C35) 0.48 0.49
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Appendix H
Wabiska Heavy (AHS) Analysis
(A37952)
Wabiska Heavy
Origin
Alberta, Canada
Notes
Dilbit, Heavy Sour. Wabasca Heavy is a blend of heavy oil production obtained by polymer injection and water flooding from the Athabasca region. Principal producers of the Wabasca Stream include Cenovus Energy and Canadian Natural Resources, though other producers do connect to the Wabasca Heavy stream. Wabasca Heavy is delivered to Edmonton via the Pembina Pipeline and Rainbow Pipelines (www.crudemonitor.ca).
Physical Properties
Wabisca Heavy (Evaporative weathering, w/w%) 0% 10.7%
Evaporation Equation
Sulphur Content (w/w) 4.7 5.0
Water Content (w/w) 5.6 3.2
Flash Point (°C) 151 164
Pour Point (°C) -6 3
Density (g/mL) 0°C 1.0109 1.0158 15°C 0.9572 1.0069 API Gravity 16.3
Dynamic Viscosity (mPa•s) 0°C 1.01 E+6 2.97 E+6 15°C 1.28 E+5 2.79 E+5
Emulsion Formation Stability Entrained Entrained Tendency and Stability Complex Modulus (Pa) 729 1310
Water Content 14.9 11.7
Chemical Dispersability (using CoreExit 9500) <10% <10%
Surface Tension 0°C NM NM (mN/m) 15°C NM NM Interfacial Tension 0°C NM NM (Oil/Water, mN/m) 15°C NM NM Interfacial Tension 0°C NM NM (Oil/33‰ Brine, mN/m) 15°C NM NM
NM: Not Measurable
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Wabiska Heavy
Boiling Point Distribution
Wabisca Heavy Temperature (ºC)
Yield on Crude 0% 10.7% (cum. wt. %) weathered weathered
IBP 179 217 5 249 271 10 282 299 15 306 318 20 324 335 25 340 350 30 355 364 35 368 377 40 381 391 45 395 404 50 408 417 55 420 429 60 432 441 65 443 452 70 454 464 75 466 476 80 478 489 85 490 500 90 503 511 95 516 521 99.5 531 532
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Wabiska Heavy
Hydrocarbon Groups
Wabisca Heavy Concentration (w/w %)
0% 10.7% Component weathered weathered
Saturates 41.3 41.3 Aromatics 31.8 23.0 Resins 27.5 38.3 Asphaltenes 8.6 8.4
Volatile Organic Compounds
Wabisca Heavy Concentration (mg/g oil) 0% 10.7%
weathered weathered Benzene ND ND Toluene ND ND Ethylbenzene 0.002 ND meta- and para-Xylene 0.004 ND ortho-Xylene 0.001 ND ∑BTEX 0.007 ND Isopropylbenzene ND ND Propylbenzene ND ND 3- and 4-Ethyltoluene ND ND 1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene ND ND 2-Ethyltoluene ND ND 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene ND ND 1,2,3-Trimethylbenzene ND ND
∑C3-Benzenes ND ND Isobutylbenzene ND ND 1-Methyl-2-isopropylbenzene ND ND 1,2-Dimethyl-4-ethylbenzene ND ND Amylbenzene ND ND n-Hexylbenzene ND ND
BTEX + ∑C3-Benzenes 0.007 ND All Target Alkyl-benzenes 0.007 ND
*Note that ∑C3-Benzenes includes eight isomers.
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Wabiska Heavy
n-Alkane Distributions
Wabisca Heavy
Concentration (mg/g oil)
0% 10.7% n-Alkane Component weathered weathered
n-C8 ND ND n-C9 ND ND n-C10 ND ND n-C11 ND ND n-C12 ND ND n-C13 ND ND n-C14 ND ND n-C15 ND ND n-C16 ND ND n-C17 ND ND Pristane ND ND n-C18 ND ND Phytane ND ND n-C19 ND ND n-C20 ND ND n-C21 ND ND n-C22 ND ND n-C23 ND ND n-C24 ND ND n-C25 ND ND n-C26 ND ND n-C27 ND ND n-C28 ND ND n-C29 ND ND n-C30 ND ND n-C31 ND ND n-C32 ND ND n-C33 ND ND n-C34 ND ND n-C35 ND ND n-C36 ND ND n-C37 ND ND n-C38 ND ND n-C39 ND ND n-C40 ND ND ∑ n-Alkanes ND ND
Diagnostic ratios C17/PRISTANE NA NA C18/PHYTANE NA NA PRISTANE/PHYTANE NA NA ∑Odd Alkanes NA NA ∑Even Alkanes NA NA CPI NA NA
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Wabiska Heavy
n-Alkane Distributions for Wabisca Heavy
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Wabiska Heavy
PAH Distributions Wabisca Heavy Concentration (µg/g oil)
0% 10.7% Alkylated PAHs weathered weathered Naphthalene C0-N 0.00 0.00 C1-N 0.00 0.56 C2-N 0.00 2.83 C3-N 13.4 11.0 C4-N 84.0 80.4 ∑N 97.4 100 Phenanthrene C0-P 22.4 17.8 C1-P 44.5 33.5 C2-P 278 222 C3-P 324 252 C4-P 239 183 ∑P 908 708 Dibenzothiophene C0-D 0.88 0.00 C1-D 10.3 0.00 C2-D 95.9 78.0 C3-D 223 180 ∑D 330 258 Fluorene C0-F 0.69 0.57 C1-F 15.1 10.3 C2-F 66.5 48.3 C3-F 119 90.0 ∑F 201 149 Chrysene C0-C 5.81 4.33 C1-C 37.6 29.5 C2-C 71.1 53.1 C3-C 65.9 51.8 ∑C 180 139 ∑ alkylated PAHs 1718 1348
2-m-N:1-m-N NA 0.57 (3-+2-)/(4-/9-+1-m-phen) 1.31 1.27 4-:2-/3-:1-m-DBT NA NA (C2D/C2P):(C3D/C3P) 0.35:0.69 0.35:0.71 C0N:C1N:C2N:C3N:C4N 0.00:0.00:0.00:0.10:1.00 0.00:0.01:0.04:0.14:1.00 ∑N:∑P:∑DBT:∑F:∑C 0.11:1.00:0.36:0.22:0.20 0.13:1.00:0.36:0.21:0.20
EPA Priority PAHs Biphenyl 0.00 0.00 Acenaphthylene 0.00 0.00 Acenaphthene 4.51 3.09 Anthracene 2.84 2.33 Fluoranthene 4.26 3.37 Pyrene 11.4 9.33 Benz(a)anthracene 2.86 2.08 Benzo(b)fluoranthene 3.90 3.10 Benzo(k)fluoranthene 0.24 0.35 Benzo(e)pyrene 5.02 3.97 Benzo(a)pyrene 2.03 1.83 Perylene 4.49 3.54 Indeno(1,2,3cd)pyrene 1.29 0.85 Dibenzo(a,h)anthracene 0.00 0.00 Benzo(ghi)perylene 2.53 2.11 ∑ EPA Priority PAHs 45.4 36.0
∑ PAHs 1763 1384
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Wabiska Heavy
PAH Distribution for Wabisca Heavy
Copyright Environment Canada, Emergencies Science And Technology (A37952)
Wabiska Heavy
Biomarker Distributions
Wabisca Heavy Concentration (µg/g oil)
0% 10.7% Biomarker weathered weathered C21 20.3 16.5 C22 10.2 8.31 C23 61.9 51.4 C24 31.5 26.0 Ts 18.7 16.2 Tm 59.1 47.3 C29 144 118 C30 170 139 C31(S) 79.1 65.1 C31(R) 58.2 47.2 C32(S) 53.0 44.5 C32(R) 39.0 32.7 C33(S) 41.3 33.4 C33(R) 26.9 22.5 C34(S) 31.0 26.5 C34(R) 20.2 16.3 C35(S) 37.5 30.6 C35(R) 23.8 20.7 C27 steranes 138 114 C28 steranes 104 85.4 C29 steranes 181 146 ∑Biomarkers 1348 1108
Diagnostic ratios C23/C24 1.97 1.98 C23/C30 0.37 0.37 C24/C30 0.19 0.19 C29/C30 0.85 0.85 C31(S)/C31(R) 1.36 1.38 C32(S)/C32(R) 1.36 1.36 Ts/Tm 0.32 0.34 C27 /C29 0.76 0.78 C30/∑(C31...C35) 0.41 0.41
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