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Scanned Using Book Scancenter 5022 20 THE ANCIENT PERIOD THE ANCIENT PERIOD 21 to inscriptions on stone and metal (mirrors, swords), thereby serving a primarily Chinese court. As such, they were primarily literate texts. However, while writ­ symbolic function. It was not until the seventh century that Chinese writing ing represented a new medium that could be transmitted as a material object, began to be used widely for administrative, religious, and commercial purposes. it also created a new type of oral culture in which the written text was used as The oldest extant literary and historical texts date from the beginning of the the base and cue for oral and public performance. eighth century. The Kojiki {Record of Ancient Matters, 712) and Nihon shoki {Chronicles of Japan, 720) were written in order to legitimize the new state Major Events in the Seventh and Eighth Centuries order by providing an account of how the world came into being and by tracing the origins of the emperor to the age of the gods. In 713, an imperial order was 622 Death of Prince Shotoku (b. 574) issued to record the origins of the names of various places and products, and 645 Taika Reforms the result was the fudoki, or provincial gazetteers, which included reports by 667 Move of the capital to Omi provincial governors from five different provinces; Hitachi, Harima (present- 671 Death of Emperor Tenchi (r. 662-671) day Hyogo Prefecture), Izumo, Bungo, and Hizen (the last two are in Kyushu). 672 Jinshin war Anthologies of Japanese poetry began to be compiled in the late seventh cen- 686 Death of Emperor Tenmu (r. 672-686) tury, and the Man yoshu {Collection of Myriad Leaves), an encyclopedic col­ 701 Taiho Code lection of poetry, was compiled throughout the eighth century. An anthology 702 Death of Empress Jito (r. 687-696). Beginning of the compilation of Chinese poetry, the Kaifuso, was completed in 751. of the Man'yoshu? Before the late seventh century, songs and narratives were transmitted orally 710 Move of the capital to Nara (Heijo) in a variety of ways, sometimes as part of tales and at other times as part of 712 Completion of the Kojiki festivals and rituals. Traces of these oral narratives {katari) survive in the myths 713 Order to compile the fudoki and stories of the Kojiki and Nihon shoki, albeit in a different form. Ancient 720 Completion of the Nihon shoki poems {uta) of courtship and praise for the ruler also survive in these two texts 731 Death of Otomo no Tabito (665-731) and in the Man'yoshu. The fudoki contain examples of courtship songs known 733 Death of Yamanoue no Okura (66o?-733) as utagaki (literally, "fence songs") or kagai, which were sung to the accom­ 746 Compilation of the Man'yoshu, vols. 1-16? paniment of song and dance. 751 Compilation of Kaifuso The need to make Chinese writing accessible to non-Chinese speakers led 784 Move of the capital from Nara to Nagaoka scribes in the Yamato court from the archipelago and the continent to devise 785 Death of Otomo no Yakamochi (7177-785), final compiler of the methods of reading Chinese script in Japanese. This process gave rise to the Man'yoshu developrrient of new hybrid styles of writing that required a knowledge of both 794 Move of the capital to Heian (Kyoto) the Chinese script and the Japanese language. For instance, in contrast to the Nihon shoki, which is written almost entirely in orthodox classical Chinese, the KOJIKI Kojiki, which places more emphasis on the spoken word and claims to be a (RECORD OF ANCIENT MATTERS, 712) record of oral transmissions, uses Chinese characters arranged with both Chi­ nese and Japanese syntax, with the addition, for clarity, of some characters According to its preface, the Kojiki {Record of Ancient Matters) was commis­ representing phonetic syllables. In the Man'yoshu, poems are written in a va­ sioned by Emperor Tenmu (r. 672-686) and was completed and presented to riety of ways, ranging from a style close to orthodox classical Chinese to one Empress Genmei (r. 707-715) in 712 by a scribe named O no Yasumaro. It is a using Chinese characters as phonetic syllables. All these works, however, were mythology and history in three volumes, starting with the creation of Japan in read in the aristocratic Japanese dialect of the Yamato nobility. the age of the gods and the descent to earth of the ancestor of the imperial Under the influence of Chinese literature, genres of Japanese poetry {uta) family through the reign of the legendary first sovereign. Emperor Jinmu, and such as somon (exchange poems) and banka (laments) developed, and the myth- successive rulers up to the reign of the thirty-third sovereign, Empress Suiko histories of the Yamato court were divided into emperor reigns (as in the (r. 592-618). Chinese dynastic histories) and chronologized according to the Chinese cos- The key concept of the creation myth, which describes the origin of Japan mological calendar (in th^ case of the Nihon shoki). These early written texts but not of the universe, is musuhi, or "creating force," a spontaneous power were compiled as the products of a court culture that would rival that of the through which the gods come into existence. After seven generations of gods 22 THE ANCIENT PERIOD THE ANCIENT PERIOD 23 are created by this force, the last generation, a male and a female god called Izanagi and Izanami, create the islands of Japan. This creation begins with the Five heavenly gods present-day Shikoku (Tosa, lyo, Sanuki, Awa), then moves west to Kyushu (Tsu- 1 kushi), and finally to Honshu. Izanagi and Izanami also give birth to the gods Six generations of gods of various natural phenomena, including the gods of the sea and rivers, of the Izananu •" Izanagi mountains and plains, of the wind, and finally of fire, who causes the death of the female deity Izanami. The male deity Izanagi then gives birth by himself 1 I to the central figure in the Kojiki mythology, the Sun Goddess Amaterasu. It is Seas, rivers, Islands of Tsukuyomi Sun Goddess_ Amaterasu s descendant, the god Ninigi, who comes down from heaven to earth mountains, Japan ' Susano-o^= Hair Comb Amaterasu and becomes the ancestor of the Yamato emperors. wind, &e Fields The Kojiki is a bricolage of various myths woven together into a story of the Great Mountain divine ancestry of the Yamato emperors. According to the Kojiki cosmology, the Deity Various gods earth is dependent on heaven, and the Yamato emperors, as the descendants of and spirits Sea God the heavenly gods, are entitled to rule the earth. Although some of the myths Lady Tree Ninigi Great Land Master contained in the Kojiki may date from long before the eighth century, their BlossomT (Okuninushi) primary function in the narrative was to legitimate the world order of the early- r Lady ^ Luck of the Luck of eighth-century Japanese state. Within the various mythical accounts are expla­ Toyotama Mountain the Sea nations of the origin of place-names, of the hierarchical relationships between different clans, and of ritual ceremonies. Heavenly One key feature of the Kojiki is the importance it places on the power of Male Brave of speech. For example, conquests are often described in terms of a verbal pledging the Shore of subjection. In the Kojiki the word for subdue" {kotOTnuku) means literally to make (someone) speak his subjection." The magical power of words is also Emperor emphasized in the story of Luck of the Mountain and Luck of the Sea, as well Jinmu as in the tragic end of Prince Yamato Takeru. Successive Key Japanese Names and Places Yamato emperors Takama-no-hara Plain of High Heaven Ashihara no kuni Central Land of the Reed Plains Genealogy of the Gods Izanagi He Who Invites God Izanami She Who Invites God Book 1 Amaterasu Great Heaven-Shining Goddess Tsukuyomi Moon God (Moon-Counting God) THE BEGINNING Susarto-o Ferocious Virulent Male God When heaven and earth first appeared, there came into existence in the Plain Ho-derJ ^ Fire-Shine, Luck of the Sea of High Heaven a deity named Lord Midst-of-Heaven God; then High Creative Ho-ori Fire-Fade, Luck of the Mountain Force God; and then Divine Creative Force Cod. All these three deities came Okuni-nushi Great Land Master into existence as single deities, and their forms were not visible. Next, when Ninigi (descendant of Amaterasu) the land was young, resembling floating oil and drifting like jellyfish, a thing sprouted forth like reed shoots, and from this there came into existence a deity named Splendid Reed Shoot Cod and then Eternally Standing Heaven God. These two deities also came into existence as single deities, and their forms 1. In the ancient period, the correct pronunciation of the male god's name was "Izanaki," but were not visible. The five deities in the preceding section are the Separate in modern times the custorftaiy reading is "Izanagi." Heavenly Deities. 24 THE ANCIENT PERIOD THE ANCIENT PERIOD 25 Next there came into existence Eternally Standing Land God and then it again." Then they descended again and walked once more in a circle around Abundant Clouds Field Cod. These two deities also came into existence as the heavenly pillar as before. «ngle deities, and their forms were not visible. Next there came into existence Then Izanagi said first, "O, how good a maiden!" Afterward, his spouse Clay Male God and then his spouse. Silt Female God. Next, Emergent Form Izanami said, "O, how good a lad!" After they had finished saying this, they God and then his spouse.
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