Documenta Praehistorica XLVII (2020) Habitat selection and the evolutionary aesthetics of landscape preference Marko {koric´, Aleksej Ki[juhas Faculty of Philosophy, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, RS [email protected] [email protected] ABSTRACT – This paper analyses the processes of habitat selection and human landscape preferences from an evolutionary perspective, with the aim of demonstrating how humans aesthetically choose, assess and aspire to live in an environment in which our species and our ancestors evolved in dur- ing the pre-Neolithic period. We present the basics of evolutionary aesthetics, then analyse the pro- cess of habitat selection and the most influential evolutionary theories of landscape preference. Finally, we refer to applied empirical research and point out that a comprehensive evolutionary the- ory must also take into account the psychological and cultural elements that affect human well-being. KEY WORDS – evolutionary aesthetics; habitat selection; biophilia; landscape preference Izbira /ivljenjskega prostora in evolucijska estetika krajinskih preferenc IZVLE∞EK – V ≠lanku analiziramo proces izbire ∫ivljenjskega prostora in preference ljudi pri izbiri krajine iz evolucijske perspektive z namenom, da poka∫emo, kako ljudje na podlagi estetike izbira- jo, ocenjujejo in stremijo k ∫ivljenju v okolju, v katerem so se v obdobju pred neolitikom razvijali na∏a vrsta in na∏i predniki. Predstavljamo osnove evolucijske estetike, nato analiziramo proces iz- bire ∫ivljenjskega prostora in najbolj vplivne evolucijske teorije o krajinskih preferencah. Na koncu se sklicujemo na uporabne empiri≠ne raziskave in poka∫emo, da mora celovita evolucijska teorija upo∏tevati tudi psiholo∏ke in kulturne elemente, ki vplivajo na dobro po≠utje ljudi. KLJU∞NE BESEDE – evolucijska estetika; izbira ∫ivljenjskega prostora; krajinske preference The biology of aesthetics As a field of research, aesthetics generally does not toricist explanations based on historical contexts relate to biology or evolution, but primarily to cul- and cultural factors. Thus, aesthetic values are usu- ture and learning, although there is no doubt that ally seen as referring to the prevalent social values evolutionary theory can reveal a lot about aesthetic in a particular culture, and that kind of social or cul- preferences. Roughly speaking, aesthetics studies tural constructivism also implies relativism regard- what we like or dislike, and the important question ing aesthetic values. is whether standards of judgments can be learned or are (to a greater or lesser extent) inherited. In line The situation changed with the rise of evolutionary with the tendency of social scientists throughout psychology, which began to advocate aesthetic uni- most of the 20th century to ignore knowledge that versalism (e.g., Dutton 2003; Thornhill 1998; 2003; came from biology (Degler 1991), theorists of aesthe- Dissanayake 1992), and the answer to the question tics and the arts mostly did not advocate ideas about of why the position of universalism is compatible the existence of human nature, but emphasized his- with evolutionary psychology is simple. All organi- 494 DOI> 10.4312\dp.47.28 Habitat selection and the evolutionary aesthetics of landscape preference sms are the products of evolution, which is not across cultures, but research shows that some basic brought into question by scientists, while there is algorithms are universal and have evolutionary ori- some controversy concerning the impact of evolu- gins (e.g., Brown 1991). Like physical characteristics, tion on behaviour (e.g., Segerstråle 2000). Evolutio- our cognitive structures are adaptations to solving nary psychologists acknowledge the influence of the reproductive problems of the human phyloge- evolution through natural selection both on the be- netic past. This implies that evolutionary aesthetics haviour and mind of humans, and according to is part of evolutionary psychology and rests on the these ideas human nature was formed long before premise that human basic aesthetic preferences the Holocene, and endows us with certain capacities have evolved in order to improve survival and re- which are not consequences of socialization, learn- productive success. In other words, evolutionary ing, traditions and the like (e.g., Tooby, Cosmides aesthetics is an attempt to understand the aesthetic 1992). reasoning of humans and their spontaneous differ- entiation between ‘beautiful’ and ‘ugly’ as a biologi- We argue that there is sufficient convincing evidence cally adaptive capacity for making important deci- to conclude that human nature exists in the form of sions in life (see also Averill et al. 1998; Dutton genetic biases that affect our perception, decision- 2003; Hartmann, Apaolaza-Ibanez 2010; Paden making and behaviour in general (e.g., Wilson et al. 2012; Seghers 2015). 1978). Cultural evolution is influenced by biology, although the biological evolution of the brain has Probably the most famous example of evolutionary taken place in a social context, so it is not disputed aesthetics is physical attraction in the context of that culture plays a large role in human behaviour. mate selection, of which much has been discussed Human culture is part of human biology, thus any at- (e.g., Symons 1979), and the same logic can be ap- tempt to separate them is artificial and misguided plied to other visual preferences. In this paper, the (e.g., Boyd, Richerson 2005). Only from an evolu- emphasis is on landscapes and habitat selection pre- tionary perspective can we understand why our ferences. The basic premise of evolutionary aesthe- knowledge fits our environment; that is, how we tics in this domain is to show how people choose and manage to understand the world around us. Like- want to reside in an environment where our species wise, an evolutionary perspective offers an explana- and ancestors evolved for millions of years. tion as to why we know so much about the world, although we have very limited personal experience. We can differentiate among direct, indirect and vi- And finally, only through evolution can we explain carious (or symbolic) experiences of nature. It is why our knowledge reflects the environment in obvious that in the modern world there has been which our ancestors evolved (e.g., Campbell 1974). a decline in direct experience of the natural environ- ment, as it involves spontaneous contact with na- Due to evolution, our perception and cognition are ture. Indirect experience represents organized con- selective, and we can speak of perceptual biases that tact with nature, where human intervention is seen occur at three different levels: basic biases, which (e.g., zoos, parks), and symbolic does not mean we share with higher vertebrates, biases that are actual but mediated contact (books, movies, etc.). characteristic of our species, and specific cultural Thus, the growth in indirect and symbolic experience perceptual biases. Similarly, our emotions have is noticeable and direct contact with nature has evolved since they have positively affected the sur- fallen dramatically. So the important question is vival and reproductive success of our ancestors (To- whether and to what extent contact with natural oby, Cosmides 1990), indicating that humans res- systems and processes is important and useful for pond emotionally to the world around them because the well-being of today’s humans, living in an envi- they possess an aesthetic sense which is the product ronment that does not resemble the one in which of evolution through natural selection. Studying both our ancestors evolved. cognitive and emotional preferences can thus serve as a bridge between psychology and evolutionary Habitat selection theory (Kaplan 1987). Humans receive a wealth of information from their The universality of art in all known cultures indicates surroundings on a daily basis, and it is impossible to that aesthetics is also closely related to psychologi- assimilate and use all of it, while it is clear that most cal adaptations (Tooby, Cosmides 2001). Aesthetic of this information has very little or no value to our reasoning undoubtedly varies greatly over time and survival. That is why natural selection has made us 495 Marko {koric´, Aleksej Ki[juhas develop neural programs which assess information settle in less conducive environments leave fewer and act as filters that allow important data in and offspring. However, this correlation is not so simple, prevent irrelevant data from entering. These filters because a habitat which seems good at first glance constitute biologically prepared learning that pays may be inadequate due to other factors (such as in- particular attention to decisions that affect survival fectious diseases, hidden predators, etc.), and orga- and reproduction, which is why being attracted to nisms may have difficulty in truly, accurately or pre- certain environmental information is adaptive be- cisely assessing the quality of an environment (Ori- haviour (Kaplan 1987). However, these decisions ans, Wittenberger 1991). The habitat selection pro- do not need to be adaptive today, since natural se- cess itself takes place in stages – encounter, explore lection cannot affect our fit with future environ- and exit or establish – and thus is a kind of hierar- ments. For example, phobias that are almost univer- chical process that involves making several strategi- sal in humans relate to snakes, spiders, heights, dark- cally important decisions. ness and the like, all of which have had a major im- pact on survival and reproduction during most of The first stage begins with the arrival of the organ- human evolution, and not with the knives, automo- ism in an unknown general area, where there are se- biles, guns, and so on which are really more dange- veral habitats that are suitable for various activities rous to human life in modern environments. As such, – some are for courtship, some for hunting, settling, many phobias have to do with the environment in etc. The organism must first decide whether or not which human nature was formed, and they have ma- a certain habitat should be explored or whether it naged to survive since then. should move on.