Colonial Roots of Post-Colonial Somali Conflict

Ahmed Draia University – Adrar Faculty of Letters and Languages Department of English Letters and Language A ResearchPaper Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for a Master’s Degree in Anglophone Literature and Civilization Colonial Roots of Post- colonial Somali Conflict (1960-1992) Presented by: Supervised by: Mebrouk Debbahi Dr. Aziz Mostefaoui Academic Year: 2015 – 2016 I dedicate this research paper to: My beloved wife Kholoud My dear parents who have given me a lot of happiness. To my dear brothers, the sweet sister Zohra and her Daughters Maroi and Ibtissam. To my classmate Othman Oulad Ali To my teachers, friends and all my relatives. Acknowledgements My praise to Allah who inspired me to accomplish this humble work. My gratitude to all members of my family who supported me morally and materially. My homage to my supervisor Dr. Mostefaoui Aziz for his guidance and his pieces of advice, his insightful and valuable comments and ideas were of immense help during the writing process, and the positive feedback he provided served to keep me focused and motivated.. My thanks to my friends for their help. Abstract History of Somalia, in fact, lies upon two generalizations: one is that the Somali people have always formed one unified nation that was only recently divided by colonialism, the second, is that Somali clan-based violence is a manifestation of an ancient, primordial tribalism. With the absence of a unitary central government, the Somali territory was partitioned by the European colonial powers after the late 19th century. Parts of the north were administered as British Somaliland, while much of the South became Italian Somalia. There were thorough differences in the colonial economic policies of Italy and Britain, which tended to broaden regional traditions. While Italy developed a global economic plan for the more agrarian southern Somalia, the largely nomadic British Somaliland remained neglected. This situation produced lasting distinction in wealth and infrastructure. Under this colonial economic order, the clans evolved into political identities tied to economic benefits or disadvantages. Rivalry for power, economic profits and resources was inevitable, particularly after the bitter way of decolonization which produced the first unified Somali state. The aim of this thesis is to analyze whether the post-colonial Somali conflict the state failure can be attributed to the intrusive colonial period. Various structures and changes imposed on Somali people throughout the traditional era, the colonial epoch and the post- colonial period will be analyzed. The analysis reveals that post-colonial conflict in country and the state collapse can be attributed to the lack of political, social and economic and national cohesion that prevailed in the post-colonial period. Key Words: Post-colonial_ Colonialism_ Partition_ Tribalism_ Rivalry_ Ethnic_ Boundary_ Conflict List of Acronyms AU African Union GNP Gross National Product NFD Northern Frontier District SNA Somali National Alliance SYL Somali Youth League SYC Somali Youth Club SNL Somali National League SNC Somali National Congress SRSP Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party SRC Supreme Revolutionary Council UN United Nation WSLF Western Somali Liberation Front List of Maps Map 1. Geographical Location of Somalia Map 2. Colonial Map of Somalia Map 3. European Colonization to Somalia Map 4. Demarcation of Somaliland Boundaries, 1888-1925 Map 5. Ethnic Division in 1977 List of Tables Table 1. People of Somalia Diagram 1. Somali Clan, Sub-Clan and Sub-Sub Clan Lines Table of Contents Acknowledgements …………………………………………………………………….I Dedication………………………...……………………………………………………II Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………III List of Maps ………………………………………………………………………….IV List of Tables ………………………………………………………………………….V List of Acronyms……………………………………………………………………..VI Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………….VII General Introduction………………………………………………………………….01 Chapter One: Background to Somalia Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...04 I. General Information about Somalia…………………………………………………04 1. Geography…………………………………………………………………….05 2. Climate ………………………………………………………….……………07 3. Land and Resources…………………………………………………………..07 4. Population…………………………………………………………………….07 5. The Somali Identity and the Traditional Social Structure………..…………..09 5.1. Somali Main Lineages: Samale and Sab………………………..…………… 09 5.2. Somali Social Structure and Territorial Disputes…….....…………………….12 5.3. Social Structure and the Traditional Political Institution.…....…………..…...13 5.4. Somali Lineage System and the Civil Conflict ……………………...……….15 II. Historical Overview about Somalia………………………………...………….…16 1. European Colonization……………………………………………………..…17 2. Independence and Collapse of the Central Government……………………...20 3. Nationalism and Identity in Post-colonial Somalia…………………………...21 4. The Creation of the Somali Republic ………………………………………...22 5. Siad Barry Regime and the State Collapse…………………………………...25 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………….26 Chapter Two: Locating the Roots of the Somali Conflict Introduction……………………………………………………………………...……26 I. Root Causes of Somali Conflicts…………………………………………………....26 1. Background...………...…………………………………………………..……26 2. Colonialism……………………………………………………………………27 2.1. Colonialism and the Aftermath……………………………………………….27 2.2. Partition of Somalia and the Horn of Africa and the Colonial Defined Boundaries……………………………………………………………………31 3. Regional Divisions Based on Colonial Economic Strategies………………....36 4. Historical Legacies……………………………………………………………36 5. Social Structure and Ethnicity………………………………………………...37 1. Impacts of Colonialism on the Somali Social Structure………………………37 2. Ethnicity and Conflicts in Post-colonial Somalia……..………………………40 a. Ethnic Origin………………………………………………………………….40 b. Ethnic Rivalries over Resources and Power Distribution…...………………..42 3. Colonial Impacts on Identity and National Aspiration in Somalia…………...44 3.1. The absence of a National Strategy for National Integration…….…………...44 3.2. Somalia's Weak Sense of Belonging to the Homeland….……………………45 3.3. Underlying Loyalty and Belonging…………………………………………...47 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………...48 General Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….50 Works Cited……...……………………………………………………………………..52 General Introduction Somalia has been one of the societies which experienced intractable conflict in the contemporary world. After more than half a century, security in most parts of the country is still being one of the most prominent issues that had saddled the subsequent governments since independence. Regaining peace and ceasefire are essential since the turmoil had deeply influenced the state’s stability, and it also has highly influenced the international community. The exerted efforts by political leaders around the world did not provide enough means to carry out practical and convenient solutions despite they all recognize the strategic importance of Somalia. The Somali state has been a perpetuated and troubled country which crisis has remained irreconcilable for many years. The state collapse was the result of ouster of authoritarian regime led by Siad Barre, but it was apparent in most parts of the country for some time before taking the form of social division or retreat of traditional institutions that had traditionally secured stability in the society. The formation of Somali nation-state has been on the wrong way since the very beginning. The total collapse of the state structures has been, thus, inevitable. Therefore, the question is: what are the reasons of the perpetuated conflict in Somalia? The aim of the paper is to consider whether the post-colonial conflict in Somalia erupted as a result of intrusive colonial period or whether the reasons for the bloody conflict reside in the character of the Somali society or rather, whether the bloody conflict lies under interlinked factors. In this paper it is argued that Somalia has fallen victim to political unrest and civil war due to a long standing effort by nationalist associations to eliminate traditional Somali culture and traditional loyalties based on clanship and lineage system. Since the end of the Cold War, political and social conflicts have become the predominant form of violence all around the world. African countries have fallen victim to political unrest and civil wars for various reasons throughout their development. Some of these reasons include the fight for resources, colonization or other form of foreign influence, autocratic regimes, corruption, or the high level of militarization. The above-mentioned causes of civil conflicts are doubtless true, but the question to ask is whether those are the factors capable of explaining the gist of outset of intrastate conflict in Somalia. Post-colonial conflict in Somalia, which almost took the civil form, is a unique case, because it started despite ethnical and religiously homogenous society; therefore, it deserves special attention. Somali civil conflict lasted more than fifteen years, and was one of the most perpetuated civil conflicts on the continent. The vacuum in the state authority in Somalia left the country in a state of high level of conflict and economic weakness. Ending this conflict is now viewed as the essential step in bringing political stability and economic progress to the region. In fact, there has been little progress in reconciliation process. The country remained without a central government and current peace negotiations were unlikely to end with ceasefire. On the

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