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Apodexis Historı́as Apode as An Aggregate Primary Source Account of Greek History xis Historı́ Edited by E. Edward Garvin, ©2014 The purpose of a sourcebook is to allow the subjects to speak their own history and to allow the student, the reader, to gain an understanding of Greek literary works through a selective sampling. The key word is ‘selective.’ Contained herein are passages excerpted from their contexts. Without exception, this very process produces a falsehood because both the narrative and meta-narrative are destroyed when the continuity of the composition is interrupted. Nevertheless, this seems the most expedient way to expose students to a wide range of primary source material without an onerous reading list. I have tried to keep my voice out of it as much as possible and will intervene as editor (in Times New Roman font) only to give background or exegesis to the text. All of the texts contained in frames and in Goudy Old Style font are excerpts from Greek or Latin texts (primary sources) that have been translated into English. These translations were published as print books but have since fallen into Public Domain - which means that the copyright has expired. As editor of this volume, I have copied, edited and partially retranslated these texts to bring the translations up to date. The title of this collection is adapted from the opening line of Herodotus' Histories: "The results of the research (historías) of Herodotus of Halicarnassus are herein presented for public display (apodexis)." The Greek apodexis means a 'display' or 'public presentation': The word historía, when Herodotus used it, referred to a process of rational pragmatic inquiry. With the popularity of Herodotus' publication, the word historia came first to denote the work itself, and later to denote any literary work composed of a rational inquiry into events of the past. Modern languages, English included, have adopted the term and the word 'history' now refers to the past in general, the study of the past and a literary work about the past. The title of this work is, then, a play on words: What follows is both 'history on display' and the results of various enquiries into the past. EEG 2 Sources Our primary sources rarely come to us directly; that is to say that few copies of any work date to the time of publication or even to the ancient world. Most of these texts were originally written on, and hand-copied to, scrolls of papyrus. These scrolls were held in personal collections or in libraries such as the Library of Alexandria, where scholars and scribes studied them and made further copies. Over the centuries, the task of preserving and copying the manuscripts was taken over by Catholic monasteries and Islamic libraries. Also during this period, scholars developed a system by which the ancient works were divided and numbered; sometimes by 'books', usually by sections and always by lines. The beauty of this system, once it was standardized, is that every text, regardless of format, publication or language, uses a consistent numbering system. For example, one of the excerpts I offer below is cited as Herodotus i. 56-58.1 In every publication of Herodotus’ Histories those same lines can be found in Book I, Chapters 56 to 58; whether it is a Greek manuscript, an English, German or French translation, just published or five-hundred years old. Below is an example from Homer’s Iliad, Book One, showing the English translation on the left and the Greek original on the right. [1] Sing to me, goddess, about the wrath of [1] μῆνιν ἄειδε θεὰ Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος the son of Peleus, Achilles, [2] οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκε, [2] which brought pain upon so many [3] πολλὰς δ' ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Ἄϊδι προί̈αψεν Achaeans. [4] ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν [3] Many stout souls did it send, too soon, to [5] οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι, Διὸς δ' ἐτελείετο βουλή, meet Hades, [6] ἐξ οὗ δὴ τὰ πρῶτα διαστήτην ἐρίσαντε [4] while the corpses of the heroes were left [7] Ἀτρεί̈δης τε ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν καὶ δῖος prey to dogs Ἀχιλλεύς. [5] and vultures, by the will of Zeus, [6] from the moment they were divided in conflict; [7] the son of Atreus, king of men, and great Achilles.2 As you can see, a very literal translation which maintains the line numbers results in awkward English. This is most pronounced in poetry and less so in prose, but in all cases translation from one language to another involves some interpretation and even creativity on the part of the translator. 1 Books are usually indicated by numbers (ie: Book 1, Book 2 etc.) but Roman numerals (i,ii,iii,iv etc.), which is my preference, are also acceptable. 2 Editor's translation. 3 Myth, Religion and the Origins of the Gods and Humans Perhaps the most enduring legacy of Ancient Greece is the collection of stories about the gods and heroes that were passed down through the Bronze Age, became the foundation of Greek, and later Roman, culture, and continue to influence the way we tell stories to this day. Modern literature and drama are wholly indebted to, are actually derived from, the tradition we now call Greek Myth. Muthos, Logos, Faith and Reason: The word ‘myth’ comes to English from ancient Greek but the meaning has changed somewhat over the centuries. The Archaic Greek meaning of muthos, was ‘statement,’ ‘utterance’ or any sort of spoken declaration or story: Simply ‘that which is said.’ The Archaic meaning of logos was ‘story,’ ‘account’ or ‘argument’ implying a computation of things; of ideas or facts. In that sense, a logos could be constructed out of a series of muthoi. By the Classical period of Ancient Greece the two words had taken on very distinct and even oppositional meanings: Muthos was associated with unsubstantiated or fantastic utterances while logos referred to a statement, argument or proposition derived from a computation of verifiable evidence. This is not to say that logos is ‘true’ and muthos ‘false:’ but rather that the former operates in the realm of the empirical while the latter operates in the realm of the metaphysical. Aristotle, the father of scientific method, thought that myth, or poetry as it was more commonly called, was actually a superior method for the communication of ideas because it deals with the general while more pragmatic forms such as history can only deal with the particular. Aristotle, Poetics 1451a. 35 – b. 5 The work of Herodotus might be put into verse, and it would still be a species of history, with metre no less than without it. The true difference is that one relates what has happened, the other what may happen. Poetry, therefore, is a more philosophical and a higher thing than history: for poetry tends to express the universal, history the particular. There were others, however, who thought that the myths were nonsense and that reason and rational investigation, philosophy and history, provided a better source of knowledge. Pausanias i.3.3 There are many false beliefs current among the mass of mankind, since they are ignorant of history and consider trustworthy whatever they have heard from childhood in choruses and tragedies...1 Pausanias viii. 2.6-7 All through the ages, many events that have occurred in the past, and even some that occur today, have been generally discredited because of the lies built up on a foundation of fact. Those who like to listen to the miraculous are themselves apt to add to the marvel, and so they ruin truth by mixing it with falsehood. 1 In all fairness, Pausanias is here referring to the myth that Theseus was the founder of Athenian democracy, what we might call a myth of political expediency rather than tradition. 4 But most of the ancient Greeks believed that the stories we now call myths were based in actual fact; that these things did occur and that the people and events depicted in these stories were real. It was a matter of religious necessity, just as today one could not claim to be a Christian and also deny the truth of the miracles of Jesus, in ancient Greece one could not claim to be pious without accepting the truth of the stories of the gods. Even Pausanias, cited above for his scepticism, eventually concedes: Pausanias viii.2.41 I for my part believe this story; it has been a legend among the Arcadians from of old, and it has the additional merit of probability. For the men of those days, because of their righteousness and piety, were guests of the gods, eating at the same table; the good were openly honored by the gods, and sinners were openly visited with their wrath. Nay, in those days men were changed to gods, who down to the present day have honors paid to them… And just a few lines later… Pausanias viii.8.3 When I began to write my history I was inclined to count these legends as foolishness, but on getting as far as Arcadia I grew to hold a more thoughtful view of them, which is this. In the days of old those Greeks who were considered wise spoke their sayings not straight out but in riddles2, and so the legends about Cronus I conjectured to be one sort of Greek wisdom. In matters of divinity, therefore, I shall adopt the received tradition. The Greeks understood that mankind must be very old indeed, but they had no empirical knowledge of the more distant past. They tended, then, to fill in the blanks from imagination.
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