Developed by the Australian Muslim Women’s Centre for Human Rights Published by: Australian Muslim Women’s Centre for Human Rights Telephone: (03) 9481 3000 Facsimile: (03) 9481 3001 Email: [email protected]

Copyright Information ©2013 Australian Muslim Women’s Centre for Human Rights. This material cannot be reproduced without expressed permission of Australian Muslim Women’s Centre for Human Rights. ISBN 978-0-9872963-1-3 Introduction to Australian Muslim Women’s Centre for Human Rights The Australian Muslim Women’s Centre for Human Rights (AMWCHR) is a community welfare organisation established and managed by Muslim women for Muslim women. The Centre was established in 1991, as a non- religious organisation reflecting the ethnic, cultural, linguistic and sectarian diversity of Muslim women living in the state of Victoria. The AMWCHR is founded on the belief that meaningful The AMWCHR’s work has been well recognised by change in the status of Muslim women is to be various levels of government, the service system and achieved through the improved situation of Muslim by the community. Current work priorities include: women individually and building their capacity • settlement of newly arrived women into Victoria collectively. To this end, the Centre aims to facilitate Muslim women’s full participation and integration • poverty and housing into Australian society by: • violence against Muslim women • developing and delivering programs and services to meet the needs of Muslim women in a manner • capacity building and leadership development consistent with their values and that of their • education and training community; • economic participation • empowering Muslim women through information, skill development, support and advocacy; The AMWCHR works toward these priorities by: • promoting social justice, access and equity in the • providing a generalist and housing support service; provision of services to Muslim women, • undertaking a community education campaign on • contributing to the development of knowledge citizenship and Australian law; about Muslims at all levels of government, amongst professionals and within the general community; • providing parenting education sessions; • promoting the complexity and diversity of • leadership development of Muslim women (3 year Muslim women’s identities, and building an community education campaign); interconnectedness between women through • identity development and communication skill increased awareness of their common and diverse development among young women; challenges; • research into school retention rates among young • promoting women’s right to equality, justice, and Arab and Muslim young women; self determination as envisaged by Islam; and • working against racial, religious and gender based • working to eliminate discrimination against Muslim crimes and vilification against Muslim women; and women both within their community and in the broader social, economic and political spheres of • lobbying and advocacy on behalf of Muslim women. Australia Contents Islam and Muslims 1 Afghanistan 27 Iraq 30 lebanon 33 Myanmar (Burma) 36 Somalia 39 Sudan 42 Islam and Muslims the global Muslim population is highly diverse – in terms of language, nationality, socioeconomic status, cultural practices and to an extent, even in terms of religious practices, interpretations and beliefs. Every country has its own history and culture which mediates its practice of Islam; this varies in time and is subject to the political, social and economic changes within the country and sometimes globally. Because of this, it is important to establish the specific geographic and sectarian contexts of behaviour and beliefs rather than referring generally to them as “Islamic”. What may be considered Islamic in one Muslim context may be considered alien in another. This renders overarching generalisations about ‘the Muslim community’, especially the Muslim diaspora, both unrealistic and impractical. However, there are some basic beliefs and practices that are common to all or most Muslim cultures, although differences in the specifics still exist. This section aims to provide a brief overview of these basic, common practices as well as to outline some of the areas where there are key differences.

Origins/History of Islam beliefs and practices of both religions, on the other it introduces new doctrines and It is believed that Islam was revealed to the significantly different practices sometimes Prophet Muhammad (whose name will be leading to tensions with its predecessor. followed by the initials PBUH, standing for Nevertheless, the similarities between “Peace Be Upon Him”, a common blessing the monotheistic faiths surpass their given to him by Muslims) just outside the differences. city of Mecca (or Makkah), which is part of the modern kingdom of Saudi Arabia, around AD 610. Islam has its lineage in Prophethood Judaism and Christianity. It therefore According to Islamic belief, God revealed acknowledges and pays respect to all of the his message for mankind to Muhammad prophets of the Old Testament and names (c. 570–632) and other prophets, including Jesus as the most beloved of the prophets. Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus (Peace be Upon Them). It is an article of Muslims believe that the message given faith among the vast majority of Muslims to Muhammad is not a new revelation that Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) is the final but rather one that has been revealed prophet chosen and sent by God to mankind progressively over time, that commenced as His messenger. with the Jews, continued to the Christians and finally to the Muslims. Jews and It was at the age of 40, while meditating in Christians are described as “People of a cave called Hira, just outside Mecca, that the Book” in the Qur’an because they Muhammad (PBUH) is said to have received are considered recipients of the same his first revelation from God, announced revelation of the One God. to him by the archangel Jibril (or Gabriel). This event is dated around AD 610. Although Islam’s relationship with Judaism and Islam believes in a line of prophets Christianity is complex; on one hand beginning with Adam, the first man, it did it reiterates and supports many of the

A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria 1 not adopt from Christianity the belief that God to the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), Jesus was the son of God because Muslims beginning around AD 610 and ending with believe that God is indivisible. Muhammad’s death in AD 632. Muslims believe Muhammad (PBUH) was mortal and while some miraculous events The five pillars took place in his life, they are not generally The key duties required of Muslims form attributed to him. Muhammad (PBUH) is the five pillars of Islam. Although different not only important as the source of Qur’anic levels of importance may be placed on them revelation, but also as the source of many by Muslim individuals and communities, of the cultural and religious practices of most will recognise them as duties of a Muslims today. In the early days, the history Muslim: of the Prophet’s (PBUH) life, his behaviour, • Bearing witness to the oneness of God deeds and sayings were memorised by his (Tauheed) and to Muhammad being his companions and passed on orally, forming messenger – this denotes the centrality, the foundation for the sunna, the behaviour unity and indivisibility of God of the Prophet (PBUH) (see section 2.3). • Prayer (Salat) – all Muslims who have The Qur’an attained puberty are required to perform prayers in a prescribed manner five times The Qur’an is the holy scripture of Islam. each day It comprises the complete collection of revelations by God to the Prophet • Almsgiving (Zakat) – this is an obligatory Muhammad (PBUH), beginning around AD religious tax, generally estimated at 2.5% 610 and ending with Muhammad’s (PBUH) of a Muslim’s annual savings and is to be death in AD 632. The word Qur’an literally used to assist the poor and needy means “that which is recited”, because the revelations received by Muhammad (PBUH) • Fasting (Sawm) – all Muslims who have were repeated verbatim by those around reached puberty and whose health him. permits (e.g. women who are lactating, menstruating or pregnant are exempt Although there are differing views, many from fasting, as are travellers) are Muslims believe the Qur’an was finally required to abstain from eating, drinking, put into written form around AD 650. The smoking and sexual intercourse from Qur’an contains 114 chapters (or surahs) dawn to dusk in Ramadan, the ninth written in Arabic, using both allegorical month of the lunar year and prescriptive approaches to revelation. Its structure is not chronological nor is • Pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj) – in the 12th it ordered according to the importance month of the lunar calendar all Muslims or the theme of revelations. As with other are required to make a pilgrimage to religions, there are various approaches to Mecca at least once in their lifetime if the interpretations of the text.THE Qur’an they are physically and financially able to is the holy scripture of Islam. It comprises the complete collection of revelations by

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do so. Pilgrims participate in special rites Muslim communities, the celebration held there during the 12th month of the continues over a period of two or three lunar calendar. days. • Eid al-Adha – Eid al-Adha, or the festival Events and festivals of sacrifice, symbolises Abraham’s There are many events and festivals that reprieve from sacrificing his son to Muslims celebrate based on the Islamic God. This festival occurs at the end of lunar calendar, founded in AD 622 when Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) and Muslims Muhammad and his followers escaped typically celebrate by slaughtering either from Mecca to the city that became known a goat, cow or sheep and donating food as Medina. This event is called the Hijra to those who cannot afford to eat well (migration) and so the calendar is called and undertaking other charitable acts. Hijri and is often denoted by the initials • Ashura – Ashura is an important AH (Anno Hegirae, Latin for “years of the historical date for all Muslims, but is Hijra”). commemorated mainly by Shias. Ashura The Islamic lunar calendar is approximately falls on the 10th day of Muharram (the 11 days shorter than the Gregorian solar first month of the Islamic calendar), calendar, which is why the Gregorian dates marking the day on which the massacre for Islamic festivals move by roughly of many important members of the that amount each year. The following are Prophet’s (PBUH) family, and particularly common celebrations for most Muslims: his grandson, Hussein, occurred. Shias typically hold mass processions to • Ramadan – The month of fasting in remember and sometimes re-enact which the Qur’an was originally revealed. the brutal killings, which can involve Ramadan is a very festive time in many penitential rites such as self-flagellation. Muslim countries, especially at dusk, The whole month is considered important, when the fast is broken. In some countries, but the first 10 days, during which daily requirements such as work are the massacre occurred, are the most altered to ease the burden of fasting from significant. Some Sunni’s commemorate dawn to dusk. In Western countries, some Ashura by fasting on the day. Muslims may find fasting more difficult and isolating as it is not supported by the • Eid Milad al-Nabi – The Prophet’s (PBUH) social system. birthday falls on the eve of the 12th day of Rabi’ al-Awwal, the third month of the • Eid ul Fitr – The completion of the period Islamic calendar. of fasting is marked by Eid ul-Fitr (the festival of breaking the fast) and is • Laylat al-Qadr – Lailat al-Qadr, often traditionally announced at the sighting translated into night of greatness, of the new moon. During this time, there commemorates the night in which the is celebration and gifts of new clothes Qur’an was revealed in its entirety to the or money are given to children. In some Prophet (PBUH). This night is considered by many to be one of the holiest nights of Ramadan. The precise date of this

A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria 3 event is unknown, but Muslims generally deputies, successors to Prophet Muhammad observe the last 10 days of Ramadan by as rulers of the Muslim community) after his additional pray, especially at night. death. The Shias (who call themselves “the people Food and drink of the house”), on the other hand, are often Islam places certain restriction on the seen as diverging from the mainstream. It consumption of certain food and drink. It would be more correct to say that both is generally believed by Muslims that these groups formed because of Ali, Muhammad’s restrictions are based on the harm that son-inlaw and cousin, and the question of certain foods may cause to the body. Foods his right to succeed the Prophet (PBUH) as that are specifically prohibited (haram) leader. Later, especially around the time of are: meat from a swine in all its forms, Uthman (or Osman)’s caliphate, political including its fat; intoxicants (alcohol, differences arose, leading to the first major drugs). civil war between Muslims. Some Muslims will even avoid medicines Over time, these splits have expanded into containing alcohol if they can; the flesh, social, political and theological differences. offal, fat and other by products of animals The main beliefs and principles of Islam that have died other than at the hand of a remain the same in both streams. Over the Muslim or using Islamic rites, or that are years, further sub-sects have developed strangled or have been slaughtered through within these two overarching sects, such beating; faeces and urine, placental tissue, as the Ismailis within the Shia sect. It is blood. For food to be halal (allowed), all difficult to do justice to the breadth of the raw materials and ingredients used sectarian differences within Islam and must also be halal; halal animals must be their individual practices. The majority of slaughtered according to Islamic rites; and Muslims in Australia are Sunni, but there are the act must be performed by a mentally also significant populations belonging to sound Muslim who has severed the blood the Shia, Alawi, Alevi, Ismaili, Druze, Bohra and respiratory channels of the animal, and Ahmedi sects. using a very sharp cutting tool such as knife. The diversity that now exists extends not only to theological differences but also to Sects cultural ones. It is important to note that The major sectarian division in Islam is that some minority Islamic sects have faced between the Sunnis and Shias. Sunnis form substantial persecution from mainstream about 85% of the global Muslim population Islam in Muslim countries. As a result, some and Shias (or Shiites) most of the remaining sects do not always identify themselves 15%. The Sunnis (who call themselves “the with mainstream Muslims or Islam. people of tradition and community”) are Similarlmany mainstream Muslims do not often considered to be the mainstream in accept some of these groups as Muslim. Islam, following the example of the Prophet In Pakistan, for example; the government Muhammad (PBUH) and the four Caliphs (or has pronounced the Ahmedis non-Muslims, despite the fact that Ahmedis themselves

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identify as Muslims. Significant Shia by local mosque committees which pay minorities exist in Lebanon, Afghanistan, their salary, and they have no relationship Pakistan, India and Saudi Arabia. Shias to the operations of the state. In sects that do not have a tradition of attending Leadership mosques, imams operate as teachers and counsellors and live off donations from Islam does not have a hierarchy of clergy their community. nor any intermediaries between God and the individual, as in some other faiths. In Australia, imams frequently find There is no overarching authority to themselves called upon to act as establish or proscribe religious practices or community counsellors and arbiters on interpretations of scripture across social, questions of religious law, community cultural, national and sectarian divides. representatives and welfare officers as well as prayer leaders. At times, this has An imam is a person who leads the caused significant problems for Muslim congregation in prayer. He is not a priest. communities and for imams, because they There is no ordination and no sacraments are forced to respond to issues for which or rites which only a religiously qualified there is no religious precedent or for which person can perform. Imams may be married they do not possess expertise. and have families like any other Muslim. In theory, any respectable person with There is no official training institute sufficient religious knowledge can act as for imams in Australia and no system to an imam and in cases where a mosque is regulate the teachings and conduct of left without a formally appointed imam, a imams. While the absence of a hierarchy is member of the congregation can fulfil the one of the liberating aspects of Islam, it function as necessary. also means different imams may preach widely varying forms and interpretations Imams tend to be people who have of the faith, and this can prove bewildering undertaken religious studies, at an Islamic for anyone trying to understand Islam in university such as al-Azhar in Egypt. In Australia, much less globally. This also some Muslim countries, imams and other means that trying to find a definitive mosque officials are appointed, paid and ‘answer’ to a complex social problem is supervised by the government and may be not realistic. At times it has also created expected to support the government in conflict among Muslims. its policies. This is increasingly the case in countries where governments define Muslims have developed various models themselves as Islamic. and traditions on the role of imams in an increasingly complex world of diaspora In other countries, religious scholars may communities and Islamic states. In gain supreme political power and dictate Australia, where Muslims come from not only the moral and religious code of the a multitude of countries and religious country but also select who can stand for traditions, there has not been agreement elections and how government is to operate. In many countries, imams are appointed

A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria 5 among the Muslim population as to what Women’s rights role imams will play and if a formal Islamic Many verses of the Qur’an address both men structure will represent Muslims. and women, providing a strong sense of Generally, imams have provided some presence to women who had had no voice in form of leadership for their respective Arab society prior to Islam’s revelation. In ethnic/sectarian communities or their addition, the Qur’an explicitly reproaches immediate geographical community. In those who mistreat women and instructs 1990 the Australian Federation of Islamic men time and time again to treat all women Councils chose Sheikh Taj al-Din al-Hilali with dignity, respect, kindness and justice. as the Mufti of Australia to federally The definition of Islam, and therefore the represent all Muslims. However, many status of women, have varied considerably state Islamic organisations and individual historically and continues to be subject to Muslims disputed the development of political, social and economic change. such a position on theological, cultural Every country has its own history and and political grounds. The nature of the culture which mediates its practice of opposition is quite complex, but it is Islam, this varies in time and is subject to important to note that at this time many the political, social and economic changes Muslims in Australia do not support the within the country and sometimes globally. establishment of a formal overarching Because of this, it is important to establish Islamic figurehead. the specific geographic and sectarian contexts of women’s situation and Islam and women oppression rather than referring generally The issue of women’s role, status and to them as “Islamic”. rights of women in Islam is one of the What may be considered Islamic in one most contested areas of interpretation Muslim context may be totally unheard among Muslims. There are a great number of in another. In many places and within of verses within the Quran that strongly many communities, women’s rights have promote the equality and good treatment been greatly eroded over time and today of women, but there are also some verses many women do not enjoy the basic rights may be interpreted as situating women awarded to them by Islam as more and more as dependent on and possibly inferior to misogynistic interpretations of the faith men. depending on the how these verses have taken hold. are interpreted. This complexity and controversy emerges from a number of Women’s fundamental rights to respect, factors: the context of Islam’s revelation; dignity and protection have been clearly the fact that women occupied a marginal laid out in the Qur’an. They also have the position in 7th century Arabia; and that the right to choose their husbands, reject any language of the Qur’an is classical Arabic suitors; to not be married without their which is no longer in use today. consent and/or before the prescribed age (which varies according to culture, country and Islamic school of law); the right to dowry that is theirs to use as they wish;

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and the right to place conditions in their sects and legal schools. Generally, a marriage contracts. Religiously, Muslim woman may apply for divorce on a number women are not required to take their of grounds and if her case is considered husbands’ names, although the colonial valid by the court she is granted a divorce. influence in many Muslim countries has If insufficient grounds exist as deemed resulted in this Western practice being by the Courts, but the woman still wishes adopted widely. to divorce her husband, she may initiate divorce proceedings under the category The role of the mother is encouraged known as khul or khula (this is not available and greatly respected for women. One in all Muslim countries). of the most famous sayings of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) is “Heaven Many Muslim countries and communities lies under the feet of the mother”. The continue to withhold women’s right to importance attributed to mothers is further divorce, so that many women cannot be demonstrated in Islamic custody law. religiously or legally divorced without their husband’s consent. If a woman includes the Where divorce proceedings involve what are right to divorce in her marriage contract, deemed young children, usually seven and then she can divorce her husband without under for boys and nine and under for girls recourse to the courts. However in Muslim (though this may vary significantly across communities, it has been far more culturally cultures), the mother has the right to full acceptable and easier for men to initiate custody. After this, the father has the right divorce proceedings than women for whom to custody if he so desires. If the children it is often fraught with difficulties. are in their teens, they have the right to decide who they wish to live with. In several passages of the Qur’an, Muslims are counselled and reminded of their Whichever parent the children are living obligation to gain knowledge. Reliable with, visitation rights are granted to the sayings of the Prophet (PBUH) support other parent. Fathers remain financially the importance of education for men and responsible for their children throughout, women. In addition, there are several even if the mother should remarry. The examples in Islamic history of women who importance attached to motherhood is were educated and even scholars, and who taken by some Muslims to mean that women were well known and respected for this belong solely in the home and that their knowledge and their ability to impart it to only meaningful responsibility is to take others. Islam’s unambiguous support for care of their families. This interpretation education has been important to efforts has no basis in the Qur’an. In fact, the to improve national literacy levels in many Qur’an requires both men and women to countries. pursue knowledge and contribute towards the creation of a just society. In addition, married or single, a Muslim woman has the right to earn her own money, In In Islamic law, women also have the right own property and run a business. There to divorce no matter which party initiates is no injunction forbidding or restricting it. However, legally acceptable grounds for women from being employed. It is important divorce vary considerably across cultures,

A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria 7 to note that Islam states that the space Women were also consulted on who should of the home belongs to women, not that become leader of the Muslims after the women belong to the space of the home. As death of the Prophet (PBUH). The Qur’an a clear example of this right, the Prophet’s does not mention maleness as a criterion (PBUH) first wife, Khadija, owned and for people to become judges or leaders; yet ran her own business and before their in many Muslim-majority and/or Islamic marriage, the Prophet (PBUH) was one of countries this is a controversial issue. her employees for many years. In Islam, a There is much diversity in women’s political woman’s possessions before marriage do participation in Muslim-majority countries. not automatically transfer to her husband. In some Muslim-majority countries women She has the right to independent ownership attained the full franchise early in the and full rights over all money she earns nation’s development (e.g. Turkey) while herself, including the dowry she receives others did not grant this right until much upon marriage. later (e.g. Kuwait). A Muslim woman also has the right to Some Muslim-majority countries have no inheritance, although her share is half women as ministers (e.g. Saudi Arabia), that of any brothers she may have. some do not have any women in their Islamic scholars have argued that this parliaments either. On the other hand, other distinction reflects the social and economic Muslim-majority countries (e.g. Tunisia, circumstances of the early Muslim period. Eritrea and Pakistan) have comparable Generally, only men are obliged to provide numbers of women in their parliaments to for their natal families as well as their wives many Western nations. Both Pakistan and and children, whereas women may use their Turkey have had women prime ministers. money as they please. Even when a woman Despite these rights, however, parts of is financially better off than her husband, Islamic law (the Shariah) contain key technically, it is he who must provide for her gender differences which are seen as and the family. discriminatory: a woman’s inheritance Although women’s political participation is half of her brother’s; a man is obliged has been ignored by many historians, to financially support the family, while Islamic history demonstrates that Muslim a woman does so only by choice; a man women were encouraged to participate can divorce his wife by pronouncing it politically during the time of the Prophet three times, while a woman must go to (PBUH), that many undertook various forms court; a man can, technically, take four of political activism with the sanction wives; a woman cannot have more than of Islam. Muslim women’s right to vote one husband at a time; and when giving and elect their leaders is demonstrated evidence on financial matters in court, one by the fact that the Prophet (PBUH) was man is considered equal to two women in instructed in the Qur’an to receive pledges testimony. of allegiance from the women before he There are four explanations given by became the accepted leader of the Muslims. scholars for the gender differences that are apparent. The first, based on a literal and/

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or conservative interpretation of the Qur’an, the time, and that that as social conditions is that these differences exist because have changed, so should Muslims’ women are considered inferior to men. This approaches to these matters. belief is often based on a particular verse As with Western feminism, Muslim women of the Qur’an which has been interpreted have been actively involved in analysing to mean that men are superior to women as the power relations and structures that ‘they have been given more’. Other scholars dominate their lives. Early Islam witnessed vehemently reject these translations and the installation of a broad range of human strongly challenge the notion that Islam rights for women Muslim which were eroded attributes a superior status to men over soon after the death of the Prophet (PBUH), women. when the existing patriarchal structures of These scholars assert that the ‘given more’ the time were reasserted. refers only to physical strength or financial This demolition of rights is the foundation means/resources, which only reflects the from which Muslim women legitimise their gender dynamic of Arabia at that time push for reform in Islamic practice. There is which gave men the responsibility of now a growing movement of Muslim women physically protecting and providing food, willing to speak out and demand the rights shelter and clothing for their families. In given to them by Islam both at an individual their view this does not in any way extend to and collective level. This movement seeks superiority or advantage over women simply not only to re-establish rights already because they are male. awarded in the early Islamic period but also The second explanation holds that Islam to establish those rights as the foundation while women are equal to men, they are from which other rights can develop to different and that the differences in facilitate women’s progress in current the rights accorded to them reflect this. societies. Thus, for example, a woman’s inheritance Due to the failure over time of Islamic is half that of her male sibling, this is leaders, governments and individual men because women are not religiously obliged to guarantee women these rights and to financially support their families and to adhere to the original principles of they are not considered well suited to this Islam, more and more Muslim women are responsibility as their male counterparts. establishing themselves as Islamic scholars, A third argument is based on the belief that Islamic feminists and leaders in their the interpretations of scripture have from communities. the very beginning been male oriented and male-dominated, and therefore incorrect Modesty and segregation in relation to women. The fourth argument Islam emphasises developing a sense contends that those verses are epoch- of balance, moderation and control specific, reflecting only the socio-political in relation to basic human drives and wisdom, context and gender relations of desires. Modesty is part of this process and both men and women are prescribed to be modest in behaviour, thought and

A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria 9 physical appearance, especially regarding existing head coverings (since the covering the opposite gender. Many Muslim women of the head was a pre-Islamic practice) understand sexual modesty as being aimed over their chests. Some Muslims interpret at avoiding sexual objectification and this verse to mean that Muslim women were sexual harassment. asked to extend the head covering over their chests, while others understand it as The extent to which this modesty manifests asking women to start covering their chests in Muslim’s style of dress and its form instead of their heads. depends on a number of factors such as personal choice and interpretation, socio- Other less common forms of veiling are: political context, the traditions of various • Chador – long shawl which completely families, communities and sects and laws. covers women’s hair and body, Some Muslims believe that attire designed to conceal all or certain parts of the • Nikaab- veil that also covers all or part of female body is recommended by Islam as the face, a means of practicing modesty for women. In addition to this, veiling has come to • Burqa – all encompassing robe that represent for some women a commitment covers the head, face and body down to to God and Islam beyond the required the ankle. prescription for modesty. Other Muslims do • Abaya – Robe covering the whole body not believe that in modern society veiling except the face (although it may be is the only path to modesty nor that it is accompanied by a separate scarf to cover necessary to be a believing Muslim. the face). The hijab (head scarf covering at least In Australia, dress code remains a matter the hair) is the most commonly visible of choice for many Muslim women but it is expression. Although there are various difficult to draw conclusions about Muslim cultural appropriations of the hijab, its women around the world. The hijab has literal meaning is ‘curtain’ or ‘barrier’, and become a ready political symbol and the was originally used in the home of the question of whether or not women should Prophet (PBUH) to protect the privacy be allowed to wear it has become a highly of the female residents there from the politicised issue rather than a matter of constant stream of visitors. In another part personal choice. of the Qur’an, the Prophet’s (PBUH) wives were also advised to cover their heads when In many anti-colonial countries with in public so that they could be recognised strong revivalist groups and movements, as the Prophet’s (PBUH) wives and thus, particularly in some Middle Eastern and protected from harassment by other men. North African countries such as Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan and Iran, various forms This was an important demarcation because of veiling are mandatory. On the other in the Prophet’s (PBUH) time, many women hand, in some Western or Muslim countries, lived in slavery and were, thus considered such as Turkey, Tunisia and France laws sexual property by men. Another verse in exist to curb the use of the hijab in public the Qur’an asks Muslim women to pull their offices and even schools. In addition, some

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individual families and groups may also Violence against women and Islam encourage, pressurise or force women to Today, like women around the world, dress in certain ways. The question of the Muslim women experience various forms of use of veiling to oppress women therefore gender-based violence, such as domestic is difficult to answer without an analysis of violence, sexual assault, genital mutilation, the context in which Muslim women live. harassment, etc. Although feminist wisdom The concept of segregation in Islam has suggests that domestic violence occurs at evolved from notions of modesty and the comparable levels across all societies, it is restriction on placed on sexual relations commonly assumed that violence against outside of marriage. However, in many women is more acceptable in Islamic Muslim communities it has become a societies. practice at almost every level of interaction Muslims and non-Muslims like have used even though the Qur’an, hadiths and one verse from Qur’an to support the belief many historical facts clearly indicate that that violence against women is at least gender segregation did not exist during the acceptable if only as a last resort in Islam. Prophet’s (PBUH) time. For example, one However, this verse is highly contested by of his own wives, Khadija was a well-known many religious scholars, Islamic feminists businesswoman, requiring her to interact and Muslim activists, first because of with many men outside her own family. differing translations of the word for “hit” In addition, one of his other wives, Ayesha or “tap”; second, because time and again, is said to have participated in council the Qur’an urges harmony, love and respect meetings and in the community generally. between a husband and wife; in fact many Many women of the time attended prayers sayings attributed to the Prophet (PBUH) and religious meetings together with men deal directly with the issue of domestic and many fought side by side with men violence and clearly instruct men to treat during wars. Further, it is argued by many their wives with love and to not inflict any scholars that if Islam had meant for there violence on them; third, the verse, even to be gender segregation, it would not have when read literally talks about tapping urged them both to be modest in front of women with a miswaak (twig used as a one another. toothbrush at the time) as a last resort to resolving a conflict, which is seen by many This is further reflected during Hajj as symbolic gesture – nowhere does the (pilgrimage to Mecca) where women Qur’an suggest beating, hurting or inflicting perform all the rites side by side with men. injury of any kind. To what extent segregation is adhered to depends largely on individuals, families, Unlike many other issues, the majority of communities and countries. In Australia, Muslims do not subscribe to the view that this practice is not common, however the Islam promotes or condones domestic Islamic schools and colleges will usually violence. In view of this, the process segregate boys and girls within the same of working and advocating against classroom. violence against women has been a fairly straightforward process from the Islamic

A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria 11 perspective and Muslim women activists Century, the Prophet was able to read the and reformers have used Islam in this emotional and psychological needs of a regard. child. This is recounted in a story of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) sitting with There are Muslims, however, who view a child in his lap. The child urinated over domestic violence as a private matter and the Prophet Muhammad and the father believe that for the sake of preserving immediately scolded the child. the marriage and family, both considered important institutions in Islam, a degree of Muhammad restrained the father and tolerance should be exercised on the part advised him: “This is not a big issue. My of women, thus complicating service and clothes can be washed. But be careful with societal responses to families experiencing how you treat the child. What can restore violence. his self-esteem after you have dealt with him in public like this?” Separate from The response to violence against women the above prescription very little is said varies considerably across the Islamic world about children in Islam that reflects our with some countries tolerating domestic understanding of childhood today. In 7th abuse, while others have enshrined in law Century Arab tribal society, childhood men’s right to violence against women. was a very small period of an individual’s Other countries such as Tunisia and Egypt life, without the period of adolescence we have actively legislated to prevent and recognise to be so important today. Hence, punish domestic violence offenders. adulthood historically arrives in the early teens for Muslims. Children and families in Islam and Muslim communities Family and parenting Children As in other communities, marriage and the family are considered extremely important Like most other religions, Islam sees social institutions in Muslim communities. procreation as the basis for marriage. Love, Marriage is seen as a means to harmony, affection and caring for children play a stability, security and the satisfaction of crucial role in Islam. Hence, the Qur’an mutual needs. For many Muslim families, refers repeatedly to the protection of marriage is the gateway to adulthood. In children, particularly those who are orphans many Muslim families, marriages continue because this was a common occurrence, to be ‘arranged’ by parents; even when as was the fostering of children, in that this is not the case, parental consent society at the time. In the Qur’an, children and approval are generally considered are seen as a vulnerable group, who require important. additional care and protection by adults and society. Theoretically, even with arranged marriages, the willingness of both parties is The Prophet (PBUH) was especially kind considered essential. However, as in many and attentive to children; he is even known traditional communities, parental pressure to have let his granddaughter sit on his is sometimes applied in seeking consent. shoulders while he prayed. Even in the 7th

12 A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria Islam and Muslims

Sexual relationships before or outside in life decisions. Academic and career marriage are socially disapproved of and achievement is encouraged and highly religiously forbidden. valued, especially for boys, sometimes accompanied by significant parental Traditionally, the Muslim family is pressure. extended, with children, their parents and their grandparents often living together. Religious education and practice (prayer, The advantages of this system include fasting, etc.) are encouraged in Muslim financial saving, stability and physical children to varying degrees depending on and psychosocial support, particularly the importance attached to it by the family in times of need. Today, however, with and/or community members. the cultural changes brought about by Traditional gender roles are the norm in globalisation, migration, etc., nuclear many migrant communities with men as the families are increasing in number, although primary earners, often seen as heads of the many Muslim families continue to live as family and women as the primary carers extended or semi-extended families, even and homemakers. The mother is typically in Western societies. responsible for the day-to-day care of Placing the elderly in homes continues to children. be uncommon within Muslim communities The importance of the role and as adult children are expected to care for responsibility of the mother is underscored their parents, grandparents or at times even in Muslim cultures, sometimes to the their elderly aunts and uncles who do not extent that mothers are burdened with have other carers. As with other traditional full responsibility for all aspects of their cultures, age brings with it greater respect children’s and families’ lives. Women in the and esteem within many of the cultural extended family – grandmothers, aunts, groups to which Muslims belong. The elderly older sisters, especially in ‘joint family’ often occupy a position of authority within settings – are also often actively involved their families, even if the authority is more in parenting. symbolic than practical in nature. Parenting styles are influenced by a Starting a family is considered an important multitude of factors, including the parent’s goal of marriage. Traditionally, expecting wellbeing, the child’s temperament, and the and new mothers are cared for by their own family’s circumstances among many other mothers, mothers-in-law or other elder things. women in the family. However, this is often not possible for migrants as they leave their The indulgent parenting style, common in extended families behind. some Muslim communities, is characterised by a high degree of parental affection, Children are a central part of the family acceptance, emotional expressiveness, in most Muslim cultures. Male-child nurturance and permissiveness, with preference is still unfortunately common more emphasis on interdependence than in many cultural groups of which Muslim independence. Co-sleeping with parents, migrants are also a part. Parental approval sometimes for the first few years is not and consent is considered important

A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria 13 uncommon. Authoritarian parenting styles to trauma or loss resulting in a temporary are also common in many Muslim families/ difficulty in parenting due to depression, communities, manifested as high parental anxiety, grief, etc. expectations of obedience, conformity and preservation of honour. Muslims in Australia Authoritarian parenting serves a function Indonesian Muslims were trading with the when families are living in war zones, or in indigenous coastal communities prior to periods of civil upheaval and in refugee Australia’s settlement by the British Empire. camps. Parental control over children in The first Muslims to migrate to Australia such contexts can be crucial to ensuring were Muslim sailors and convicts who lived safety, stability, containment and under the rule of the British Empire in the emotional and psychological sense of 1700s, followed in the 1800s by Afghan assurance. cameleers. At times, some Muslim migrants’ parenting Significant Muslim migration to Australia style may also appear to outsiders as being commenced after World War 2, with large uninvolved or neglectful, for example numbers of Turkish and other European parents who do not appear to be involved Muslims escaping the post-war devastation in their children’s lives or indeed aware of across Europe and the Middle East. In the the emotional/psychological life of their 1970s, Lebanese and other Muslims started child. Generally this evolves from parents to arrive, seeking protection from war and whose parenting style has not adapted to other forms of protracted civil unrest. Since the nuclear family set up and continue to that time, there has been a steady stream parent as if they exist in an extended family of Muslim migration to Australia invariably scenario. because of war and poverty. It is important that professionals do The precise number of Muslims in Australia not confuse the lack of skill to parent in is unknown because many Muslims do not a nuclear family context with a lack of register their religion for fear of persecution interest in children. Many parents are or a lack of understanding of the purpose not aware of the additional skills they of data collection by the Australian Bureau will have to acquire as a result of missing of Statistics. Also, some Muslim minority an extended family, such as filling and sects do not identify with mainstream managing a child’s time. This is ordinarily a Islam because of a history of persecution. responsibility and skill that multiple family The number of Muslims registered by the members share. ABS in 2011 is 476,300 Australia-wide. Australian Muslims make up about 2% It may also be that parents simply do not of the Australian population, with 40% know how to replace the role of the extended of Australian Muslims born in Australia, family in the child’s life or feel that they do making them the single largest category not have the emotional resources to parent among an in the way required in a nuclear family. This may also be an effect of parental exposure

14 A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria Islam and Muslims

otherwise extremely diverse community. Australian society and to improve the Around 60% were born overseas in countries wellbeing of their communities. Generally such as Lebanon, Turkey, Afghanistan, these organisations are social welfare Bosnia-Herzegovina, Pakistan, Indonesia, providers and may receive government Iraq, Bangladesh, Iran, Fiji, Cyprus, Somalia, funding to undertake this work. Egypt and Malaysia. Less than 20% of It is important to note that although many Australian Muslims were born in Middle organisations have formed to provide some Eastern or Arab countries. form of service to their community or to act Muslims belong to a diverse range of as a crucible for the promotion of particular language groups, including Arabic, Turkish, form of Islam, the influence and support Farsi, Bosnian, Bahasa Indonesia, Bengali, of these organisations can be difficult to Malay, Dari, Albanian, Hindi, Kurdish and gauge. Pushto. It is important to note though that English is the most common language Issues for Muslims in Australia among Muslims. Most Australian Muslims The range of difficulties and barriers are Sunni but there is a significant minority Muslims face in Australia varies of Shias and smaller numbers of Bektashis, considerably. Muslims who have recently Ahmedis, Alawis, Alevis and Druze. migrated to Australia will experience significantly different challenges than There are a range of organisations providing those who have resided in Australia for religious, educational and welfare services a decade or longer. Some of the barriers to Australian Muslims. There are some Muslims experience upon arrival in Australia 85 mosques around Australia, about 25 and their settlement include: Islamic schools and, about 70 imams. There are also a number of Islamic societies • Limited English-language skills – a in each state and territory, providing difficulty in itself but one that creates welfare services to Australian Muslims. secondary disadvantages in locating There is, however, no single spokesperson employment, housing and other representing the interests of all Muslims, necessities. because of the diversity of the community. A number of Muslims access ethno-specific • Homelessness – the housing situation organisations for assistance, such as for newly-arrived immigrants can be migrant resource centres. precarious upon their arrival, but also well into their settlement period. There is no single model for Muslim community organisation in Australia. Many • Income – immigrants who have come organisations exist to provide support to from war-torn countries experience their immediate community members in the considerable difficulties securing form of social events. Other organisations any form of employment. Immigrants have a purely religious purpose, but do who have overseas qualifications not undertake further works for the public face a significant battle to have their good. Other organisations work towards the integration of their communities into

A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria 15 qualifications recognised and many must • Lack of family and kinship networks and undergo retraining if they are to have any difficulty building new networks isolate chance in the labour market. communities and leave them prone to other forms of disadvantage and social • Muslim communities face higher levels concerns. of unemployment and are, on average, economically disadvantaged compared • Geographic isolation – an increasingly to other Australians. They are more common phenomenon as many Muslims likely to work in blue-collar occupations, settle in rural Australia. even though they have a very similar • Post-traumatic stress due to experiences educational profile to other Australians. of torture and trauma significantly • Gaining access to and understanding impact on families as they attempt to the educational sector in Australia settle and integrate into Australia. is a struggle for many communities. • Long-settled communities find it hard Families struggle to organise schooling to assimilate recent migrants and for children and themselves. Schooling to reconcile political and cultural is not only made difficult by limited differences between themselves and English-language proficiency, but in newly arrived migrants. some instances humanitarian entrants may have no history of schooling • Racism – xenophobia has always because of civil strife in their country been an issue for Muslims like other of origin. Schooling is further made immigrants who have arrived in Australia. difficult by periods of unstable housing or Unfortunately, racial and religious unemployment. intolerance of Muslims has become entrenched, particularly in response to • Health service utilisation is generally some of the high profile cases involving low and immigrants often have little Muslims. This issue is covered in more awareness of preventive health and detail below. screening programs. • Lack of understanding of and access to Muslim women and girls in Australia mainstream services and systems, which • Economic dependence and financial may facilitate the process of settlement insecurity; and integration into Australia. • Women who have lost their husbands/ • Fear and mistrust of the legal system and families in the process of migration often police – often a result of experiences learning to live without male/family in their country of origin, while some protection and support for the first time. communities have had negative Many of these women have migrated as interactions with the system in Australia. sole mothers and must adapt to Australia as they help their children to do so. This often contrasts sharply with the extended

16 A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria Islam and Muslims

family arrangements for childcare and • Many immigrant women have minimal domestic life typical in many Muslim knowledge of the legal system’s provision countries; of remedy and protection to domestic violence victims; • Loss of family, extended network of kin, friends and other supports will • Migration experience can contribute to markedly affect women’s emotional abuse in the home. In addition, violence and psychological wellbeing as well as tends to be treated with greater secrecy impacting on their physical health; this in diaspora communities in the early can lead to a persistent sense of isolation, stages of their migration; powerlessness and loss of confidence; • Women who have married an Australian • Depression and anxiety or guilt about citizen and whose residency status leaving home and the loss of home. is precarious do not speak out about Depression and anxiety associated with a violence because of fear of deportation; failure of the settlement process and fear • Problems for Australian Muslim women may dominate lives of many women and generally; their children; • Poor representation in the tertiary • Limited mobility because of education system; communication and/or lack of money and transport along with cultural constraints • Under-representation in key community on their free movement invariably representative and advocacy bodies; increases their sense of social isolation; • Over-representation in media coverage • Post-traumatic stress; torture and and general public discourse on Islam and trauma. Humanitarian entrants are Muslims; more likely to have suffered rape, sexual assault and sexually specific torture • Race and gender-based violence prior to their arrivals than other migrant discrimination and victimisation; women; • Limited information about educational • Mental health services rarely used and career pathways; because of limited awareness and • Limited availability of information on the cultural stigma and isolation needs of Muslim women. • Overseas-born battered women are Muslim children in Australian schools significantly more disadvantaged than other victims of family violence. Whether as refugees or migrants, Muslim Overseas-born women are over- children in Australia may face a unique represented in domestic homicides. This set of difficulties in school, which can disadvantage is often a result of the affect their adjustment, performance and failure of services and shelters to provide ultimately their integration. information and options to immigrant women in ways that are accessible;

A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria 17 A refugee is defined by the United Nations Once they arrive in Australia and the Convention as someone who has left their immediate risk of trauma is eliminated, country of origin and cannot return to families experience relief at having access it ‘owing to a well-founded fear of being to basic rights and services. However as persecuted for reasons of race, religion, the transition into their community and nationality, membership of a particular Australian society commences, so do a host social group or political opinion’ (Office of social and cultural challenges that can of the United Nations High Commissioner affect their experience, confidence, school for Refugees, 1992). Governments may be performance and identity within their the persecutor, or they may be unable or school, family and community. In order to unwilling to protect their citizens. A refugee better understand children from refugee differs from a migrant in that migrants and Muslim backgrounds, it is important to choose to leave their country of origin to take a deeper look at some of the common seek residence in another country and may concerns and issues that could arise: return if they wish. Cultural and gender differences Arriving in a new country can be an exciting Many refugee/migrant Muslim children and challenging experience for refugee and come from countries that are generally migrant children. Adjusting to a new culture, more traditional and conservative in some new customs, new friends, new language, respects than mainstream Australian different public transport systems are families. Strong family values often just some of the major adjustments that translate as the family’s needs, goals and have to be made in a new country. For image being seen as being more important many refugee children though, this is not than the individual’s. As a result, families the first time they would have faced such may be seen as applying more control overwhelming challenges. Prior to migration, and pressure on students to make certain many may have experienced persecution decisions such as those related to subject based on their religion and/or ethnicities, selection, career choices, participation in survived armed conflict, terrorism and school activities, excursions, etc. militant insurgency, and generally have been exposed to extreme uncertainty and Compliance with parental demands is vulnerability. expected and enforced to varying degrees. Traditional notions of parental control They may have lost family and community and authority appear to be linked to two members, witnessed torture and/ or factors: the parents’ own past experiences, death, been separated from their loves such as having lived in poverty and crisis, ones, forced to leave their family, friends exposure to conflict or other trauma, etc., and homes behind. Some may have fled to and/or to the fear of not being able to another city or country and spent time in a parent effectively in their new host country refugee camp with minimal access to food, without family support, and losing their shelter, healthcare and education, and very sense of religious/cultural identity and low levels of personal safety and security. community in the process.

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As discussed earlier (see Children and education for girls. Even with mandatory families in Islam and Muslim communities) secondary schooling in Australia, some and children above), many Muslim Muslim families may not encourage girls to cultures adhere to traditional gender focus on educational achievement. Boys, norms to varying degrees, which may on the other hand, are often expected have implications for their education, to work hard, and in some cases, forego interactions and participation in school. participation in extracurricular activities While respect for elders is expected from so as not to take them away from their both boys and girls, the latter are more academic performance. culturally bound by this expectation and The migrant experience values working are more likely to face more pressure and hard and being self-disciplined, and many restrictions. Muslim children, both girls and boys, are In addition to schoolwork, girls in many expected to excel at their studies. Parents traditional cultures are also expected to who have not been able to pursue their own help out with household chores, taking educational dreams because of socio- care of family members’ (including their economic issues or living in crisis, etc., may brothers’) needs and social/community especially value education for their children, responsibilities along with their mothers. sometimes placing excessive pressure on As a result, their school work may suffer their children and schools. At times this and participation in school events may be translates into allowing few or no outlets limited (discussed in more detail below). and opportunities for fun and leisure, which For many girls this can be a source of may be seen as a waste of precious study confusion, frustration and, consequently, time. conflict, as once they arrive in Australia, On the other extreme are parents who they begin to see that gender roles can be appear uninvolved with their children’s more fluid and responsibilities shared. school performance and participation. This Education is often a result, not of a lack of concern and importance attached to education, but There is great variation in Muslim children’s of other stressors in the family’s life, such education and school performance both as socio-economic issues, isolation, single prior to migrating to Australia and in parenting and residual effects of past Australian schools. Many may have had exposure to conflict, loss or trauma, which some access to primary and secondary may limit parental attention. school, but this may have been disrupted constantly or from time to time due to the Participation in school outings/ law and order situation, security concerns, excursions conflict, displacement, migration, etc. Muslim families lay varying levels of In some families and communities, boys’ emphasis on the concept of segregation. schooling may have been prioritised Many Muslim girls are boys are allowed to over girls’, especially when resources are freely mingle with each other and with their limited as marriage and raising a family non-Muslim peers of the opposite sex and may be seen as much more important than

A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria 19 participate in social school events and cultures. While like all young people, outings. Other Muslim families may place Muslim students are curious about, seek varying levels of restrictions. information about and talk about sex with their peers, it is not a topic that is Typically, however, this concern is extended generally discussed openly in families, with only to girls’ mobility and interaction their parents or in front of elders. In some with boys. With a strong emphasis on cultural groups, however, young people may chastity before marriage and maintaining be exposed to sexual discussions among a reputation of a ‘good girl’, girls’ groups of their own sex, such as during participation in social activities with boys weddings and child birth; however, they may be discouraged, limited or in rare cases, are not expected to publicly display their forbidden by many families (see Sexuality knowledge or interest in the issue. and Relationships below for more detail). Even all-girls outings which involve going to Traditionally, in many cultures, sexual public places without a chaperone may be information is imparted around the time of concern for some. of marriage, based on the assumption that the couple, especially the bride-to- Understandably then, the concept of having be, has limited information. Religiously, friends of the opposite sex and further both are expected to have no prior sexual still, dating are considered inappropriate experiences (if this is their first marriage), and are, therefore, unacceptable in most but culturally this expectations holds far migrant Muslim families and communities, more importance for girls. The implications particularly for girls. Whether due to family of sexual relations before marriage (and pressure, fear of social/family disapproval later, outside marriage) are generally or personal values, some Muslim girls significantly more serious for girls. Today, may, therefore opt out of certain kinds of even though most parents are aware that school activities such as dances, excursions their children of marriageable age are likely (especially overnight trips), formals or to be have much more sexual information proms. prior to marriage, and therefore may not be Apart from a desire to maintain gender formally imparted, sexual topics are still segregation, parental fear in this regard not considered appropriate for discussion. often centres around the belief that such This general discomfort with sexual topics trips may not be adequately supervised and also extends to sex education in schools. that girls and boys may be allowed to freely Many Muslim families may not considerate interact, thus increasing opportunities for it appropriate for their children to learn dating and/or sexual relationships. about and openly discuss sex so early on, Sexual relationships and sex especially in mixed groups as it they may be education equated with the permission to indulge in sexual activity. With religious restrictions on sexual relationships outside marriage, openly The anxiety around young people, especially talking about sex and sexual issues remain girls, developing relationships before for the most part a taboo in many Muslim marriage, may mean that early marriage

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may be encouraged in many families. sexually forceful or aggressive humour and/ Although this is no longer the case in many or behaviour. Often, this aggression and families, traditionally, marriages are defiance are a front to cover the conflict ‘arranged’ by parents or family elders, but between a normal sexual interest, sexual what this arrangement means may vary insecurity, the cultural/religious taboo for different families and communities. In around sexual issues, widespread exposure some, the potential couple are allowed to uncontained sexual information and a to ‘date’, get to know each other or at lack of appropriate information. least meet before marriage; in others Aggressively pursuing girls, being sexually varying degrees of pressure may be applied, active or pretending to be so and indulging especially on girls, to consent to marrying in popular boy behaviour that may objectify the person of their families’ choice. In women and girls, are often attempts to secondary schools, therefore, teachers create an image of ‘real manhood’ or may find that Muslim girls, as well as girls a sense of belonging in a society that from such traditional cultures, may often is considered highly sexualised. Such discuss potential suitors, engagements and behaviour may also be aimed at vigourously marriage, with varying levels of interest, asserting a heterosexual image and pre- anxiety and/or distress. empting any impressions of homosexuality. Hyper-masculinity Guilt and shame around sexual interest, reinforced by religious/cultural restrictions, Adolescence is a generally a difficult may create more confusion and insecurity, and confusing time for all girls and boys further complicating boys’ identity and physically, psychologically, socially and image development and contributing to sexually. When this normal confusion – problem behaviour. regarding identity, image, achievement, sexuality, etc., is combined with Child abuse psychosocial migration and settlement Research on family violence against issues in young people, such as a need for children in migrant/refugee families in belonging, a confused identity, of identity, Australia is very limited. While there is a difference in gender norms between home no reason to assume that culture and and the wider culture, exposure to popular migration is linked with increased rates of sexual culture in Australia versus cultural/ child abuse and family violence, the nature religious restrictions on sex, this can be a and dynamics of child abuse in migrant/ much more significant source of confusion refugee families and their response to and insecurity for many young people, this abuse, including its reporting, may especially boys. be shaped by cultural and/or the socio- Unable to work through these conflicts, economic contexts within which migrants some of these boys may exhibit what may live. Parenting style is one factor that has be termed ‘hyper-masculine behaviour. been associated with physical child abuse. Examples of such behaviour include an When under stress some families become air of arrogance and apparent disdain for authoritarian in their parenting. The others and aggressive behaviour, including parental control characteristic of this

A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria 21 style can, at times, translate into the Children as witnesses of family violence use of corporal punishment to discipline have received significant attention in children. It is important to note here, recent years. however, that corporal punishment is by One immediate risk faced by children in no means a parenting strategy unique to families with insecure visa statuses, which certain cultural/religious groups. Research is the case with many Muslim migrant/ around the world, including developed refugee families, is that they are often countries, clearly indicates that despite used by the violent partner (usually the the significant investment in community father or stepfather) to manipulate and awareness, many parents continue to use control the victim (usually the mother). For physical punishments to discipline their example, the violent partner may abduct children. the children and take them to his home High rates of parental stress have also been country or he may threaten or actually harm linked with emotional and physical child the children for the same purpose. Even abuse and neglect. Risk factors include low when children are not its direct victims, income settings, poverty, unemployment, they are significantly affected by the single parent homes, substance abuse, violence they witness towards their mothers. lack of housing, and limited social support A guide for workers on working with Muslim networks. As discussed earlier, many women on family violence, developed by migrants/refugee families, including the Australian Muslim Women’s Centre for Muslims, live in these circumstances as Human Rights highlights specific forms a result of both pre and post-migration of family violence that Australian Muslim circumstances and may therefore be at risk women face. of high rates of parental stress. In addition These include husbands using their wives’ to the typically identified forms of physical, insecure migration status to physically, sexual and emotional abuse and neglect, socially, emotionally, financially and/or certain kinds of social issues affecting spiritually abuse them for example: children, such as early marriages and international child abductions in custody • threatening harm to their children cases are also seen in Muslim migrant or families in their home countries; communities. threatening them with deportation if the abuse is reported The categorisation of these issues as forms of child abuse is unfortunately not always • hiding/destroying her or her children’s seen as abuse by some communities. This legal documents; restricting her mobility; stems from several factors, including giving her incorrect legal/migration difficulties in understanding the complex, information about migration multifaceted cultural, socio-economic and political context in which these issues • taking her money, forcing her to work or occur as well as the practical, legal and preventing her from working social implications of including them in the • not allowing her to learn English or learn definition of abuse. new skills

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• polygyny(commonly known as polygamy); Many immigrant families are reluctant to providing incorrect religious information. seek or accept formal assistance from medical and social service institutions Many migrant women experience great given past experiences of oppression, fear difficultly leaving and are less likely to of being deported, and general distrust of report violent relationships, because of fear, authority figures. This may be especially misinformation, limited English and lack true in cases of sexual abuse where notions of support. As a result, scores of migrant of family privacy, taboos related to children are exposed to violence in their disclosing sexual issues and filial piety may homes. impede migrant children from disclosing Gender inequality and discrimination sexual abuse, especially incest. also account for some forms of child Defining the precise nature of child abuse maltreatment and neglect in migrant and child maltreatment is a complex matter Muslim communities. Forcibly limiting girls’ even among professionals, including the education and mobility, forced marriages perceptions of immigrant communities and some forms of child sexual abuse are further complicates the matter. Abuse that examples of this. involves physical aggression is frequently Research on child abuse in the migrant/ viewed as abuse in most communities. refugee communities in the U.S and However, there is less agreement regarding Canada indicates that migrant families less severe forms of abuse as well as may be at increased risk of reports to child emotional and psychological abuse protection services. Possible reasons cited and neglect. While child sexual abuse is for this include their visibility, punishing considered the most severe form of abuse children in public rather than in private, among all cultural groups, it is an extremely misunderstandings with professionals, and sensitive issue within Muslim communities. parenting norms that conflict with those of Most communities tend to limit or avoid the dominant culture. talk about sex and sexuality, including At times immigrant parents may not even sexual violence. Notions of privacy, virginity fully understanding what is expected of before marriage and respect for elders and them and, therefore, fail to comply with the community makes the disclosure and unwritten cultural expectations. Language reporting of sexual abuse very difficult. and cultural barriers may also make it Assessing the issue and addressing the difficult for immigrant families to access needs of victims and their families is, resources and services and comply with therefore, significantly challenging. treatment plans. These issues are further exacerbated by a lack of understanding Impact of Trauma on Children of the social welfare system, which may Many Muslim students in school, especially be different from or not exist in their those from refugee backgrounds, are likely home countries, as well as a shortage to have been exposed to highly stressful or of interpreters and translated material even traumatic events prior to arriving in and perceived or actual racism and discrimination.

A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria 23 Australia. Trauma is defined as a physical or overwhelming stress. Children exposed to psychological threat or assault to a child’s chronic trauma generally have significantly physical worse outcomes than those exposed to acute accidental traumas. In addition, the integrity, sense of self, safety or survival failure of caregivers to sufficiently protect or to the physical safety of another person a child may be experienced as betrayal and significant to the child. Children may further contribute to the adversity of the experience trauma as a result of a number experience and effects of trauma. of different circumstances, such as abuse, exposure to domestic violence, natural Traumatic stress may be transmitted by disaster, war,/armed conflict (including as parents to their children. Parents who suffer child soldiers), abandonment, community from untreated post-traumatic stress violence, law enforcement, assault, disorder often have difficulty establishing a kidnapping, severe bullying, violent loss and secure attachment with their children; they serious illness or medical procedures. may viscerally transmit their own feelings of anxiety, rage, helplessness, and in doing so, Post traumatic stress is traumatic colour the child’s internal mode of self and stress that persists after a traumatic the world. incident has ended and continues to affect a child’s capacity to function. If A child/student who has been traumatized post-traumatic stress continues and the remains in an aroused state of fear child’s neurophysiologic responses remain and finds it difficult to process verbal chronically aroused, even though the threat information, and it becomes difficult to has ended and the child has survived, then follow directions, recall what was heard, the term post traumatic stress is used to make sense out of what is being said and describe the child’s enduring symptoms. focus on, attend to, retain and recall verbal information. Because trauma affects the child’s ability to self-regulate, both physically and In addition to these primary learning emotionally, post traumatic symptoms in functions that can be altered during or children may encompass symptoms such immediately following traumatic exposure, as difficulty eating/sleeping/breathing; cognitive deficits may also be apparent. a heightened startler response and hyper These include poor problem solving, (unable alertness; agitation and over arousal, or to think things out or make sense of what under arousal, withdrawal or dissociation; is happening), low self-esteem (how one avoidance of eye contact and/or physical thinks of oneself – victim-thinking) and contact; fear of responses to certain sights, hopelessness (loss of future orientation) sounds or other sensory input that remind have all been clearly linked to negative the child the traumatic experience(s); and (traumatic) life events (Stein & Kendell, preoccupation with re-enactment of the 2004; LeDoux, 2002; Schore, 2001; Teicher, traumatic experience. 2000; Yang & Clum, 2000). Trauma has been shown to significantly compromise Psychological trauma may occur during a single traumatic event (acute) or a result of repeated (chronic) exposure to

24 A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria Islam and Muslims

cognitive development. It is important to explore the possibility of trauma with Useful information for students who are under-performing. teachers to consider Praying Bibliography The midday prayer time often falls ‘Count Me In!: A resource to support ESL during school hours. This means that students with refugee experience in students who want to pray will need schools’. The Government of South Australia access to a clean and private space to Department of Education and Children’s perform this prayer. Such a space need Services, 2007. www.decd.sa.gov.au/ not be used exclusively for prayers, literacy/files/links/Count_me_in.pdf but may be a temporary space given Baumrind, D. (1991). Effective parenting to students for a short period each during the early adolescent transition. In day, such as a classroom that is empty P.A. Cowan & E. M. Hetherington (Eds.), during lunch times, so as to not miss Advances in family research (Vol. 2). any class time. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Student absences Kopko, K., (n.d.). Parenting Styles and During the time of the two main Adolescents. festivals, Eid-al-Fitr and Eid-al-Adha, www.human.cornell.edu/pam/outreach/ Muslim students may be absent from parenting/research/upload/Parenting- school. Students and their families may 20Styles-20and-20Adolescents.pdf also request leave in order to perform St. Joseph’s Women’s Health Centre (n.d.), the pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj). Impact of Migration and Resettlement on School Uniforms Attachment Beliefs, Values and Practices. Some students, especially girls and/or www.attachmentacrosscultures.org/ their families may not be comfortable research wearing certain kinds of school or sports uniforms because of their interpretation of modesty. Short sleeves or skirts, shorts, etc., may be an issue for some families, and they may request variations that satisfy their cultural/religious needs.

A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria 25 Country Profiles of Migrant and Refugee Students Sources of information These country profiles provide brief UNHCR information on the countries of origin or www.unhcr.org; www.refworld.org background of some of the Muslim students. Main political and social conflicts of each Australian Department of Immigration country have been highlighted to deepen and Citizenship www.immi.gov.au/ the context of migration and/or seeking media/statistics/country-profiles asylum by their families. Victorian Multi-Cultural Commission www.multicultural.vic.gov.au BBC News Country Profiles www.bbc.co.uk/news/world Infoplease www.infoplease/country/profiles Wikipedia www.wikipedia.com

26 A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria Afghanistan Ethnic Groups: The main ethnic groups are led to a bloody war between the US-backed Pashtun, 42 percent; Tajik, 27 percent; mujahideen forces and the Soviet-backed Hazara, 9 percent; Uzbek, 9 percent; Aimak Afghan government in which over a million (a Persian-speaking nomadic group), Afghans lost their lives. This was followed 4 percent; Turkmen, 3 percent; and Baloch, by the 1990s civil war, the rise of the 2 percent. Taliban government who used an extremist interpretation of Islam to assert repressive Languages: More than 30 languages control of society. are spoken in Afghanistan. The official languages are Dari (Afghan Persian) and The economy remained in ruins, and most Pashtu. government services ceased. The Taliban eventually fell in 2001 which leads to the Religion: Virtually the entire population current civil war. In December 2001, the is Muslim. Between 80 and 85 percent of United Nations Security Council authorized Muslims are Sunni and 15 to 19 percent, the creation of the International Security Shia. The minority Shia are economically Assistance Force (ISAF) to help maintain disadvantaged and frequently subjected security in Afghanistan and assist the to discrimination. Small numbers of Hindus Karzai administration. and Sikhs live in urban centers. Three decades of war has made Afghanistan Political background: The political history one of the world’s most dangerous of the modern state of Afghanistan begins countries, including the largest producer in 1709, when the Hotaki dynasty was of refugees and asylum seekers. While the established in Kandahar followed by Ahmad international community is rebuilding Shah Durrani’s rise to power in 1747. In the war-torn Afghanistan, terrorist groups are late 19th century, Afghanistan became a actively involved in a nationwide Taliban- buffer state in the “Great Game” between led insurgency, which includes hundreds of the British and Russian empires. Following assassinations and suicide attacks. the 1919 Anglo-Afghan War, King Amanullah began a European style modernization of Education and Literacy: In 1979 some the country but was stopped by the ultra- 90 percent of Afghanistan’s population conservatives. was illiterate. In 2006 an estimated 57 percent of men and 87 percent of women He also abrogated slavery of Hazaras, were illiterate, and the lack of skilled and but till 1978, they were treated as third educated workers was a major economic class citizen due to linguistic, racial and disadvantage. religious prejudices. It is noteworthy to mention that the Hazaras were subjected Beginning with the Soviet invasion of 1979, to such unjustified and inhuman treatment successive wars virtually destroyed the despite the fact that they are the aboriginal education system. Most teachers fled the inhabitants of Afghanistan. During the country during the Soviet occupation and Cold War, after the withdrawal of the the subsequent civil war. By 1996 only British from neighboring India in 1947, the about 650 schools were functioning. In United States and the Soviet Union began 1996 the Taliban regime banned education spreading influences in Afghanistan, which

A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria 27 for females, and the madrassa (mosque full of music, wine, lobster, nail polish, school) became the main source of primary firecrackers, statues, sewing catalogues, and secondary education. pictures, Christmas cards. After the overthrow of the Taliban in 2001, They also got rid of employment, education, the interim government received substantial sports for all women, dancing, clapping international aid to restore the education during sports events, kite flying, and system, but for the next six years the Taliban characterizations of living things, including attacked public schools wherever possible. drawings, paintings, photographs, stuffed In 2007 increased Taliban activity forced animals, and dolls. Men had to have a fist the closure of 35 percent of the schools in size beard at the bottom of their chin. the southern provinces. The Taliban opened Conversely, they had to wear their head hair some fundamentalist schools in regions short. They had to wear a head covering. that they controlled. In 2004 and 2005, The Taliban were condemned internationally informal community education programs for their brutal repression of women. In began in nine provinces. areas they controlled the Taliban issued In 2008 about 9,500 schools reportedly were edicts which forbade women from being operating, at least some in every province. educated; girls were forced to leave The Ministry of Education estimated that schools and colleges. Those who wished to in 2006, 8 million children were in school, leave their home to go shopping had to be including nearly 3 million girls. accompanied by a male relative, and were required to wear the burqa, a traditional Despite renewed emphasis on educating dress covering the entire body except for girls, in 2008 the ratio of girls to boys in a small screen to see out of. Those who secondary schools was one to three or four, appeared to disobey were publicly beaten. as rural families continued the tradition of educating only males. Since the end of the Employment for women was restricted to dogmatic Taliban era in 2001, public school the medical sector, because male medical curricula have included religious subjects, personnel were not allowed to treat women but detailed instruction is left to religious and girls. One result of the banning of teachers. employment of women by the Taliban was the closing down in places like Kabul of Life under Taliban rule: Under the Taliban primary schools not only for girls but for regime, Sharia law was interpreted to boys, because almost all the teachers there forbid a wide variety of previously lawful were women. Taliban restrictions became activities in Afghanistan. One Taliban more severe after they took control of the list of prohibitions included: pork, pig, capital. In February 1998, religious police pig oil, anything made from human hair, forced all women off the streets of Kabul, satellite dishes, cinematography, musical and issued new regulations ordering people equipment, pool tables, chess, masks, to blacken their windows, so that women alcohol, tapes, computers, VCRs, television, would not be visible from the outside anything that propagates sex and is

28 A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria Afghans in Australia: People from Afghanistan first settled in Australia when camel drivers participated in the land explorations of the 1860s, the first of whom joined the ill-fated Burke and Wills expedition. In all, approximately 3,000 Afghans, mainly men, migrated to Australia during the latter half of the 19th Century. From the 1920s, when motor vehicles began to replace camel transportation, many returned to Afghanistan while others stayed on and found employment in other areas or became small property owners. This first wave of Afghanistan-born migrants also introduced Islam to Australia. Most of the Afghanistan-born in Australia had arrived in the last decade or so, as refugees under the Humanitarian Program. At the 2006 Census there were 5,242 Afghanistan-born persons in Victoria (31.3% of Australia’s total), increasing by 61.5% from 3,245 persons in 2001. Only 2.4% of the Afghanistan-born in Victoria had arrived in Australia prior to 1986; 24.0% arrived between 1996 and 2001; and 41.5% arrived between 2001 and 2006. The Afghanistan-born mainly resided in Casey (32.6%) and Greater Dandenong (32.0%). There were 5,978 persons who identified with Afghan ancestry.

A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria 29 Iraq Ethnic groups: In 2006 an estimated 75 to United Kingdom invaded Iraq for fear that 80 percent of the population was Arab and the government might cut oil supplies to 15 to 20 percent, Kurdish. Other significant Western nations because of his links to the minority groups, together constituting less Axis powers. The war started on 2 May and than 5 percent of the population, were an armistice was signed 31 May. Assyrians, Chaldeans, and Turkmens. In 1958 a coup d’etat known as the Languages: Arabic is the majority language, 14 July Revolution led to the end of the Kurdish is spoken by approximately 15- monarchy. After 10 years of military rule, 20% of the population, South Azeri (called the government was overthrown by the Turkmen locally), Neo-Aramaic and others Ba’ath Party in 1968. Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr by 5%. became the first Ba’ath President of Iraq but then the movement gradually came Religion: Islam accounts for 95% of the under the control of Saddam Hussein, who population, while Christianity or other acceded to the presidency and control of religions for just 3%. It is estimated that the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC), around 65% of the population in Iraq are then Iraq’s supreme executive body, in Shia and around 35% are Sunni. Christians July 1979. have inhabited what is modern day Iraq for about 2,000 years. Assyrians, most of whom After the success of the 1979 Iranian are adherents of the Chaldean Catholic Revolution, Saddam Hussein invaded Iran Church, Syriac Orthodox Church and the a year and a half later, initiating the Iran– Assyrian Church of the East account for Iraq War (or First Persian Gulf War). The war most of the Christian population, along ended in stalemate in 1988, largely due to with Armenians belonging to the Armenian foreign support for Iraq. Apostolic Church. More than half of Iraqi Between half a million and 1.5 million Christians have fled to neighbouring people from both sides died in the 1980– countries since the start of the war, and few 1988 war, with economic loss of more than plan to return. $500 billion for both sides. In 1981, Israeli Political Background: Britain granted aircraft bombed an Iraqi nuclear materials independence to the Kingdom of Iraq in testing reactor as part of Operation Opera 1932, though the British retained military which became widely criticized because of bases and transit rights for their forces. Israel’s involvement in a foreign conflict. King Ghazi ruled as a figurehead after King In the final stages of Iran–Iraq War, the Faisal’s death in 1933, while undermined by Ba’athist Iraqi regime led a genocidal attempted military coups, until his death campaign that targeted Iraqi Kurds, and led in 1939. Ghazi was followed by his underage to the killing of 50,000 to 100,000 civilians. son, Faisal II. ‘Abd al-Ilah served as Regent In August 1990, Iraq invaded and annexed during Faisal’s minority. Kuwait. This subsequently led to military On 1 April 1941, several officers of the intervention by United States-led forces in armed forces staged a coup d’état and the Second Gulf War. The coalition forces overthrew the government of ‘Abd al-Ilah. proceeded with a bombing campaign During the subsequent Anglo-Iraqi War, the targeting military targets. Shortly after

30 A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria the war ended in 1991, Shia Muslim and comprehensive U.S. government report, no Kurdish Iraqis led several uprisings against weapons of mass destruction have been the regime, but these were successfully found. repressed by Hussein. It is estimated that as Following the invasion, the United States many as 100,000 people were killed. The US, established the Coalition Provisional UK, France and Turkey claiming authority Authority to govern Iraq. The occupation under UNSCR 688, established the Iraqi years saw intense violence between Sunnis no-fly zones to protect Kurdish and Shiite and Shias, death squads being a major populations from attacks by the Hussein threat to stability and security. By 2007, the regime’s aircraft. violence had increased to the point of being During the late 1990s, the U.N. considered described in the United States’ National relaxing the Iraq sanctions because of Intelligence Estimate as a civil war. On the hardships suffered by ordinary Iraqis. December 30, 2006, Saddam Hussein was Studies dispute the number of people who hanged. Some of his closest associates were died in south and central Iraq during the also executed. Ali Hassan al-Majid (aka years of the sanctions. Chemical Ali) was executed in 2010 for his role in the Halabja poison gas attack in In October 1998, U.S. President Bill Clinton 1988. There have since been many attacks signed the Iraq Liberation Act, calling for on Iraqi minorities such as the Yezidis, “regime change” in Iraq, and initiated Mandeans, Assyrians and others.. Operation Desert Fox. Current Situation: Since the toppling of Kurdish Peshmerga became the northern Saddam Hussein in May 2003, coalition front of the invasion and eventually military forces, Iraqis involved with defeated Ansar al-Islam in Northern Iraq reconstruction, and the general public have before the invasion and Saddam’s forces been endangered by a variety of bombings, in the north. The battle led to the killing kidnappings, and executions conducted by of a substantial number of militants and insurgent forces believed to be primarily the uncovering of what was claimed to be Sunni and of both domestic and foreign a chemical weapons facility at Sargat. In origin. Their particular targets have been October 2002, the U.S. Congress passed the Iraqi police and military personnel and Joint Resolution to Authorize the Use of trainees, but in 2006 civilians increasingly United States Armed Forces Against Iraq, were targeted. Many terrorist acts have and in November the UN Security Council been unattributed, and many apparently passed UNSCR 1441. independent militias are known to have On March 20, 2003, a United States- participated in them. organized coalition invaded Iraq, with Under these circumstances, ordinary the stated reason that Iraq had failed to citizens lived at the mercy of a vicious war abandon its nuclear and chemical weapons between local fighters and occupation development program in violation of U.N. forces. The result of this was more than Resolution 687. However, according to a a million injured and dead, most of whom were innocent bystanders. Most

A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria 31 armed operations in Iraq came out from arrived in Australia as refugees after the certain governorates and certain areas in Iran-Iraq war ended in 1988. Numbers Baghdad. Militants. The occupation and continued to increase after the outbreak Iraqi government forces would enter these of the Gulf War in 1991, often via refugee areas and make random arrests of people, camps in neighbouring countries. More especially young men between the ages of recent arrivals have also been accepted as 17 and 30. As a result, there were tens of skilled migrants and through family reunion. thousands of detainees held for years with The Iraq-born community in Australia no charges, many of whom died in prison is culturally diverse, with settlers from under torture. different ethnic and cultural backgrounds including Arabs, Kurds,Turkmen, Chaldeans The UN High Commission for Refugees has and Assyrians. estimated that nearly two million Iraqis have fled the country after the Multi- At the 2006 Census, there were 8,615 National invasion of Iraq in 2003, mostly to Iraq-born persons in Victoria (26.5% of Syria and Jordan. The Internal Displacement Australia’s total), increasing by 41.4% Monitoring Centre estimates an additional from 6,093 persons in 2001. Only 5.6% of 1.9 million are currently displaced within the Iraq-born in Victoria had arrived in the country. Australia prior to 1986; most (89.5%) had arrived between 1991 and 2006. The Iraq- In 2007, the U.N. said that about 40% of born community were mainly concentrated Iraq’s middle class is believed to have in the northern suburbs in Hume (52.0%); fled and that most are fleeing systematic Whittlesea (10.8%); and Moreland (8.7%). persecution and have no desire to return. There was a small but significant Iraqi- Refugees are mired in poverty as they are born community in the rural centre of generally barred from working in their host Shepparton. There were only 4,806 persons countries. In recent years the diaspora who identified with Iraqi ancestry, due to seems to be returning with the increased there only being a relatively small number security; the Iraqi government claimed of second generation and also because that 46,000 refugees have returned to their many Iraq-born had identified with other homes in October 2007 alone. ethnic origins such as Assyrian, Kurdish, Iraqis in Australia: The Iraq-born were first Armenian and Arabic ancestries. counted as a separate birthplace group at the 1976 Australian Census. Large numbers

32 A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria lebanon language: Arabic is the official national leading centres of Christianity. In the Mount language. A law determines the cases in Lebanon range a monastic tradition known which the French language may be used as the Maronite Church was established. The majority of Lebanese people speak As the Arab Muslims conquered the region, Lebanese Arabic, while Modern Standard the Maronites held onto their religion and Arabic is mostly used in magazines, identity. However, a new religious group, newspapers, and formal broadcast media. the Druze, established themselves in Mount Almost 40% of Lebanese are considered Lebanon as well, a religious divide that francophone, and another 15% “partial would last for centuries. During the Crusades francophone,” and 70% of Lebanon’s the Maronites established strong ties with secondary schools use French as a second the Roman Catholic invaders, ties that language of instruction. By comparison, influenced the region into the modern era. English is used as a secondary language in 30% of Lebanon’s secondary schools. The region eventually came under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, a political situation Religion: Lebanon is the most religiously that lasted for centuries. Following the diverse country in the Middle East. It is collapse of the Empire after World War I, estimated that the population is 59.7% the five provinces that constitute modern Muslim and 39% Christian, with other Lebanon were mandated to France. The religions and non-believers accounting French expanded the borders of Mount for the remaining 1.3%. Over the past 60 Lebanon, which was mostly populated years, there has been a steady decline in by Maronites and Druze, to include more the ratio of Christians to Muslims, due to Muslims. higher emigration rates of Christians, and a higher birth rate in the Muslim population. Lebanon gained independence in 1943, A demographic study conducted by the establishing a unique political system research firm Statistics Lebanon found that “confessionalism” – that is a power-sharing approximately 27% of the population was mechanism based on religious communities. Sunni, 27% Shi’a, 21% Maronite, 8% Greek Orthodox, 5% Druze, and 5% Greek Catholic, Lebanon’s history since independence has with the remaining 7% mostly belonging to been marked by alternating periods of smaller Christian denominations. political stability and turmoil interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut’s position as Brief Political Background: The earliest a regional centre for finance and trade. evidence of civilization in Lebanon dates back more than seven thousand years, In May 1948, Lebanon supported predating recorded history. Lebanon was neighbouring Arab countries against the home of the Phoenicians, a maritime Israel. During the Arab-Israeli war, some culture that flourished for over a thousand 100,000 Palestinians fled to Lebanon, while years (c.1550–539 BC). In 64 BC, the region Israel did not permit their return at the came under the rule of the Roman Empire, end of hostilities.Palestinians, previously and eventually became one of the Empire’s prevented from working at all due to denial of citizenship, are now forbidden to work

A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria 33 in some 20 professions after liberalization which supported and fought alongside laws. Today, more than 400,000 refugees different factions. Peace keeping forces, remain in limbo, about half in camps. such as the Multinational Force in Lebanon and UNIFIL, were also stationed in Lebanon. The government of Lebanon had been dominated by Maronite Christians since The Lebanese Civil War was a multifaceted the state was created as a safe haven civil war in Lebanon, lasting from 1975 to for them by the French colonial powers. 1990 and resulting in an estimated 120,000 However, the country had a large Muslim fatalities. Today approximately 76,000 population and many pan-Arabist and Left people remain displaced within Lebanon. Wing groups which opposed the pro-western There was also a mass exodus of almost one government. million people from Lebanon. The establishment of the state of Israel and The Taif Agreement of 1989 marked the the displacement of the hundred thousand beginning of the end of the fighting. Palestinian refugees to Lebanon (around In January of that year, a committee 10% of the total population of the country) appointed by the Arab League began to changed the demographic balance in favour formulate solutions to the conflict. On of the Muslim population. The Cold War had March 1991, parliament passed an amnesty a powerful disintegrative effect on Lebanon, law that pardoned all political crimes prior which was closely linked to the polarization to its enactment. that preceded the 1958 political crisis, since Recent Political History: The internal Maronites sided with the West while Left political situation in Lebanon significantly Wing and pan-Arab groups sided with Soviet changed in early 2000s. After the Israeli aligned Arab countries. withdrawal from southern Lebanon and the The militarization of the Palestinian death of Hafez Al-Assad (former President refugee population, with the arrival of and Prime Minister of Syria) in 2000, the the PLO forces after their expulsion from Syrian military presence faced criticism and Jordan during Black September, sparked resistance from the Lebanese population. an arms race amongst the different On 14 February 2005, former Prime Minister Lebanese political factions and provided a Rafik Hariri was assassinated in a car bomb foundation for the long-term involvement explosion. Leaders of the March 14 Alliance of Lebanon in regional conflicts. accused Syria of the attack, while the March 8 Alliance and Syrian officials claimed that Fighting between Maronite and Palestinian the Mossad was behind the assassination. forces began in 1975, and Left Wing, pan- The Hariri assassination marked the Arabist and Muslim Lebanese groups later beginning of a series of assassinations that allied with the Palestinians. During the resulted in the death of many prominent course of the fighting, alliances shifted Lebanese figures. rapidly and unpredictably: by the end of the war, nearly every party had allied with and On 12 July 2006, Hezbollah launched a series subsequently betrayed every other party of rocket attacks and raids into Israeli at least once. Furthermore, foreign powers territory, where they killed three Israeli meddled in the war, such as Israel and Syria soldiers and captured a further two. Israel

34 A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria responded with airstrikes and artillery leaked by the Al-Akhbar newspaper in fire on targets in Lebanon, and a ground November 2010 stated that Hezbollah has invasion of southern Lebanon, resulting drafted plans for a takeover of the country in the 2006 Lebanon War. The conflict was in the case an indictment against its officially ended by the UNSC Resolution members is issued by the Special Tribunal 1701 on 14 August 2006, which ordered a for Lebanon. ceasefire. Some 1,191 Lebanese and 160 The 2012 Syrian civil war threatens to spill Israelis were killed in the conflict. Beirut’s over in Lebanon, causing more incidents southern suburb was heavily damaged by of sectarian violence and armed clashes Israeli airstrikes where Hezbollah military between Sunnis and Alawites in Tripoli. As of infrastructure was deeply embedded among 13 February 2013, more than 182,938 Syrian the civilian population. refugees are in Lebanon. On 9 May 2008, Hezbollah and Amal forces, The Lebanese sparked by a government declaration that Lebanese in Australia: community is one of the longest established Hezbollah’s communications network was non-European groups in Australia. Early illegal, seized western Beirut, leading to immigrants were predominantly Christians the 2008 conflict in Lebanon. The Lebanese engaged in trade and commerce and were government denounced the violence as a widely dispersed throughout Australia, coup attempt. At least 62 people died in the with about half living outside metropolitan resulting clashes between pro-government areas. The community grew rapidly following and opposition militias. the Arab-Israeli war in 1976 and continuing On 21 May 2008, the signing of the Doha conflict in Lebanon. Although most of the Agreement ended the fighting. As part Lebanese migrants had settled in Australia of the accord, which ended 18 months of before 1981, small numbers continued to political paralysis, Michel Suleiman became arrive after that date. president and a national unity government At the 2006 Census, there were 14,949 was established, granting a veto to the Lebanon-born persons in Victoria (20.0% opposition. The agreement was a victory for of Australia’s total), increasing by 5.5% opposition forces, as the government caved from 14,168 persons in 2001. Over half in to all their main demands. (55.0%) of the Lebanon-born community In early January 2011, the national unity in Victoria had arrived in Australia prior government collapsed due to growing to 1986. The Lebanon-born were mainly tensions stemming from the Special concentrated in the inner city suburbs in Tribunal for Lebanon, which was expected Moreland (19.0%) and Darebin (9.4%), to indict Hezbollah members for the Hariri and in the outer northern suburbs in Hume assassination. The parliament elected Najib (16.0%) and Whittlesea (8.1%). There Mikati, the candidate for the Hezbollah-led were 34,754 persons who identified with March 8 Alliance, Prime Minister of Lebanon, Lebanese ancestry, including second and making him responsible for forming a new later generations. government. Hezbollah leader Hassan Victorian Multi-Cultural Nasrallah insists that Israel was responsible References: Commission, for the assassination of Hariri. A report

A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria 35 Myanmar (Burma) Burma was colonized by Britain following On 2 March 1962, the military led by General three Anglo-Burmese Wars (1824–1885). Ne Win took control of Burma through a British rule brought social, economic, coup d’état and the government has been cultural and administrative changes. With under direct or indirect control by the the fall of Mandalay, all of Burma came military since then. Between 1962 and under British rule, being annexed on 1 1974, Burma was ruled by a revolutionary January 1886. Throughout the colonial council headed by the general, and era, many Indians arrived as soldiers, almost all aspects of society (business, civil servants, construction workers and media, production) were nationalized traders and, along with the Anglo-Burmese or brought under government control community, dominated commercial and under the Burmese Way to Socialism which civil life in Burma. Rangoon became the combined Soviet-style nationalisation and capital of British Burma and an important central planning with the governmental port between Calcutta and Singapore. implementation of superstitious beliefs. A new constitution of the Socialist Republic Burmese resentment was strong and was of the Union of Burma was adopted in 1974. vented in violent riots that paralysed During this period, Burma became one of Yangon (Rangoon) on occasion all the way the world’s most impoverished countries. until the 1930s. On 1 April 1937, Burma became a separately administered colony There were sporadic protests against of Great Britain . A major battleground, military rule during the Ne Win years Burma was devastated during World War and these were almost always violently II. By March 1942, within months after suppressed. On 7 July 1962, the government they entered the war, Japanese troops broke up demonstrations at Rangoon had advanced on Rangoon and the British University, killing 15 students. administration had collapsed. A Burmese In 1988, unrest over economic Executive Administration headed by Ba mismanagement and political oppression Maw was established by the Japanese in by the government led to widespread pro- August 1942. democracy demonstrations throughout the Following World War II, Aung San negotiated country known as the 8888 Uprising. Security the Panglong Agreement with ethnic leaders forces killed thousands of demonstrators, that guaranteed the independence of and General Saw Maung staged a coup Burma as a unified state. In 1947, Aung d’état and formed the State Law and Order San became Deputy Chairman of the Restoration Council (SLORC). In 1989, SLORC Executive Council of Burma, a transitional declared martial law after widespread government. But in July 1947, political protests. The military government finalised rivals assassinated Aung San and several plans for People’s Assembly elections on cabinet members. On 4 January 1948, the 31 May 1989. SLORC changed the country’s nation became an independent republic, official English name from the “Socialist named the Union of Burma. Unlike most Republic of the Union of Burma” to the other former British colonies and overseas “Union of Myanmar” in 1989. territories, it did not become a member of the Commonwealth.

36 A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria In May 1990, the government held free in Burmese history with reports of an elections for the first time in almost estimated 200,000 people dead or missing, 30 years and the National League for and damage totalled to 10 billion dollars Democracy (NLD), the party of Aung San (USD), and as many as 1 million left Suu Kyi, won 80% of the seats. However, homeless. In the critical days following this the military junta refused to cede power disaster, Burma’s isolationist government and continued to rule the nation as SLORC hindered recovery efforts by delaying the until 1997, and then as the State Peace entry of United Nations planes delivering and Development Council (SPDC) until its medicine, food, and other supplies. dissolution in March 2011. In early August 2009, a conflict known as On 23 June 1997, Burma was admitted into the Kokang incident broke out in Shan the Association of Southeast Asian Nations State in northern Burma. For several (ASEAN). On 27 March 2006, the military weeks, junta troops fought against ethnic junta, moved the national capital from minorities including the Han Chinese, Va, Yangon the new capital Naypyidaw, meaning and Kachin. From 8–12 August, the first “city of the kings”. days of the conflict, as many as 10,000 Burmese civilians fled to Yunnan province in In August 2007, an increase in the price of neighbouring China. diesel and petrol led to a series of anti- government protests that were dealt with Reforms and transition towards harshly by the government. The protests democracy then became a campaign of civil resistance A Burmese constitutional referendum was (also called the Saffron Revolution) led by made in May 2008 and general elections Buddhist monks, hundreds of whom defied were held. Allegations were raised in the house arrest of democracy advocate regard to polling station irregularities, Aung San Suu Kyi to pay their respects at and the United Nations (UN) and a number the gate of her house. of Western countries condemned the The government finally cracked down on elections as fraudulent. The military- them on 26 September 2007. The crackdown backed Union Solidarity and Development was harsh, with reports of barricades at Party later declared victory, stating that the Shwedagon Pagoda and monks killed. it had been favoured by 80 percent of the The military crackdown against unarmed votes; however, the claim was disputed by Saffron Revolution protesters was widely numerous pro-democracy opposition groups condemned as part of the International with an assertion that the military regime reaction to the 2007 Burmese anti- engaged in rampant fraud to achieve such government protests and led to an increase a result. The military junta was dissolved on in economic sanctions against the Burmese 30 March 2011. Government. Since the 2010 election, the government has In May 2008, Cyclone Nargis caused embarked on a series of reforms to direct extensive damage in the densely populated, the country towards liberal democracy, rice-farming delta of the Irrawaddy Division. It was the worst natural disaster

A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria 37 a mixed economy and reconciliation; Burmese in Australia although, the questioning of the motives Following independence from Britain in that underpin such reforms has not ceased. 1948, many Anglo-Burmese left Burma Civil War and Persecution of Minorities: to escape economic hardship due to Civil wars have been a constant feature of unemployment and forced retirement. A Burma’s socio-political landscape since the small number (about 3,500) migrated to attainment of independence in 1948. These Australia between 1947 and 1959. A further wars are predominantly struggles for ethnic 2,500 persons arrived between 1965 and and sub-national autonomy, with the areas 1972. surrounding the ethnically Burman central More recent arrivals were mainly spouses districts of the country serving as the and relatives of the Anglo-Burmese in primary geographical setting of conflict. Australia, as well as students and refugees In October 2012 the number of ongoing who came to Australia via Thailand. Western conflicts in Burma included the Kachin Australia was the preferred state due to Conflict, between the Kachin Independence a pre-existing community of support. At Army and the government; a civil war the 2006 Census, there were 1,797 Burma between the Rohingya Muslims, and the (Myanmar)-born persons in Victoria (14.5% government and non-government groups of Australia’s total), increasing by 50.9% in Arakan State; and a conflict between the from 1,191 persons at the 2001 Census. One- Shan, Lahu and Karen minority groups, and third (32.3%) of the Burma (Myanmar)-born the government in the eastern half of the in Victoria had arrived in Australia prior to country. 1986; and 50.9% had arrived more recently between 2001 and 2006, mainly under the A widely publicised Burmese conflict was Humanitarian Program. the 2012 Rakhine State riots, a series of conflicts that primarily involved the The Burma (Myanmar)-born community ethnic Rakhine Buddhist people and the was distributed throughout metropolitan Rohingya Muslim people in the northern Melbourne, with slight concentrations in Rakhine State—an estimated 90,000 people Greater Dandenong (10.8%); Wyndham were displaced as a result of the riots. The (10.6%); and Hobsons Bay (9.2%). There Burmese government previously identified were 1,690 persons identified with Burmese the Rohingya as a group of illegal migrants; ancestry, including second and later however, the ethnic group has lived in generations. The Burma (Myanmar)-born Burma for numerous centuries. also identified with other ancestries such as English, Karen, Chinese and Indian ancestries.

38 A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria Somalia language: Somali and Arabic are the official defeated with the help of Soviet and Cuban languages of Somalia. The Somali language backing for Ethiopia, which had turned is the mother tongue of the Somali people, Marxist. the nation’s most populous ethnic group. In 1991 President Barre was overthrown by It is a member of the Cushitic branch of opposing clans. But they failed to agree on the Afro-Asiatic language family, and its a replacement and plunged the country into nearest relatives are the Afar and Saho lawlessness and clan warfare. languages. The conflict destroyed Somalia’s crops Religion: Most Somalis are Muslims, the during 1992 and brought widespread majority belonging to the Sunni branch famine. Food flown in by international of Islam and the Shafi’i school of Islamic agencies was looted by the warring jurisprudence, although some are adherents militias. Many of its citizens have also been of the Shia Muslim denomination. Sufism, displaced ever since. Spikes in violence have the mystical dimension of Islam, is caused additional waves of displacement also well-established, with many local over the years. congregations of the various Sufi orders. Christianity is a minority religion in Somalia, By December 1992 the situation was such with no more than 1,000 practitioners that the UN actively intervened, sending a (about 0.01% of the population). force of 35,000 troops in Operation Restore Hope. During the rest of the decade the Political History: Somaliland became British situation got worse rather than better. and Italian colonies in the 1880’s, although it was ruled solely by the British from 1941 From late 1994 the capital, Mogadishu, was to 1950. In 1960, Italian Somaliland and divided between the two most powerful British Somaliland were united to form an of the warring factions. In each a leader independent Somalia. Years of fighting declared himself the president of the between rival warlords and an inability to nation and organized a supposedly national deal with famine and disease have led to government. In March 1995 the remaining the deaths of up to one million people. UN forces were evacuated from the coast under the protection of an international Comprised of a former British protectorate flotilla. and an Italian colony, Somalia was created in 1960 when the two territories merged. Following the outbreak of the civil war, Since then its development has been slow. many of Somalia’s residents left the country Relations with neighbours have been soured in search of asylum. At the end of 2009, by its territorial claims on Somali-inhabited about 678,000 were under the responsibility areas of Ethiopia, Kenya and Djibouti. of the UNHCR, constituting the third largest refugee group after war-afflicted Iraq and In 1970 Mr Mohamed Siad Barre proclaimed Afghanistan, respectively. Due to renewed a socialist state, paving the way for close fighting in the southern half of the country, relations with the USSR. In 1977, with the an estimated 132,000 people left in 2009, help of Soviet arms, Somalia attempted to and another 300,000 were displaced seize the Ogaden region of Ethiopia, but was internally. Former UN Secretary General

A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria 39 Boutros Boutros Ghali and Ahmedou Ould warlords who had ruled the roost for 15 Abdallah, UN special envoy to Somalia have years. With the backing of Ethiopian troops, referred to the killing of civilians in the forces loyal to the interim administration Somalian Civil War as genocide. seized control from the Islamists at the end of 2006. In 2011, the Horn of Africa also experienced its worst drought in 60 years and five Islamist insurgents – including the Al- regions within Somalia were declared Shabab group, which later declared famine zones. This caused hundreds of allegiance to al-Qaeda and in 2012 thousands of Somalis to leave their homes announced its merger with the global in search of food. In February 2012, the UN Islamist terrorist group – fought back announced that the food crisis in southern against the government and Ethiopian Somalia was over due to a scaling up of forces, regaining control of most of relief efforts and a bumper harvest, but southern Somalia by late 2008. warned that general conditions were still Ethiopia pulled its troops out in January fragile. Aid agencies subsequently shifted 2009. Soon after, Al-Shabab fighters took their emphasis to recovery efforts, including control of Baidoa, formerly a key stronghold digging irrigation canals and distributing of the transitional government. Somalia’s plant seeds. Long-term strategies by the parliament met in neighbouring Djibouti in national government in conjunction with late January and swore in 149 new members development agencies are believed to offer from the main opposition movement, the the most sustainable results. Alliance for the Re-Liberation of Somalia. Islamist insurgency: In 2000 clan elders and The parliament also extended the mandate other senior figures appointed Abdulkassim of the transitional federal government for Salat Hassan president at a conference in another two years, and installed moderate Djibouti. A transitional government was Islamist Sheikh Sharif Sheikh Ahmad as the set up, with the aim of reconciling warring new president. However, the government’s militias. military position weakened further, and in May 2009 Islamist insurgents launched an But as its mandate drew to a close, the attack on Mogadishu, prompting President administration had made little progress Ahmad to appeal for help from abroad. in uniting the country. In 2004, after protracted talks in Kenya, the main Al-Shabab consolidated its position as the warlords and politicians signed a deal to set most powerful insurgent group by driving its up a new parliament, which later appointed main rival, Hizbul Islam, out of the southern a president. The fledgling administration, port city of Kismayo in October 2009. They the 14th attempt to establish a government withdrew from Mogadishu in August 2011, since 1991, has faced a formidable task in and lost their last urban in October 2012. bringing reconciliation to a country divided In a sign of growing confidence, Somalia’s into clan fiefdoms. first formal parliament in more than Islamist insurgency In 2006 Islamists gained 20 years was sworn in at Mogadishu control of much of the south, including the airport, marking an end to the eight-year capital, after their militias kicked out the transitional period. Parliament chose

40 A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria Hassan Sheikh Mohamud, an academic and civic activist with little political experience, as president in September 2012. He in turn appointed an economist and businessman, Abdi Farah Shirdon Saaid, prime minister with a brief to stamp out nepotism and clan rivalry. Somalis in Australia The Somalia-born in Australia are a new community, mostly arriving since the onset of civil war in Somalia in 1991. Previously, there were only a small number of Somalia- born students in Australia. The peak period for arrival from Somalia was 1994 to 1998 when about 55% of the current Somalia- born community arrived in Australia, mainly as young adult refugees or through family reunion. At the 2006 Census, there were 2,626 Somalia-born persons in Victoria (60.8% of Australia’s total) increasing by 13.6% from 2,311 persons in 2001. Only 4.6% of the Somalia-born in Victoria had arrived in Australia prior to 1991. The community was mainly concentrated in the local government areas of Moonee Valley (19.1%); Banyule (15.0%); Darebin (12.7%); and Melbourne City (10.9%). There were 3,992 persons who identified with Somali ancestry.

A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria 41 Sudan Ethnic Groups: The Arab presence is population while stopping the Arabic and estimated at 70% of the Sudanese Islamic influence from advancing south. population. Others include the Arabized The result was increased isolation between ethnic groups of Nubians, Copts, and Beja. the already distinct north and south and arguably laid the seeds of conflict in the Language: The most widely spoken years to come. languages in Sudan are Sudanese Arabic, Najdi and Hejazi Arabic and Chadic Arabic. The resulting conflict lasted from 1955 to Nubian language is also spoken in the North. 1972. The 1955 war began when Southern Before 2005, only Arabic was the official army officers mutinied and then formed the language. In the 2005 constitution, Sudan’s Anya-Nya guerilla movement. A few years official languages became Arabic and later the first Sudanese military regime took English. power under Major-General Abboud. Military regimes continued into 1969 when General Religion: 97 percent of the population Gaafar Nimeiry led a successful coup. adheres to Islam. Almost all Muslims are Sunni, although there are significant In 1972, a cessation of the north-south distinctions between followers of different conflict was agreed upon under the terms of Sunni traditions. There are significant the Addis Ababa Agreement, following talks but long-established groups of Coptic which were sponsored by the World Council Orthodox and Greek Orthodox Christians in of Churches. This led to a ten-year hiatus in Khartoum and other northern cities. There the national conflict with the south enjoying are also Ethiopian and Eritrean Orthodox self-government through the formation of communities in Khartoum and eastern the Southern Sudan Autonomous Region. Sudan, largely made up of refugees and In 1983, the civil war was reignited migrants from the past few decades. following President Nimeiry’s decision to In 1955 a civil war began between Northern circumvent the Addis Ababa Agreement. and Southern Sudan. The southerners, Nimeiry attempted to create a federated anticipating independence, feared the new Sudan including states in southern Sudan, nation would be dominated by the north. which violated the Addis Ababa Agreement Historically, the north of Sudan had closer that had granted the south considerable ties with Egypt and was predominantly Arab autonomy. He appointed a committee to or Arabized and Muslim while the south was undertake “a substantial review of the predominantly non-Arabized and animist Addis Ababa Agreement, especially in the or Christian. It had been illegal for people areas of security arrangements, border living north of the 10th parallel to go trade, language, culture and religion”. further south and for people south of the Southern troops rebelled against the 8th parallel to go further north since 1924. northern political offensive, and launched The law was ostensibly enacted to prevent attacks in June 1983. In September 1983, the spread of malaria and other tropical the situation was exacerbated when Nimeiry diseases that had ravaged British troops, imposed new Islamic Shari’a laws on all of and to facilitate spreading Christianity among the predominantly animist

42 A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria Sudan, including the non-Muslim south, Peace Agreement on 9 January 2005, followed by the imposition of martial law in granting Southern Sudan autonomy for May 1984. six years, to be followed by a referendum about independence. It created a co-vice Since 1983, a combination of civil war president position and allowed the north and famine has taken the lives of nearly 2 and south to split oil deposits equally, but million people in Sudan. It is estimated that also left both the north’s and south’s armies as many as 200,000 people had been taken in place. John Garang, the south’s peace into slavery during the Second Sudanese agreement appointed co-vice president, Civil War. died in a helicopter crash on 1 August In 1995, former U.S. President Jimmy Carter 2005, three weeks after being sworn in. This negotiated the longest ceasefire in the resulted in riots, but peace was eventually history of the war to allow humanitarian restored. The United Nations Mission in aid to enter Southern Sudan, which had Sudan (UNMIS) was established under the been inaccessible owing to violence. This UN Security Council Resolution 1590 of ceasefire, which lasted almost six months, 24 March 2005. Its mandate is to support has since been called the “Guinea Worm implementation of the Comprehensive Ceasefire.” Peace Agreement, and to perform functions relating to humanitarian assistance, and The war went on for more than twenty years, protection and promotion of human rights. including the use of Russian-made combat In October 2007 the former southern rebel helicopters and military cargo planes Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM) that were used as bombers to devastating withdrew from government in protest over effect on villages and tribal rebels alike. slow implementation of a landmark 2005 Sudan’s independent history has been peace deal which ended the civil war. dominated by chronic, exceptionally cruel warfare that has starkly divided the The southern region became independent country on ethnic, racial, religious, and on 9 July 2011, with the name of South regional grounds; displaced an estimated Sudan. Despite this result, many crucial four million people (of a total estimated issues are yet unresolved. The threats to population of thirty-two million); and people of South Sudan after referendum killed an estimated two million people. are numerous, with security topping the It damaged Sudan’s economy and led to list. Other threats include disputes over the food shortages, resulting in starvation and region of Abyei, control over oil fields, the malnutrition. The lack of investment during borders, and the issue of citizenship. this time, particularly in the south, meant As of April 2012, Sudan and South Sudan a generation lost access to basic health continue to be in conflict over the oil town services, education and jobs. Heglig and hostility continues to inflate Peace talks between the southern rebels as both nations scramble to bulk up their and the government made substantial military forces. progress in 2003 and early 2004. The peace was consolidated with the official signing by both sides of the Nairobi Comprehensive

A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria 43 War in Darfur figures have remained stagnant since initial UN reports of the conflict hinted at Just as the long north-south civil war genocide in 2003/2004. was reaching a resolution, some clashes occurred in the Muslim western region On 5 May 2006, the Sudanese government of Darfur in the early 1970s between the and Darfur’s largest rebel group, the SLM pastoral tribes. The rebels accused the (Sudanese Liberation Movement), signed central government of neglecting the Darfur the Darfur Peace Agreement, which aimed region economically. Both the government at ending the three-year-long conflict. The and the rebels have been accused of agreement specified the disarmament of atrocities in this war, although most of the Janjaweed and the disbandment of the the blame has fallen on Arabic speaking rebel forces, and aimed at establishing a nomads militias known as the Janjaweed, temporal government in which the rebels which are armed men appointed by the Al could take part. The agreement, which was Saddiq Al Mahdi administration to stop the brokered by the African Union, however, longstanding chaotic disputes between was not signed by all of the rebel groups. Darfur tribes. Only one rebel group, the SLA, led by Minni Arko Minnawi, signed the agreement. Since According to declarations by the U.S. the agreement was signed, however, there government, these militias have been have been reports of widespread violence engaging in genocide, the UN and African throughout the region. Union does not agree with the genocide label; the fighting has displaced hundreds A new rebel group has emerged called of thousands of people, many of them the National Redemption Front, which is seeking refuge in neighbouring Chad. The made up of the four main rebel groups that government claimed victory over the rebels refused to sign the May peace agreement. after capturing a town on the border with Recently, both the Sudanese government Chad in early 1994. However, the fighting and government-sponsored militias have resumed in 2003. launched large offensives against the rebel groups, resulting in more deaths and On 9 September 2004, U.S. Secretary of more displacements. Clashes among the State Colin Powell termed the Darfur rebel groups have also contributed to the conflict a genocide, claiming it as the worst violence. Recent fighting along the Chad humanitarian crisis of the 21st century. border has left hundreds of soldiers and There have been reports that the Janjaweed rebel forces dead and nearly a quarter has been launching raids, bombings, and of a million refugees cut off from aid. In attacks on villages, killing civilians based addition, villages have been bombed and on ethnicity, raping women, stealing land, more civilians have been killed. goods, and herds of livestock. So far, over 2.5 million civilians have been displaced and the death toll is variously estimated from 200,000 to 400,000 killed. These

44 A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria Sudanese in Australia The Sudanese refugees who have arrived in Australia under the Humanitarian Programme to date are victims of the second civil war between the north and the south. Many entrants have been living in refugee camps in surrounding countries such as the Kakuma and Dadaab camps in Kenya and camps around Gambella in Ethiopia and in northern Uganda. A significant number of Australia’s humanitarian intake from Sudan are from the north of the country and have arrived in Australia via Cairo. At the 2006 Census, there were 6,205 Sudan-born persons in Victoria (32.6% of Australia’s total), increasing by 28.7% from 987 persons in 2001. Most (80.4%) of the Sudan-born in Victoria had arrived in Australia between 2001 and 2006. The Sudan-born community had distinct concentrations in the suburbs of Greater Dandenong (26.6%) and Brimbank (19.7%). There were 6,222 persons who identified with Sudanese ancestry. The Sudan-born also identified with other ancestries such as Arabic, Egyptian, English, Eritrean, Ethiopian and Dinka.

A Guide for Teachers Working with Muslim Refugee/Migrant Students in Victoria 45 Telephone 03 9481 3000 Facsimile: 03 9481 3001 Email: [email protected] www.ausmuslimwomenscentre.org.au