DHAR-DISSERTATION-2013.Pdf

Home , House slave, Margaret Garner, Our Nig, Slavery in Haiti, The Heroic Slave

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1 Indeed, Paul Gilroy's phenomenal book The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness contends that we need to think of black trans-nationalism as a system of trans-oceanic, or more specifically, trans-Atlantic interactions which began with the European colonialisms and the trans- Atlantic slave trade and continue till this day. Gilroy names this phenomenon the “black Atlantic,” 12 3 $ " $ + $ + +"

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noting that “A concern with the Atlantic as a cultural and political system has been forced on black historiography and intellectual history by the economic and historical matrix in which plantation slavery – “capitalism with its clothes off” – was the one special moment.” 13 " *" " " + "

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2In his book Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History, Michel-Rolph Trouillot comments on the erasure of the Haitian Revolution from the official versions of the histories of the Americas or the world: "The general silence that Western historiography has produced around the Haitian Revolution originally stemmed from the in-capacity to express the unthinkable." I would like to emphasize Trouillot's use of the term "unthinkable" and argue that this is true not just for the Haitian Revolution, but for slave rebellions in general. 15 ' * " " *$ ! 3

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5 A notable exception has been the literary depictions of the Amistad rebellion. For an astute analysis of such texts, see Matthew J. Christensen. Rebellious Histories : The Amistad Slave Revolt and the Cultures of Late Twentieth Century Black Transnationalism. Stony Brrok : State University of New York Press, 2012 26 " ! "8 +3 $ = "

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6 Literary critic Jenny Sharpe's monograph Ghosts of Slavery: An Archaelogy of Black Women's Lives provides an astute intervention in studies of such complexities of black enslaved subjectivity. As does Saidiya Hartman's book Scenes of Subjection. 29 '" " !! + "

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8 For more details, see Baucom, Ian. Specters of the Atlantic: Finance Capital, Slavery and, the Philosophy of History. Durham: Duke University Press, 2005; Smallwood, Stephanie E. Saltwater Slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American Diaspora. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2008; Rediker, Marcus. The Slave Ship: A Human History. New York: Penguin, 2008 45 " " > ""$" H H

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14In their edited volume, African Theatre: Playwrights & Politics, Martin Banham, James Gibbs and Femi Osofisan devote an entire section to two Ghanaian playwrights, Joe de Graft and Mohammed Ben- Abdallah. There is a short biographical sketch on Abdallah, co-written by Anthony A. Aidoo and James Gibbs, called “Mohammed Ben-Abdallah at Fifty.” There is a full-length interview with Abdallah, conducted by Awo Asiedu, and a close-reading of Abdallah's play Land of a Million Magicians by James Gibbs. Nothing has been devoted to the play The Slaves. In his monograph, Fertile Crossings: Metamorphoses of Genre in Anglophone West African Literature, Pietro Deandrea devotes a chapter to Abdallah, entitled “Mohammed ben Abdallah's Search for an African Theatre.” Although Deandrea touches upon The Slaves, it is beyond his project to provide an in-depth study of the play.

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15 Beginning from 24th February, 1966 when the government of Dr. Nkrumah was overthrown by the Ghana armed forces and the police, Ghana witnessed a number of governmental changes in quick succession. After the overthrowing of Nkrumah, a National Liberation Council was formed to administer the country, headed by Lt. General Joseph Arthur Ankrah, who was removed from his office in April 1969. Lt. General Akwasi Amankwa Afrifa became the Chairman of the NLC, which later gave way to a three-man Presidential Commission with General Afrifa as chairman. The Commission paved the way for a general election in 1969 which brought into power the Progress Party government, with Dr. Kofi Abrefa Busia as Prime Minister and Mr. Edward Akufo Addo as president.The Ghana armed forces again took over the reins of gov-ernment on 13th January 1972, and Colonel (later General) Ignatius Kutu Acheampong became the Head of State and Chairman of the National Redemption Council (NRC). It is period of political upheaval that I am referring to here.

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17Elsewhere, I have written in more details about the work that the search party does in this play. ! " ! #

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18 I am aware of the fact that the word “beautiful” is not inherently gendered. My comments here are more of my reflection of my readings of the ways in which this word has been used in gendered ways in this play, rather than providing an all-pervasive reading of the word.

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19 For more details, see Aminata Sow Fall's novel La Grève des bàttu (1979); Nuruddin Farah's Gifts ( 1999); Ngugi wa Thiong'o's Devil on the Cross (1987)

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20Anne McClintock uses the term “designated agency” to provide a critique of Franz Fanon's observations of women's participation in the Algerian Revolution. She writes, “Theirs is a designated agency-- an agency by invitation only. Before the national uprising, women's agency was null, void, inert as the veil. Here Fanon colludes not only with the stereotype of women as bereft of historical motivation, but he also resorts, uncharacteristically, to a reproductive image of a natural birthing: “It is an authentic birth in a pure state.” (366). Thus, according to McClintock, in Fanon's analysis, women are allowed only a limited political agency, one that is dependent upon the male activists understanding of the importance of the women's presence with the national revolution.

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21I am using the term “inner” to refer to the theoretical work done by Partha Chatterjee and other scholars of anti-colonial nationalism. For Chatterjee, much of Indian nationalism is constituted by the material/spiritual and world/home dichotomy. He writes, H'" " $ " ; ! " " '" / " ! "" " " "; ! $ " '" " " 8 "" $ " +8 *! " ) $ " 9 " " , " ! " 8 ""! ( " 8 9 " " " $$ " $ " " " = " ! " , " " 2 !G " " ! " * ! !6 " " $ " " / " ! " !$ $ " $ """ " * ; " $ $ ! ! " " ) H 1" ) E " ' # !$ &!+ = K !E A !E <5

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22 For me, “liberal feminism” connotes a form of feminist thought which emphasizes actions and choices by individual women to assert their equality with men. Often emerging from the white, middle/upper middle- class women in First World societies, liberal feminism is often not interested in seeing how gender might intersect with other categories such as class and race. The work of feminists like Betty Friedan and Gloria Steinem can be included in this category.

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23 I am aware that this statement can be read as an attempt to construct an essentialist distinction in writing based on gender. However, I am not interested in constructing or endorsing an essentialist notion of “men's writing” or “women's writing.” What I am trying to refer to here are the ways in which the debate has often evolved within the Haitian national literature and Francophone Caribbean literary tradition. For example, the Haitian writer Yanick Lahens writes, all the writers of the Third World, Haitian writers included, fell into the trap of always wanting to affirm that they were writers, and to demonstrate that they were men. They pursued this to such an extent that both individual speech and the desire to break new ground were strangled from the start. Nor did historical and political difficulties help in any way. The Third World writer was compelled to respond immediately to a social and political imperative. It was as if, in a way, the writer had to go through negritude and social realism as a mode of affirmation. He was thus trapped in a position that prevented the exploration of other directions. I think that the women writers said, “It is true that all this exists, but would it not be possible to speak of ourselves, of who we are, of our families, or our relationships with our children, of the life in our neighborhoods.” Why is it that a Third World writer cannot, before saying “I am black or I am a Marxist,” say simply “I am” and write? In saying so, they would not necessarily be neglecting social concerns, politics, or history. Marie Chauvet understood this, and she traced a new path with Amour, colere et folie. Lahens, Yanick. “Exile: Between Writing and Place”, trans. Mohamed B. Taleb-Khyar, Callaloo 15, no. 2 (1992): 442

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" / $ " + @ 24 I am using this concept from Gayatri Chakraborty Spivak's essay “Can the Subaltern Speak?” where she claims, “One never encounters the testimony of the women's voice-consciousness”, thus, coining the term to write about the process of “subaltern” subject-constitution or lack thereof. Contrary to the liberal belief that modernity makes possible the existence of a public sphere, where each and every individual can express in her or her own voice her own opinions, rights and beliefs, Spivak's essay makes us aware of the fact that there are multiple subject-positions, like that of the colonized Bengali women she writes about, or the enslaved, who do not have recourse to the legal-symbolic space from

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where to articulate their opinions in terms of a language that will be accessible to the mainstream. In short, Spivak uses the term to provide a critique of the liberal rights-discourse.

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" " ! " "( 25 Historian Carolyn Fick comments that it is almost impossible to construct a systematic social historical account of Makandal's activities, because his case presents the same methodological dilemma that faces most historians of slavery: the lack of relatively unmediated first person accounts of those enslaved. Whatever has been written about Makandal, therefore, have been mostly constructed from the records and writings of colonial administrators and are extremely fragmentary in nature. For more details,see Fick, Carolyn. Making Haiti: Saint-Domingue Society From Below. Knoxville, University of Tennessee Press, 1990

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26For a fuller account of such processes, see Chancy, Myriam J.A. Framing Silence: Revolutionary Novels by Haitian Women. New Jersey, Rutgers University Press, 1998

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85 The word “bossal”, “bosal” or “bozal” is often used in Francophone Caribbean colonies and Afro- creole to refer to slaves who have just arrived from Africa.

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30 An obvious example of such socialist realist novels is Maxim Gorky's The Mother, published in 1907. Within postcolonial literary traditions, Sembene Ousmane from Senegal and Ngugi wa Thiong'o from Kenya took up the form seriously, creating a considerable archive of “strike novels” in the process.

239 $ " $ $ " !. >+ !

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31 I use the term “post-Bandung” to refer to the fictional works written within the postcolonial world during the recent years with the tacit understanding that the ideological promises and the utopic visions that the Asian-African Conference of 1955 in Bandung, Indonesia, have exhausted themselves

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33In his book Conscripts of Modernity: The Tragedy of Colonial Enlightenment David Scott provides a definition of the term problem-space: “Problem-spaces alter historically because problems are not timeless and do not have everlasting shapes. In new historical conditions old questions may lose their salience, their bite, and so lead the range of old answers that once attached to them to appear lifeless, quaint, not so much wrong as irrelevant.” (4) I am using the word “problem-space” in the way Scott uses it here.

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35For the significance of mother-daughter relationships in post-colonial and African Diasporic fiction, see, Caroline Rody, The Daughter's Return:African-American and Caribbean Women's Fiction of History; Moira Ferguson, Jamaica Kincaid: Where Land Meets the Body; J. Brooks Bouson, Jamaica Kincaid:Writing Memory, Writing Back to the Mother; Simone A. James Alexander, Mother Imagery in the Novels of Afro-Caribbean Women; Victoria Burrows, Whiteness and Trauma: the mother-daughter knot in the fiction of Jean Rhys, Jamaica Kincaid and Toni Morrison

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36Patrick Manning. “Address By The Honourable Patrick Manning Prime Minister Of Trinidad And Tobago At The Annual Dinner Of The NAEAP in Commemoration Of Emancipation Day on July 31st 2009 at the Centre Of Excellence, Macoya.” Government of Trinidad and Tobago. Web: http://www.news.gov.tt/index.php?news=1548

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38I am aware of the fact that Lukacs' persistent use of the word “hero” and the masculine pronoun embodies a problematic gender politics. However, I am using the masculine pronoun here to elucidate how Lukacs himself explained the significance of the novelistic hero himself, rather than from an impulse to endorse his naturalized used of the pronoun “he.”

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39Brand, Dionne. 1999. At the Full and Change of the Moon. Toronto; Alfred A. Knopf: 9

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40Stephanie Camp, a historian of US-American slavery, therefore, suggests a methodology which will emphasize the “everyday forms of resistance”. Following James C. Scott, who defines “everyday resistance” as “informal, often covert, and concerned largely with immediate, de facto gains”, Camp describes the everyday forms of slave resistance as “theft, foot dragging, short-term flight, and feigning illness” which could be looked upon as “hidden or indirect expressions of dissent, quiet ways of reclaiming a measure of control over goods, time, or parts of one's own life.” Barbara Bush, in her study of the patterns of resistance among slave women in the Caribbean notes a similar pattern. She writes, Slaves, both male and female, exasperated their masters in countless ways—shirking work, damaging crops, dissembling, feigning illness. Unlike outright revolt, these unspectacular routine acts of non-cooperation did not generally involve violence or the threat of violence against whites and have thus been termed ' passive' as opposed to ' active' forms of resistance.

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43 I am using the term “global plantation complex” along the lines of Philip Curtins in the book The Rise and Fall of the Plantation Complex: Essays in Atlantic History, to signify a specific form of modern, commodified agricultural practice that came into being along with global European domination. Plantations were markedly different from pre-modern agricultural practices. While often originally based on slave labor, the global plantation complex was by no means restricted to such, but deployed many different forms of coercive labor practices during its existence. Although dependent to a large extent on the forced slave labor of the people of African descent, the plantation complex was not racially exclusive, and included indentured laborers from India, China, Southeast Asia, and even Europe. Finally, the plantation complex operated as a relatively autonomous economic unit with interests of its own within larger coalitions of colonial ruling interests. Societies subjected to the domination of the global plantation complex experienced wide-scale transformations in economics, demographics, ecologies and cultures. See Curtins, Philip. Plantation Complex: Essays on Atlantic History. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990.

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46 In order to make it clear to the readers that he is indeed quoting slave-narratives in his novel, Freddy Douglas, a.k.a. Frederick Douglas, the ex-slave writer and black radical intellectual makes a brief appearance in the novel via Zachary's ruminations. Zachary, the novel tells us, was proud of knowing his precise age and the date of birth -- as he would point out to anyone interested, “he was twenty, not a day less and not many more.” (Sea of Poppies &3$ " " # 7 $5 ' " ( $" 8 ' ! !" $ !$ "$ ! " $ 9! " $ " " $ " " " " "! $ " " $ %7 $# ' ,*- / + = - 5E $ 9 5@& In his knowledge of the exact day of his birth, Zachary is thus not Douglass. If Douglass's world had been formed by the social relations of slavery, which did not confer upon him the basic amenities of a modern, Western citizenship, then Zachary's world has indeed moved away from that lack of symbolic citizenship. Yet, Zachary's world is also one formed in reaction to, or in reference to, the world of Douglass. This becomes especially evident in his pride in being able to tell his own date of birth. The pride, therefore, reveals a mind conscious of the symbolic and material importance of its own freedom.

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