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Graduate Studies Legacy Theses
1999 The garden ekphrasis: visual aspects of the ancient novel
Cheney, David Terrance Andrew
Cheney, D. T. (1999). The garden ekphrasis: visual aspects of the ancient novel (Unpublished master's thesis). University of Calgary, Calgary, AB. doi:10.11575/PRISM/17428 http://hdl.handle.net/1880/42256 master thesis
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The Garden Ekphrasis: Visual Aspects of the Ancient Novei
by David Cheney
A THESIS
SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES
M PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS
DEPARTMENT OF GREEK, LATIN AND ANCIENT HISTORY
CALGARY, ALBERTA
SEPTEMBER, 1999
O David Cheney 1999 National Library Bibliotheque nationale l*l of Canada du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliographic Services services bibliographiques 395 Wellington Street 395. rue Wellington Ottawa ON KIA ON4 Ottawa ON KIA ON4 Canada Canada Your lile Votre retdrena,
our l~kr~otte ramma
The author has granted a non- L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive licence allowing the exclusive permenant a la National Library of Canada to Bibliotheque nationale du Canada de reproduce, loan, distribute or sell reproduire, preter, distribuer ou copies of this thesis in microform, vendre des copies de cette these sous paper or electronic formats. la forme de microficheffilm, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format electronique.
The author retains ownership of the L'auteur conserve la propriete du copyright in this thesis. Neither the droit d'auteur qui protege cette these. thesis nor substantial extracts fiom it Ni la these ni des extraits substantiels may be printed or otherwise de celle-ci ne doivent itre imprimes reproduced without the author' s ou autrement reproduits sans son permission. autorisation. ABSTRACT This thesis studies ancient novels written between the first century B.C.E. and the fad century C.E. concentrating on the descriptive passages. and in particular the art- work ekphrasis, descriptions of the main characters. and descriptions of the focus amoenus (pleasant place). I propose that a pattern consisting of these elements generates erotic atmosphere in the novels. The art-work ekphrasis features the abduction motif-a beautiful maiden or young male who is abducted or destroyed by some god or goddess. This symbolically foreshadows events to come. At the core of this motif is the natural setting (focus amoenus) which reveals the inherent beauty and danger found in nature. This pattern is typically found within the fist two books of the novel. In three of them the art-work ekphnsis importantly foreshadows the action and is far from being irrelevant. The thesis also considers those elements of Near Eastern. Greek md Roman cultural traditions which come together in the art-work and locus amoenus descriptions. including rhetoric. pastoral poetry, peristyle gardens, sacro-idyllic wall painting, Eastern exoticism. and Greek mythology. ACKNOVVLEDGE~~ENTS This thesis would not have come to fruition over the last three years when the seed was planted if not for the following people. Fist and foremost, I would like to thank Dr. M. I. Cropp with his scrutinizing eyes and unending help, Dr. R. Schmiel who taught me to really look at poetry, and at the same time, to truly appreciate the language. Dr. B. Baldwin who opened my eyes to the romance novel. Dr. 0.Wesm for introducing me to the Pervigilium Veneris. Dr. W. Heckel who urged me dong the Persian paradeisos path, and Dr. G. Sirnmins for his "outside" help. Also. a special thanks to Bill MacDonneil for inspiring me yet again with his painting. I would also like to thank my wife Sandie for her patience and suppon, and my son Iulian for being himself. This thesis is dedicated to my daughter Eva iUexia for whom language takes a back seat to visualness! TABLE OF CONTENTS Approval Page Abstract Acknowledgements Table of Contents
CHAFER ONE: INTRODUCTION L
CHAPTER TWO: THE EKPWSIS N AiCENT LITERAa AND RHETORIC 4 a) Adefkition 4 b) The history of ekphrasis 5 C) The ekphrasis in ancient criticism 11 i) Poets and philosophers 11 ii) The Second Sophistic movement 17 d) The ekphrasis in modem criticism 33
CHM'TER THREE: VISUAL ARTS IN THE EKPHMSIS a) Rhetoric and visual an b) Landscape painting c) Polyphemus and Galarea: Thcocritus and Boscotrecase
CHAFER FOUR: ASPECTS OF THE ART-WORK EKPHRASIS IN THE ROMANCE NOVEL Chart 1: Category patterns and story line numbers: a) Description and the role of rhe art-works b) Types of an-works c) Physical placement of the art-works d) Placement within the novel's structure e) mythological context
CHAPTER FWE: CHARACTER DESCRIPTIONS, THE LOCUS AMOENUS, AND THE ART-WORK EKPHRASIS IN THE ROMNYCE NOVELS a) Descriptio in Chariton and Xrnophon of Ephesus i) Character descriptions ii) The early at-work ekphnsis b) The locus amoenus in the novel i) The locus amaenus in literature ii) The parts of the locus amoenus iii) Flowery language iv) The loci amoeni of Longus and Tatius Chart 2 -Comparisons of the Garden Ekphrasis in Longus and Tatius The ioctu amornus and the ekphrasis in the novel i) The ekphraseis of Longus ii) The Europa ekphnsis of Achilles Tatius I ) S truc ture and Pardletism 2) Allusion in the Europa ekphnsis 3) Lr Jardin des Ddices of Europa iii) The Philomela and Proknr ekphrasis of Tatius iv) Andromeda in Tatius and Heliodorus- a return to Boscotrecase I) Tatius and Andromeda 2) Tatius and Boscotrecase 3) Heliodorus and Andromeda v) The .4ctaeon ekpbis of Apuleius
CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHY Ancient texts Secondary Literature
APPElWIX : EXTRACTS FROM THE NOVELS a) Chariton b) Xenophon of Ephesus C) Apuleius d) Achilles Tatius e) Longus f) Heliodorus CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
The ancient romance novels. written behveen the first century B.C.E. and fourth century C.E.1 follow a typical plot: boy meets girl, they fall in love, they become separated through a series of adventures and in the end they are reunited.' There is a description of an art-work (an ekphrasis) in four of the five extant novels that exist in the Greek language and one in Latin: Achilles Tatius' Leucippe and Clitophon. Hetiodorus' Acrhiopiciz. Longus' Daphnis and C!zloi.'. Xenophon of Ephesus' Ephesinca and Apuleius' iCletamorphoses. Only the earliest novel of Chariton does not feature an art-work ekphrasis. Frequently the art-work ekphrasis is connected to a locus arnoenrcs or a pleasant spot. The characters of the art-work can be depicted in a locrcs urnoenrs. or the entire an-work is set in a locris nrnoenus. or a description of a lonis izmocncis is found in the narrative shortly after the ekphrasis. The locus nmoenrcs played an important psychologicd rdle as a metaphor for the sexuality of the virgin heroine; who. like the garden. is a visual "paradise" for the eyes of the hero (or any other male) to enjoy and pursue. To reinforce this metaphor. "flowery" descriptions or comparisons of the maiden or the male hero are frequently used as well. An exploration of these romances reveals that the erotic atmosphere was enhanced by interconnecting seductive images of art-works. virgins and gardens reinforced through symbolism and foreshadowing techniques. and often by making allegorical connections to past literary works..' How are these connections. symbols. and the context of the garden used in
Erwin Rohde wrote the first modern work on the novel in 1576 in his book Dergriechische Roman and since his time the datings of the novels have varied. The geneniIy agreed dates as compiled by both Reardon 5 and Eaterling 684 suggest that Chariton wrote in the mid-late 1st century B.C.E. /C.E.?: Xenophon of Ephesus is dated to the mid-2nd century C.E. ?: Apuleius wrote in the 2nd century C.E.; Achilles Tatius in the late-2nd century C.E.; Longus lived in the late-2nd-early 3rd C.E. ?; and Hetiodorus lived in the early-mid-3rd or late 4th century. See Stephens and Winkler for rt complete list 01311 extant novel fragments or Swain 10 I- 102 for a shorter list. See p. 60-62 for a typical plot. Littlewood (1979) 96. The loclis classicrts is the rape of Persephone, who is abducted while picking flowers with her companion Nymphs (HomericHymn ro Demerer 3-13). Bartsch 50; Dubois 7; Hagsmm xx. relation to the ekphrasis? Were they merely rhetoricalfIourish or did they have a greater importance? This thesis will examine the connections through literary, visual and historical components and will reveal a pattem that was established during these formative years of the romance novel.
I m proposing that the romance novelists used a specific pattern which integrates the ekphrasis, the loclrs amoenus and the character-descriptions to heighten the erotic atmosphere. This pattern comprises a series of descriptions of art-works. gardens, virgins and erotic encounters which the romance writer interweaves within the story. The pattern is as fol1ows:j
a) description of a work of art or ekphrasis (ekphras.) b) description of a locus arnoenris (loc.)
c) description of n virgin boy or girl (character)
d) erotic encounter (Eros)
Not dl follow the order of this pattem but most of the novels include several se-ments and often the pattern is contained within a specific book, for example in Xen. Eph. I,
Apul. 2. Ach. Tat. 1. and Longus 1. Chariton. writing before the other novelists. does not employ this pattern but focuses upon descriptions of the maiden Cdlirhoe. which indicates that he was either beginning to develop this style or was too early to be influenced. Heliodorus uses a more elaborate structure for his novel and many of these elements are lacking, which suggests that the pattern did not seem to interest him. and instead he follows Chariton's model focusing more on the character descriptions.
This pattem appears complete by the time of Achilles Tatius and Longus in the second century C.E. and can be seen much later in the epic poem of Nonnos. The Dionysinca (4-5 c. C.E.). By the late Byzantine period, descriptions (ekphraseis) of
See chart I on page 46 for a summary and the Appendix for Greek and Latin extracts t?om the novels which document this pattern. gardens, art-works and characters were central to the romances such as Digenes Akritas
( 10- 14 c. C.E.) and Callimachos and Chrysorrhoi.' ( 14th c. C.E.)and could be found in a variety of other genres such us historiography md hagi~graphy.~The pattern even occurs as late us the nineteenth century in rhe Greek author Nexandros Papadiamantis' short story entided "Love the Harvester: A May Day Id~ll.'~
By understanding the role of the ekphrasis, one can see that it takes on a greater meaning in the novel: it acts symbolically for the young couple, alludes to other myths and literary connections. and foreshadows the events to come. Placed at the opening of the novel or a main book. an ekphrasis instigates the action of the novel. The characters can be easily identified with the artistic representations of the myths and act out their own versions of these myths. Literary life imitates literary art based on mythological stories which are often rooted in nature, and so art imitates life. The novelist "twists" the metaphor of art imitating nature to such an extent that eventually art and nature become metaphors for each other. The ekphrasis relies on anistic creation. imitation and inteption into the novel to work effectively. and "a believable reality" is the desired effect.
ODB683. The Greek title is Oipos-*Epos. The author seems to have modeIed his story on both Chariton and Xenophon of Ephesus. A. Papadiarnantis, Talesfront a Greek Island Trans. Elizabeth Constantinides. 1987. CHAPTER TWO: TmEKPHRASIS IN ANCIENT LITERATURE AND RHETORIC a) A definition
An ekphrasis (i~qpaa~(or descriptio) is "an extended and detailed literary description of any object, real or imaginary."[ Dionysius of Halicarnassos. writing on rhetorical practices in the late first century B.C.E.,fit described the origin of the ckphrasis as follows, 'This error (the things called ekphnseis) streamed into the (rhetors') practices as an emulation of history and poetry.'" The ekphraseis of the poets and historians, notably Homer, Thucydidrs and Herodotus, were a useful device for descriptive passages that could appeal to the sense of sight.' The Second Sophrstic movement of the second century C.E.was so intluenced by this rhetorical tom that seven1 writers defined ekphrasis in their progynrnasrnata or school exercises as "an expository speech which vividly (ivapyG5) brings the subject before our eyes." The sophists suggest that vividness or tvapye~ais one of the main characteristics that defines the ekphrasis.5 According to Dionysius. Lysias had "great vividness" in his
OCD515. Ars Rhrr. 10.17 : eia~ppuq6i TOGTO TO apapqpa (sc. ai uaho6p~va1i~cppao~~s) iv TaTs ~EAET~L~KUT~COAov fls ia~opias~ai ~6v norq~la~ov. Also mentioned in De lrnirarione fr. 6.3.2 (OCD 5 IS). OCD 5 15; LS 526: Dubois 4: Bartsch 3. Lnker 301 strongly suggests that the ,4rs Rherorica was "falsely" attributed to Dionysius and written in the first century C.E. Zanker 30 I. ' Thcon was first attributed with this phmc in his Progymnasrnnru 118: i~cppaaisEUTI Aoyos -rr~p~r\yqpa~~~os~V~DV~C h'6yrv &ywv TO 6r~Aoup~vov;Hcrmogenes. Progymnasmara 10: Ercppaoi5 im Aoyor n~ptq~panro~.wt paotrjvag~n "visual" ekphnsis; the writer must be able to make the reader see "vividly" the image. According to Quintilian, the ability to render an image relies on the sophist's ability to create a believable "vision" or ~av~acriaand if successful, dvapyala will be achieved! These are the parameters needed to create an rkphrasis: a believable vision or gav~aoia creates vividness or ivapy~lamd results in the written rkphmsis. b) The history of ekphrasis The ckphrasis has n long history dating back to Homer. In the Iliad (18.477- 608) Homer describes a mythological scene on the shield of Achilles which is filled with battles between heroic cities. festive and pastoral images and an entire universe that includes the earth and the heavens. Shaffer. writing on Philostratus' ekphraseis. points out that "Homer's account marks the beginning of a long poetic tradition founded on the imitative nature of art and the assumed likeness of poetry and painting -two aesthetic ideas grounded in a commitment to mimetic iilusioni~rn."~Homer realized that art could mimic nature. and by describing an art-work in a verbal medium he could tie the two mediums together: each medium reinforcing the visualness of the desired image. The pseudo-Hesiodic Slzidd of Hrrclkles describes another shield with mytholo_gicalimages.1° Vergil also used an rkphnsis technique to describe the shield of Dion. Hal. Lysius 7: IXEI6i ~ai Ti(v Ivapy~~av~loAhfiv 4 Auaiou hi51j. Zanker 305 points out that the verb ~wqpac~tvwas used in Ps..-Demetrius Eloc. 165. normally dated 1st B.C.EJIst C.E. (though uncertain), but was not used of "pictoral description" until Dionysius and the sophists. Quintilian. Inst. Or. 6.2.29: Quas gav~auia5Crarci vocanr (nos sane visiones uppellemus), per quar imagines rentnl absertrium ita repraesenrarrtrrr animo rrt eas cemere oculis ac praesenm habere videnrnur, has quiqtris bene crperir is rrit in adfecribus potentissimus. "...which the Greeks c311 phansasias (we call ours visions reasonably), by which such images of things might represent sn absence to the sou1 so that we appear to perceive them with our eyes and are present aous>. anyone might understand them well and that person will be affected by hegreatest power." Shaffer 304. Her choice of poeuy and painting anticipates Simonides' adage-perhaps it should read poeuy and "visual rm" when dealing with Homer'? See further, p. I I. lo 140-3 18. The thematic and content similarities suggest that Hesiod's poem tblIows the Homeric Aeneas, but instead of mythological scenes he included images of Roman history from its beginnings right up to the time of Augustus (Ameid 8.626-73 1). Whereas Homer and Hesiod used mythological images to tell their stories, Veqil used myth to make a political point and connect the lineage of Augustus with the founders of Rome.'[ Thus the epic shield can be an allegory for the entire cosmos of its time." Each epic poet states that his hero's shield causes some sort of 8afi~aor **wonder":Homer says that the "Myrmidons began to tremble at the sound. and dared not look straight at the amour... handiwork of immortals. plainly-far beyond the craft of men";l3 the shield of Heraklrs even impressed Zzus:l4 and Aeneas natunlly *mwondered"(mirantr ) at the gift from his mothrr.15 Hrsiod and Vrrgil used ring composition in constructing their ekphnseis, demarking the opening and closing of the rkphrasis with the phrase "a wonder to be sern."l6 The "shield ekphnsis" served a dual role: it reinforced the violence of wari7 but at the same time depicted the "wonden" of craftsmanship and the arts.18 This "wonder" implies that the shields were beyond model. "After Homer." states Heffrrnan 13. all skphmcis becomes doubly pmgond: a contest staged not just between ;he word and the image but also between one poet and another." This competitive aspect is a main concern of Philostntus the Younger who attested to this in his pmem to Irnogines. It can also seen in Theocritus idyll 7 where Homeric style is slandered and the city poet competes with the mnl poet. See the section on "Visual ms in the ekphnsis". p. 3ff. Scc Dubois. Heffernan and Putnam tbr studies on the ckphmsis in Homer and Vergil. l2 Hngstrum 2 1 uses the adage "multum in parvo" to prove her point. Tiplin I? likens the images on the Homeric shield to a detail of a painting or rl landscape within a landscape. cf. Heffernan 195. l3 lliud 19.16-23. Fitzgeraid's tnnslation. SltirlJ ofHerakles 3 18: 0a0pa i6~:v rai Zqvi papv~Tlirrc;l"wondrous to behold even to loud-thundering Zeus." i5 Aeneid 7.6 19, 730. l6 Hrsiod: 8aG~ai6io8ai (140) and a slight modification 0aOpa ib~iv(3 18) and Vergil: rnirar~ir (7. 619 & 730). I7 Heffernan 12 notes that Henkles' shield is designed ro be terrifying but T~plin15 suggests that the war images on Achilles' shield lead to the peaceful paston1 images (cf. Heffernan 1 I). IY The craftsman aspect was first noticed by Lessing in the eighteenth century. "Homer does not paint the shieid 3s finished and complete. but as a shield that is being made ... We do not see the shield but the divine master as he is making it" (cf. Heffernan 12). However. Hngstrum 21 suggests that Homer was emphasizing "human" craftsmanship rather than the "divine*' work of "shadowy Hephaestus as this was a motif that Homer especially liked to celebrate in the human condi tion. Heffeman 1 1 points out that Homer's shield was not immortal just like Achilles but it becomes a symbol of protection-both of the "s hoct-lived hem" and the Mycenaean cosmos. Dubois 92 points out that the associations between the maker of the art. the owner and the art mortal ability and rightly so, since Hephaestus the pdof crafts made all three shields. Each poet employed Hephaestus as a metaphor for "divine" qullliv in metalwork; to inspire 0a3pa meant that art done by a god, presumably could transcend what was human. Here is a clue to the epic ekphrasis-the hyperbolic "wonder to be seen" stresses the "impossible." The poet knows that the image is fiction but that his fiction needs to be visual (vivid and real) to work relying on the fundamentai belief that man is a visual person. Pseudo-Longinus stressed that when an image produces astonishment or E~rrhq{~y(ekple-ris or "being struck out of oneself') the writer has achieved 6vapy~la.19 Hardie states that rkple-xis creates this effect especially when the viewer looks upon an an-work, as when Aenras gazed upon the Trojan scenes at Canhage (durn strrnet ohrrctriqrre haeret cfefixtisin rlno:).JOAtmeas' gaze which "cannot be satisfied"?l and his tears only give wgwhen the pulcltrrrima jonnn of Dido enten the scene." The novelists follow the same motif. Desire (~o~os).~heled by what the viewer sees. is the impetus for the romance and so placing the ekphrasis at the opening of either the novel or a book serves as a vehicle to initiate the events of the romance story. A seductive image. whether an art work or a person. causes "wonderment" (0airua) when seen as in the following cases: "upon seeing the painting, beingjitll of wonder, desire held me to write a story in response to this painting"2-l: Callirhd is 'L most rvondro~tsthing of a maiden"" and "they were nrnu:ed at her face.26; the beauty work gradually disappears in time from the Greek epic period to the Renaissance. Pseudo-Longinus, De Strblinritate 15.2, cf. Zanker 3034; Hagstrum 12. Hardie 12 1. Aeneid 1.4945: "while he was amazed and gazed with wonder, he remained there. transfixed on one image..." Laird 78. Heffernm 28. See Zeitlin's article "Gardens of Desires." Longus Proem 1.3: i80vra VE rai 8avuhoavra noeos io~~vhvmypayal a ypag Q... Char. 1.1. I: Bauuam6v n xpfipa rrapeivou. ibid.. 2.2.3: auqs BaurraCouaa~ TO xpoawnov. of Anthia was so rvondro~s"~~;&aphis> was amazed at ChlM's haii'za: and the triple passages on Charikleia, first when the bandits see her, "they are amazed and struck out of their wits,"zg then the people of Memphis see her and, "they are full of am~z~ernent'~~;and after seeing her beauty, the people "were enraptiired by this miracle of theatrical art."" Eyes (098aboi), by which the desired image is passed dong,32 are the commonest word in character descriptions and the favorite medium for Eros to instigate love between a couple.33After the image has passed through the eyes of the spectator and caused wonderment. the author adds a detailed description. Wonder or €lairpa and astonishment or Elrrhq@r are desired results after reading an ekphrasis or seeing a real art-work. Ekphrasis is evident in other genres as well. The Hellenistic poet Moschus u7. 150 B.C.E.) holds the key to the pattern that I am ~uggesting.3~in his epyllion E~lropn. he includes a formal description of Europa's flower basket. originally made by Hephaestus (~lyavrrovov 'Hcpa iu~olo: 38). The basket establishes Europa's lineage 35 and makes an allusion to Homer's shield with the short phrase piya O~~pa(38). Like Hesiod and Vergil. Nfoschus also used ring composition to denote the boundaries of the ekphrasis with the phrase "golden basket" (xplju~ovrahapov : 37, xpuo~iou~ahhpoto : Xsn. Eph. 1.2.5: 'Hv 6~ TO ~ahho5-rfjr 'Av0ia5 oiov ~cxutraua~. Lungus 1.17: rilv ~opqvair-rfis iwcru~v Heliod, 1.2.5: uxo 8a6ucrcrro< apa ~ai~KTT~~EE~ lbicl., 7.7.4: ETI TGV i~qc, TTOAEOT O~UL~~~OVTWV [bid.. 7.7.7: uKqvoypap~~~i.rrhqpoG'ro Bauua~ou~yiac.Trans. Morgan. Clitophon expounds the Platonic view (Ach. Tat, I. 15.1). See below p. 12Cf. Calame 20. On Chaereas (Char. 4.1.10). on Anthia (Xen. Eph. 1.2.6). on Europa (Ach. Tat. t -2.7). on Andromeda (Heliod. 3.7.3-6)- the eye in the peacock (Ach. Tat. 1.16.31, Leucippe's song (Ach. Tat. 2.1.2). on Leucippe (Ach. Tat. 1.19.1). tears of Leucippe (Ach. Tat. 6.7.1 ) on Chloii (Longus 1.17). on Daphnis (Longus 4-17), painting of Eros (Longus Proem 1.1-2). on the young Charikleia (HeIiod, 2.33.3). on Charildeia (Heliod. 3.4.6; 4. I .2; 7.7.7). on Ileagenes (KeIiod. 2.35.1; 3.3.7). on Rhodopis (Heliod. 2.25.1). See further. p. 97-98. Europa 3942: 6v AI~~Jnop~Gfipov OT' i5 Aixo~'Evvoaiyaiou // fi~v.q 6k trop~v n~p~~ahhitTqh~cpaixoq, // fin oi a'ipa'ror Eau~v-avGpcpct, 6' EGpwn~ig// pimp Tqh~cpaaooaTr~pr~Aurov cjnaa~ 6c3pov. "(Hephaestus) who gave the gift to Libya when she was the bed-mate of the EM-Shaker (Poseidon) and she gave it to dl kautifui Telephassa. who was related to him. Renowned mother Telephasa ,oranted the gift to unwed Europa," 6 1) .36 This reference serves a dual role. Beside the "wondrous" and 'divine" aspect of the object, Hephaestus sets another image-the abducted woman. Hephaes~sgave this flower basket to Telephasos. wife of Poseidon (39). a god dso notorious for abducting women. and she in turn passed the gift to the "unmarried" Europa (4041) who will be abducted by Zeus. The basket portrays dual images of the abduction of 10- first Io the cow crossing the Bosphoros (44-49) and then Zeus impregnating her with his touch (50-52) which also foreshadows the description of Zeus the bull (81-58).The flower basket is even composed with similar metals (notably silver, gold and enamel)" to the HesiodicJkd Homeric sluelds'g (53-54).It foilows the typicd "pattern" of the epic ckphrasis. even though it is not a "war" image: it is a "divinely" precious object and the basket's "vivid" description makes the object appear real in the reader's eyes. Other well-known descriptions of objrrs d'cm include Jason's cloak in Apollonius Rhodius' Arg. 1.730-67 (3rd c. B.C.E.).a rustic cup in Theocritus' Id. 1.27-56 (c 300-c. 260 B.C.E.), a tapestry in Catullus' C~znnm6J40 (87-57 B.C.E.)which depicts the abandoned A-iadnr. and the weaving competition between Arachne and lMinerva in Ovid's ~bler.6.70-115 (43 B.C.E.- 17 C.E.).However it seems that descriptions of j6 btoschus also uses ring composiiion linking Europa's mother (mpl~ahhflTrlhegaaaq : 40) with Europa (rr~pi~ahhiosEirpw.rr~iq5 : 62) 37 Each material depicts a specific image in [he Ephaphos scene: a silver NiIe river (53). a bronze calf (54) and a golden Zeus (54).Moschus even plays with the word positions: silver opens the tint phrase. bronze ends the second but gold is positioned alongside bronze to open the third phrase in a tricolon crescendo (silver.... // ...g oId, bronze...). ln the Bosphoros image. everythins is gold (44) except for the sen. which is done in n deep blue enamel (wavou 6' (TE~TO Bahaaaa : 47). LS (2nd. cd.) IOOJ suggests either deep blue enamel or lapis lazuli (Theophmtus. De Lzpidibrts. 39 et al.). Irwin. Color Ternis 79 claims that Homer used the word as "dark" with no color value intended but Simonides was the first to describe the sea as "~uav~ouic ii6a~os " (fr. 567.3-5 PMG; Irwin 103). See her chapter on "~icavos'* for more discussion on this color which unfortunately centers only around Epic and Lyric poetry. 38 The entire shield is constructed with white enamel and white ivory and embossed with electrum and gold, and layered with mas of enamei or uuavou ( I4 1- 143). l9 The opening of the ekphrasis only mentions the rim of silver (18.479) but when scenes are described, the various metals are used ro suggest color, Take for example the vineyard. wrought in gold but the gapes were black (18.562). their poles were silver (18.563). a water trench of enamel (waviqv K~TIETOV : 18.564) and a fence made of tin ( 18.565). Apart from Vergil's shield ekphnsis, this is the second most celebrated Latin art-work rkphmis. paintings do not occur before the second century C.E. except in philosophical references. Lucretius (94-55 B.C.E.)appears to mention a painting of Venus and Mars in De rentrn natura 1.3340, and of course Vegil(70-19 B.C.E.)describes Aeneas looking at paintings in Carthage in the Ameid 1.494-5. The late poems41 entitled Anacreontea include several descriptions of paintings: Europa (54) and Aphrodite (57) plus two loci omoeni ( l8 and 4 l ) and also the traditional engraved objets d'art (4 and 5). Obszrvations and theories on wall paintings were well established by the second century C.E. as attested by Pliny 1V.H. 35. Quintilim Inst. Orar. iland Vitruvius de .Arch. 7.5.;' The prevalence of these paintings by the first century C.E. was a wide- spread feature. as we can see at Pompei, adthe novelists retlect that development. With the exception of Chariton. who wrote in the first century B.C.E. and did not include an art-work ekphrasis. and his Roman counter-part Apulrius who describes n sculpture setting, the rest of the novelists use either two-dimensional painted or woven images in their stories. Keuls suggests that the similarity between painting and literature lies in the metaphorical abilities of both mediums4i and that no other medium except painting developed such n close tie with literature.* Each genre. rpic and romimcr. used appropriate an-works for their ekphraseis: the rpic "shield" or war instrument and the painted "erotic" scene. Xrnophon of Ephesus make a thematic connection with the epic ekphis by means of the "Ares and Aphrodite" or War and Love motif which is as old as Homer where the bard Demodocus tells the story of the two gods caught in bed by Hephaestus (Od. 8.2SSff.): this is depicted briefly in Xenophon's description of a bridal tapestrya45As in the other novels. the violence of The poems themselves vary in date from the 2nd to 6th centuries C.E. according to Campbell LO- 18. He discusses in detail the wide variety of modern hypotheses regarding their dates, however, their debatable dating suggests chat they did not preclude the period of the Second Sophistic and the novelists around or after the second century C.E. -K! Pliny (23Z.1-79 C.E.), Quintilinn (c. 30-5 - c 100 C.E.) and Vitruvius (1st. cent. C.E.). 43 Ksuls (1978) 36. 16id61. 4S Xen. Eph. 1.8.4: iv 6i T@ Mpq*Apqs fiv oljX Cj~lA~u~~vo~.aM' ws rrpor ipopivqv the god of war has turned to Eros and yet his violence is stdl found in the dramatic action of the novel. C) The ekphrasis in ancient criticism i) Poets and Philosophers To understand how painting became an integral part of the ekphnsis. we must tum to the ancient critics. Simonides (556468 B.C.E.)is supposed to have made the fust connection between visual and poetic lvts in the fifth century B.C.E.with his statement: "Painting is silent poetry. poetry a speaking picture."& Simonides "opened" the idea that imitation links art and reality and that painting embodies this relationship more than any other visual medium." Plato (c. 429-347 B.C.E.) said that the painter could imitate life but 'Then imitative art is a long way from truth, and. as it seems, that is why it reproduces everything, because it touches only a little part of each and this is an image.'q8 This image or ~i8ohov. according to u. means an unsubstantial form such as a phantom image or an image reflected in a mirror. Hence a painted ~iGohov does not imply reality but an imitation of reality. ~Ciimesis.according to Plato. could never fully imitate life49 and he places the painter below both god the producer of life and the craftsman. who is the reproducer of life. His example is a bed: God makes the wood. the crafrsman make the bed and the painter "imitates" the bed as a painting and Tilv 'Aqp06irnv KEKOB~~~BVOJ. Ia~~qav~pEvo(.~AaviBa EXOV- "EPw( alj~ov (jgfiy~l. Aapnaga ixuv ivptvqv. "...on [he ocher was Arcs. not in armour. but dressed in a cloak and wearing a garland. adorned for his lover hphrodite. Eros was leading the way. with a lighted torch." Trans. Anderson * cf. Plutxch, Qriornodo Adulescens 18a: ~v pkv However. Plato stated that beauty was related to vision,s' which seems to have greatly affected the Second Sophistic movement, and he hailed vision as "the sharpest, clearest and the loveliest of the senses",53 which was the first of the senses to be created? The soul was considered beautihl by Plato and its beauty could emanate from the body55 and become mirrored by the eye? This resulted in light becoming a "Are you saying that he is second removed from nature?" Plato then suggests that the tragic writer is just like the painter. who also is twice removed from the creator (here paa~hiu~): crrih(3ov kvaovima~a.and Syzposiurn, 219a. "Concerning beauty, as we say. it shone among those 8anpov i~riea~~pov) but beauty joins the soul of the receiver in some son of erotic union (pictv). This is tl fundamental concept for the ekphrasis-the vividness of the "beautiful" object. whether it is a maiden. art-work or a locus czrnoencis. creates an erotic union in the receiver's mind which causes desire to grow so strongly that a "true" erotic encounter is needed to hltill it.6i it is gross folly not to regard as one and the same the beauty belonging to all; and so, havinz grasped this truth. he must make himself a lover of a11 br~utifulbodies. and slacken the stress of his feeling for one by contempting it and counting it a tri tle. But his next advance wiII be to set a higher value on [he beauty of souls than on that of the body, so that however little the :race that may bloom in any likely soul." Trans. W.R.M. Lamb. j6 Plat0 Timarus 46c: 4 uupTnjyvv~at965, TOGTO 6i. OT~Vfi T~VK~TO~POV h~loqs. EV~EVrai fvesv Gynl AapoGoa. TO 5~510~TO ap~u~epovpip05 avwq fl5 6y~oy ~ai~~TEPOV hi ~~TEPOV. "whenever the tire changes sides on coalescing with the object wherewith it coalesces; and this occurs whenever the smooth surface of the mirrors, being elevated on this side and on that. repels the right portion of the visual stream to the left and the left to the right." Trans. R.G. Bury. j7 Keuls (1978) 33-34. j8 Cicero De oratore iii. 16 1. cf. Hagstrum 13. j9 Ach. Tat. 1.9.4. 6o Ach. Tat. 1.9.4: o@ahpoi yap ahhjhots av~uvu~~cbp~vo~ano~amua~v cjs iv ~a~ompwT~V UW~~TWV ra ~i8wha.fi 6h roi6 ~ahhovrarroppoq, 61' akdv Tilv qnqlv ~a~appiouua,EXEL TIV~pi@v &V UTTO~T~UEI.Tatius uses the same verb stem. to draw or pour or "p\jw"(alroppoi) when describing the movement of an image as does Dion. Hal. Ars Poet. 10.17 (~iorpp\jrl). 6L Desire was described zi "shafts of arrows sent from Xphrodite's son Eros" and is found in depictions of Zeus' desires for lo in Arschy lus' Prom. Vinc. 649-50 (Zds yap ipipou Bih~t // rpos a03 TiOahmat rai mvaip~u8a1K~TCPIV // 86h~i.)and in the same manner in Moschus* Europa 74-75 (ho6pq8Ei~@EAIEUU~ // K~R~IBo~,fi poljvq BWUT~I ~aiZhva Ga~auoar).See Jack Winkler's chapter ''The education of Chloe: Hidden Injuries of Sex." on this subject. The sophist Dionysius of Halicarnassos argues that the great orator Lysias could turn a listener into an eyewitness (6pav) who "will inevitably see the events... and... feel in the presence of the characters he introd~ces."~~Just as Plato argues in Politicus that vivid colours are needed to define the portrait in a painting, so too does an argument need tvapyetaP3 Clarity and vividness need light which is the key element needed to see an image but also when recording an image. Pliny described painting or skitrgruplriu as lnmen err ttnibrrrr 65 or "light and shadows" that heightened a painting's strength by modulating differences of colour values and intensities to create the illusion of an image. This effect of Light internally and externally creates a desired image and sets the tone and the mood of the work. The use of light is prevalent in the romance ekphraseis. especially Tatius and Heliodorus, although actual painting techniques are never described. By modulating light and darkness the painter can convey "true" imitation of nature. and truth is created by vividness and clarity. 62 Dion. Hal. bsias 7 ct'. Zankrr 297: o 61j rpoafxwv *v 6iavoiav TOTS Auaiou Aoyol~ ou~OUTW~ Emai oral05 ij tivoap~moyfi ppa&irs TOV voGv. 05 ovx irrrohfiye~al ylyop~vara Gqhowp~vaopfiv ... 63 ~~ato.Poliricrts 277~:o Aoyo~ipiv Cjarr~pcaov rilv Egwe~vpiv TrEplypaqI jv ~O~KEV i~avGs~XEIV. ~V 6k oiov roT5 gappa~olq~ai fl uwyupaa~t~6v xpw~arwv ivaav~~avO~K ax~ihqcp~va~ TTW. ypa~ij~ 6i ~ai av~nauqs x~lpoupyia5 hi€,€[ ~ai hoyq 6qh0Gv rev <@ov p6Ahov rrp~rrrtTOTS GuvapCvoi~Zr~uea~. ~ois 6' iihhol5 61a ~~tpovpyt&v."but our talk, just like J picture of a living creature. seems to have a good enough outline. but not yet to have received the clearness that comes from pigments and the blending of colors. And yet it is more titting to portray any living being by speech and argument than by painting or any handicraft whatsoever to persons who are able to follow argument: but to others it is better to do it by means of works of craftsmanship."Although Aristotle associated vision with the more abstract term "vividness" or ~vapy~~a.he saw the image as having bipy~laor "the activity" which occurred before one's eyes. This is a more concrete concept whereby the mend image produces a "semblance of vitality and actuality" (Aristotle. Rher. 14 I 1b- 14 12a. cf. Princeton Encycf. 332; Hagstrum 12: Zrznker 308,). 6j Skis-mphia is also considered an early form of chiaroscuro established in the Renaissance period. Keuls ( 1978) 73-75 lists a variety of authors who also mention skiagraphia: Philostrati V.A. 1,2 (Sr 2.23, Imag. 1.3 15; Pollox 7.127; Dio Cassius 52.7.4 and Plut, hlor. 109 1d. 65 Pliny 1V.H. 35.29: tandem se ars ipsa distinrir er invenir lumen arque umbras. "Finally, he art distinguishes itself and discovered light and darkness." The Greek word fi auia or "shadow- darkness" is opposite of cpaos or "light." Unlike Plato. Aristode did not "condemn" painting but instead suggested that its mimesis of nature and an was a "good" thing.66 In The Poetics , Aristotle outlines the ethical values of good (ihp~-ni) and bad (rh radv) found in poetry and tragedy67 by employing painting as a paradigm. and he defines mimesis through their differences: "Polygnotus depicted men as nobler than they are, Pauson as less noble, Dionysius drew them true to life."68 A good portrait-painter could. "....while reproducing the distinctive form of the original. make a likeness which is true to life and yet more beautiful."6? According to Xristotle. "man is the most imitative of living creatures and he lems his tirst things from imitation (mirne~is)''~~but the manner7' or T~OTTOSof the anist reveals the difference between pure imitation and "great" art. Mimesis causes pleasure but art must "surpass" a good likeness to be effective.'" imitates nature but the "mist" must also "improve" on it. Horace. in his hmous maxim. rrt picrrcrn poesis or "just as painting, so poetry." suggests that the literary and visual arts were "aesthetically malog~us"~~although each medium used different ways to create "visualness" for the reader-viewer. Horace. Like Arisrotle. Porr. 1454 b 9: 8A y~p~iaea~TOUS aya8oics ~i~ovoypa~ou~."It is necessary to imitate the good image-painters." tlristotlr The Poerics IJJSa: ~auiayap ~aiap~q ~a fie0 G[aqipouar navn~. " Plato. kstotle and Horace 1111 made similar comparisons on the two arts but reached different conclusions. Hagstn~rnpoints out the differences between the three writers: "Imitation for Plato. in its highest sense, meant the imitation of the ideal form that exists externally in the supersensory world. For Aristotle imitation meant doing in another realm what nature does in hers ... But for Horace imitation meant usually either imitation of other authors, in the tlctu;ll conditions and customs of life, or imitation of - - the object as it exists in nature." ' Plato saw the artist as an imitator twice-removed from nature and also a deceiver. which Plnto despised. Likewise, just as the art-work was a form of deceit. so too was the ekphnsis.'s hstotle saw the important relationship between art and nature where the artist was an imitator who must properly Hor. Ars Poet. 1: painter or picror Hr also compares the poet to a craftsman Ifaber) in Line 32. " Laird 94. In regards to Horace, Laird 92 notes the difference in descriptio as "writing" or "drawing" while rkphrozeitl means "10 tell over" or "recount." '"bid., 29-3 1: qui variare crrpit renz pmcligicrlirer unarn //delphinum silvis appingit, fictibus apnrrn // in vitium ciucir crrlpae firgn. st c~rrerone. "He who desires to vary one thing monstrously, paints a dolphin in the trccs. a boar on the waves, tleeing this fault leads to imperfection, if one is lackiny of art." .A common device in literature, beginning with ArchiIochos'fiag. 793, Ovid frequently uses it, and Nonnos describes a world upsidedown when the sailor sees Europa on the bull, Dim. I. 104-1 14. Cunius 94-98 devotes part of a chapter on "the World Upsidedown" which includes Verg il Ecl. 8.33 Ff. Lucian's Menippus, Carminu Burana, Dante, and Breughel's painting Dutch Proverbs. TI Hagstrum 9-10. '" '" 95. imitate the "orders" of nature, while Horace opened the boundaries of imitation to include painting and literature as well as nature. For both Horace and Aristotle, imitation must be true to what is being imitated-the impossible was "not permitted." Although their discussions focused on poetry, painting provided an analogous medium by which they could expand their discussions; painting was not their prime concern. Yet both Plato and Gstotle were apparently limited in their views on painting. Ke~1.s'~argues that Plato played with the "painter's" vocabulary to argue metaphorically his philosophical points and did not tnxly understand the technical points of painting. Hagstrum suggests that "Aristotle NmS to painting merely for an illustrative padel. He has not equated any single element of painting with any single element of poetry, nor has he vitiated the imponant distinction made in his classification of the arts."s0 Yet these philosophical works established the connection between the visud and literary arts whch would be expanded upon by the major movement that occurred in the phlosophical "rebirth" of Athens. ii) The Second Sophistic Movement Literature and the visud arts can create visual images by associative "language*' and nowhere is this more evident than during the Second Sophistic movement in the second century C.E. with such authors as Theon. Hennogenes, Lucian. Aelian. the Philostrati" and especially the novelists. The exercise books or progymnasmata of the Second Sophistic movement were originally precepts for eulogy speeches" and 79 ~euls(1978) 364 1 $62. Yo Hagstrum 7. 8i There were three literary Philostrati: Flavius Philostratus son of Verus was born about 170 C.E. and author of the Life of i\pollonirts of Wrra and the Lives of the Sophisrs. He was educated in Athens and became part of the philosophical circle which included Aelim and was patronized by Septimius Severus. He was known as "P. the Athenian." His son-in-law. Philostratus son of Nervianus (also known as the "Lemnian") was born about 190 C.E and was the author of lmagines (E~KovE~).His grandson, Philostnrus the Younger was born around 300 C.E. and also authored a book on art entitled Imagities. These latter two authors wilI be the focus of this discussion when mentioned- 82 Curtius 69. included descriptions of people (rpouona), actions (npaypa-ru), places (~onot)and periods of time (Xp~~~~).Y3Literary descriptions of paintings and sculptures were not formally described as "ekphnseis" in aprogymnasma until Nicolaus used the term in the fifth century C.E.84 Why were they excluded from the progymnasmata? Could art- works fir into these categories'? For the Second Sophistic movement, the term "ekphrasis" was a broad title that encompassed four specific categories; art-works could easily fall under my of these categories depending on the subject matter. For example, a garden or imdscape would fall under ~6aoland likewise a painting of a garden or landscape would also Fdl under ~oaol.So the category for painting crosses all che aoeneral categories as defined by the Sophists but nonetheless was central to the ekphrasis. The best examples of rhetorical art-work rkphraseis are found in the works of the Phlostrati and C;lllis~;ltus.~Swho set out to describe a variety of art-works which probably did not exist" so as to create "vivid" images for the reader. Each chapter of the Philostrati details a separate painting. thematically centered around the progymncrsnrutcz categories. Yet certain specifics such as coloun and techniques are notably absent and instead the focus is on the moods and aims of the paintings. The Second Sophists were not trying to describe a painting "literally" as seen but rather how to interpret the painting. To do this they needed a guide.37 a central character who Y3 Theon frog. 1 19. Bartsch 10 notes that Hennogenes adds crises (~atpoil;Aphthonius adds animals and plants (rjrhoya ci3a ~airrpor TOWTOISqu~a) and Nicolaus adds festivals (navqyrjp~~~).See her ti. 32. p. 3 1-2 for s detailed examination. 8J Philostra~usthe Younger refers to "a certain painted ekphnsis of works" or iono\i6amai TI^ YPQ(PIK~~Sgpyw EK~PQUI~("A certain description of works on the tield of paintin,"Was written with much zeal...") in his Proem 2 of imagines,written in the third century. The second edition OCD 320 notes that there was a tendency to limit the term to descriptions of art-work in the fifth century but "only in modem time does it bear that exclusive meaning." The third edition OCD 5 15 drops this claim. '95 Little is know about Cal1istr;ltus but his references to both PhiIostrati reveaI that he lived after 300 C.E. (Fairbanks 369). His major work is called 'E~cppaa~tq. 86 See further, p. 38tT. s7 Bartsch 167; Dubel 256-8; Laird 101. "guides" the reader around by describing and explaining the various "sights" because the reader may be b4con&sed"about its meaning. When the guide explains the meaning of the paintings, which typically have an ambiguous state,s8it is not so much as an criticism but as art interpretation for the reader. In his book Imagines,Philostratus the Lernnian acts as a guide to u gallery of paintings and teaches a young man what to look for in Petronius' hero, after looking at the art-works in a gallery. meets an elderly poet who axplains the art-worksgoand gives a reason why art is no longer valued.9' In the novels (Ach. T~at.1.3.1 and Longus Proem 2), the authors themselves act as guides for the art-work tkphrasis although Longus consults u local guide for a "simple" explanation. In Heiiocl. 4.5.3.Calasiris the former high priest of Isis explains the meaning of the painted letters on the belt to Charikleia. Only once in Ach. Tar. 5.4 is there a debate between rht characters over the meaning of the Philomela-Prokne painting. otherwise the voice of the guide is plainly that of the novelist. The guide steers the viewer in the ri,oht direction since just as a visual image seen by the public can be easily misunderstood. or more often misinterpreted. so too can the art-work ekphrasis. Visual language becomes an integral part of the Second Sophistic movemenr's rhetoric. Aelian. o contemporary of Achilles Tatius, makes a statement on art before describing the landscape of Tempe in Thessaly. He uses visual words such as Gkayphq~iv(to draw up. chart or list) and 81anhdr-IV (to shape or mold) and xa~povpyia(craftsmanship or handicraft). words that more naturally apply to painting 38 Bartsch 3 1. Y"hi~ostr. lmogirres 1.4. 90 Petr. 58: ... cortsrrlere pnldentiorem coepi nerores rabulamm ... "I began to consult him on his knowledge about the age of the pictures ..." 91 lbid. $8: .. .fonnosior vidrancr massa artri, qliam qtricqtrid Apelles Phidiasqlie. Graeclrli delirantes,fecemnr. "Masses of gold appear to be more beautiful than anything that Apelles and Phidias made, those crazies of the Greeks," Little has changed since Petronius' time! Pliny 35.1 also notes that the Romans loved gold more than portrait painting, which according to PIiny, were originally made for posterity. and sculpture. Yet he underscores a major similarity between the two mediums: both entail layout or smcture (fi B~aypapia),they develop or mold images (iG~arrAaa~r) and they use the hand to create (fi ~~lpoupyia).Aelim adds. "if it (the logos) has descriptive power. it is no less effective than the work of artists.'"' Philostratus the Lemnian writes that both painting and poetry "bring an equal contribution to the deeds and images of her0es."~3He reconfirms Anstotle's belief that all art is imitation of nature" and adds that "the Seasons ptrint the meadows" because "art (mimesis) is the oldest discovery and the most rel~ztedto nature."'5 Philostratus the Lemnian points out the strength of painting by claiming that "painting is imitation by the use of coloun: and not only does it employ colour. but this second form of art cleverly accomplishes more with this one means than the other form with its many The "mems" is the modulation of light and darkness found in skingrcrphitr. Lucian. writing in the second century. proposes in De Domo 11 that paintings on the walls of a tine house need beauty (T& rahhq). vividness (TO ivapy~y).exactitude (TO hrp~eis)and truth (TO aAq8ir). Not only can paintings mimic "nature" but. us Pliny suggested. they were made to "pass on to posterity."" and so they can outlast nature. since the natural object dies and withers in the fdl.Yn Aolinn Vurio Hisroria 3.1: iav ~XTJ86yayiv gpam~rjv. pq%v ~U~EVEUTE~OVoaa potih~~ai6~1nwivaI T~V av6pGv TGv KC~T~~~lpupyiav 6~1vCjv. 93 Philostrntus the Lrmnian Irnagkrs 1. Proem: qopa yap iqavqoiv 85 TU rwv fip&wv ipya ~ai~i6q. y~~ristotle.Poer. I448b 7-8 Other references include: .kferror.iv.3.38 1 b6 and citr ;Cl~rnh5.396 b12: fi TEXV~utp~i~a~ ev(P\~UIV .... 'I5 Philosrmtus the Lrmnian. ln~asinesI. Proem: orroua TOGS A~~pBvarai ''npa~ ypaqouu~.... pipqa15 ~EUEiipqpa TOEU~~~UTOV~ai ~uyy~vicma~ov ~W~EI. y6 [bid.. I.1. Proem: coypaqia 6t CuyP@Aq~atVEV ir xpapa~wv, nparr~l61 olj TOGTO ~OVOV, aAAb ~airrh~iw aocpic~~a~ ano TO~TOUivo~ ~VTO~ fi ano T~V nohhijv fi i~ipaTEXV~. Pliny IV. H. 35.1 : q~osesser dignora posreris tradere. 98 Lucian. De Domo 9: TOV 6k &Ahov KOU~OV ~ai~a ~i)vroixav ypappa~a~ai T~V xpopa~ov~a rahAq nai ro tvapyis i~aorovrai TO a~p~eir~ai TO aAq8k gap05 ~YEI~ai h~1~3vt 6~ &ve~i ~ahO5hv ~~apapah~iv-TTA~V nap' ~UOVir~iva piv arrave~i~ai papaiv~~at rai ahharr~rairai arroQahh~lTO ~ahAos, ~owri6i TO Cap ai61ov ~ai~EIV~V apupavro5 ~aiiiv0os a8ava~ov... "The rest of the However, in his work Essays in Pomaitnre, Lucian cleverly points out the differences between painting and poetry when he describes the beautifbl Panthea. mistress of the Emperor Verus. In this work, two characters, Lycinus and Polystratus use different themes when describing beauty: inner and outer beauty. Lycinus uses his knowledge of art history to describe Panthra's outer beauty by composing the image of the girl from various paintings. sculpmres and even poetryg9 while Polysuatus illustrates her inner beauty which includes her virtues. language. knowledge and prudence by using poets. philosophers and famous women.lW In his opening talk. Lycinus admits that he was struck by "wonder" or uno TOO 0aljpa~0~( 1) at her beauty and Polystnms admits that Lycinus' description is 8sos~olovor "divinely wondrous" (9). He then criticizes Lycinus for only describing her body and shape but missing the most important value-her soul and whether it was beautiful or not.101 Polystratus never refers to an an-work in his descriptioniu2but persuades Lycinus to place the two descriptions together. In doing so. they will have an eternal image. inspired by the bIuses. that "wouid be the most accurate image revealing both the beauty of body and the virtue of the soul ."1°3 Lucian reveals the similarity and differences between the two decoration. the frescoes on the walls. the beauty of their colours. and the vividness. exactitude and truth of each detail might well be compared with the (ace of spring and with a flowery field, except that those things fade and wither and change and cat their beauty, while this is spring eternal, field unfading. bloom undying ..." Trans. Harmon. 'I9 The list of artists include sculptors: Praxitrlcs. Alcamenes and Phidias; Painters: Polygnotos. Euphmnor. Apelles and Xetion: poet: Homer. IUo The list of women include poets and btuses: Homer. Terpsichore. Melpornene. Calliope; philosophers: .Aeschines and Socrates: famous women: Theano. wife of Pythilgoras. Sappho and Diotima. Nausikaa and Penelope. Io1 Lucian Essays in Porrraiture. 11: Ahyw 6i u6pa ~airip uopqjv. i-rra~v~iv.T~V 8i yuxfl~ayaeQv aeia~o~€1. oir6i oiaeu ijooao ~ahho~~KE~VO im1v aGfij5 ... "(YOU have praised>. as 1 said. her body and form: but you have not looked at the nobIeness of her soul. and you do not know how much is that beauty of hen..." lo? [bid.. 16: rai ciqy&pq, ~i uq6iv hp)(€-nrnovETTI~E~~~ rams Buvaipqv fls ypa9?5*.- "But forgive me. if I cannot display any archetype of this painting...." [03 [bid.. 23: ijmp arpl@~mdrq~htv yivol~' &v ochpa~o~rahho( ~aiyn?(ils apev apa ipgavi As mentioned earlier, Theon stated that an ekphrasis must be "vivid" (kvapydr), suggesting that the ancient writer viewed the ekpkasis as a descriptive process (hbyor TTEpl~yIlpaTI~b~:1 15.7) which is exercised (ppva<~a8ol:120.3) to create the correct image in the viewer's mind. To support his thesis.la Theon used the example of Achilles' shield. It was beautiful and strong (KU~raha jv rai ioppa: 119.28) and served a dual purpose. being "wondrous" for his allies to see (iKv ~oir~iu au~~axol~ irahrlr~~rdr:L 19.29). and filling his enemies with fear (mi5 66 rrohavio~s~op~pa: 1 19.19-30).103This "wondrous" recalls the "epic" language which focused on the "divine" qualities of the sheid. The ekphnsis conveys an accurate description of what is desired (rr0805). transmitted through the eyes (oq8ahuoi) so as to cause wonder (8aZpa) in the viewer's mind. Following the manner of the epic ekphnlsis, the sophistic ekphr~siscauses a wonder that is both joyhl and terrifying as well-the viewer must literally be knocked out of his wits, or experience Emhrl{ly. just as when one looks at art. Here lies one of the fundamental shifts of the akphrasis-the epic ekphrasis focused on the artistic production of [he an-work (notably the shield) while the Sophistic ekphnsis emphasized the viewing of an art-work (the painting).lo7 d) The ekphrasis in modern criticism Modem discussions on the ekphrasis began over two hundred years ago with Gotthold Lcssing, who compared painting and poetry through a series of oppositions: Space-Time: Naturd signs-Arbitrary (man-made) signs: Narrow sphere-Infinite range: IM Theon uses examples from Homer, Herodotus. Ktesias and Thucydides. who. with the exception of Homer. were ail historians. Io5 This element of joy and fear was capitalized by the romance novelists. See section on Achilles Tatius for discussion. See above. p. 6-7. Io7 Laird 79. [mitation-Expression; Body-~Mhd;External-Internal; Silent-Eloquent; Beauty- Sublimity: Eye-Ear: Feminine-Masculine.lo8 Lessing, following Plato Rep. 59Sb and Quintilim Inst. 3.15.6-9, says that poetry is far superior to painting just as an actual scene of nature is far superior to a painted copy of that scene.1m More recently Hagstrum defined ekphrasis as "giving voice and language to the otherwise mute art objectl10 although she considers ekphrasis as being one facet of a larger category of descriptive 1anguage.l ll Kneger says that ekphrasis is "the imitation in literature of a work of plastic art'' and that the object of this imitation "becomes the metaphor for the temporal work which seeks to capture it in that temporality."l12 Steiner notes that. "Paintings are archetypal images of stasis" and that an ekphrasis becomes a nanative frozen in time. l3 A painting is a frozen narntive (stasis) that includes the progynnnrrnam categories of characters. setting, time and event. However. the placing of the ekphrasis within the plot suggests that the "narrative" is not completely frozen.li4 Most recently, Heffemm has defined un ekphasis as "the verbal representation of visual representation."[ '5 This definition covers the broadest bases while maintaining the definition of the Second Sophistic movement although Heffeman maintains the traditional view that art-works were the central issue in m ekphnsis. These writers have contributed to the definition of the terrn.116 but much of their focus is on poetry. Recently Sbadi Bartsch has examined the descriptions in the novels The comparative analysis is based on Mitchell. lconoioyy 1 10. Brown 86. Hagstrum 1 9. Heffeman 6 agrees with Hagstrum but says that ekphrasis isn't always present in mute art works. Hagstrum call descriptive Ianguage "iconic". which does not physically describe an a~ work but refers to the art-work. This derives from E~K~V,the Greek word for "image" but it can also refer to a painting as well. It is aptly the title of works by the Philostrati. Krieger 107. Steiner 48-9. Lessing iBrown 57) says that this is the fundamental difference between poetry and painting-the stasis of painting and the narrative of poetry. Bartsch 171: Heffernan 5 points out that the Homeric view is a condensed instead of frozen namtive. Heffernan 3. See bibliography for further resdings. G. finker's article is crucial to understanding the relationship between rnurgeiu and the ekphnsis and Andrew Gd's post-modern analysis of the of Achilles Tatius and Heliodorus with some keen observations. Her most persuasive argument is that all the descriptive passages in these novels are interconnected and very relevant to the She summarizes as follows: ''In trying to understand the relation of the novel's descriptive passages to their surrounding text, we come to realize that both works are self-conscious and artistic constructs. Like pictures or dream visions. both elicit acts of interpretation from the readerhiewer. But the novels play on the capacity of art, vision, and even spectacle to symbolize a rneuling."lia She also has commented on the "eroticism" of the yxden images notably in ~atiusll9 and stressed the relevance of the "guide" to the ancient novel."0 Her research on the descriptive language reveais the high level of complexity found in the novels of Tatius and Heliodorus, which has for the most part been overlooked or dismissed in modem studies.I2' Her demonsuation of the significance of these passages supports the pattern that I am proposing and I ;un rxpmdiny her scope to include all extant romance novels. Page Dubois has laid out three filnctions of the ekphrasis found in epic poetry that can be applied to the novel: as citation. as milestone and as synecdoche. She notes that, 'The ekphrasis is an isolated unit w irhin discourse ... In the Iliad, the description of Achilles' shield has qualities that set it apart withn the formal structure of the poem as a whole.""' Vergil makes literary allusions or "citations" to Homer's art-work by means of his ekphrasis of Aeneas' shield. The "milestone" ekphnsis in epic poetry serves as a marker in the "narrative progress of rhe hero." The ekphrasis typically occurs at the ekphrasis in Augustan poerry sheds some new light on the periad leading up to the Second Sophistic movement. '17 Bartsch 171. ""bid., 176-7. I' Ibid., I 57 "' Ibid, 167. See above, p. IS- 19. ''I Notably Hagstrum who feels that the ilcscriptions in Tatius' novel were merely "rhetorica1 tricks." She reveals her disIikc for Iiis work by claiming that many passages in the novel deserved "censure" (3 1). Also Swindlcr 307 shows her bias against Tatius when she writes. 'Tire accounts are in bad taste and do little Inore than embroider tbr us the subject matter," but then goes on to praise his style. say ins thar 'The description of Andromeda is a piece of fine writing ..." 122 Dubois 6. opening of a book13and not only acts as a "waming"~~~but literally indicates what is going to occur by means of symbolism and foreshadowing. Thirdly, as synecdoche the rkphnsis is a "visual" metaphor for the entire novel: love and violence (Ares and Aphrodite): the abducted woman (Europa and Andromeda); the vindicated woman (Prokne and Philomela); the destroyed voyeur (Actaeon) and the various scenes of Daphnis and ChioE. Dubois suggests that the ekphrasis breaks the narrative because it is structured in space. not time.125in examining an ekphnsis. one is struck by the "frozen in time" reality of the painting or sculpture. The figures are frozen--caught in that very act of the painter's eye: Europa is eternally sitting on a bull. Andromeda is chained forever to u rock and Tcreus is struck in perpetual horror at seeing his son's head. Heliodorus states that the people of Memphis, upon seeing Charikleia, were "as silent as if they had been struck dumb with bewilderment. as still as tigures in a painting."!26 Yet this is also the major difference between art and poetry-the art is eternally frozen while the written words conjure up motion and ephemeral time. Steiner writes that "Pinrings in romance thus symbolize the endangered self-frozen. suspended. imprisoned. znthrdled-and dso the essential self-removed from the vicissitudes and continzencies of life. raised to a higher purity of being. The romance. similarly. presents itself as both a blighted artifice and a sublime reality."lz7 Yet the frozen narrative becomes "unfrozen" as He ffernan argues. "And just as we must infer a spatial context for the figures in the painting in order to visualize it. we must infer a temporal In the case of Apel. 2. .4ch. Tar. 1. 3 and 5, and Lungus I. Dubois 6 suggests that the Actaeon ekphnsis in Apuleius' Metamorphoses functions "both as n warning and as a mirror that retlects Lucius' future." Dubois 7, baed on Krieger0swork on T.S. Eliot. See Murray Krieger. *TheEkphmtic Principle and the Still Movement of Poetry: or Laokoon Revisted, " in The Play arld Place of Criticism (Baltimore, 1967). Airhiopicn 7.7.4: Gmp6k a~avQvCrr' ayvoiar ~aiTOT( y~ypa~~ivo~~ raparrhrlaiov rrpos povqv *v Biav imorlpivov. Translation J.R. Morgan. Steiner 48. context for them in order to understand it."'2s From the stasis of a picture flows narrative. The use of the ekphis m break the namtive or in certain cases to introduce the narrative, builds upon the spatial dspect of the novel. The reader recalls the initial image of the ekphnsis when other links are made. None of the romance ekphnseis exist for their own purposes-thy are dl integral pans of the novel. The best example of this is Tatius' ekphrasis of Europa ~4ch.Tat. 1.1.10- 12). He Erst describes an image of Europa without mentioning her hce."' but when Clitophon describes Leucippe he compares her face ro Europa's ( 1.4.3). The garden description of Hippias (1.15.1-8) parallels the description of the ~ardenin the Europa painting (1.1.3-6) and when Clitophon describes how the nightingales sing of Tereus and Philomela ( 1.15.8), this foreshadows the ekphrasis of the painting in Book 5 (5.3.4-5). Tatius teases the reader by using visual images as cintiuns. milestones and synecdoche's throughout to create a coherent nmtive. The garden also ploys a crucial role in the ekphnsis. In the Europa painting again. Tatius describes the garden where the abduction has just taken place. thus alluding to Moschus' beautiful dsscl-iption of Europa's flowery field, which in turn alludes to the most famous abduction. rhilt of Persephone in the Homeric Hymn ro Demeter. The inclusion of specific elements such as certain flowers, the barrier of the trees. a water source, and of course the comparison of the maidens with flowers recalls the traditional abduction scene in Greek litmture."' The garden as seen in the painting occurs again in Clitophon's encounter with Leucippe in Hippias' garden, acting as a milestone to refresh our memory of ttlr painted garden and as a metaphor for the virgin Leucippe, who in Nm is the synecdoche for all "romance maidens." The use of a flat Heffernan56. See below p. 94ff. lW See below, p. 75-78. two-dimensional image that creates the illusion of reality reinforces the reality of the literary characters, giving strength to their beauty and a standard from which they can be compared. Here "nature" imitates art even though the entire context is fictional and not real. CHAPTER THREE: VISUAL ARTS IN THE EKPHRASIS Why are art-works so prominent in the romance? What influence did the visual arts have on the romance novel and, specifically, the ekphis'?These are important questions but the lack of extant visual material, especially ancient painting, leads to much speculation but Little fact. None of the ekphraseis appears to represent an actual an-work. This could be because the art-work no longer exists, but in any case the writer of the sophistic period would be defeating his main purpose if he simply described an actual art-work. Even if the art-work existed, the writer would embellish the passage to "out-do the painter whose work he is describing."' If an art-work inspired il writer to "out-do" an art-work, then could not poetry inspire the painter or sculptor to do the same?The answer appears obvious. Philostratus the Younger reveals the intlurnce of painting on his work. "For when I have met with paintings by a clever hand, in whch ancient deeds were treated not without refinement, I have not thought it right to pass them by in silence."' With this suggestion of competition between the arts. it is possible to believe that the visual arts must have influenced the literary arts. The larger question is to what degree'? The purpose of this section is to show similarities between the visual and written text and not to prove whether a copy exists. In doing so. I hope to reveal that the writer needed a visual counterpart as a source or possibly, or 3s was the case with Tutius. was an artist as well, which helped to generate the visualness of the ekphnsis in the novel, not only in the art-work description. but also in the garden and maiden-with- young-man descriptions as well. I Fairbanks xvii. Philostratus the Younger, Imagines. Proocmium 7: ypappaut yap npoqhv XEI~O~ am~ia~.iv 0;s apxata~npac~~s OCK apo\jua~Exouaal fiaav, OUK igiwua crtwrij trap~A8~iv~aiha. A possible play on Simonides' famous comparison between poetry and painting "Painting is silent poetry, poetry a speaking picture." a) Rhetoric and visual art Arthur Fairbanks suggests that the lack of artistic details such as colours and tone in the Philostrati. along with the omission of the painter's names. reveals that their descriptions were simply a rhetorical display? Andrew Laird notes that "an ekphrasis can never pretend to be its object in the way that a tromp l'oril pahinting canT'adding that the more a. visual medium is mentioned such as wood, marble. or paint colour, "the less the reader succumbs to the illusion of the ~tory."~Simply stated, an ekphrasis is not a description of an art-work. Philostra~sthe Lemnian states that the painter and the poet make "equal contributions to depicting the deeds and looks of heroes"5 and emphatically adds. 'The present discussion. however, is not to deal with painters nor yet with their lives: rather we propose to describe examples of paintings in the form of addresses which we have composed for the young. that by this means they may learn to interpret paintinss and to appreciate what is esteemed in them? The key phrase here is ~i6qCwypa'pias or "rxamples of paintings." Philostratus admits that he is using 'examples of paintings' didactically to teach and instruct. not to record an actual image. This fact is backed up by his grandson, Philostratus the Younger, as stared in the previous paragraph. who commented on the entrrtainmmr value of the process of the painter: "And the deception inherent in his work is pleasurable and involves no reproach: for to confront objects which do not exist as though they existed and to be influenced by them. to believe that they do exist. is not this. since no harm can come of Fairbanks xviii - xxii. Laird 86. Philostratus the Lrmnian Imagines. !.I: qopa yap iqapgoiv €5 TU T&V ipi)av :pya ~ai~i8q .... Transiation Fairbanks. Philosm~~sthe Younger Imagines. 1.1: 6 Aoyos 68 06 n~piSoypaqov 066' imopiar aG~iZvuGv. ahh' ~i6rlCwypaqias alrayy6hhop~v6ptAia~ aka TOTS viols @JVT~~~VTES, a?' &V ~ppqvniaouoiTE ~aiTOG 60~ipou~I~E~~~UOVTO~I. Translation Fairbanks. 30 it. a suitable and irreproachable means of providing ente~-tainment?"~Just as the painter creates a work for pleasure that doesn't exist, a Sophist could easily do this with words, and what is more imponant. the romance writer, who writes for pleasure. adds the pleasurable rkphrasis. Gombrich suggests that the ancient Greek view of imitation caused a "muddle in the theory of art" when it comes to the distinction between appearance and reality in the process of paintings Writers. like painters. have been imitating (mimesis)nature since Homer's time, but the Second Sophistic writer saw an even greater strength in the artificial image, which lends itself entirely to the romance novel, where reality is, for the most part, an illusion. Shaffer writes, "Whereas Homer's rkphrariv fdygrounds the tradition of the sister arts (poetry and painting) in the mimesis of human actions. Philostratus's Imagines explores the hermeneutic. persuasive, and prescriptive force of this ancient trope."9 The distinction between literature md art is even more blurred during the xcond sophistic movement. The romance writer aimed to persuade the reader not only "to see" the painted image, but to understand and believe in the power of' namtive reality and pictorial illusion. To portray fictitious figures as works ofrtrt was typical of thls period especially with the novelists. Often comparisons are made with a legendary "beautiful but abducted maiden" such as Europa or Andromeda. the two favoured gods Arternis and Aphrodite. or even the Greek hero Achilles. lo,Most notable are the comparisons of the heroines with statues or paintings in the novel: Callirhoe is like Aphrodite (So$~ir. B [bid.. Prooemium 4: 'H&ia 66 ~aifi iv au~wa-rraq ~aiou6Sv 6v~i6osq~pouaa. TO yap TOTS OUK oGatv cjs o\ia~~rpoo~oraval ~ai &y~aeal irrr' aG-r&v. cjs &vat VO~~L;EIV.aq' 06 ghapos oir6kv. rrijs oir yluxayoyflaeal iuavov ~aiairias ~KTO~; Translated by Fairbanks. Gombrich163. Shaffer 304. Her italics. lo There are seven1 specific comparisons of the virgins to goddess-heroes: 12 descriptions of Callirhoii, often compared to Aphrodite: 9 descriptions of Charilcleia, often compared to Artemis; five descriptions of Theagenes. often compared to Achilles and including a lineage of Theagenes to Achilles. 3 1 +vat, 0~aaapBvqTi)v 'Acpp08i~qyi~6vaphlmiv o~amii~: 2.7.6); Chaereas is like Achilles (oiov 'AxtAAda ~aiNipia ~ai'lmohu~ov rai 'AA~iPia6qvnhacmat TE ~ai ypaq~iqarro~~i~~lio~ai.. : 1.1.3); Psyche is like a statue (ur simulacrum fabre politurn mirantur ornnes : 4.32);Leucippe is like Europa (~oirzhqv~Xov kyw rontrit ra6po -.vo/pa- Eirpcjqv.: 1-43}; Charikleia is Andromeda (TO riryahua 61a ms KO~~Sirrr' aypoiwiar ~iracov: 1.7.2: (~~IUKO~Irilv 'AvGpo~i6av arapahAa~~ov iv rj ypaqq ~a"i iv TFJ KO~Q8~i~vuvivqv : LO. 14.7); (KO(~&T~EPap~iwmv -: 2.33.3) and Theagenes is also like Achilles (6 vraviaror 'Axihhrtov TI rt$ 6v~lnvtov rai npor ~KE~VOVTO PAippa ~aiTO qqourlpa avaqipov : 2.35.1) . Callirhoe and Venus are each compared to art-works depicting "Venus Rising": (CaNirhoL 8.6.1 1 and ~Cletarnorphoses,1.3 1). Sometimes, the hero can be more outstanding than an art- work, like Habrocomes (olrou yap 'Appo~opqsoq0~iq. OCT~ dyahua ~ahov ra~~qaivc~oOGTE E~KWViqv~i~o : 1.1.6 ). Fame can be made "eternal" by means of a painting 3s when a maiden promises to have 3 picture painted for Lucius the ass because of his good deeds (1Vnrn memoriam praesenris fortnncle mene divinaeqrie providentiae perpmia testatione signnbo, st depictam in tabula jiigne pmesentis imapinem rnerir domus nrrio dedicabo : 6.19). Why were descriptions of paintings peculiar to the Greek novel? The evidence of the paintings found at Pompei suggests that painting of this period was very popular and yet these paintings seem common to the "Eastern*'context of the novel, and moreover the woven "Babylonian" tapestry also alludes to images of the East. The influence of Persian romance talesi2and the Persian "rrapa6~ko5"~3obviously was a I The depiction appears to be based on a real painting which Goold suggests is Apelles' Xphrodite rising tiom the sea. LIMC lists several pages of statues of this type and also ti-equently portrayed in Roman wall paintings. The Apuleian model suggests the Aphrodite by Praxiteies. Most notably is the Ninus tale. which exists only as seven1 fragments teliing the love of Ninus and Semiramis. For a translation see either Stephens and Winkler or Gaselee's Loeb edition of Daphnis and ChloZ. The fragment is dated to the first century C.E. and Step hens and Winkler 26-27 suggest that possibly Xenophon of Ephesus may have written the tale based toosely around Xenophon's Cyropaidria Anderson I-24 devotes an entire chapter to the novel's "Eastern" origins. comparing sections of Daphnis and Chloe to Babylonian, Sumerian and Egyptian tales. See also Winkler (1994) 23-38 and Zeitlin (1994) 150. 32 major factor in the development of the Roman garden, the novel and of course, the ekphnsis. Xenophon the Athenian wrote a fictional story about Cyrus the Great in his Cyropnideiu l4and of course other writers such as Ktesias and Herodotus tell us about numerous "Eastern tales" revealing the Greeks' fascination with the East. Little ancient Persian art and literamre exists but perhaps the Babylonian wall paintings, filled with gardens, animals and tdes were part of this influence. Chariton used Babylon and much of the Near East for the settings of his novel while his major influence. according to Goold,ls was the Aie.mnder Romance while Schmeling claims that much of Xenophon's story originates from the Ninlcs romance.I6 The life and travels of Alexander influenced writers in Greece to create their own stories reinforced by eastern motifs and "exotic" travels. By the second century C.E..when the Roman empire was relatively still at peace. the influence of Hellenistic art on Greek writers looking for "images" of romance compounded with the exoticism of the Near East fueled their imaginations and helped develop the Greek novel. Another clue can be found in the tapestry as well. Heffeman, retlecting on both Ovid's Arachne scene and the Phlomela imagery of Tatius, acutely points out that while weaving is a traditional women's art and Homer's Penelope can attest to this. "Philomela's powrr to speak in this story is woven into and hence bound up with the powrr of pictures to speak-to break through the silence in which they. like women. are traditionally bound."17 The novelists. like Ovid. are giving a greater voice to the female heroine through the tlat "woven or painted image. Even though the female character passes through great violence in her unwanted journey, in the end she is re- l3 The Penim napab~iuo~were hunting parks tilled with wild game to appease the most popular of Persian royal habits-the hunt. Geltius (Attic Nights, 2.20.1 B 4). quoting Varro (On Farming 3). says that heRomans called these parks vivaria and the Greeks called them rrapab~~ool. IJ It also includes the earliest known "romance tale" about Panlhea and Abmdatas (interspersed through books 6 and 7). '5 Goold10. I6 Schmeling (1980) 22. I7 Heffernan 49. 33 united with her lover "safe and sound." The image of a "violated" woman is a violent image reflecting upon the man (and the male artist) as the person in power doing the violence. The virgin bride will be "violated" during her wedding night but as Heffernan suggestsl" perhaps this "violence" is acceptable on her part since we must assume that she goes "willingly" to the marriage bed which underlines the "love" aspect seen in the novel.19 This is developed in several of the novels: in Ach. Tat. L .3-2.1, when Clitophon goes to Lcucippe's room to "reveal his love for her." Leucippe does not resist Clitophon's advances and the encounter is stopped only by her mother's intervention: in Heliod. 5.4.4-5* Charikleia convinces Theagenes to "wait" until they are formally married which he agrees to do; and in Lungus 1.13, when Chloe sees Daphnis in the bath. she is completely "stricken" by Eros although her naiveti prevents her from knowing what to do next. If the heroine can maintain her virginity, she "proves" her love to the hero. although the same cannot be said for the heroes. like Clitophon and Daphnis. who tend to lose their virginity to other women. The image of the violated woman is reinforced throughout by means of the art-work rkphrasis but the romance heroine is not always a passive chuacrer. sometimes revealing a greater strength than her male counterparts such as Clitophon. Lucius and Daphnis, who often appear too timid or unsure what to do next? b) Landscape Painting Quintilian says that painting flourished under the reign of Philip and Alexander and that these artists were known for their diversity.?! Besides Apelles," one of the -- -- Heffeman 55-56. l9 One must not forget that the central theme of the ancient novel is the love interest between the main characters. The love aspect between a young couples was "new" to the ancient world; the ancient marriage was centered around clans and "proper" enjoinments, and the aspect of love in a marriage was a late development (Konstan 7 and Winkter ( 1994) 28). Montague 24 1 -245. Quintilian,Insr.Orat.,M.10.6:FloruirauremcircaPhilipp~~mer~rsqueadsuccessares Ale-uzndn' pictli ra praeciprie, sed diversis virtu tibus. "Principally this painting flourished around the time of Philip and lasted right up to the time of its successors at Alexandria, but with 34 artists that he mentions is Theon of Samos, who lived in the fourth century B.C.E. and was famed for his imaginary scenes or cpav~aaia~.3Quintilian does not elaborate on the subject of Theon, but Piutarch includes his painting of "Orestes slaying his mother" as an example of a painter painting "unnatural" things.?-' Based on a scene from Iphigenia in Tauris.3 Pliny (N.H. 35.14) makes only a passing mention of his painting, ihr Insanity of Orestes although Aelian describes the "spirit" of a young warrior about to do battle as depicted in this painting by Theon and notes one peculiar aspect of the &st-he had a trumpeter sound the call to battle just before revealing the painting. klian sums up the power ofthe painting as follows, "and the music made the impression (njv qav~auiav)of the man dashing into battle even more vivid (Ivapy~arfpav)."26 The combination of a "vivid image " or lvapysia gavracria creates a believable rkphrasis. These jbn~asypoinrings were possibly the forerunners of the later mythologicd paintings found at Pompeii and their use of 4bntypical"subjects suggests a reason why Vitruvius complains that "true images" were being ignored in his day.27 Mythology was much used in Hellenistic painting which focused on symmetrical groupings of figures painted in relief with an evenly distributed light source. Yet landscape was used only to suggest settings. if used at all. and resulted in diverse strengths." The hunting-scene frieze tbund at Vergina confirms this point (Ling 142; Robertson 168). -77 According to Swindler 269-270. .4pelles flourished from 332 to 329 B.C.E. and was known in antiquity for his painting of ".-lphrodite Rising from [he Sea" at Cos. See Pliny 1V.H. 35.79-97 for a list ot' his accomplishments. most notably his use of color (N.H. 35.971. SwindIrr 3 19 claims that .ApelIes was the tirst "real" portrait mist. I3 Quintilian. Insrit. Orat.. XI1.10.6: concipieridis visionibus, qtrus pav-raoiay vocanr. Theon Sumius. "by conceiving these images, which the they calI phanrasias. Theon of Samos." Swindler 207 & 304 calls Theon "baroque" and "sensational." Little 17 attributes a series of Achilles' adventures to Theon. ?4 Plumrch. Q~romodoAdolescens. 18s: ypapoual 61 mi rrpag~qa~orrou< Evto~. "Some even paint unnatural things." Euripides /T235-275. ?6 Arlinn Varia Hist. 2.44: Ivapyedpav rilv qav-raoiav TOG irpoq8oGv~or:TI ~ai p6AAov rtapa~aavro~.Translation Wilson, Vitruvius. De Arch. W 5.2: Sed hoec. quae ex veris reblq rrempla surnebantur. nunc iniquis moribus inprobanrur. "But these Rome in 164 B.C.E.and, according to Swindler and Robertson, influenced Pompeian wall pinting.30 Besides Demeuios of Aiexandria, Adolphe Reinach lists several other artists of the School of Ale-randria. including Evanthes.31 Evanthes is the only painter mentioned by any of the novelists and according to Achilles Tatius he was the painter of the double painting of Andromeda and Prometheus at Pel~siurn.~~Unfortunately there is no evidence of the temple at Pelusium although Reinach and Swindler suggest that Alexandria's proximity to Pelusium offers a possibility that the paintings actually existed.3j This possibility exists in Book 5 where Tatius describes the painting of Philomela and Prokne in an artist's studio in Alexandria which was Tatius' native city. Was it possible that he saw these paintings and has recorded a piece of his own history'? We may never know but Reinach has suggested that Tatius' two gmndes compositions. the Europa and Andromeda scenes. were. without a doubt. connected to the Alexandrian school of painten.j4 The literary and the artistic influence of the 2S Pcdley 304: Robenson 176: Swindler 256 Sr 199. See rhe painring of.4chifles on Sk\.ros as an example of mythological painting. Another popular form was the Egyptianizing landscapes such as the Paissuina munl (Ling IJ6-8; Swindler 3 16-8) or the Persian-Egyptian naval battle painted by Nealkes and mentioned by Pliny, iV.H. 35, 104 (Swindler 306). Diod. Sic.. Ere. Vat.. III. p. 96 ed. Dind. (I. XXXI): Val. Max. V.1. I; Diog. Laen.. V. 83 (cf. Reinach 404). 30 Swindler 306-7 and Robertson 176. There is also a debate over [he tern ropographos. which could refer to map making as well as landscape painting (See Swindler 307 ft. 14). 31 Reinach 402. Others include Helene. daughter of Timon (Phot. Bibl.. p. 482 ed. Hoeschei). Gaiaton, who painted a picture of Homer in the temple dedicated to the poet by Ptolemy PhiIopator (Aelian, Var. Hist.. 13. 23, and Dionysios ofrnrax (Eustathius, Ad Itiadem. p. 974. 9). Pliny 1V.H. 35.147 lists seven1 women mists including laia of Cyzicus, a portrait painter of women. 32 Ach. Tat. 3.6. Swindler 307 and Reinach 406: .*...le fait qu'Achille fatius etait dtA1exandrie pone 3 croire qu'il ne l'a pas invent& ..." He doubts that the temple of Zeus at Peiusium was still intact during Tatius' period and suggests that it was taken from an assortment of ekphnseis. Reinach 407: "On doit 1 Achille Tacius la description de deux =mndes compositions omant le temple du Kasion, d'une autre omant un temple de Sidon et d'une aucre qui aurait it6 vue Alexandrie; toutes quatre doivent sans doute se rattacher i I'ecole Alexandrine." Alexandrian school must have affected Tatius.35 Undeniably, his visual imagery exceeds the descriptive abilities of the other novelists. Hellenistic painting, like its poetical counterpart, began to focus on the landscape, pilaly as an escape from the city. Bucolic poetry, such as that of Theocrims, influenced Vergil and Horace. and likewise the garden imagery of Greece began to influence Roman art and gardens. Leach notes that after Vergil's Eclogrres and Geor,qics."a new turn towards the representation of religious and pastoral motifs began to etTect a stronger atmosphere of nature in landscape." which in turn establishes a new genre of painting that filled Roman houses.j6 Swindler suggests that the Romans' garden imagery cmr from their contact with the East. "where parks and gardens flouri~hed."3~Although the Roman garden or honris was originally m important part of the Roman house providing food,%iuring the first century B.C.E. it seems to have taken on a more "pleasurable aspect" influenced by he Persian rcrpa6~iuo~.This can be seen at Pompeii where over 450 gardens have been located39 and many of the larger gardens were structured around a pool. which was enclosed by a peristyle of columns and filled with art (both wall paintings and scuipt~res).~~During this period. the Romans' love for the real garden led to their "eternal" gardens painred on their walls when paintinss of nature began to Bll the Roman house4' and landscape began to take 35 On the literary side. Rrinach 408 notes that there is s similarity of Tatius' passage to Ovid's ~Metarnorphoses4.672-5. Heffernan 55 aiso believes that Ovid Xrachne passage greatly intluenced both Tatius and Longus. He points out (57) that the first image presented in Arachne's tapestry is Europa , which also opens the Tatius novel. 36 Leach 53. 37 Swindler315. 38 Jashemski 16-22. 39 Ibid.,25. JO Ibid.. 33-55. Jashemski points out that the running water for the elaborate fountains did not occur until August built an aqueduct for the city in the tint century B.C.E.. Robertson 171 notes that Greek wail painting, according to the scant evidence. was "largely a royal prerogative" and was not commonly found in the common house while SwindIer 304 suggests that "the walIs of houses and palaces must have been gorgeous with cotor." Lack of evidence makes this a dif'ficultpoint to ascertain who was correct but the wealth of art at Pompeii suggests that the wall painting, especially for the wealthy was as common as modern "framed pictures" that decorate a house. What one could afford was probably as decisive as it is today. scenery was eventually adapted into the wall paintings of houses which also incorporated images of gods, legends and other subjects created in nature (nontra procreata)." The satyr play, with its rural setting, recalls the idylls of Theocritus and Vergil. where the shepherd made sane5 in the greatest of sets-the landscape. The Odyssey landscapes found in the Esquiline, dated to 50-40 B.C.E. and mentioned in Vitruvius 7.5.2, reveal this major shift. In these paintings, nature encompasses humans, whereas the fifth-century emphasis had been on placing humans in the focal point.& Pedley comments that, "Nature herself is the real focus for the painter, so that the physical world itself becomes as imponant as the myth that Odysseus represents."" However the frieze format which runs images dong the top border of a wall does not centralize the images but rather relegates them to an inferior position48of viewing. Yet the frieze format appropriately employs the continuous narntive when describing more than one event -the spatial quality of time is not quite frozen once, but occurs through 3 series of events.19 in the Odyssey frieze, the landscape iinfiirfsitself to maintain rhr continuous narrative of the events narrated at trees, caves, mountains and other rustic things changed into the appearance of a lanhcape painting. LL [bid., 7.5.2:~Vonnulli locis irrnr ~.iqt~or[rrnmrlograplriam babentes deonrm simulacra reu fubtrlarum dispositas r.rp1iccttiuttr.s.i~ort r~liniis troiunas pugnm setr Uliris errationes per topia. ceteraque. quae sunt eontrn sinrrii11rl.r ~ztrlorrilirrsdb rentm rtattrra procreara. "In places, some have also the anatomy of statucs. t hc I n~rtgcsof gods. or the representation of legends; funher. the battles of Troy and the wanllcrlngs of Ulysses over the countryside with other subjects taken from Nature." Trans. Gnnger. " I am especially thinking of Pol>phcmus who shepherded or **~rroi~aiu~v'*his love by his song. (idyll 1 L .80-81 ). Swindler 303. Blanckenhagcn 39 clal~nsthat the "Odyssey Frieze" was n copy of a Hellenistic frieze. Mittelstadt 54 kels that Longus was highly intluenced by this frieze resulting in his entire novel tlowing out as a continul~usnarntive painting instigated by the opening ekphnsis. See further, p. 52-53 and 90-92. 47 Pedley 306. The frieze follows the Greek tradition tli temple architecture and its placement near the mof suggests a lofi quality. bIy worcl irrrc.r.il lr does not tlppl y in the thematic use but its frame for viewing. Centralized on a wall. (he 11113gt: has 3t much more dramatic position than near the roof. 49 Another major work is the large wedding scene at Boscoreale. No landscape is depicted except for a defining wall between the chttrrrctcrs i~ndthe sky but the characters are laid out like a staged- setting of a play. It follows thc cr~nlit~uousnarrative style like a fiieze painting. For further discussion, see F.GJ.M. hliillsr. Tllc .-\l~fobrundiniWedding. (Amsterdam. 1994). The Villa of the Mysteries also follows the srmc pattern (and is a much larger painting). See Linda Fierz- David, Women 's Dionysian Inirictriorr :the Villa of Mysteries in Pompeii, 1988. frozen once, but occurs through a series of events." In the Odyssey frieze, the landscape ~rnfurlsitself to maintain the continuous narrative of the events narrated at Alcinous' coun.50 Like the fantasy setting of Scheria. the Odyssey landscape is more "fantastic" than real. The focus of wall painting changes drastically at Pompeii around the end of the first century B.C.E. with the introduction of the sacro-idyllic Specific images of sanctuaries. placed in a simple landscape and depicted with shepherds. goats. travelers and worshippers. created a loclu nmoenrrr on the villa's walls. Vitruvius 7.5.2 describes the typical landscape painting elements 3s follows: pingrintcir enim ponrrs, prornrmturia, lirora, Jrrrnina, jontes, euripi,fanu. Irici, montes, pecorn, pasrores.j? The paintings found at Boscotrecase "are the oldest preserved examples of large-scale sacro-idyllic landscape pictures"53and unlike the earlier Odyssey frieze. these paintings were small contained images painted in the center of a wall. This shift in attention now allowed the viewer to focus only on the images that were framed by the imposing dark black or red colour of the room. The motif of the ioctis cmoenlrs no 49 .-\nother major work is the large wedding sccna at Boscoreale. No landscape is depicted except for a detining waIl between the characters and the sky but the chmcters are laid out like a staged- setting of a play. It tbllows the continuous narrative style like a frieze painting. For further discussion. see F.G.J.ivI. hluller. The .4ldobrandini Wedding. (Amsterdam, 1994). The Villa of the Mysteries aIso tbllows the same pattern (and is 3 much larger painting). See Linda Fierz- David, Women's Dionysiurl Initi~~lriorz:the Villa of ,Vysreries in Pompeii. 1988. j0 Ling 108. j1 Von Blanckenhagen details the principal landscape painting existing in Italy before the Boscotrecasc paintings. They include the villa at Boscoreale. circa 40 B.C.E.; the yellow frieze in the Csa di Livia at Rome. circa 30-25 B.C.E.;a landscape scene in the Aula Isiaca ar Rome. circa 25 B.C.E.;and several rooms at the Villa Famesina. circa 19 B.C.E.. p. 15-16, Boscouecase was owned by Agrippa and possibly passed on to his son. Blanckenhagen 3 dates the villa's consuuction to 21- 16 B.C.E. and the paintings were started around 1 I B.C.E.. The most famous "giuden" paintings are the Villa of Livia at Primapona, Rome, painted around 20 B.C.E. and the House of the Black Orchard at Pompeii. painted around 40-50 C.E. Curiously. these painting have no people in the scenes and do nor impact my thesis except through the beautiful and lush images that they conmin (See Ling t 49-153). 52 'The subjects painted are gates. promontories, shores. riven. springs, channels. sanctuaries. groves. mountains, sheep and shepherds." These rue the typical subjects found in the garden ekphmis 3s well. 5 Von Blanckenhagen 20. See especially Von Blanckenhagen's colour plates 1 and 13 (North wall and East wall. Black Room 15). plates 24 and 35 (North wall, Red room 16). Ling 146 notes that after Boscouecase which are of the late Second style, the sacro-idyllic paintings seem to lose favour in the Third Style. doubt influenced the mythological paintings that followed by their style, colour and The use of colour (polychromy) or even one overall colour (monochromatic painting) to display emotional aspects developed the landscape painting and became a central feature in the Odyssey frieze and the Boscotrecase paintings.55This, according to Swindler. was a major difference between Greek and Roman art." Ling goes on further to stress that "landsc3pe painting ... is one of the original contributions of the Roman age."s7 Bruno claims that the connection between Hellenistic Greek art and early Roman art is "an almost natural instinct for the use of color as a means of recapturing in pictorial illusion the emotional ambiance of certain universal images that belong to prehistoric myth and the poetry that descends from it."58 Literature has been rhe influence for painting throughout the centuries and an examination of two of the mythological scenes at Boscouecasr depicting the stories of Pulyphemlis and Gczlatea and Persells and Andromeda should reveal this interplay and show some crucial aspects hat may have influenced the romance writer's ekphraseis. c) Polyphemus and Galatea: Theocritus and Boscotrecase On the west wall in room 19 at Boscotrecase.j9 there is a very evocative and moody image of the myth of the land-locked Cyclops Polyphemus and the water nymph Galotea. which recalls the imagery of Theocritus' ldyflli.The painting employs an overall moody blue-green colour to generate the atmosphere and mood of the scene. Polyphemus sits almost in the center of the painting positioned one third up j5 Bright coiours were also used to contrast images as seen in the sacm-idyllic image in the Black Room 15 (Von Blanckenhagen's colour plates [ and t 3). See a[so Alan M.G. Littie, Decor. Drama and Desisn in Rontan Painting. 1977. p. 3. j6 Swindler 329. Ling 149. j8 Bruno 63. j9 Across the room on the east wail is a painting of Andromeda. a recurring image in both Achilles Tatius and Heliodorus. See p. 105ff. See also Von Blanckenhagen's colour plates 42 (Galatea) and 43 (Andromeda). JO from the bottom. The bulk of the painting is the background that reveals a landscape comprising a rocky crag and trees entrenched in chiaroscuro lighting. Almost to the immediate left of Polyphemus, Galatea rides on the back of a dolphin60 folding a veil around her head. The water. painted a deep green-blue, runs behind the rock that he sits upon. joined by some son of bridge to the mainland. Three goats and two sheep, painted either white or black,61stand or sit upon the rocks and bridge. To the immediate right of this bridge there is a rock-hewn column and upon it stands a statue with an outstretched hand, holding a staff.Q These images fill the foreground which is divided by the deep blue-green sea. Rising behind Polyphemus is a tall column with an urn sitting on top. Visually the column leads the eye up into the background. dividing the background on the right with a rocky crag and on the left an obscured landscape that reveals part of a small temple and cypress trees63 behind it. The column itself is emphasized by the deep green of a treea lying immediately to its leh side. Behind the crag, darkly painted cypress trees recede into the dark sky. Just above Polyphemus and to our right is a smaller dark figure about to hurl a rock at a ship that is just sailing out of the picture. Von Blanckenhagen suggests convincingly that the figure is Polyphemus. blinded and 60 Nereids are typically portrayed sitting nude upon some sen creature. whether half fish and cow or horse, dolphin or even a Triton. See Nereides. LIMC, pages 460-5 15. where hardly a page goes by without this motif. Writers portrayed the Nereids in the same manner: kloschus. Europa, I 17-I 19. Nonnos. Dion.. 1.72-73, Lucian, Diulogtres of rite Sea-Go& (Zephyros and Notos). 327, and even Euripides uses the same imagery in Elecrra, 434437. 6l In the painting, the sheep are white and two of the three goats are black. In Throcritus. Polyphemus uses the animals appropriately tbr cheese-making (1411 1 1, 35-36). Von Blanckenhopn 28 suggests that the staff is a corniicopia and the mer~isc~iscrowning the figure suggests a Priapus figure. Others suggest that it is Pan holding a pedum or Hekate with a torch (Sea his footnote 5 1 on the same page). 63 Theocritus 45-6: tvTi Gacpval qv~i. Bun pa6ivai mrrrdrpicroo~. // E~TIpihas KIUUO~...." there are laurels and slender cypress uees, there is dark ivy ..." and that he lives on "many-treed Aetna" (Ea ~ohuGEvp~o~Aha; 47). Cypress trees traditionally symbolize death (Powell, p. 141) but whether the ancients believed this I m unsure of this point. Ovid has Cypress turned into a tree to avoid Apollo's love (Ovid. Met. X). @ The tree looks more like an oak tree than a laurel but the dark colors make it difficult to distinguish. Oak uees are known for their strength (robot) and symbolize hospitality (Powell 149). The Common Laurel symbolizes "perfidy" (Powell 146) which is more appropriate here. 4 1 hurling the rock at Odysseus' shipS6SWith the side scene the painting retains some of the continuous narrative qualities found in the Odyssey frieze. The suucture of this painting, as in the Andromeda painting, places the figures centrally in the Iower third while the top portion consists mostly of the background fading into negative space. Galatea is balanced by the goats and sheep while the column rises out of Polyphemus' head ro redirect the viewer's eyes up into the background. Light emphasizes the figures by their strong contrast with the larger field of dark -Den- blue, thus creating what Von Blanckenhagen calls "magic redisrn."66 The balanced crntnl structure recalls the sacro-idyllic qualities of the black and red rooms07 where the images are positioned in the center of the room (here. the center of hepicture) and contrasted by the dark qualities of the landscape background.h8 The similarity of the column and the perched urn to images found in the sacro-idyllic painting in the Red Room reinforce a typical motif found in the sacro-idyllic painting.69Typical of hot climates and especially the Italian countryside. the diffbsed light creates a sensuous atrno~phere.~OLight reflects off the lighter coloured images such as the figures' skin. the white hair of the goats and sheep. the column. the urn, the statue and pans of the rocky crag.'! The wmgreen water in the foreground creates a strong sense of lighting 65 Von Blanckenhapen 29. 66 [bid.. 30-3 1. fl See Von Blanckmhqen's colour plates 1. 13.24 and 25. 6"on 6"on Blanckenhagen I8 claims that this was a major breakthroush for the Boscotrecase paintings. 69 See Von Blanckenhagen's colour plate 14. '0 The best examples of this kind of lighting are the impressionists, especially Monet and Seunt as well as the classical landscape painters such 3s Lorraine. Turner and Constable. Even Renaissance painters seemed to have avoided the diffused light including the Italian mannerists. Gombrich 165 claims that the Gneco-Roman and Chinese artists used haze or mist because they "refused to acknowledge the middle ground." He even uses a sacro-idyllic painting as an iiIustration. 7l The crag rising above is a common feature in linnture. such as Vecgil's first description of Libya where twin cra_gsrise and the dark grove bristles with shade (Acneid, 1. t62-165): Hinc arque hirtc varrae mpes gernirzique mnrttr in caelrrrn scoprrli, quorrm sub vertice late aequora tutu silent. Turn silvis scaena coniscis desuper, horrentique atntnr rremtcs inminer umbra. direction from a point just to the left foregr~und.~~The artist masterfully evokes mood from contrasting and analogous coloua and sets the "fantastic" tone of the scene. Polyphemus is painted with a sienna red color to emphasize his "rustic" quality while Galatea has white skin.73 This recalls Theocritus' description, "whiter to behold than cream cheese" with breasts "firm like unripe grapes?" GGalea appears garbed in a robe from the waist down but if one looks at the detd on Von Blanckenhagen's plate 44.2 it seems that a very thin material covers her breasts. This panllels Andromeda's clothes in Lectcippe and Clitophon which Tatius calls "thinly-woven thread like thar woven by the ~pider."~sShe holds her veil over her head and recalls images of Europa.'6 Polyphernus is painted sitting on a crag looking out to sean with his one eye.'S While singing, he holds a syrinx pipe. which is also a typical pastoral item needed while attending the flocks.79 The staff braced beside Polyphemus' right leg Vitruvius De Arch. 6.1.2 aptly states that the best light for an-making rooms and galleries is with a north window for continuous light: Non minus pinacorhecae rr plumariorum re-~fritla pictonlmque oflcinae, rrri colores eortirn in opere proprer consransi~rrnlurninis irnrnutara pentuzneant qualirae. "Not less should the picture galleries. the weaving rooms of the embroiderers, the studios of painters. have 3 north aspect. so that in steady light. the colours in their work may remain of unimpaired quality." Tmns. Granger. This remains to this day the norm. However. in this case. there is a door entrance directly to the south where thc natural light falling on rhe painting will change during the course of rhe day, unless lit by oil lamps at nighr. The darker milk and lighter female images date to Egyptian and min no an periods. Theocritus. 11, 19-1 1 : & ~EUK~rahar~la ..../ / X~u~oepaTT~KT~s TTOTL~E~V ...... / / ....q ~apor~paijvqa~o5 cbp&c. Cheese and grapes are typical pastoral images. See Ovid's humble description of a "feast" for the guests of Baucis and Philemon (Met. 5.65 1-675). Ach. Tat. 3.7.5: TO iiqaopa A~mov, drpa~viovEOIKO~ ~rho~fi,ow ~a~arilv T~V See Von Blanckenhagen's colour plates 44.2 (Boscotrecase)and 58 (Csa del Sacerdote Amando). Ach. Tat. 1.1.12: o 6i uoAro5 TOG ni-rrhou -rrav~oe~v~~TQTO KV~TO\~~EVO~ - ~aifiv orjroc &VE~O~TOG ihaqipi Theocritus, or at the very least. the imagery of the myth was certainly well known to the artist. The striking "visual" sirniluities to Theocritus' poem. the use of pastoral imagery and the overall erotic mood contained in the painting pardel the components of the ekphrasis found in the romance novel. but unlike the hero in the novel. Polyphemus' erotic encounter never occurs. A comparison between the two media can be made 3s follows using the proposed pattern: Boscotrecase Theocritus a) art-work ckphrasis painting Poem b) loctrs nmoenris sea. rocks. temple. trees sea. rocks, cave. trees goats sheep, bears, deer C) char. descriptions Galatea. young Polyphernus young Polyphemus & the elder (Ody. 1 1) d) erotic encounter P. woos G. P. woos G. Images of heroic characters. pastoral countrysides. elaborate "structured" gardens. references to the myths and settings within an erotic context were typical elements of the Hellenistic litenry period and now can be seen in Roman "landscape" painting. Syrinx-Pan story stresses the erotic connection of the pipe and is used as a ''virginity test" as well (Ach. Tat. 8.6 and Longus 2.37). so The goatherd Lykidas competes with the city-dweller Simichidas in n song-competition, which Theocritus calls ~ou~oh~au6~o~ar(Idyll 5.44 et alia). Lykidas hands over the staff to Simichidas claiming that he is the f3r superior poet (Theocritus, idyll 7. 125). For more on the Bucolic tradition, see David M. Halperin. Befire Pastorai: Theocritus and the Ancient Tradition of Bucolic Poetry (London: Yale University Press, 1983) and Katheryn I. Gutzwiller, Theocrittis' Pastoral Artalogy: The Formasion ofa Genre (Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. 199 1). 44 A painting is a depiction of "frozen time" but a painter can certdy load the painting with specific images to heighten the mood and feeling of the work. Just as Dubois suggests that the epic ekphrasis has three functions, citation, milestone and synecdoche, so this painting contains the same elements. Allusion to Theocritus fulfils the citation element while the painting acts as a milestone to denote the hero's progress. The smaller aside narrative of 7he Odyssey reveals that one day Polyphemus will become blind. Blindness is the synecdoche or metaphor for Polyphemus' love. He will never have Galatea and one day will lose hsability to even see her. The nmtive is structured in space and reinforced by the figures who are frozen in a moment of time. This is the epitome of the static visual arts and like one aspect of an ekphrasis, the story line is suspended by means of the anistic representation of the work. Yet. in the painting, we see the narrative aside of the Odyssey revealing that the nmative is not completely frozen but condensed. This aside begins another pmof the narrative just as another aspect of the ekphrasis moves the novel dong. This is the central connection between paintings and Litemcure-the ekphrasis of an art-work is a "condensed" narrative placed within a continuous narrative used to enhance he mood, symbolism and "visualness" of the story. CHAPTER FOUR: ASPECTS OF THE ART-WORK EKPHRASIS IN THE ROMANCE NOVEL The influence of both the litenry and visual arts on the Second Sophistic movement enabled the ancient novelists to expand the skphrasis into an integral part of their imagery. The chart on page 46 outlines the proposed pattern of the art-work ekphnsis, focus amoenlrs description. character description and erotic encounter in each novel. Chariton's novel has no art-work ekphrasis nor locus amoenus description while one can say that Longus' novel with its pastoral theme is one large lonls arnoenris setting. Apuleius has the "Cupid and Psyche" story set within the main story frame and even this minor story features all the components of the pattem while the main story integrates the locris arnoenus as a major part of its art-work ekphnsis. In fact, several an-work ekphraseis contain a "painted" lonrs urnoenus such as Tatius' E~iropaand Andromeda paintings. Longus places an art-work ekphrasis in the center of a locus amoenlrs description while Heliodorus' two character descriptions "'outshine" the opening setting on the banks of the Nile. Some characters are compared to art works. for example in Apuleius where Photis the maid is compared with Apelles' painting of Venla Rising, in Heliodoms' comparison of Chvikleia to the Androrned~z painting. I have also included on the chart character descriptions of secondary chancten as well as two late Byzantine novels that employ this panern and were obviously highly intluenced by the ancient novel. The following section will discuss the typical aspects of the art-work ekphnsis. including the descriptions and role within each novel, the types of an-works. the physical placement and placement within the novel and rhe mythological content. Chapter 5 will examine the specific novels in relation to the proposed pattem and refer to these aspects as they are relevant. a) Description and the role of the art-works Although Chariton does not feature an art-work ekphrasis, he does give a description of Callirhof holding her baby, "a beautiful sight. the Like of which no painter has yet portrayed, nor sculptor fashioned, nor poet described before now: for none of them has represented .Artemis or Athena with a baby in her arms" (3.8.5-6). Chariton plays upon the irony of the situation but his reference to an art-work could have been the impetus for the novelists who followed him. Each ekphrasis has a mythologicd theme and the themes in turn define the "condition" of each story. In Xenophon's Ephrsiacrl there is a short depiction of the sexual encounter of Ares and Aphrodite ( 1.5.1-3) on a tapestry hung over the marriage bed which anticipates the union of hthiaand Habrocomes. The extra-marital affair between the deities also symbolizes the conflict between love and war and foreshadows the problems that the couple will encounter throughout the romance. In hpuleius' ~Cletclmorphoses.there is an elaborate description of a statuary group depicting .Actaeon being changed into a stag as he watches Diana bathe (2.4) which symbolizes and foreshadows the similar fate of the male hero. Lucius: after seeing a naked witch apply a potion that turns her into a bird. Lucius attempts rhe same procedure but applies the wrong potion and becomes an ass. Tormented throughout the story he eventually returns to his human form and becomes a priest of isis. Achilles Tatius' Lertcippe cznd Clitophon describes a painting of Europa who is being abducted by Zeus in the guise of a bull ( 1.2- 13), a foreshadowing of Lrucippe's abduction. The other three rkphraseis in Tatius' romance,' the paintings of the rescue of Andromeda by Perseus (3.6.14), the chaining of Prometheus (3.6.7.1) and a scene depicting the myth of Tereus and Philomela (5.3.4-S), symbolize the violent adventures that both hero and heroine must endure throughout their travels. ' See further p. 92ff. 48 Lonps bea@ Daphnir and Chloi! with a description of a painting found on the wall of a temple dedicated to the Nymphs (Proem 1.1-2). Each image represents the chxacters of the novel and depicts their various adventures. Longus admits in a passage immediately following the ekphrasis that, "After seeing cthe painting> and being amazed, I felt a desire to record this painting, and after 1 found a guide to explain the image. 1 produced four books; an offering to Eros, the Nymphs and Pan. which resulted in a pleasurable possession for dl hurnanicy.'? Here the painting provides an impetus for the entire romance. As Pandiri points out. Longus is not completely swept away by desire (noeor) but. like the painter. "presents a vision of reality under control.'^ Hunter aptly points out the reciprocl element between the author who sees "a most pleasant and inspiring an-work" and creates an entire novel that relates these images to text and results in an offering or ava8qpa for the gods who inspired him? This term. ava0~lpa is often vanslated as n "votive offering" or a work of art, such as a sculpture. The most significant anistic influence is found in Heliodorus' Aetlziopicn. Chariklria. the heroine. is conceived while her parents make love under a wall painting of Andromeda and Perseus (4.8.4-j).j The imag of Andromeda. as seen by her father. is imbedded in his mind and passed along through the conception process. 3s her mother Pcninna explains: "I knew the reason: during your father's intimacy with me the painting had presented me with the image of Andromeda. who was depicted stark naked. for Perseus was in the very act of releasing her from the rocks. and had unfortunately shaped the embryo to her exact likeness" (J.S.5)? Anderson points out Proem 1.3: i6ov-ra p~ KU~eaupacrav~a TTO~O~ E~EV uvr\ypayal mj ypaqq. ~ai ava The type of art-work varies in the novels but the most common genre is painting: there are four paintings in Ach Tat. 1.2.1. 3 -7.1,and 5.3.4;two paintings in Longus Proem and 4.3: two tapestries in Xm. Eph. 1.Y 2-3 and Ach. Tat. 5.3.4 which is n painting of Philomela who is shown holding a tapestry of her rape; a sculpture in hpul. 2.4; and a belt in Heliod. 4.8.1 which alludes to a painting (4.8.5).Longus places his second set of paintings (4.3) inside a shrine which is set within Lmo's garden (4.1-1). The Babylonian tapestry found over the nuptial bed in Xm.Eph. 1.Y .2 suggests that it was probably "imported" to enhance the wrdth of the parents while at the same time it retlects the typical "eastern" eroticism of the novel. Chariton mentions two sculptures instead of the painted image: a golden statue of Cdlirhoe (3.6.3) and a description of Callirhoe depicted like a statue (3.5.5-6).However. he does mention a 3molden bed covered with u blanket of Ty rian purple and Babylonian weave.%hich are fitting for the Eastern setting of his novel. The Roman Apuleius chooses a different medium- a very complicated statuary earoup depicting the myth of Diana and Actaeon that tills the atrium of a house (1.4). Unlike the other writers with their flat two-dimensional paintings. Apuleius can direct our attention literally around the statuary grouping. His sense of motion presents a most vivid encounter to Lucius and of course the reader. First, the statue of Diana made of Pxian marble (Parilrs). placed in the center of the room (totius loci medietarem) comes ht6~i The physical placement of art-works varies but they are typically placed in either temples or in houses of wedthy "art" patrons. In Lr~icipprand Clirophon. the "Europa" painting was painted on the wall of the temple of Astane at Sidon. the double painted "chained" images of Andromeda and Prometheus were seen at the temple of Zeus at Prlusium. while the Tcreus and Philomela painting is seen in an artist's studio in Alexandria. In Dnphnis and CMoL the opening painting is seen in a temple dedicated to the Nymphs while the Dionysian irnases occur in a temple dedicated in his name: both temples are found on Lrsbos, recalling the great love poets-4appho and Acaeus. Apuleius' Actaeon statue group was seen in the atrium of a large house of his aunt The dogs are so real that the viewer might hear their barking (sicrmde de proximo latrarrrs ingnrerit);the shadows $earned from the marbIe (splendet intus limbra signi de nitore Lapidis): art rivaled nature (anaernlrfa rraalrae); the apples were ready tbr plucking (posse decerpi); the waves possessed movement (veriratis nec agitatiu~iisofticio carere). Cf. Pliny N.H. 35.24 who mentions that crows were so deceived that they attempted to land on cr well-painted roof painted on a stage set. 5 1 Byrrhena in Thessaly and in both Ephesiacn and Artiziopicn the art-works are found in bedchambers of wealthy patrons. lo d) Placement within the novel's structure Placement in the novel appears to be a crucial issue. An ekphnsis of a painting begins both Lucippe and Clitophon and Dnphnis and Chlo2. soliciting the reader's attention and introducing the themes of the novel-abductions, young lovers and adventure. Heffernan refers to both stories as "the story of a passionate quest that originates in response to a painting."" After his opening ekphrasis. Achilles Tatius follows through with a series of formal descriptions to form the proposed pattern: first an ekphrasis of the Europa painting, then a description of Leucippe comparing her beauty (and possibly her sexuality)" to Europa's (1.4). then a description of a garden ( 1.15)." The fist book ends with Clitophon stating that Lcucippe's beauty surpassed dl (1.19). Within the garden setting is a highly structured description of the trees. flowers, the natural spring and the birds, which retlects much of the derail found in the Europa painting. Throughout Book One. there is an emphasis on light and coiour. 3oarden-like motifs and eroticism. Everything within this pattern is connected by synonymous words and images. Tatius shows off his "style" by mentioning that even the swallows in the garden sing of Tereus' banquet ( 1.15.8). which foreshadows the third painting ekphrasis later in book 5. Clitophon. now aroused by the chmsof - Itl The location of the bedchamber in Ephrsiuctr is unclear, but the hct that. "the girl was led to the bedchamber (....fiyov jv~opqv ei~ TOV eal\apov ... : 1.8.1) suggests that the chamber was in the house of Habrocomes' faher, Lykomedes, who was the "first of a11 who held power in Ephesus ('Hv tv 'Epfoq avfip T&V ~6 rrpc5~a~KET ~UV~V~VWV .... : 1.1.1 ). In Airhiopikn. the bedchamber is one of the chambers in the house of King Hydslspes and Queen Persinna at Meroe in Ethiopia (4.3.3). " Heffernan 57. ' See further p. 92ff. 'Veauthor of Digenes Akritas follows a similar pattern in the opening of book 6. There is formal description of the tent garden (6.425) followed by a comparison of Eudokia with the garden (6.29-37). There follow some heroic deeds and then a sexual encounter occurs between Digenes and Eudokia (6.170). Book six ends with a description of the Amazon hIartimo (6.406- 413). who battles with Digenes. After Digenes defeats hlaxirno, he ''rapes*' her in a garden (Tre 6.2646-7). This sexual encounter with Maximo is tbund only in the Trebizond manuscript but seems consistent with this outline. 52 Leucippe and urged on by his cousin, attempts a "rape" early in Book two, which is spoiled by Leucippe's mother. All four elements of the "'garden" pattern occur almost in sequence (ekphrasis, virgin description. locris nmoenus, erotic encounter) and almost within one book. The opening ekphrasis of the painting in Daplrnis and ChZot? is the basis for the entire romance. iU1 the elements of the tale are described on the painted wall as follows: there rue abandoned babies and shepherds in Book one (yuvai~~stn' airrij~~iu~ouaat ~ai&Aha1 mapyavot5 ~oopoCaai.rraibia EKKE~UEV~.noi~~vla ~picpov~a): pirates who descend on Lrsbos from bfethymna in Book two (Ar~crrOv~a~abpopi): there is m incursion of enemies (nohs~iovi~pohi) in Book three. who are possibly the suitors for Chloe and the older woman for Daphnis: and in Book four. Daphnis and Chloe finally consummate their love (v~olmv~10dprvot). Each book opens with some description of a locrrs nrnoenri~~~3s well: in Book one. the garden is briefly described by the nymphs' grove: in Book two. Philetas describes his own garden where he sees Eros : there is a short description of Dryas' yard in Book three ; and finally in Book four. there is an elaborate and pivotal description of Lamo's garden. Kestner cdls this "a pictorial frme for his verbal nmative."15 Montague suggests that the ekphnsis acts like the cover of a modem romance (notably Hariequin) to "awaken the visual imagination and promotes a sensuous attitude in the retlder."l6 Throughout the story. there are several flowery comparisons between the two youths and in Books three and four, there are two erotic encounters which occur in nature: Daphnis losing his virginity to ;m older woman by a spring and Lmpis' mock "rape'' of Chi& when he destroys Lamo's garden. Mittelstadt ( 196'7) 55-6 equates these locale or seasonal breaks "static descriptions" which break the namtive. l5 Kestner 167. l6 Montngue 236. 53 In Book four, all four se,ments of my proposed pattern appear, although in a different order. The second art ekphis in Daphnis and Chloi.' , describing the Dionysian scenes, is positioned in a small temple (4.3) embedded in the center of a description of Lamo's garden (4.2-3).Jack Winkler calls this ekphrasis "a frozen image of violence" that foreshadows two attempted "rapes" in the fourth book." Shortly after this description, Lmpis destroys the garden after being spurned by Chloe in a symbolic "rape" of Chloe (4.7). Then after this. Gnathon. a drunkard who is in love with Daphnis, describes the youth with familiar flower and jewel images and tries to seduce him but fails (-1.17). Finally. after Daphnis and Chloe are revealed to their aristocratic parents. the book ends with the culmination of their marriage in a night of love (4.40). Although Apuleius does not open his romance with an ekphrasis. one does occur near the opening of the second book (3.4). A short description of the hero Lucius (1.3) precedes the ekphrasis and is followed by an elaborate description of Photis the maid whom he seduces (2.7-9). Shortly after this, the two have their tint sexual encounter (2.16-17). When Photis removes her clothes for this. not only is she described as "Venus rising from the sea" but she also positions herself in the same erotic pose.[J With dus description. Apuleius foreshadows the formal description of Venus in the Cupid and Psyche story (4.3 1) which may also allude to an actual painting of the scene.19 The Cupid and Psyche story follows a similar pattern. Venus is described as a "quasi-painting," followed by a description of Psyche compared to Venus20 and a description of Cupid's grove and his house (5.I).?' Within his house are l7 Winkler 1234. 18 t\puI. 2.17: in specirm Vrnrris quae rnarino~~flrrcrrrssabir pprilchre reforrnata md taking up the same position: paulisper rtiarn glabelfurn~krninalrosea palnlrila potius oburnbrans dr indrisrria qriam regens verecimdia. 13 Note the use of "rose" in both passages: Photis' hands (rosea palmula) and Venus's feet (plarrrisque roseis). I0 Apul. 4-28-29:ur ipsanl prorsus lieam Venerem venerabunrur. 21 Psyche's travel by the wind Zephyr to Cupid's house recalls the lifting chiton of Europa in Moschus ( 127- 129) and Tadus ( 1.2.13) and foreshadows Nonnos' scene of Europa's chiton being lifted by Bores ( 1.69-7 1 ). 54 art-works and enough gold to make its own sunlight from within." After this series of descriptions, Cupid furtively makes love to a naive Psyche and announces that now he "had made Psyche his wife.'"J Xenophon, Chariton and HeliodorusL4 do not use the garden as a central aspect of the ekphrastic outline that I am proposing, but all three authors use garden imagery. Xcnophon begins with descriptions of the two heroes, Habrocomes ( 1.1.1-6) and .4nthia (1.2.5-7). followed by an art-work ckphrasis ( 1.5.2-3), and then narntes their erotic encounter (3.8.4). Like Longus and Tatius. Heliodorus opens his book with an elaborate description25 of a battle scene set on the river banks of the Nile ( 1.1.1) bur the description of the massacred people. some still caught up in their festivities when they were slaughtered. suggests a description of an rut-work-as though the chmcten were caught "frozen" in rime or staged. This follows with a description of Charikleia holding Theapnes in a "Madonna and Chnst" pose ( 1.1.1-3). Separate descriptions of Charikleia ( 1.1.3-6) and Thragenes (2.35.1) reveal their great beauty. their mutual attraction tbr each other and their similarities to Artemis and Achilles. Towards the end of the ring composition in Book Five, there is a description of the painting of .Andromeda and Perseus (4.8.3) which reveals that the conception of Chdeia took place under this painting (4.8.4-5). As the story resumes. the hero and heroine almost enter into a sexual relation but Charikleia persuades Theagenes to wait until they rue properly married (5.4.4-j), which occurs at the end of the romance. The proposed pattern established by Tatius, Longus and Xpuleius can also be seen in the Byzantine r~rnances.?~In Digenes Akritns. there are two groups of -- 22 Apui. 5.2: diem silrlnl sibi donttis~aciatlicer sole nukmrr: sic cubicula, sic ponictrs, sic ipsae bulnrae filgrrrant. 3 Apul. 5.4: rt ruorern sibi Psychen fererar. Hanson's transiation. Hetiodorus mentions a garden (8.14.3) but it comes too late in the story and does not fit into the pattern of this thesis. Heliod. 1.1.7 uses the verb related to the word "epideixis" to reinforce his opening ~ai TO~OJT~V06a~pov Aqu-rai~ Aiymmiots htbri$a(. 26 See chm 1 for details. Although these two romances fail outside the parameters of my thesis. I feel that they should be taken into account as a later development and perhaps one day 1 will 55 descriptions: first, a description of a tent garden (6.428) and a comparison of Digenes' wife Eudokia to the garden (6.29-37)" and second, the description of the frieze paintings in Digenes' house (7.44- 10 1) which occur after a very elaborate description of his garden (7.64). Glllirnachos and Chrysorrlzol begins with a short description of a ,oarden (276-300) and then a series of "ekphnstic" descriptions of the various rooms of the castle. including a large painting of the Olympian gods with Ares and Aphrodite cavorting rogether?Y (-126438). Prior to the description of the maiden (808-828), the two make love in the bath (772-775). Without a doubt, the influence of the ancient novel is seen in the late Byzantine period. e) ;\Iythological context the an-works, apart from the opening pastoral painting of Dnpllnis and Cltlo& illustrate various myths and their corresponding divinities. When comparisons are made with the heroine. the two most frequently and appropriately mentioned deities are Aphrodite (beauty and desire) and Arternis (virginity and uncon~ollablenature): Anha and Artemis ( 1.2.5-7); Chuikleia and Artemis ( L -2.5-4);Cdlirhoe and Aphrodite ( 1.1.1): Photis and Aphroditr (1.7.9): and Chrysorrhoe and Aphrodite (808- Y 28).:' The myth of Andromeda and Perseus occurs twice in the romances (Ach. T~lt. and Hrliod). The other myths often show the gods involved in some kind of sexual encounter with mortals: Europa and Zeus (dch. Tar.), Actaeon and Arternis (April.). and Sernelc and Zeus (Longlis)as well as between aristocratic mortals (Tereus and Philomela Uclz. Ttrt.). Only in the ekphraseis of Chariton and Cnllirnac~rosand address hem. 3 %¶avrogordato256-6 extensively lists the various passages in Digenes Akn'ros either taken from or baed upon AchilIes Tatius and Heliodorus. 1Y The author uses the word "ouprrcxi Semele. violently destroyed. The main character of the abduction is typically a young maiden who must be a rrap8fvo5 or virgin of marriageable age ( 15-2 1). She is beautiful enough to attract the perpetrator of the act and typically the daughter of a king or leading citizen (CallirhoC: Hermocntes. tyrant of Syracuse: Anthia: Megmedes and Euhippe, citizens of Ephesus: Leucippe: Sostratus of Ty re. brother of Hippias. father of Clitophon; Chloe: Megacles. lord of klytilene: Chllrikleia: Hydrastus and Persinna. king and queen of Ethiopia). Like their female counterparts. the males are beautiful and spring from royal lineages (Chaereas: Ariston. second citizen to Hermocrates: Lucius: Sdvia of Rome: Habrocomes: Lykomedes. first of the Ephesians and hs wife Themisto: Clitophon: Hippias of Tyre : Daphnis: Diony sophmes. lord of Mytilene: Theagenes: descendmr of Achilles). Often they are compared to heroes rather than gods but unlike the "heroic" male of cl myth. the romance hero is lacking in dl the "right stuff' to be a hero: Clitophon acts more like a coward than a hero, Daphnis shows his "rustic" roots. Lucius is demoted physically and perhaps mentally to an ass. while Habrocomes never 30 The various "eastern" myths are also inferconnected. Three romances are connected to the Phoenician Cadmos. who is related to Europa (Ach. Tit.), Actaeon (Apul.) and Semele (Longus): Europo was abducted by Zeus and taken to Crete where she married the Cretan king hterius and bore Minos. Rhadarnanthys and Sqedon. Europa's brother Cadrnos, who went to look for her, founded Thebes and manied Hmonia, daughter of Ares and Aphrodite. They had a daughter, Semefe, mother of Dionysus. Actaeon was the son of Autonoii, another daughter of Cadmos. According to Apollodorus (2.4. I) and Herodotus (7.61). Perseus, who founded the Persian kings, was the son of Danae rind Zeus and he appears in two romances (Ach. Tat. and Heliod.). In the Prokne and Philomela myth found in Ach. Tat., Tereus is the son of Ares. 57 seems to catch up to his bride's captors. Only Chaereas and Theagenes achieve some Sexual encounters have a certain pattern as weii.3' In the oldest novels, Chaereos and C~zllirhoi.'and Ephesiaca, the young couples are wed and have intercourse within the fitportion of their stories, but in Lericippe and Clitophon. Daphnis and Chloi! and Aithiopikn, the main characters do not have sexual intercourse with each other. Instead the heroes have sexual encounters with more "contident" md manied partners- Daphnis with Lycaeniurn and Clitophon with Melite. The most obvious case of out-of-wedlock sexual encounter occurs between Lucius and the maid Photis (2.16- 17) while Eros slides in and out of bed with Psyche even before they are married (5.4). However. the heroes attempt to seduce the heroines but to no avail--Clitophon and Lrucippe are caught by her mother (2.23) and Theagenes tries to hopelessly persuade Charikleia (5.4.4-5). Young males of the mcient world did not normally concern themselves with retaining their virginity until they were married, but as Simon Goldhill and Michael Anderson suggest. Christianity may have affected the views of Heliodorus and possibly Tutius in regards to chastity.') Yet even in the later "Christian period romances, Digenes has two separate sexual encounters while Callimachos has an encounter with Chrysorrhoe. .An image placed on a temple displays the "piety" of the people towards that divinity but Longus' opening painting on the wall of the Nymphs suggests that there is a connection between the mortals' story and the gods. Longus. perhaps with a great 3 The male virgins Chaereas ( 1.1.31 and Theagenes (2.35.1.4.3.2. and 4.5.5) are compared to Achilles, the great "morral" hero. while Habrocomes is compared to a god ( 1.1.1-6)-Clitophon and Lucius, who are the namtors of their separate tales, do not compare themselves to anyone else-divine nor heroic. 3' Littlewood states that seven gardens have erotic action taking place in them: Achilles Titius' Leucippe and Clitophan, Digenes Akrires, Eustathios Mrzkem boli tes' Hysime and Hysirninius, Callimacl~osand CItgsorrhoi!+ Belrharzdros and Ctt~santa.Libistros and Rhodmne and Byzanrine Achillei's: Litdewood. BMCS 5 (1979) 97 n. 12. See aiso his excellent survey in the appendix to the same article. 33 Goldhill 22-23 and Anderson (1997) 320. 58 degree of mockery, has elevated Daphnis and Chld to godlike images and thus created hs own myth by illustrating their story on a sacred site and then relating it by means of his novel. Yet. the powers of each myth are transposed through the power of the visuai image and reconstructed by these authors into the tales of the young Loves. This power of the visual image is underscored by the creative msformation of Andromeda into Charikieia in Heliodorus' work. Central to the abduction myth and thromance novel is the aspect of uavel, and in particular, to the cost. which was intluenced by Alexander's tn~els.3~Just as Pearphone unwillingly journeys to the Underworld or Europa is taken to Crete. all the heroines are abducted and uavel. typically through either Ionia. Phoenicia. Egypt or Persia. One aspect of ekphrasis reveals that specific places. deity worship. characters and the myths are interconnected. Three gods hold important positions within the novel: Artemis. whose major centre was Ephesus: Aphrodite. who was also worshipped as Astarte: and Helios. the sun god. Anthia. Thengenes and Charikleia were servants of Artemis. Leucippe was reunited with Clitophon at Ephesus after losing his virginity there with >[elite. Antha and Habrocomes celebrate their wedding night at Ephesus. Lrrrcippr and Clitophon opens with the ekphnsis of Europa at the temple of Astarte at Sidon while Callirho2 is finally reunited with Chaerells at the temple of Aphrodite on Cyprus. Anthia and Habrocomes are reunited at the temple of Helios on Rhodes just as Charikleia and Theapnes are reunited before the temples of Helios and ScleneJ5 in Ethiopia. The idea that novels may have serious religious implications has circulated with modem scholars for decades. Every novel seems to "serve" its appropriate deity. Witt and ~Merklebachsuggest that two goddesses. Isis and .Artemis, in particular. are the 34 Journeys are the mainstay of the romance, Typically they went eastward (see the charts in Litoublon's book. prior to his introduction). See p. 3 1. 35 Cook 526-53 1 shows that Europa was also connected to Selene or the Moon goddess. 59 focus of these romances.36Many of the chmcters are either followers or priests- priestesses, and Lucius becomes a priest of Isis. Yet if we look at Apuleius. who seems to satirize the novel, can we say that he was making a religious novel? Perhaps when Lucius is changed back into a human, his satire gains a religious dimension. Or are we reading too much into a book that is an "mtenainment"? The religious intent of the novelists remains uncertain, but the religious characters of specific myths are certainly prominent in the novel. See Merklebach, R. Roman tcnd ,tlysreritrm. (Munich: Beck. 1962) and Wi tt. R.E. "Xenophon's [siac Romance,'*Isis in the Graeco-Roman World, (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1971): 243- 54. CBWPTER FIVE: CHARACTER DESCRIPTIONS, THE LOCUS AMOENUS, AND THE ART-WORK EKPHRASIS IN THE ROMANCE NOVELS The ancient novelists were fascinated by Eastern motifs such as travel, exotic people and places. violence and passion, unbelievable and yet plausible stories which they reinforced with images of art-works and descriptions of the characters and the loars amomus. The earliest novelists began to develop these images, but by the time of Achilles Tatius this pattem became so interwoven hat some of the plot worked around these descriptive passages so that art and literature became one medium. The visualness of each novelist depends on numerous factors. from the story-line to the level of education to the ability to generate "vivid" images effectively. This chapter will examine each author in regard to the proposed pattem beginning with Chariton and Xenophon who begin to develop character descriptions, show the similarities between Longs and Tatius as they "play" with bcrrs nrnoenlu descriptions. and examine the various features of the art-work ekphrasis. from the eroticism and violence of Tatius. the satire of Apuleius. and the rejection of the akphrasis by Heliodorus. a) Descriptio in Chariton and Xenophon of Ephesus Chariton wrote the first extant romance novel. The basic story is that the tymt Herrnocrates of Syracuse' had a most beautiful daughte? Callirhoe ( 1.1.2) who falls in love with handsome Chaereas, son of the second most important man in Syracuse. .4riston. They meet at the temple of Aphmdite. fall in love. get married and enjoy their wedding night together but on the following day, Chaereas accidentally kicks his wife unconscious and thinks that he has "killed" her. She is entombed alive and while the The tyrant who defeated the Athenians in 4 13 B.C.E. Goold 10 suggests that Callirhoe's name was invented although Hermocntes' daughter did marry Dionysius I who ruled from 405 - 367 B.C.E. but was succeeded by his son Dionysius II. not Chaereas. Plutarch Dion. 3.2 claims that Dionysius' wife committed suicide, ' Not just a beautiful daughter but a "a wondrous thing of a virgin and an idol of all of SiciIy." 61 city mourns her death, pirates led by Theron3 break in and steal away Callirhoe who is sold into slavery at ~Wems.The wealthy satrap Dionysios sees her and immediately falls in love with her but his slave discovers that she is pregnant and bargains a marriage amngement with her. CallirhoE agrees to marry Dionysios if he will claim the child as his own, which he does and he throws a lavish wedding which includes honoring her with a statue.' Meanwhile, Chaereas, who has now learned the truth about the pirates, sets off to find her and by chance lands near Dionysios' estate. Chaereas and his friend Polychmus accidentally reveal themselves when they recognize Callirhoe's statue. Phocas. the steward of Dionysios persuades the local Persian garrison to attack Chaereus' shp. and its entire crew are either captured or killed. Chmreas and Polycharmus are sold to ~ithridates.~the sauap of Caria. Cdfirhoe leasthat Chmreas was on board and believes that he was killed. Her grief is only abated when Dionysios builds a vast tomb for Chaereas. Mithridates agrees to help Chaereas after hearing of his plight and sends a letter written by Chaereas to Cdlirhoe, which is intercepted by Dionysios. A feud brews between the two satraps and the complaint is sent to the Persian king%ho hears of her beauty and requests to see her in person in Babylon. Mithridates produces Chaereas as Callirhoe's husband to acquit himself and now the king must decide who is really Callirhoe's husband. The king too is taken with her beauty but fortunately for Callirhoe a revolt occurs in Eupt and she is spared the king's desires. Chaereas joins the Egyptians after believing that Callirhoe was handed over to Dionysios. During the revolt. the Egyptian king is killed but Chaereas defeats the Persian navy. capturing the island that contains the king's treasure. wife and Callirhe. Finally they are reunited thanks to the gods of Love and Fate and after returning the king's wife Statira to the Persian king, they return to ' Apul. 7.5 also mentions this villian. Placed at the shrine of Aphrodite of course! ' This is the real Mithridates found in Xenophon the historian, The Persian king, according to Goold 1 1 is merxesand his wife Statira (see Plut. Arraremes 5.3 and Xen. Anabasis I. 1.1 ). 62 Syracuse for a fmal reunion with family and city. Callirhoe returns to the temple of Aphrodite and asks that they never be separated again. Boy meets girl. they fall in love, they marry and then they are immediately separated but after numerous twists of hte they are reunited and "live happily ever after." The plot of the ancient romance novel was "created" with Chariton and is followed by Xenophon of ~phesus.' Four motifs begun by Chariton are maintained throughout the other novels: the main characters are physically beautiful children of leading citizens (or kings), which arouses desire by dl who see them. travel sepxates the couple for much of the story while only fate or luck reunites them, and fmally deception occurs frequently throughout-nothing redly appears "true." Yet some notable changes occur after these two early novels. First the couples are no longer married early in the story but instead the emphasis shifts onto the young girl's anempt to retain her virginity throughout each tale. Second and most important to the thesis, the art-work rkphrasis becomes a major part of the story. Art-work references occur in Chariton and there is a shon rkphrasis in Xenophon which follows the chmcter descriptions and leads immediately to the erotic encounter. but dl these descriptions are brief und not as developed as the others. Third, the locrcs umoenus is notably abxnt in both Chariton and Xenophon but the later novelists will develop this motif dong with the art-work ekphrasis into rhe suggested pattern. i) Character descriptions Chariton describes Callirhoe thirteen times in his novel. Although his descriptions are shon compared with other descriptive passages of the other novelists. he does emphasize the fact that Callirhoe is a "most beautiful" girl. He fmt compares her to Aphrodite, who is the governing deity throughout the novel. as follows, "ln fact ' According to Schmeling (1980) 24. Xenophon of Ephesus based his love story between the "two most beautiful people in the Near East. if not the world" on the Pantheia love story of Xenophon the Athenian. 63 her beauty was not so much human as divine, not that of a Nereid or mountain nymph, but of Aphrodite herself" and five more comparisons to Aphrodite follow: at Leonas' house near ~iletus~a picture of the goddessTtOat her wedding to ~ionysios,"as news of her spreads to Babylon, " and in the find comparison modeled on a painting of Venrts Rising by ~~el1es.l~Again in Book 3 Chariton plays with the Aptuodite motif when Chaereas and his ship are conveniendy shipwrecked at a shrine of Aphrodite near Metus and he asks the goddess, "You fist revealed Callirhoe to me in your festival. now I beg of you to give her back."" As if his prayers were answered, immediately he sees beside the goddess *'agolden image of Callirhoe."15 This image16 of the goddess recalls the "divine*' or 8~Tovstatus of Callishoe as seen in her first description (8~iov). The reasons for choosing Aphrodite are numerous and most appropriate for a romance. Aphrodite is the goddess of love. she is the most beautiful of goddesses and mortals. her son Eros "guides" a11 lovers. But possibly the main reason for Chdton is that she was the patron of his city ~phrodisias.'' A temple was dedicated to Aphrodite here and her followers were so loyal that her worship still flourished during the time of -- Char. 1.1. I: fiv yap TO rahho~our av8pchrrtvov hhhh B~iov.0668 NqpqiGo~fi Nirpqqs TC;~V O~EI&V ahh' am5 'AqpoGiqs. Trans. Goold. Ibid.. I. 14.1: oia 61i 60roGv~ayB~av twpaa~va~. ~ai yap jv TI^ Aoyo~iv ~075aypoi~ 'AcppoGiqv brr1paivau0at."a if they had set eyes on n goddess. for rumour had it that Aphrodite could be seen in the fields." Trans. Goold. Ibid. 2.1.6: 805~15.i) y&a1. 8~aaap(vq~ilv 'App08iqv ~i~6vaP~ETTELV UECIU~~~. "Lady, when you see Aphrodite you wit1 think you are looking at a picture of yourself." Trans. Goold. Ibid. 3.2.16: nav~~so6v hv~~oqoav( tj 'AcppoGiq yap€>. Everyone shouted. "Aphrodite is the bride!" Trans. Goold. Ibid., 4.7.5: 'Ap~fp151irihrl fi xpuo~iq'AqpoGiq. 'like unto Artemis or to Aphrodite the golden'." Trans. Goold. As suggested by Goold 40 1. Ibid.. 8.6.1 1 : EBoSE 6L ET~aai alirais Kahhqoqv ( aahhio ) yqovival. &UTE aAqeQ5 ~im5Bv ahjv 6pEv rilv 'AgpoGiqv ava8uopbqv h( nis 8ahaaq~."...you would redly have said that you were looking at Aphmdite herself rising from the sea," Trans. Goold. Char. 3.6.3: rrpcb~KaAAlpoqv E6eCas iv rj mj bpq-air aai vharro8os. fiv hapioo. [bid., 3.6.3: napa rSlv ~EOVE~KOV~ Kcxhhtpoq~ xpucniv. The "offering" or ava&1pa was typically a votive statue. Longus uses the same term in the Proem when he offers his book as an offering to Pan and the Nymphs. Sc hmeling ( 1974) 19-2 1. 64 Justinian (527-565 C.E.) long after Christianity had been established in the ~rn~ire.'~ Chariton. a citizen of Aphrodisias, states that he will relate the events of a love story or rrCreo5 J~OTIIC~V'~( 1.1. I), then immediately compares CalhhoE to Aphrodite ( 1.13, briefly mentions the beauty of Chaereas ( 1.1 .I), which of course intrigues Eros ( L. 1.4) and culminates in the meeting of the two "lovers" at the temple of Aphrodite during her public feast ( I. 1.5). Six of the thirteen descriptions of Callirhoi! compare her to the goddess of love, md considering this is the first extant romance, the author comes from a city bearing the goddess' name and that numerous sculptures of Aphrodite made. especially in Roman gardens." the homage to Aphrodite is most appropriate. In fact. Stephens and Winkler suggest that lm earlier fragmentary romance. the Ninus Romance was possibly written by Chariton as well. since at one point in Aphrodisias' history the city was called Ninoe. which resembles the tide of the romance." The city. according to Schmeling,--'7 was originally home to the Great Mother goddess Cybele which further connects with the Eastern motif. Finally a more subtle connection comes in the "watery" name that he chose for the maiden Callirhoe (beautiful stream), which is similar to the watery name of Aphrodite (born of csem foam). Before Callirhiie is married she is compared appropriately to hemis. goddess of virginity, but two other comparisons occur after her marriage and birth of her baby.'3 Although appearing out of context. one does seem proper and lays the foundation for others to follow. During a hunt, the king of Persia desires to see Callirho5 dressed for the occasion -as Artemis the huntress (6.4.5). Two allusions. -- In Ibid.,21. I'1 xu805 has a dual meaning: "to experience" Iove or "to suffer" love: the noveI in general tends to involve the latter meaning. "' Iasherns ki 1 24- 13 1. " Stephens and Winkler 26-?: Schmeling ( 1974) 20. Schmeling (1974) 20. '3 There is a dual comparison to either ,Artemis or Aphrodite as quoted tiom Homer when she arrives at Babylon (4.7.5) but the passage in briet? 'Aprf~~Gt~KEA~ fi xpuu~ig 'A~poGiq. "like Artemis or Aphdite the golden." 65 possibly three occur here. First, it is a direct quote from ~orne?'' when Odysseus fmt sees Nausikaa playing ball with her companions and he aptly compares her to Artemis: oiq 6' 'Apnpt~~bt K~T' ocp~o~ ioxia~pa. fi ~a~aTq\jY~tov TTEPI~~~KETOV i) 'EpGpav0ov. rrp~opivq~arrporar ~ai cj~~iqs ihaqo~ut. "even so roves the archer Artemis over the mountains. along the ridges of Tayptus or Erymmthus, as she delights in the hunt of boar or speedy deer." This Homeric image of a young maiden whose natural beauty stands out amidst her companions seems unnatural for the Aphrodite image of Cdlirhoe, now o grown woman (3.7.3)." Instead. we have an example of Chariton the sophist who shows off his knowledge of Homer since he cites the bard twenty-four tirnes.16 Why Homerb?A link to a heroic past. the simple elegant style of Homer. and proof of Chariton's ed~cation'~are some answers but his choice of Artemis needs Further scrutiny. The second allusion recalls the Persian hunting parks or aapa6~ioorwhere the monarch and his extended family privately hunted wild animals. The hunt is another example of the Eastern motif and recalls especially Xenophon's Cyropnidriiz. Furthermore, the king's description reveals 1111 the rle,oance and wealth of the Persian nobility: "His mount was a beautiful large Nisanm horse fitted out with a bridle and cheek pieces. as well as frontlet and breastplate. all of gold. He was dressed in Tyrian purple of Babylonian weave." and wore a turban of hyacinth hue." Girt with a golden dagger, he carried two javelins, and slung about his shoulder was a bow and quiver of '' Homer. Od. 6.1021. Quite untypicsl for a Persian monarch to make! '5 Char. 3-73: OUK~TI~opqs, ahha yuva~~osa~pjv npooha~oGua. "no longer a girl but she took the prime of a woman." l6 Haight 33. See Fussillo 1985 tbr his examination of the Homeric elements in the novel. " Haight 35 points out his simple elegant Ianguage while Schmeling i1974) 25 notes that his simpie language which Frequently employs asyndeton and episodic secments results in "a kind of stiffness." Goold 2 suggests that Chariton, who was steeped in classical literature, aimed at the popular masses by his everyday koine language. '' Seen later in the king's bed covering (8.1.14). " See p. 78ff-Gill (296) notes that it suggests a dark "blue" flower (ct: Reardon). 66 the finest Chinese cnftsrnan~hip."~~Chariton contrasts the "noble" porphyry and hyacinth deep-red to the golden par of the hone to emphasize the king's wealth. Yet he contrasts the humble "huntress" clothes of Callirhoe even more when he says, "How wonderful it would be to see Callirhoe here, with her dress tucked up to her knees and her arms bared. with flushed face and heaving bosom." Here we have a contrast between the simple image of a Greek female goddess and the opulent image of a Persian man. So by employing a hunting expedition in a Persian paradise and highlighted by the elegant hng who sits upon his magnificent steed, Chariton follows the example of Xenophon the historian in aligning the Eastern motif as an important element in the romance novel. Also the word that the king employs. avacoypaqsiv or "to draw up". has visual connotations as well as written ones." This leads to our third ailusion. to Vergil: Chariton parallels the description of Venus in the Acnaid who is disguised as a huntress in the same manner. "for the huntress hung by custom from her shoulders the ready bow and gave her hair to tlow in the breezes. and with a bare knee. having gathered her tlowing robes in a knot."3' The huntress image of hemis is frequently found in art-works of the period tlnd possibly intluenced Chariton as much as Vergil who wrote the ;\meid in roughly the same time period as the earliest dating of Chariton. The image that Chariton "paints" of the heroine as Arternis becomes a standard motif in Xenophon of Ephesus. and later in ~eliodorus.~~ "I Char. 6.4.2: ~a8fjmoyap 'imq N~aaio~ahhid~y KU~ p~yiu~cg xp6a~ov i~ovr~ ~ah~vov,xp\ju~a 6i gahapa ~ainpop~~wni61a ~ai rrpocrr~pvi81a. rropq3pav 6i ipcpi~moTvpiav (TO 66 Gqaupa BaPuhCjv~ov)uai ~tapavira~tv8tvo@aqij* X~UUEOV 8i a~tva~qvthrt~~wapivo~ Giro ii~ov~a~EKP~TE~. ~ai qapC~pcr ~ai TO~OV ah@ napfipq~o, ZqpGv ipyov xohunhimcxrov. Trans. The mention of the Chinese bow and quiver attests to Chariton's date since the Chinese made contact with the Greco-Roman world in the second pm of the Lst century B.C.E. (Goold 297). Horace also mentions Chinese mows in Odes 1.29.9. ' It takes its root from "to draw or scratch" or ypaq~~vwhich can also mean to "paint" or "to write". " Arnrid 1.3 18-20: nmqlce ~crnerisde more habife~tsuspenderat arcurn N venatrir dederarque contam difindere venris. // nuda genu rlodoque sirzlis coliecra fluentis. ' See below, p. 1 1 1ff. 67 Xenophon follows faithfully the introductory motif laid out by Chariton. He begins by stating where his story begins, "In Ephesus", and continues in the same fashion: there was a man ( 1.1.1) who had a beautiful son called Habrocornes ( 1.1.2) but his beauty made Eros so jedous (1.7.1) as to instigate the meeting of Habrocomes with hthia at a festival of Artemis ( 1.2.2)." Anthia leads the procession dressed like the goddess herself with a beauty to match ( 1.2.5-7). Unlike the shon linear language of Chariton's descriptions. Xenophon lengthens the descriptive passage to a higher level of rpideictic oratory: "Anthia's beauty was an object of wonder. far surpassing the other girls. She was fourteen: her beauty was burgeoning, still more enhanced by the adornment of her dress. Her hair was golden- a little of it plaited. but most hanging loose and blowing in the wind. Her eyes were quick; she had the bright glance of a young girl, and yet the austere look of a virgin. She wore a purple tunic down to her knee. fastened with a girdle and falling loose over her m.and a fawn skin over it. a quiver attached, and arrows for weapons: she carried javelins and was followed by dogs. Often as they saw her in the sacred enclosure the Ephesians would worship her as ~rtemis."'~Whereas Chariton leaves the image open for the reader to imagine. Xcnophon points out all the necessary attributes found in both the maiden and hemis. In examining this passage. we find that the description begins from her head down. and that Xenophon cmpioys shon passages with no proper conjunctions or asyndefon. He does not describe all the features, only the appropriate ones beginning with her hair. followed by her eyes and finally ending with her clothes and the hunting weapons. Each item (noun) is listed at the opening of a colon, followed by a specific description (adjective) and then a longer action (verb) which completes each description and creates a tricolon crescendo. The entire passage uses ring composition dernarked by Schrneling (1980) 76. Hsight 5 1 also notes the sirniiarities between the two novels since both novels begin and end at the temples of their respected gods. Schmeling (1980) 2L notes that this opening gives the impression of a folk tale pointing out that Apuleius' Pqche story begins in a similar manner. See Scobie ( 1969) tbr a good general survey on sources in the novel. Xen. Eph. 1.2.5-7. Trans. Anderson- 68 words of wonder: 'The beauty of Anthia is so wondrous ..."36 ( 1.2.5) and " K~~E~~EVO~ laid over a fawn-skn v~fip't~TTE~~KEL~€VT) a quiver fastened yopu~osavqpp~vos holding arrows and spears dogs following her TO~U[ o~thaI KUVE~~XO~EVOI &KOVTE~ ~EPO~EVOI The tirst two items describe the girl and hefinal item lists the visible attributes of the goddess worn by the girl and creates a triple tricolon crescendo. This kind of structured description. absent in Chariton. shows that Xenophon was highly educated in writing and contemporary with the Second Sophistic movement. iMichael Roberts. in his smdy on literary rhetoric in late antiquity. discusses the literary use of "few words" or leprologia "to create a verbal equivalent of a work of art." employing parallelism. anaphora. chasm. asyndeton and short phrases. and separation. Robens calls this "the '"bid.. 1.2.5: 'Hv 6i TO ~ahhorfis 'Aveia~oiov 0avuaaar. ... '' Ibid., 1.2.7: ...T&V piv im' ~KTF~W*v 0~0v~ivat ~E~OVTWV. '' Anderson translates "She wore a purple tunic down to her knee, fastened with a girdle." which makes sense since the short passages often Ieave out syntactical grammar as well. 69 jeweled style."39 Besides Xenophon, this style can be found in the descriptions and ekphraseis of the later romance writers. The huntress-Artemis motif opens another facet of the heroine-that of the uncontrollable wild "virgin." This image supports Heffernan's claim40that the woman of the romance did have some power and that although she was a victim of fate, she was never fully controlled by others. Chloe began to realize her sexuality before Daphnis. Lrucippe shows a more aggressive approach to Clitophon and welcomes hm to her bed. while Charikleia shows her resolution and strength as a woman by maintaining her virginicy throughout her escapades. The "virgin" image is a perfect contrast for the sensual and seductive beauty of the Aphrodite image. Anemis is the protector of virginity and although Anthia has already lost hers. the goddess protects her from the numerous advances and near rapes by others. The image of the virgin Artemis replaces that of Aphrodite as the common sy rnbol for the heroine in the novel. Apart from the single description of Anthia. there are only two other references to women: Manto (2.3.1)and Kyno (3.12.3) who both compete for Habrocomes' attention. Xenophon follows Chariton's simple sty lr when he describes Manto, daughter ofthe pirate leader ("She was beautiful and already of marriageable age. but not nearly as beautiful as Antha") and treacherous Kyno. a woman married to (m old retired soldier ("...who was hideous to look at and much worse to listen to; she was amazingly insatiable, and her name was Kyn~").~' Habrocomes' description occurs prior to Anthia's description ( 1.1.1-6). instead of describing his physical features, Xenophon generalizes on his good looks" and '' Roberts 134. His analoey is Cy prianus*description of Aaron's breastplate which he feels pmllels the art of the jeweller. A detailed ekphmis or leptologia will often include parallelism. anaphon, chiasm. asyndeton and short phrases, and separation. "Leproiogia" is a term borrowed from AquiIa Rornanus. a third-century rhetorician (40-4 1 ). "' See above. p. 32-3. '' Kyno translates into "shedog" or roughly our derogatory word "bitch." l2 Xen. Eph. 1.1-1: &pato-rqn owpa~osh~ppahhouq "with a most exceedingly beautifui body." However the editor Hirschig deletes this phrase. The other passage mentions how his beauty grew each day, use' ipipav E~S~ahhos q\i<~-ro. mvfive~t 8i aG-rQ TOTS roc 70 focuses on his abilities such as hunting, riding, and fighting4' revealing his aristocratic education. When people began to venerate him as a god (l.l.3), he believed that he was more beautiful and powerful than Eros ( 1.1.6). This opens up the plot of the story and leads to all his troubles. In fact, when the people of Ephesus saw Habrocomes "no one admired any statue or praised any picture."" The fact that Habrocomes stood out as "more beautiful" than any statue or painting shows the influence of Chariton, who describes Chaeres as. one "whose beauty surpassed dl, resembling the statues and pictures of Achilles and Nireus and Hippolytus and ~lciabiades."~'Unlike the goddess comparisons of the female chwdcten. the romance novelists beginning from Chariton tend to favor comparisons to handsome and noble men in Greek history for their male characters, if at dl. By using divine compllrisons. Chariton developed this point that the other novelists follow: "Have you not leaned from the poets that beautiful people are the children of gods. and ell the more likely children of the nobly born?" (2.1.5). Apul. 4.28 claims that Psyche was so beautiful "that it could not be described nor even adequately praised for the sheer poverty of human ~ptrch.''~Crowds are typically overcome by a girl's beauty as in Char. 1.14.1, 3.2.16. 5.6.1 1. Xen. Eph. 1.2.5. Apul. 4.25 and Hrliod. 1.2.5-6. 3.4.16. 4.1.2, 10.9.3-4. Chloii attains her "divine" beauty only at the end of the novel. when her parentap has been revealed and when she is dressed for her upcoming marriage to Daphnis. her presentation "astounds" the crowd (4.33). Charikleia. like Callirhoc. has several divine comparisons made about ocb~a-ro~~aho75 ~ai ~a fis yuxfl5 ayaea- "every day he grew more beautiful and he btossomed with a beautiful body and noble spirit" ( 1.1 .?I. " Ibid., 1.1.2: ~a18~iavTE yap ndaav tp~hi~a~ai povoucilv not~ihqvfia~~i. Wpa se air-re ~aiimaaia ~uio~~h~pu~ia auv$rl yu~vaapa~a. Ibid, 1.1.6: Kai E~XEVOGTOS- ~XOUyap 'AQpo~opq5bqe~iq, O~TE eyahpa ~ahov ~ar~cpaiv~~oo\ir~E~K&V inqv~i-ro. Trans. Anderson. ' Char. 1.1. I : Xalpias yap -r15 ?v p~lpa~iov~Gpopcpov. X~VTOV GITEP&OV oiov 'Axthhia ~aiNlpia ~ai'Imohu-rov ~ai'Ah~~@taGqv .rrh&ora~ TE ~aiypacp~is arro8~tmnjouot.Trans. Goold. '6 This of course could be a parody of the typical descriptive passage. 7 1 her beginning with the initial image of the couple amid the carnage of the Nile river scene where her beauty is "indescribable" (1.2.1) and followed by comparison to hemis ( 1.2.6). In the procession of Artemis at Delphi, Charikleia's beauty eclipses Theagenes" looks (3.4.1) which is modeled after Habrocomes and Anthia. Only Achilles Tatius does not use divine comparisons, instead borrowing from the [oals arnoenus. ii) The early art-work ekphrasis Chariton only makes an-work comparisons rather than an actual art-work rkphrasis in hs novel but sets the pattern for the following noveiists. Both Callirhoe and Chaereas are depicted as art-works: Dionysius loves her so much that he makes a golden statue of her (3.6.3). md when Cdlirhoe believes that Chaerens has been killed in an attack. she forces Dionysius to make a statue of her husband modeled after a seal impression on Cdlirhoti's ring (4.1.10). Ha does Llllude to a possible painting when he compares Callirhd twice to art-works depicting Aphrodite: tlnt when she appears at the court of Dionysius. and after her bath, is told. "Lady. when you see Aphrodite you will think you are looking at a picture (6~ov)of yourself' (2.2.6);and secondly when she arrives at Syrdcuse and. as the audience beholds her. "you would really have said that you were looking at Xphmdite herself rising from the sea" (8.6.1 1). Yet the most effective description is the image of CallirhM holding her new-born child before the crowd. "So first she took her son in her ms.and thus afforded a beautiful sight, the like of whch no painter has yet portrayed. nor sculptor fashioned. nor poet described before now; for none of them has represented Artemis or Athena with a baby in her arms" (3.5.6). The comparisons to Athena and Arternis reinforce the pmdox of virgin gods bearing children but Chariton is also stressing that the image is unique and has never been seen before-a phantnsia image. One visual aspect of Chariton is that he uses brilliant Light colours often contrasted with dark colours to express his desired effect. Callirhoe's natural beauty is enhanced with sirmles: "her face shone with a radiance which dazzled the eyes of all, just as when on a dark night a blinding flash is seen" (5.3.9), or "Her skin gleamed white, shining just like a shimmering surface, but her tlesh was so delicate as to make one afraid that even the touch of one's fingers might cause a serious wound" (2.2.3). The beaming face image also describes Chaerells after he returns from the gymnasium. "...radiant as a star. The flush of exercise bloomed on his beaming face like silver on gold" ( 1.1.5). Radiant faces and shining skin emphasize their youthful appearances and the "gleaming" quality retlects an artistic consideration-the "gleam" of colour found in nature is used in paintings to generate "vividness" in the work. Clothing in particular seems to have "illuminated" Cdlirhoii's image. as lor rxmplr when she marries Dionysius: "Mler putting on a ~Milrsiandress and a bridal wreath. she looked at the assembled crowd. Everyone shouted. "Aphrodite is the bride!" Beneath her feet they spread purple cloth and roses and violets. As she passed they sprayed her with perfume" (3.1.16). Or when she appeared at the "funeral" of Charreas. "She appeared dressed in black, her hair loose and her facz radiant; with her bare arms and feet she seemed more beautiful than the Homeric goddesses 'of the white ms'and 'of the fair ankles" (4.1.5) and also "...sitting there dressed in black and without adornment. This only made her look still more striking" (5.9.7). Apart from following Chariton's model. Xrnophon has only one art-work ekphnsis ( 1.5.2-3). Two imponant points occur here. First. although the description is short on words, it does follow both descriptions of the main characters and precedes their erotic encounter. Second, whereas Xenophon makes numerous mentions of Arternis, including his comparison of Anthia to the goddess. this is the only mention of Aphrodite. The passage reads as follows: "The chamber had been prepared: a golden couch had been spread with purple sheets. and above it hung an awning with an embroidered Babylonian tapestry. Cupids were playing, some attending Aphrodite, who was also represented, some riding on Nabataeun osuiches~'some weaving garlands. others bringing tlowers. These were on one half of the canopy; on the other was Ares, not in mour, but dressed in a cloak and wearing a garland, adorned for his lover Aphrodite. Eros was leading the way, with a lighted torch.'"'%~gn Xenophon uses a structured passage employing asyndeton and anaphora (repeated use of oi) to accomplish his image: Subject Action "EPOTE~ oi piv 'A~posi-qv8~parr~irovT~~ oi 6i ~T~TTEUOVTE~&vaQa~a~ mpou0oi~ 0i 6k UTE@VOUT ~~~KOVTE~ oi 6i &veq qipov-r~y The Ares section is not as structured but instead Xenophon makes references to both sides of the awning with the word garland or onqavouc: the Cupids are weaving garlands and Ares is bedecked with them. Ares is presented as a lover not a warrior but this image of the war god intertwined with the god of love is as old as Homer and along with the image of the playing Cupids is frequently seen in Roman wall painting. The image of Eros leading Ares by lamplight signifies how the newly-married couple were led to the bed chamber, so Xenophon is not creating anything new? However. this is the first an-work ekphrasis which sets the model for following ekphraseis. b) The locus amoenus in the novel Natural settings such us gardens, grottos or parks are typically found in the later novels and are also described in some art-work~.'~The novelist employ the locrrr ornoenus or pleasant place as a metaphor for sexuality revealing the inherent beauty and " The word in question here is crrpou00~which is usually translated as sparrow (Passer dornesticirs)but can be a large bird such as the ostrich as welt (Thompson 268-9 and Poilad 29). Sappho frag. 1 has Aphrodite sitting in a chariot pulled by these "sparrows" who are know for their randy behavior and thus appropriate to the goddess. " Trans. Anderson. "'? See Philostratus 1.6. "' See above p. 37-28. 74 violence found in nature (@o~~).~'Name creates "beauty" (TO rahhos) which also causes wonder (8airpa) and desire (sro80s). Like a flower, beauty is ephemeral and lasts a short time before it withers and dies. just as the Lyric poet Mimnermus wrote so aptly on life. "We bloom in the springtime and enjoy the wmthof summer but in the fail of our Lives. we begin to wither and are often neglected until we die."" Two novelists, Longus and Tatius. focus on the garden imagery as an integral part of their novels, more so than the others, and this section will examine how they use flowery language and colour in their loctis arnoenris descriptions. which in Tatius' case become crucial elements in rhr ekphsis as well. The "plucked tlowei' is a typical metaphor for "the loss of ~ir@nity."~~This kind of language varies from the crude comment of Creon that women should be "ploughed Furrowsw5"or Callimachos. disguised as a gardener. saying to Chrysorrhoe " 5' Dionysos. god of the wild animals. wine and liquids. is the perfect image of the inherent vioience found in the garden and Longus uses him as the presiding deity. His followers are often pomyed in fawn skins and wearing wreathes on their heads dancing through the meadows and what they do to Pentheus is sy rnboIic for L;lmpis' "rape" of the garden (See strophe 3. Euripides. Bacchae). My pmphnse of the poem. Mimnermus. fng. 2. Barber t 6: Irwin ( 19971 387. See especially Littlewood ( 1979) 95- I 14 and Zeitlin 148-170. SJ Soph. Antigone, 569: upcbolpot yup xa~fpuvEiffiv flat. 55 Cullimacho~and Chrysorho2.2283-54: ip€6i xahtv ~~WKEVTO va TJJ,& fa b66a //AGOivqs dual T&V q~~~6v.kyki TOG Kjlnou qGha5. i) The locus amoenus in literature Gardens, meadows or other pleasant places which have become known as loci nrnoeni are commonly found throughout most genres of ancient Greek Iiteraturej6 and even in such epics as Gilgmesh and the Hebrew "Song of ~ongs."" In myth, Penephone, 10 and Europa were all abducted in meadows. Actaeon is brutally killed by his own dogs and Erysichthon violates a sacred tree and pays dearly for it. According to Cicero, Clodia used her "horti" to meet her loversjs and at least eleven plays by Plautus record some "sexual" activity in various gardens.59The Epicureans taught there."' Ovid loved to have people metamorphosed there6' and poetic challenges between shepherds were held in these *'pleasant places.'*' The loc~uczmoencis has its origins in the ancient land~cape?~The meadow (halpchv) and the grove (&haor)were deemed sacred by the ancients and were not developed by humans and so retained their c hthonic and religious ~ignificmce.~~Andre blotte suggests that ancients viewed the meadow (h~t~cbv)as retaining a "primitive character on the edges Homeric Hymn ro Demerer (1-15). Calypso's place in Od. 5, Sappho's frag, 2. Ibycus'frag. 256. Euripides' Hippolyr~.nrs.Plato's Phaedrtls (230B),Moschus'Ei~ropa, Ovid's ,Met. 2.843-875. Lucian, A Trrre Stop 2.5 (the isle of Corkfe'eet), Pervigililtni Vmeris, Lactantius' De Avct Phoenice, Elecm's Garden in Nonnos' Dion_r.siaca 3.140- 177. to name a few. Gilgarnesh V. SBV i. An inscription dated to the 12th century B.C.E.notes that the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser [ recorded the first garden (Inscription. 154. LuckenbiIl87). Cicero pro Coei. 27, 36, 38 Lk 49. Plaut. As. 742: Aul. 243: Cas. 6 13: Epid. 660: Mer. 1009; ;Mil. 194. 340. 378: ~Mos. 1044-1045, 1046: Per. 446. 679: Poen. 1020: St. 452, 437, 6 14: Trtrc. 249, 303). Cic. Firs. 5, 1, 3; id. N. D. 1, 33. 93; id. Art. 12, 23. 2. Ovid. Met. 10.190. Verg. Eel- 7.34, 65. 68 and Theocritus Idyll 7. Mo tte 2 1-22, Grimal 52. Motte 15: cmcterc primitif d' iqamai. 76 the "~cademy,'"~the Platonic school outside of Athens, and the garden of Epicurus. On a grander scale, the Persian hunting park (napaS~ioo~)influenced the tyrants and kings of the Hellenistic period to establish huge private parks, only to be rivaled by the grander Imperial horn of Rome. Grimal notes that popularity of the aapa6~kroswith the Greeks arose with Alexander's contact with the east, and especially when in 284 B.C. E. Seleucus gave Demetrius a park which was based on Cyrus' rnodeL6' The horti of Rome were large private estates within the confines of Rome proper. With the establishment of the imperial family. many of these parks were taken over by political inuizue to secure vast land holdings within the city.b8The Christian writers played upon the term "paradise" from the Persian "napa~~ioos'"9by reinforcing the more natural and divine elements of the Homeric "&haor" as opposed to the Hellenistic view of man controlling nature which centered on the walled garden or napatkiaos. Ennius first described the Helicon river as yet the term focus nmoenrrs was not coined until Vmo used it in the late 1st century B.C.E." ii) The parts of the locus amoenus This concept of the pleasant place can be traced to Homer when Odysseus compares Nausikaa to the young shoot of a palm-tree that he saw at Delos. "qoivt~or VEOV E~vo~"(Odyssey 6.163). Homer anticipated what would become the Locus * Matte notes that the park near the Academy established by Kimon and noted by Plutxch (Kimon.487~) was a modest sized public park. "' Grimal 79. See Plut. Drm. L (9I Jft). "' See Tacitus for the desires ot' hlessalina and Agrippina ( 1 1.1-3 and 12.59). .A recent book on Roman topography illustrates these parks - Richardson jr.. L. .)I New Topographical Dictiorrury of Ariciertr Ronte. (Bdtirnore: The John Hopkins University Press. 1992). Platner. Samuel Ball The Topography crnd ikionlrrnents ofdncienr Rome. (Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 1904) is still wonh consulting. " The word "pardesu" or "paridaida" is found in the Akkadian language (Akkodkches Handvorterbnclt, p. 333) and "Pankku" means a holy-place (Wiseman. DJ. p. 49). Whether it has Akkadian roots or is a Persian word adopted into their vocabulary is unclear, since the fn,smrntq evidence only dates to Cyrus' time (Smbmilier. I.N. Insch@n von C~nls.Korzig von Babylon, 2 12, 3). '"nnius Ann. 5. 40 (Vshlrn) at: Cicero Div. I .20.10. Other notable writers include Lucr. I. L 17 & 4.1024; Hor. Ep. 1.10. 6, Car. 3.4.7: Verg. Aeneid 5.734; Ov. Met. 14.330; Pliny 1V.H. 35.10.37: Tac. Ann. 3.7. " As attested by Isid. Orig. 14.33: Amoena loca Varro dicta air eo quod sol~tmamorem praesranr er se amanrla udiicianr. 77 amoentrs with the following description of hlkinous' beautiful grove where Nausikaa leaves Odysseus prior to entering her native city (Odyssey 6.29 14): 8fi~isuyAabv cihooc 'Aeivqs ant KE~EG~OU Grove aiy~ipwv-kv 6i ~~nvnV~EI, apqi 8i AEIU~V Spring, Meadow ivea 6i TT~T~O~ipofi TGUEVOC TE~UAUT~~'ahak. Sanctuary, Garden roooov arro rrtohios. oaaov TE yiyav~Pojua~. Homer established a pattern for the description of a grove (6Aaos): a water source such 3s a spring (~pivq),surrounding meadow (A~i~chv)and filled with flowers or a garden (ahofi).Specific elements of the garden are found in Alkinous' grove in Od. 7.120- 132 where the element of the tree-wall barrier was established (n~pi6' 'E'p~osihjha~a~ h~qoripo8av:1 13)," the size of the ,oarden is 1 xres (re~pClyvo5:1 13);) and it contains pears. pomegranates. apples. figs. and olives (dyxvai ~aipotai ~aiuqhia~ ayhao~apno~// ~KE~LTE yhu~~pai ~ai ihaiat qh~€lowaal: 115-6). It SO contains vines (rj~parrs:135) and two springs (6io upiva~:119). These items will be key elements found in the romance garden." By the period of the novel. the standard image of the loads amocnus becomes entrenched in literature. thus allowing the novelist to "embellish" the place into a "oarden= of love." Although the garden originated as a natural state, the presence of a gardener who maintained. cultivated md imposed order on it as well as the addition of wdls to "protect" it distinguishes the rrapa6~iao(and the K~~TOSfrom the natural chthonic AE~P&V or (ihu05. Meadows and groves had a religious aspect as well as being places of seduction and abduct ions for the gods." while the napa6~iao~in the romance may be connected to the governing deity of the novel. although this is not always clear, it is certainly connected to one of the main characters. Calarne suggests that the meadow '' Lamon's park is surrounded by a "wall of a hedge" (ai~aatb5... -rrepipoho~) ' Litenlly "Four fields" that could be ptoughrd in one day. See chart 2. '5 For their religious qualities. see Motte 280ff and Gtimal 301-335. For sexual encounters in meadows. see Motte's chms p. 208-212. For an examination of the places in the romance. see Litoublon 60ff. 78 is not usually a "bed" for a god's encounter but rather a space filled with Eros which leads to a sexual encounter.76This is a major point in the novel since no sexual encounters between the main characters occur in the meadow or any space deemed a locus amoenlis." iii) Flowery language Philetas tells Daphnis and Chloe the remarkable story of a visit of Eros (2.4) who claims that it was he who brought Philetas together with his wife Amaryllis and so will bring together Daphnis and Chloe. He adds. 'That's why the flowers and vees are beautiful-because they're watered by the springs I bathe in."" Two points are relevant here. First, Longus points out the importance of Eros to the "garden of love" llnd second. the flowers that he mentions are the typical flowers found in abduction scenes. In the abduction of Persephone as seen in the Homeric Hymn ro Demcter, she is out picking roses, crocuses, violets. irises. hyacinths and narcissi. The foilowing chart points out the various flowers found in abduction scenes: Persephone Europa Europa Lampon (Horn. Hymn) (%Ioschus) (Xch. Tat.) (Longus) roses7" roses roses roses narcissusY0 narcissus narcissus myrtle hyacinthsJ' hyacinths hyacinths Yfi Calarne 156. In regards to the Lyric poets, Calarne 169 notes that sardens create desire but "can never be realized other than ideally", a notion perfectly suited to the romance writer. ;7 Calame 153- 174 proposes that meadows. gardens and beds play social roles between the sexes and he links them as folIows: meadow (virgin - panhenos ), garden (bride-numphi), and bed (wife-gune). '" Longus 2.5: 614 TOGTO uaha ~aifa &v0q ~aifa pu~aTOTS €poi5 hourpoi~ ap66p~va.Trans. Gill. '" Roses date to Homer when he mentions that Xphrodite anointed the corpse of Hector with rose oil (Iliad 23.136) and fragment 55 of Sappho claims that a poet's inspiration comes from the roses of Pieria. Theophrastus Hisr. plant. 6.6, Pliny 1V.H. 21.10.4. Vergii Geor. 4.1 19 and Coiurnella De clrlt. 3.37 all mention roses from this region in southeast Macedonia and Thessaly. cf. Joret 17. See further Joret's chapter "La rose dans les ltigendes et dans la poesie." ''I The narcissus is derived ti-om the word vap~wor "to grow stiff' because of its narcotic quaIities and was worn as garlands by the Furies and the Fates as well as being placed in the hands of the dead (Huxley and Tiaylor 153). It also symbolizes fertility because of the numerous heads that spring from its root (Irwin (1997) 386). CaIame 155. '' Amigues 19 notes that the hyacinth is found in about 30 authors from Homer to the 56th lilies violetsY' violets violets crocuses crocuses Although all of these tlowers were common in the Mediterranean region, their recurrence in the locris amoenrrs suggests that they were standard "motifs" as well.") The rose, narcissus and hyacinth are steeped in myth in which spumed love and metamorphosis are the main themes. Hyacinthus was a handsome youth loved by Apollo and accidentally killed by Zephyrus the wind god and so grew into the flower from the boy's Narcissus, loved by Echo, spumed the nymph and fell in love with his own image reflected in a pool and was changed into the and either Aphrodite or Adonis. the lover of Xphrodite, stained the white rose red with b100d.'~ The erotic connections found in these myths underlines their recurring usage in Ii~eratureand art even to the present day. The novel often uses tlowery comparisons when describing the heroines of the book (and occasionally the mdcs as well). Comparisons of a youth to a flower in bloom or "d~~eo~''~'are frequent in ancient literature. Invin. writing on epic poetry, notes that spring is the "tlowery season" which is " an ideal season in similes. capturing youthfulness and future promise. sometimes cruelly and prematurely centuries C.E. and the curls of the petals are frequently compared to curls of a hair (23) be!inning in Od. 5-231 when Arhena makes Odysseus' hair curly "like the hyacinth tlowrr." (ouha~fi~~ ~opa5. Ga~tv0iv+~ &V~EL opoia~.) Jacobson 3 14-IS suggests [hot viola is relared to violnre ("to violate") os seen in Vcr,o. Arrt. 12.67. although it could be Vrrsilian wordplay. It also occurs in a similar context in Claudian de rapnr Proserpinae 2.93. * Besides the references here, the rose, nucissus and the meadow together occur in Xthenaeus Deipnosophisrae 15.27 Sr 32. Lucian, A True History 2.5. Nonnus, Dim. 12.244 and the Anrhologia Graeca 5.1-44.5. " Huxley and Taylor 153. See also Ovid :Met. LO. 165ff.. Anacreon fr. 346.1. and Sappho fr. 10%. " Ovid. Met. 3.342ff. '' Blood of Aphrodite (Amrizolagia Lama Vol. 1. p. 100). blood of Adonis (Anacreonra 53. L 1-23. Ovid rMet. 10.729ff says that the anemone tlower. not the rose sprang from Adonis' blood. Joret 4647. Y7 The plural ~a &veq refers to tlowers but wsalso used to describe bright colours (Dionysius of Hdicmassos, 7.72). SO ended"18 and can certainly applied to the ancient novel.s9 Floral or natural qualities were frequently employed by the Lyric poets90but the romance novelists especially Liked to describe a person's facial comple~onwith "flowery" language, as in the following examples: "the bloom of This is a typical metal-working metaphor which recalls Moschus' ekphrasis of Europa's flower basket and Homer's description of Menelaus' hall which are used to contrast "precious" metals which enhance their individual importance.96The verb here. irravetw. refers to the glow on his hce which implies that colour or light is reflecting off a surfaceY7and is related to rhe noun irve05 or "bloom." Chariton emphasizes Chaereas' youthful image-the transition from youth to a grown man when the beard begins to show. This aspect of "bloominp" is also frequent in the other novels: "her skin blossomed into beauty"YJ:" Invin !1997) 380. The most appropriate seasonal noveI is Longus whose bur books denote the seasons. tlrchilochos frag. 25; Alcaeus jrczg. 115 and 261: Ibycus ji-ag. 236: Anacreon frug. 3-16 and 414; Sappho fkug. 96, 98, 10S(u)and 132. Ach. Tat. 3.7.3: TO TQV 09BaApGv 6~805ioirv apfpipvov. [bid.. I.3.3: to mops po6ov civ805 jv. Longus 1.14: ~aho5o Aacpvtr. ~aiyap ~a riveq. Heliod. 3.19.1 : njv TE xap~tavfi8q TO 6~805EC~EW~E. Char. 1.1.5: mjv0~lyap air-roc TG Aap-rrpe TOG TT~OOC~TTOVTO ip08qva fls -rrahaicmpas ijm~pap*pv xpua05. Tanslation by Goold. Moschus 53-54: hpfip~o~pb Eqv kihou (joor. fi 6' &pa nopny // xah~~iq.~puuoO 6~ TETU~~€VO~alj~o~ E~vZE&~ Od. 4-73: XPUOO~T' ~~~KPOUTE ~ai hpy6fl0~ ib' thkpav-ro~, LS 609. Xrn. Eph. 1.1.5: jve~t6k aljqs TO 06pa in' nivop~ia. [bid. 1.1.2: ~ai~a8' fivfpav ~i5~ahho5 ~~SETO. OVV~V~EI 6€ ah@ TOTS TOG acbpa~os ~ahoys~ai ~a fl$ws kyaedr. A pui. 2.2: os quoquoversrinl floridurn. 81 sprouted another Venus, endowed with the flower of ~irginity"'~'; Charikleia "shoots up quickly Like some Rhodopis "is a Thncian woman at the prime of her age and has a beauty only second to ~harikleia"'~';and Callirhoe's "skin flashes white shining as some The use of contrasting coloua in character descriptions such as Chaerem' "tlush of exercise" ( I. 1.j) or Cdlirhije's skin "gleaming" when she wem dark clothes (5.9.7) may have originated in the locus amomris where the flowers contrast against their darker foliage. This becomes even more evident when we examine the specific coloun used in the ekphrasis. One would expect that Longus, who sets his novel completely in a pastoral setting, would play upon "flowery" language. However. he makes few "flowery" compilrisons of the couple. favoring Daphnis over Chloe. which suggests that Longus favours male eroticism over the femde.'O5 Daphnis' hair is often compared to the hyacinth (4.17) or myrtle flowers ( 1.24) while Chloe's complexion is compared to apples (1.14).106At the end of Book 3, Longus makes an obvious allusion to Sappho's famous poem that only the correct "apple-pickri' can pluck the most beautiful apple from the highest branch.'" Daphnis retrieves the apple for Chloe and we now know that only Daphnis will "pluck" her virginity. Tatius reinforced the interplay between garden descriptions and his chancters by means of tlowery imagery and colour similarity. The colours of the plants in the novel suggest that Tatius possibly knew artistic methods or was possibly an mist 3s "I' [bid.4.29: non marict. srd terra. Venerern ulianl virsirrali flore praedirm p~rllrllasse. I02 Heliod. 1.33.3: ~t ~cSvEireohcSv avi6pa~~v. lilt [bid.. 2.25.1: epvatov @paut~ovrip tjpav uu~aiov~ai ~b ~ahho5~E~TEPOV PET^ Xapi~A~lavhouoa "' Char. 1.23: o xpbq yap AEUKO~ Eu-rthy~vai&j5 pappapw TLV~O~OLOV axoAbr~-rrwv-. 1115 See Daphnis's bathing scene ( 1.13) for one of the most suggestive scenes in the novel. ~rm Long. 1.18: x~ihrlpiv 608wv alToth&T~pa ~aimops uqpiav yAuKict~pov. TO 8i qihrl~aKEVT~OV p~hinqs TTIKPOTEPOV. "Her kiss is softer than roses, sweeter than a honeycomb and stingers sharper than a bee" [in Compare Longus 3.33: ~aiEv pijAov ~T~TETO.iv alj~oi~( ~075 ) aupo~~~K~OT~TOV .... and Sappho €rag. 105: oiov TO yAulc\jpahov ipEir0~~a1&up~ in' Ij8pq. // ~KPOVin' a~po~a~v... well. The image of the meadow in the ekphnsis is recalled in the description of Hippias' aapa6~iuoras well as the description of Leucippe. The meadow contained only three plants-the narcissus. the rose and the myrtle; and Hippias' park also has only three flowers-narcissus. the rose and violets. Knowing that the narcissus was the plant the Persrphone was about to pick when she was abducted as well as its narcotic effect and the fact that the rose was known as the "tlower of love"108certainly justifies their use in both passages. Tatius makes colour comparisons of Leucippe to the rose, the narcissus and the violet where her "facial complexion shines "flash out" or iudrpva~prv'13indicates a bright blue like a calm sea (xpolh 6k dav ri fl~ Bahaaaqs acf~parn~lyah jvq). Even the colours of clothes are implied as well. Europa's chiton is white and her robe is deep "porphyry" (htu~ori XITOV- fi xhaiva nopqwp8: 1.2.10). and Lrucippe's cheeks are white and ruddy in the center AN^ rrap~ta.TO AEUKOV U~UOV&~OLV~[~~ETO ~aiI~IME~TO nopqljpav : 1.4.3). The porphyry alludes to Europa's royal robe rniiing in the wind. Tatius says that the garden flowers ltlX Leucippe's song of the rose (Ach. Tat. 2.1.3) IW Ach. Tat. 1.19.1 : vap~iaoou~iv TO npooonov ElmihQ~~oiav , Cj060v 6i avif~hh~v $K fl~Trap~1&~. iov 6k fi T~voq8ahp6v ipappalp~va*q. 1111 [bid.. 1.4.3: AEUK~TT~PEI~. TO AEVKOV ~i5UEOOV ~(POLV~UOETO. III lbid. 1.4.3: TO u-ropa p05ov dueor jv. o~av&pxq~ar TO po6ov avoiy~~vtGv ~uhhovta x~ihq. 112 This is a clue to the colour porphyry--deep red like blood. Porphyry "purple" has a stronger red pi,ment and so cannot be the once considered colour "purple." The association here would colour Leucippe's face rather strange or 3t lest. as if she had makeup on her cheeks (which might be a possibility). I feel that her naturalness is being stressed here, not the artiticial. Irwin 201 lists "ipuepo~"and "-rropgirp~o~"in the red-yellow range. Our colour purple is made by mixing blue and red together. with a stronger component of blue than red. See also R. Schmiel "Moschus' Europa" CP 76 (I98 1) 27 1 on his interpretation of this colour. "' uappaipo is typically used to depict metaI retlecting light such as a shield but can also be used to denote the "flashing eyes." 83 have a variety colors (~a6i irv0q rrot~iAqvExov~a mjv ~poidrv: 1.15.5-6) and yet his overall colour palette is rather small and can be seen as follows: Place Object Color a) Europa's garden narcissi, roses, myrtle white, deep red, white b) Europa's clothes chiton and chlaina white and porphyry C) Leucippe's face face, cheeks white and porphyry d) Hippias's garden narcissi, roses, violet white, deep red, blue e) Leucippe's face face. cheeks, eyes white, porphyry, blue Tatius considen porphyry to be the deep red colour of blood and so has limited his colour range to white, deep red. blue. and of course. the green of the plants and trees, and the twin colours of the sea (blue and a ruddy colour. probably sienna). By limiting hs colours palette. Tatius can easily interconnect the garden. ekphrasis and Leucippe revealing a high Level of subtle sophistication. Tatius like the other novelists uses colours of tlowers to reinforce the beauty of his characters. The lily. narcissus and milk are commonly white coloun while the rose and apple are typically red as noted in these descriptions of women: "you would say that 114 Ach. Tat. 5J3.2: yahalcr~p~v &v E~~ESam$ TO ~poawrrov~qpTa9a1. poSov Si E~TEQUT~~~~ra75 nap~~uT5. 'Is Longus 1.17: TO .npoow.rrov on AEVKOTE~OVtrAqe&s ~aiTOO TGV aiy6v ydlhu~~~o~. t 16 Ibid. L.24: pfih~TO rrp~uorrovd-5. 6~1~NKOV ~ai~VEPEV~~S fiv. 83 Even the names of the two staves in Ephesiaca reinforce the flowery images: Rhode (Rose) and Leucon (White-Haired) or Red and White, the usual pattern in describing a maiden's cornple~ion.~I7 Only one male has a tlowery name-Daphnis (Laurel) and the parents even maintain the pastoral theme.' In iv) The loci arnoeni of Longus and Tatius In the novels there are four garden descriptions: two in Dnphnis and Chloi! (the old shepherd Philetas's garden' ''and Lamon's park),''0 one in Lrucippe and ~lito~kon.''l and one in rMetamorplzoses (Cupid's grove'") All of these locus antoenus descriptions have similar contents, varying according to the owner's wealth and artistic license. The shortest description occurs in Apul. 5. i where the divine Eros of the Psyche story built his palace in the very center of the grove (hledio ltrci rneditullio) near a fountain (propejbnris nllizpsrim) and surrounded by tall trees @roceris er vastis arboribris consitrim). Although no walls are mentioned. Psyche is carried to Eros' house by the wind Zephyr where she is kept as both "prisoner" and protected from intruders as well. Apart from this "divine" locris amoenlw, the other gardens are modeled on the Homeric model as well but their similarities are quite apparent. 117 The mistresses have seductive names as welI: Lycaenium c little wol tl; Melite (like honey 1: and Rhodopis (Rose-faced). I ~n Chloii's adoptive shepherd parents are Drys (the oak) and Nape (woody dell). Daphnis's adoptive soatherd parents are Mynalr: (Myrtle)and Lnmon. which doesn't appear to have 3 Greek root. See also Hunter 16- 1 8. Longus 2.3: b r(iir05. This is Philetas's garden where he produces fruit and vegetables for himself. 131 Longus 4.2: 6 rropa~aicro~.This is an estate park. See chart 7, for detailed examinations between the parks. I" Ach. Tat. 1.15.1: o napa6~!oo~. 121 Apul. 5.1: lucns. I" Note that all the gnrdms. except Cupid's garden. were owned by either hthersor in the case of Philetas. a father figure: Clitophon and Leucippe talk in a garden own by his father Hippias and Lamon tends the park owned by Dionysophones. hther of Daphnis. The idea of the old man tending the garden is also seen in Grorgics 4. see J.S. Cloy. Arerhusa 14 (198 1) 57-65. Other references to loci amorni occur as follows: in CallirhoZ and Cltaereus. Mihidates ponders Callirhoe's beauty sitting "iv rrapa6~iaq"(4.2.8). Lucius the ass passes by two rose gardens. the first is called a "horrzrlrrsamornus" (3.29) and the second is a grove (nernoris)dedicated to Venus (4.2). Heliodoms opens his book on a beach to aiytahos :I. I. 1 ). while the evil Kybele plot in a napa6~kos(7.23.1) and there is a description of an oasis (8.141) which sounds like 85 Longs uses the island of Lesbos as his "pleasant" setting and all of the action centers around the countryside. Litoublon and Hunter aptly note that the microcosm of Life found on an island is mirrored in the garden setting and that can be reinforced through the ekphrasis as well since both have confined spaces."' Lesbos conjures up the great Lyric poets Sappho and Alcaeus, md Longus' pastoral setting recalls Theocritus and even Homer as well."' Philetas' garden (K~~os)and Lamon's park (napa6~iuor) have similar attributes. Philetas, the old shepherd naturally has a smaller garden than the large park administered by Lamon. In fact. Longus tells us that the park occupies four plethra by one ~tade,"~which is rather large and suggests that it was copied after a Persian model."' Both are enclosed places, are filled with tlowers and fruit-producing trees and have sprinss and so follow the Homeric pattern (See chart 2 for comparisons). The rrapa6~iaos is substantially larger consisting of two rows of trees which form a barrier: inside. a wall of fruit-bearing uees including the apple. myrtle, pear. pomegranate and olive; outside, a larger wall of non-fruit bearing trees such as cypress, laurel, plane and pine trees: a variety of flowers consisting of roses. hyacinths, lilies, violets, narcissi and magalls: the grassy meadow; md the water source found by Daphnis (4.24). The ~irrorhas many similar features but the most notable difference are the three springs as opposed to the single spring of the aopa6~iaoy.I" Philetas also points out that he grows tlowers and fruit in every season just like Alkinous' eternal garden and so has an "eternal" flowering garden.''YThalia Pandiri suggests that Longus is "the master gardener" who creates a garden that is a 124 Litoublon 66-67; Hunter 42. L3 [bid.,66. See Hunter 'sAppendir A on Sappho. which he feels Longus does not exploit (73). L 26 A plethron is 100 Greek feet or I01 English feet and 116 of a stade. This makes the park roughty 100' x 600'. Diodorus Siculus (2.10.1-6) notes that the Harrging Gardens of Babylon measured 4 x 4 plethra. Irr Zeitiin 162. Grimol 80. ""lkinous' garden had 2 springs. Longus 2.3: 6aa &pal gfpouut nav~ahov iv air-rc$ ~ae'wpav i~awv.Horn. Od. 7. 1 17-1 19: ~awv06 TOTE ~ap~ro5anohhma~ 0u8' ~TTO~E~XE~// XE~~~TOS ouBi 86pm5, tmnjaloy ahha pah' aiCi // Z~qupiqm~iouaa ~a ~EV96~1. &Aha 6k TT~QQEI. "Of these things the fruit does not perish nor is left behind neither in winter nor in summer, but especially as the Zephyr blows, the fruit grows, but ~ISOripens.'* 86 "work of art" and a "possession to enjoy" which parodies his own opening comment about his novel.'30 Achilles Tatius also has two loci arnoeni; one is owned by Clitophon's father Hippias and the other is depicted in the opening ekphrasis of the Europa painting. Hippias's garden is a large aapab~iuorfull of plant life. Following the Homeric model as well. the park has a grove (TO hhoor) enclosed by four walls (~fuoap~r8i iuav rhwpai) with n portico running inside each wall and a row of trees along the portico.'" The double walled enclosure parallels Lama's park (-1.2). Whereas both parks contain Fruit trees (TU ~apnocpopa~UTU) and vines (oi 8urrsho1). only Longus describes each variety of tree. and unlike Lmo's park with its variety of tlowers and fruit trees. there are only three kinds of tlowers mentioned by Tatius. These flowers surround a spring ( 1.156) while in the center of Lmo's park is a small smctuilry and altar dedicated to Dionysus (4.3). But unlike the short Homeric model. both Tatius and Longus develop their loci arnorni into a hlghly structured composition which redescribed goins from the outside (the wall) toward the center of each park (spring). and once reached. Tatius adds a follow-up passage with a short description of birds.'" One can see their structure as tbllows:'" 130 Pandiri 118. Longus Proem 1.2: ~t?pa8k TEPTVOV TT~QIVau8pCj~~01~. "delightful possession for a11 of humankind." 'I Ach. Tat. I. 15.1-2: ~a~dtanyosrjrro xop@ ~16vov.Gno 6i TOTS ~ioa~vEvGov fiv fi T~V86~8~G.l~ TTQV~~YUPI~. 132 The "birds" will be seen again in the Philomela-Tereus ekphrasis in Book 5. Nonnos's Dionysiaca 3.140-177 foIlows the same pattern as well: there is a wall (~oi~ou) which covered four acres (TETP~~VO~)and the garden (~~XCXTO~)was fir11 of apple trees (pflhov ), myrtles (pirpalva), pears (iiy~vq),pomegranates (pol?$).figs (auflr). olives (ihaiqs). cypresses (~mapiooou)and laurels (Gatpvq). There were hyacinth tlowers (ira~ivewv).a spring (nqyil)and decorated with sculptures (TEXV~~~OV).There was even a gardener (ahw~r).See chart I for Digenes Akrim as well. Longus Tatius Park (6 -rrapdr6~lao~) Park (6 napaS~luo5) most beautihl thing (rrayrakjv TI xpipa) a great thing (pea TIxpqpa) Size (4 plethn a 6 plerhn) No size (4 sides) Wall of trees (Evbov iv...: igoe~v...) Wdl and portico (inrb 6k TO% K~OU~Viu6ov fiv) Intertwining branches (mvCarmov aXXiho~0 Intertwining branches (ahXfiAoi5 iirhhoc hr' irhhov) Flowers Flowers Temple (TO p~aai~a~ov) Spring (myi -rlr fiv) Spring and reflection (iv VEUOI~6i -roi5 cive~armyfi) Birds Tatius points out that the branches as well as the ivy and smilax have intertwined so much that "the tree formed a support for the ivy and the ivy a garland for the tree."'" Tatius also uses the words n~pirrhoro~and n~plnho~fior "intertwined" to describe Leucippe's hair as. "the ringlets (~ou~pu~oir~rval)of her hair curled more tightly than the ivy""5 and again the curls of Leucippe's hair (obhov.: 1A.3) are similar to the intertwining branches in the ekphrasis (rev quhhwv ouuahori : I. 1.3). The description of Lamon's park makes a similar description that points out the hair comparison. "High aloft the branches join each other and change into hair.""6 The spring bubbling into a reflecting pool (TET~~~WOS)adds an extra dimension to the description since "the water was a mirror for the tlowers. as the grove appeared twice, one real and the other a shadow (~KIu)""~Apuleius has a reflecting pool around his statue grouping as well where, "if you benr down and looked in the pool that runs along by the poddess' feet shimmering in a gentle wave. you would I.u Ach. Tat. 1.15.2: (branches) i0ahhov oi da601, UUVETTITTTWV ahhfiho~s&Ah05 in' rithhov. ai YEI'TOVE~ T~VTTET&~O~EO~T~QKQ~ ; (ivy and Smil~)0 6i KIT TO^ n~pi T~E~K~V~ih1~8~5 ~$KEIOGTO TO 8iv6pov ~ai~nfo~rho~aic , uai ~Y~VETOT@ KITTQ cj~qpaTO qwrov. o-riqavo~8i o KIT TO^ TOG ~UTOG. lZS [bid,1.1.19: ai 6i ~oporipoo~pqoirprva~ pehhov ~ihirtovtoKITTOG- Trans. Gaselee 156 Longus 4.2: iv ~ETE~PW8k oi ~ha601~V~XITTTOV ahhfiho~~ uai k.rrilhharrov ~aq ~opas; 137 Ach. Tat. 1-15. 6: TO 66 ii6op rGv av8iwv fiv ~a~ompov,chq ~OKETV to &hcros €;vat 6lnAoGv. TO piv fls ahqe~iac, TO 6~ fls OKI~~. S 8 think that the bunches of gapes hanging there. as if in the country, possessed the quality of movement, among all other aspects of Apuleius even points out that "art imitating name e.uhibits a resemblance of The mirror aspect reeds the Platonic idea of beauty mirrored in the soul but here the novelists play with reality. The final word in the Tatius passage, ar~aor shade (ghostly impression) conjures up the image of something imitated and this alludes to the opening painting (auta-ypa~ia) which imitates nature. Since the entire garden may have been made up as well as the Ellropa painting, Tatius illustrates a hndmental aspect of the novelist-playing with imitation and so underlines the skiil of a "great" rhetorician. The similar structures of the two passages suggests that either they knew each others work or one work served as a model for the other. See rhe following chart on the next page for comparisons: ''* .4puI. 2.4: et si fontem. qcli deae vrsrigio discrmens in leriem vibrarur undurn, pronlis mpe-reris, credes illos ut nire pendentes racenias infercetera veritaris ttrc agitationis oficio carere. Trans. Hanson. ''* [bid.. 2.4: ars aerntlia rranr roe veritari similes e.rplicuit. & 0 G; I 3 A- 2.- *I ia g s=;r== =a3-32. % 52 5 L, 7 u s .- I ="C 2 4 CU:: P *QD crr L '3 L4 5 aga: F C a,x: 34e~~ C) The locus amoenus and the ekphrasis in the novel We can see from Chariton and Xrnophon the development of the character descriptions and from Longus and Achilles Tatius the development of the locus amoenur as integral parts of the novel. but the inclusion of the art-work ekphrasis as seen in Longus. Tatius. and ~puleius'~~reveals the proposed pattern tying together art, gardens and the main characters. The emly placement of the art-work ekphrasis certainly emphasizes its importance but the interweaving of specific texts and images especially by Tatius reveals the rhetorical abilities of these writers. Influenced by the Second Sophistic movement and surrounded by a world full of visual images. these authors borrowed from literature and art to create highly sophisticated ekphnstic patterns. They cannot be dismissed as "second-rate authors." i) The ekphraseis of Longus The ekphraseis of Apukius and Tatius use landscape as a setting for the images depicted in the art-works. Longus. however. describes the actual settinss for his m- works instead ot' describing any aspect of the landscape contained within the m-work. His opening ekphrasis describes a painting in a grove of the Nymphs (hhoor) which has the Homeric wall of trees (aohu6~v6pov),tlowrrs (av8qpov) and water source (quil). He points out that the grove is beautiful (~aMv)but the painting provides even more pleasure (r~pmorlpa).To accomplish this he uses an identical ring composition carefully reflecting upon each element until he makes his point about the painting whch occurs as foilows: "' For Apuleius. see p. I 1jff. ~aX6v~6 &ha05 beautiful grove nohir6~v6pov many trees av0rlpov hll of flowers ~arappurov well-watered via myi one spnng ~a liveq tlowers ra 6iv6pa trees 4 ypaqfi TE~~TVOTEPLI more pleasurable painting The actual landscape in the painting is never mentioned but since his story is a reflection of the ekphrasis. we must consider Philetas's and Lampon' gardens as part of the painting. Instead of describing the details of the ekphrasis. Longus gives a short description of the main images which turn out to be symbols for the story that he develops. This ensures that he need nor repeat himself with too many details. His other art-work occurs in Book 4 on the sides of a small temple (vech5) dedicated to Dionysus. Each of the images involves some activity and includes a pair of women (Srmele gives birth and Xriadne sleeps). men (Lycurgus is chained and Pentheus tom apart). enemies (Indians are defeated and Tynhenians are "metamorphosed"). or worshippers (Satyrs tread gnpes and Bacchants dance). and finally Pan playing his pipes. A11 of these imags reflect the awesome power of Dionysus and the pairing retlects the erotic and destructive aspects of the story of Daphnis and Chloe. The most relevant aspect is that the entire description occurs in the "middle""" of the long description of Lampon's The relations between the I41 Longus 4.3: 'iva TOG rrapa&iaov TO psuairarov id pfiaos aai dpo~jv. VEWS Aiov\jaou ~ai@avos fiv. "In the very midst of the park there was both breadth and width a tempIe and altar of Diony sus." 92 Dionysian scenes, the characters and the garden seem apparent at "face value." The ut- work description is hardly an ekphrasis and Longus uses the mythical names to conjure up the appropriate images for his temple, but the fact that the "art-work" is placed in the center of the locrls arnoenlrs shows his rhetorical flair. If Longs parallels Tatius in his 6 loci nmoeni descriptions. then perhaps this intejection of an art-work b'ekphrasis" inside a locus amoenrrs is a play on the more elaborate styk of Tatius. One question that lingers and will be seen again in Heliodorus is why the change from a complex to a simple art-work rkphnsis'? ii) The Europa ekphrasis of Achilles Tatius 1) Structure and Parallelism Tatius' Elrropa painting is the most elaborate locrrs ilmoenus depiction found in ;m rkphnsis. First it seems to depict a natural meadow scene."" but the presence of a gardener ('Ox~-nlyoy TI^: 1.1.6) reveals that it must be either an artificial garden or. at least. administered by someone. most likely Europa's father. This Zoccts nmoenus contains the same Homeric puts as the others but also includes a sea portion where Europa is carried off by Zeus-the-bull. Just as the Persian napafkioo( was a highly structured and enclosed place. so too is the painting. In fact Tatius tells us in the opening of the ekp hrasis ( 1.1.1) that there are two parts: a land portion (It66~0r4 yi) and a sea portion (@otvi~ovfi 8ahaaoa). After dividing the painting, Tatius tells us that there are specific subjects in each part. "In the meadow. there is a band of maidens: on the sea. there is a bull swimming, but on its back a beautiful maiden sits. sailing on the bull to Crete.""' Now the myth is laid open and the ekphrasis unfolds in a linear manner but not toward the center: on the contrary, the reader moves from the meadow on shore out to the sea. The "geographical" sections are as follows: - - 142 See above, p. 84-88. 14% Ach. Tat. I. 1.3: 'E~ouanohhois iiv6~alv6 A~l~cjv. 144 Ibid.. 1.1.3: 'Ev fl Bahauq ~afipo~WXETO. ~ai ~075 vGroi~ ~ahi rap8ivos i.rr~~a0q-ro.iri Kpfivv -raupq ~Aiouaa. Land Meadow Barrier of trees Flowers Spring Gardener Companions Garlands Hair loose Legs bare Facial expression Hands to sea Sea Description of sea Bull in sea Europa on bull Chiton Chiaina Body parts (no face) Outstretched hands Veil Dolphins playing Eros leads the way Several things can be noted about this ekphrasis. First. the land portion has two parts-descriptions of the meadow and the girls at the end of the meadow-but the sea portion is divided into several facets: a description of the sea. a short description of the bull on the sen. the elaborate description of Europa and shon concluding descriptions of the sea creatures and Eros. Tatius uses ring composition to mark the start and close of each smaller passage as follows: the meadow begins (6 u:1.1.3) and closes ('Ev 66 TQ TOO AEIUCIVOC TEAEL..: 1.1.6): the end of the meadow begins with the companions approaching the sea (aeahCIom Trpoa~he~iv:I. 1.8) and the opening of the sea begins immediately following with the description of the sea's colours (Ti5 6L 8ahdromc : 1.1.8). The companions have their arms outstretched in the direction of the bull co as XE~BL d15 hi TOV POGVrjpqov : 1.1.7) and lead the viewer's eyes to the next figure of Europa sitting on the bull. who has one hand on the bull's horn and the other on its tail 94 (Ai pip~~&p~o~LET~T~VTO : 1.1.12). The bull is described as "painted in the middle of the sea*' (TarGpo~iv uimfl0ahaucq : 1.1.9) and Europa sits "in the middle of its back" ('H ~rap8ivo~uiqa h~~a8qT0...: 1.1.10). The final depiction shows Eros leading the bull out to sea ("Epos E%U% TOV Bo~v:1.1.13) but as he turns his head back to smile at the Zeus, the sense of direction changes. Tatius uses a painter's device whereby a figure (Eros) gazes back into the painting and so stops this linear motion and redirects the sense of direction back into the painting. The length of the descriptive passages is also used to emphasize their relative importance. The main descriptions such as the meadow, the companions and Europa dl have four or five separate qualities described while the minor "characters" such as the bull. Eros, the Cupids and dolptuns as well as the sea descriptions are quite short. 2) Allusion in the Europa ekphrasis One notices numerous parallelisms or allusions in this passage to other parts of the story. First let us examine the interplay within this ekphrasis. First. both the description of the bull and the description of Europa's hce are missing. In this way Tatius sets up the reader for the later moment when Clitophon fitsees Leucippe and says that she reminds him of the Gtropn painting, and then proceeds to describe only her face: "She was like that picture of Europa on the bull which I saw but just now: an eye at once piercing and voluptuous; golden hair in golden curls: black eyebrows-jet black: pale cheeks. the pallor shading in the centre into a ruddy hue. like that stain where the Lydian women tint ivory14': and a mouth that was a rose-a rose-bud just beginning to uncurl its petals.'*'" Now the image of Europa-Leucippe is complete. Likewise. a description of an Egyptian bull is given later in the story (2.15.34) which Simile originates in Homer, 11. 4. I4 1-7. 1ul Ibid, 1.4.3: ~o~auqvEXOV iyCj TTOTE ini taup~y~ypap~ivqv EGP&T[T)v- 6pva yopytrv bv ij6ovfl. ro~rlCav0fi. TO ~av8ovo6Aov- oqpir~vdha~va. TO pilau ciupa-rou- AEvK~~TIOI~BL~, TO ANKOV ei~piaov ftpo~viaaero~ai kptp~iro xopgrjpav o'iav TOY ihiqav-ra Ausia parrr~~ywi. TO orbpa po6ov cTv8os fiv. otav &pxq~a~rb bobov avoiy~tvTGV 93Ahov ~a x~ihq-Trans. Gaselee. 95 completes the bull description. The second allusion occurs with the companions who have a look of joy and fear (xaptir ~aigopow: 1.1.7), Europa has no facial features described, while Eros "smiles. as if laughing at him" (irm~al8ia.ijm~p aboG raraych6v: 1.1.13). Why do the companions have such a mixed expression? Europa goes willingly like a bride to her wedding bed filled with joy and mixed with fern and her companions express the same feelings. The miwed "joy and fear" in their faces emphasize the dual thought of the novelist-anticipation and apprehension are expressed throughout the novel. Another allusion occurs with the quality of "light." Shimmering light is first seen in the ekphrasis where 'The artist had also represented the shadows thrown by the leaves, und the sun was gently breaking through here and there,""' and then again in the lonis amoenru description. 'The leaves higher up were in gentle motion. and the rays of the sun were penetrating them as the wind moved them gave the effect of a pale. mottied shadow on the gr~und."'~"he pleasantness of the shaded sun reinforce the ideal nature of the locris "nmoenirr"since the fierce heat of Greece must be tempered by shade.' J9 This image is as old as Sappho who also describes a garden as being *'shadowed" by roses and the "shimmering leaves brings on sleep."'50Tatius uses allusion to remind the reader of the connection between the painted garden. whch imitates real life, and the description of the "red" garden , imitated by words. '" /bid., t.l.4:"Eypa~~vo~~i~q~Ij~~o~an~~aha~ai~vm~~v.~aioqh~o~fip~pa roc ~EI~~VOSK~TW mopa8qv EI~~PEI.Trans. Gasalee I JR Ibid. 1.15.4: T&V 68 ~GAhovbvo8~v aiopou~fvov. 59' jhio npo~Bvrvov auputyd cj~pavipappaip~v fi yfj Ti)u uuiav. I 4'1 Socntes begins his tale of Phaedrus by tinding a "pleasant" place under 3 speading plane uee. Another facet of the flowery images is the sense of smell also associated with flowers. Socrates notes that the nearby willow tree is in full bloom and provides the most pleasant of smells (Placo, Phaedrus, 2308). '" Sappho fng. 2: ...& 6601~~6k srair 6 ~Gpos// &eiam1. aihoaouGvvov 6k ~Ghhov / /~GvaK~T~PPEI. In fact a11 tive senses are depicted here. She also foiiows the Homeric pattern of a grove, stream, roses, apples, meadow and gentle breezes. Calme t 67 notes that the poem "evokes the presence of the goddess of love." 96 The influence of Moschus is also quite apparent here. Not only does Tatius borrow from the garden passage (bfoschus 63-7 1; Tatius 1.1.3-6 and 1.15.1-8) as well as the flower basket ekphrasis (Moschus 38-62; Tatius 1.1.1- 13). but he uses a similar structure. and his Europa shows no obvious signs of a struggle just as Moschus' Europa is *'seduced" by ~eus-the-bull.'"Tatius is imitdng both the Moschus poem where Europa goes off willingly and the contemporary visual art images of Europa that pomay her in the same manner. The dual aspect of beauty and violence portrayed in the "abducted" female reveals the point of view of both the male novelist and visual artist--both aspects are needed to generate a "believable" image of the heroic female. Moschus borrowed mythological images. made dlegorical references to Epic poetry by means of his language and specific materials. and combined "current" pastoral images to create Eliropn. After the conclusion of the ekphnsis. Moschus follows with a description of a locrrs ~lmoentrs.which recalls the imagery of the abduction of Persephone in the Homeric Hymn ro Demeter. Here, Moschus connects the art rkphrasis with the garden ekphrasis- the meadows are even called hci~c3var UV~E~OEVT~~or "flowery meadows" (63)and sets the pattern for the novelists. The structure is as follows: Dremof two continents Europa questions the meaning of the dream Companions asked to gather tlowes Ekphrasis of flower basket Description of meadow Zeus' desires Description of the bull Seduction of Europa by the bull Abduction of Europa Description of marine characters Description of Europa sitting on the bull at sea Europa's lament Zeus' reply Erotic encounter 15' Moschus uses highly erotic language to seduce Europa. from the ove~oweringsmell to fondling, wiping the foam from its mouth and finally kissing the bull. 97 Thus, Moschus sets up the suggested pattern that Tatius and the other later novelists will follow: a) Ekphnsis, b) descriptions of locur amoenus, c) description of character(s), and d) erotic encounter. Tatius employs a similar pattern but places the loars amoenus between two descriptions of Lcucippe. They can be seen as follows: Pattern of kIoschus Pattern of Ach. Tat. a) Ekphrasis Flower basket a) Ekphrasis Europa painting (38-62) (1.1.2-13) b) Locus Alnoenris Meadow b) Character(s) Leucippe like Europa (63-7 1) ( 1.3.3) C) Character(s) Bull C) Loc. Am. Hippias' garden (80-92) (1.15.1-8) Europa b) Chmcter(s) Lzucip pe like garden (1.19) d) Eros Consummation d) Eros Near erotic encounter (162-166) (2.2) Whereas Moschus moves in a linear fashion from one description to another, Tatius "weaves" the images together by leaving some puts out or repeating similar motifs but at the same time uses the erotic language that Moschus employs. The Hellenistic poet strove for balance and he places the description of the bull right in the center of the poem and builds a perimeter of descriptions it.I5' In Tatius' ekphrasis, the description of the garden is enclosed by two descriptions of Leucippe4ne that recalls the Europa image and the other that compares her to the garden. In the description of Lmon's park, Longus too places his art-works in the center of the park suggesting that the three authors structured their works Iike a well-structure garden. 152 The poet use 59 Iines of description in a 166 line poem. 3) Le Jardin des DBlices of Europa Eroticism is obvious in the description of Europa's body, where her chiton, possibly wet from the journey, reveals her "breasts gently swelling from her bosom; the girdle gathered the chiton and confines the breasts and the chiton was a mirror of her body."i53 To build up this passage. he uses short phrases in asyndeton built around the ring composition denoted by the chiton revellling her body (ANKO~ 6 XITWV: 1.1.10 and 6 XIT~V: 1.1.1 1). This structure parallels the three asyndeton passages in the description of Anthia by Xcnophon of Ephesus: an asyndeton passage describes the subjects and leads into a longer passage which describes that particular action: description (subjects) action (verbs) AEUKO~o xt~Cjv- 4 xhaiva nopqupi5 TO 8i a6pa Eta fls iafi~osirrr~qaiv~~o. The chiton is white; the body was revealed though the clothes the chlaina purple. BaWs op9ah05 . yaep TET~~~VT)• TO mipvov i@v ~a~agaivov~GPCVETO. Aanapa Deep belly, taut stomach. the chest widens going down to the waist the narrow waist A parallel passage occurs in the anonymous poem Pervigililim Vcneris ( 13-26) written possibly around the same time.'" Ipsn grmmis prirpiircmrern pingir nnnlrm floridis, Ipsa srirgrntes papillas de Ftrrani spirini Urger in roros rrpmtes, ipscz roris hcidi, Noctis arira qriern relinquit. spnrgit lrrnenris aquas. En micnnt lacrimae trementes de cnrluco pondere: Gutta prneceps orbe pcirvo s~istinrtcnstu silos. En pudurern jlor~dentaeprodide runt prirpttrae: Umor ille, qiiem serenis astrn rornnt nocribus, Mane virgineas papillus solvit urnenti pepiu. I' iursit mane ut ldae vir,qines nrtbnnt rosae: Is3 Nimis 102, Ach. Tat. I. I.I 1: Macoi TGV rnipv~vijpEpa TT~OKGMOVTET- fi awayouaa ccjq rov xlrfiva ~airobs pacobs i~h~l~.~ai VETO TCG uchpa~os KUTO~POV 0 XIT&V. '" The OCD 806 dates it between the second and fifth centuries C.E..This poem is from the Anthologia Latina, edited by D.R.Shackleton Bailey. My translation. She herself paints the year scarlet with flowering buds, She herself, pressing the buds with the breath of the West wind, urges into swelling clusters. she herself sprinkles the clear water. of limpid dew which the air of the night leaves behind. The teardrops are flashing, threatening to fall down (by gravity)! The shear drop sustains its own fall by means of its small mass. The abounding scarlet tlowers (roses) have surrendered their shame! This rain. which the stm bedew in the serene nights Early in the morning, loosens he virgin buds from the moist garments. She herself orders early that the virgin roses marry with moisture. Here the poet describes Spring (Ver)painting (pingir) the flowers scarlet (prirpuranrem) and the buds rise (stirgentes papillus) helped by the West wind (Favonispiritu) and are bedewed (roris lucid23 by the night air (1Vocris aura). The tlowers are "virgin" roses (virgines rosae) that bloom in the light of day Cfkzmmis Solis). The emphasis on sexuality parallels the Tatius passage. Although papilla can mean "buds". it also means breasts or nipples and pwalkls 'The breasts gendy rise from her chest."15' The roses have virgin buds (virginens pclpillac) which parallels Europa's virginity whlr the colour porphyry (purprtm), mentioned several times. is seen in the colour of Europa's robe. Even the rising wind (srtrgmtes papillas de F~zvonispiritu) helps billow out Europa' s veil.156The poem sings of the arrival of spring and the author's frequent refrain on love supported by its erotic language and strong pastoral elements follows similar patterns. Eroticism can also be seen as a metaphor in the meadow description. The fit part of the meadow details the elaborate "barrier" of the trees, followed by mention of three plants, a spring and then the gardener. At first this seems innocent enough but later when Clitophon, while sitting in the aapa8~iao5with his servant Satyrus, discusses how the gardener is needed to instigate the seeding of the palm tree ( 1.1.17), we realize the metaphorical importance of the gardener in the ekphrasis. Also, in the ekphrasis where the sea and land meet. apart from pointing out that the sea has two Ach. Tat 1.1.1 1 : MaSoi rGv mtpvwv ipC~aIT~OKUTTOVTE~ '5V6id,1-1-12: o 6i ~oh~ros~oij 7T~Trhou Tr&v~oeEw ~T~TOTO ICV~TO~~EVO$ ' ~a\ fi~06~0s 6v~uocTOG the rest of the sea (KUUUEOV 6i TO npb~TO ~rChay05.:1.1.8)-Tatius also mentions the foam (agpbr) three times within one sentenceI5' not just to emphasize the foamy sea but obviously as a sexual metaphor for ~phrodite.'~' iii) The Philomela and Prokne ekphrnsis of Tatius The underlying theme as stated by Eros in Philetas' garden is that he makes the flowers "bloom" by means of love and thus the sexual metaphor is laid open not just in Longus. but in dl the romance novels. However the "plucked maiden" also has bad connotations as seen when Charikieia comments about herself. "...my physical beauty, the possession of which seems to bring me nothing but ill fortune. provoked Thy amis too to desire me.""" Nature can be destructive as well as procreative. All three of Tatius' rkphnseis depict women being violated. moving from the abduction to the actual violence and brutality: Europa is abducted by a bull. Andromeda is chained to a grotto. and Philomela reveals her rape by means of a tapestry and the two sisters repay the rapist with the murder of his son. All of these images foreshadow the increasing violence that each heroine will suffer as well as being metaphors for each character. But of the three. thls one focuses on the xmd rape of Plulomela md the retribution against Tereus. and as a result. this is the most disturbing. Even Apuleius depicts Actaeon caught in the act of looking at a naked goddess. and Heliodorus also depicts an Andromeda image*but neither focuses on the actual violence. The emphasis on violence reveals the other duality found in the garden ekphrasis-the inherent violence of nature. Yet this ekphnsis focuses on the characters of the painting instead of a locus ornoenus, just as the Dionysian scenes of Longus do. although unlike Longus Tatius Is' Is' Ibid.. I. 1.9: 'Aqgoq hr~rroiq-ro~ai -rrt~pat ~ai ~Gpa~a ai -rrC~pat-riis yiis Grr~pPa@hqp~val.6 ampor rr~plhm~aivov as rrhpay. TO m3pa ~opugo\j~avov~ai x~pi~ay TT~TP~~ AUO~EVOV E~STOGC uqpoirt, Aphrodite's name is "foam-given" and indicates the manner of her conception and birth. t 59 Heliod. 6.9.6: rpos TOV K~T'ipo6 1~68ovfl 6umx&s ~OLrrpoo~ival 60~0ii(~a T~V 6yl~0v wpa. Cf. Euripides, Helen, 260- 1. 101 does not even center the ekphrasis in a pleasant place; instead it is seen by the passing characters in an artists' studio. But Tatius is clever, for the underlying metaphor is found in the three characters who become birds and his recalls the locus amoenits. The painting is the most violent but it is also the most complicated because of its triple views: Philomela holds a tapestry which reveals the rape to her sister Prokne, and in another part, there is the shocked and animated expression of Tereus as the two sisters show him the cooked remains of his son Itys. The entire painting is full of motion that enhances the violence: Tareus struggles with Philomela. ripping open her chiton to expose her robe while Trreus jumps up and presses his leg against the table. Yet there is u sense of balance as the two scenes frame Prokne who "was bowing her head to show that she understood what was being pointed out to her" and her only emotion is seen in her ryes. "there was a savage look in her eyes and she had become furious at what she saw depicted there."'60 The two stories are divided into two distinct divisions although the greater half involves the rape. Tatius uses a near-balanced structure when setting up the rkphrasis. beginning with a general statement about the theme: "it holds Philomela's rapei6'.the violence of Tereus and the removal of ~rinho~'")),Tereus (6 TqpElj~)and the table (i~pdra~ca) and each of these images either begins or ends a descriptive phrase. Ring composition using rifrhor (TOVirilrAov and &6~piv T+ to6 rr+rhov ypa~iv)denotes the borders of the tape~try.'~'whle Tereus's - - -- ''' Ach. Tat. 5.3.5: fi npo~vqrrpos rfp 8~i61v~VEVEUKEL ~a'i 6p1~C @~EST€ ~a'iWPY~~ETO fl YP~Q~ '"I 960pir typicaiiy means destruction or monl decay but here "rape" (O'Su[livan 423). I"' Ach. Tat. 5.3.3 : Q)lhopjhay yap E~E@3opav uai *v Piav TqpEos ~aifis yhdmqs TO~~V. I"' Once again some dual meanings since nirrhos usually means a robe or veil and Xen. Eph 1.5.2 calls a tapestry qvi.OTSullivan 346 and Gasetee 241. 'G Mentioned twice: ~a'ii6~imrv~ T~V rj~auparwv as ypaqaq. " description reinforces the frozen stasis found in the visual arts just as the other characters are eternally "caught" in their own actions. Tatius employs the number three throughout the rkphrasis symbolically referring to the characters of the myth. There are three characters, three themes and three images. Within the tapestry there are three body parts: disheveled hair. the chest area revealing tom clothes and a bared breast, and the hands, the left thrusting out at Tereus and the right tqing to make herself decent. Likewise in the Tereus scene. three dual activities occur at the same time: the sisters show the head and hands of Tereus' son (and likewise. he sees the body parts): rhe sisters laugh and are scared: and he jumps from the table and gmbs his sword but his leg knocks the table which ends the action. The ekphrasis can be summarized as follows: Theme q~~opav,~iav.~o~~v. rape. violence, cutting of tongue Images o .rrt.rrhos.o Tqpeus, fi ~pk.rr~(a tapestry. Tereus, table Tapestry TOV rrirhov as ~opas hair TO o~fpvov chest: girdle undone. chiton ripped. breast bared niv 8~Ct&v...fl hat$ hands Tereus Op@co Tqp~irr G~i~vuovat showing y~AGat6k apa qto@oCv~at. laughing and fearing ava~~q66v....gh~wv jumping and grabbing Table hi Mv rpun~ See Xenophon's description of Anthia, p. 68. 166 Ibid.. 5.3.8: fi 6i oirn ~'u-~KEv.oh rrimo~~v. ahh' ~~E~KUWEporrilv pihhov~o~ mch~a~o~. What do the images mean? Several points arise here. First, the hands of Tereus's son recall Philomela's struggle as she uses her hands to protect herself-they are now useless for Itys-and they may be compared with the outstretched hands of Europa's companions and the chained arms of Andromeda. Second, the laughing and fearing of the sisters recalls the companions from the Europa ekphnsis who show "'joy and feu" on their faces 16' just as the Andromeda image reveals "beauty and feu."'6s Third. the rape depicted is highly charged; as Steve Nirnis points out this is "designed to appeal to the male gaze, revealing another level of ambivalence about the picture's The bared breast shows Tatius' voyeurism as do the art-works of Europa and Andromeda. The fourth and perhaps most relevant point is that Tatius uses the metaphorical birds in this story to recall "garden imagery." The mist depicts the images of the mpe- reuibution but only Clitophon explains the transformations of Tereus into the hoopoe (~ao~)"O, Philomela into the swallow"' (~~ht6kv)and Prokne into the nightingale'" (h~l6cjv)(5.5.2-9). The swallow was first seen in Hippias' garden ( 1.15) where two kinds of birds are mentioned: wild and tame. The tame include the peacock. swan, and parrot while the only bird singing. dong with the cicadas. was the swallow who smp at Tereus' table ( 1.15.8). Just prior to the couple's encounter with the painting, a hawk chasing a swallow swck Leucippe's head with its wing (5.3.3). Their companion Menelaus interprets the meaning of the hawk-and-art-work encounter as symbolizing 167 Ach. Tat. I. 1.7:xarp65 ~aicpdpou. I" [bid.. 3.7.2: 'E~ri81 TQV ~~pouchrr~vai)m~ ~auos KEKE~~OT~I ~ai 81oq '"" Nimis 1 15. 17' The hoopoe (itpupa epops) was know for its cry. Grronoi rrorrorrorrorrorrolroi and its crest. See Ovid. Met, 6.671 and Pliny 1V.H. 10.29.44. Thompson 95-6. "' The swallow (hinrndo mtica) was known as the "hubringer of spring" by Hes. Op. er D. 568. Simon. 74 (1211, Honcc. Ep. 1.7.13. Ovid Met. 6. 670 and Fausri 2.853 among others (Thompson 32 I; Pollard 3 1). The Philomela and the Tereus incident are also mentioned in the Pervigilium Veneris poem which suggests that the poet knew oCT~tius(or vice-versa). 172 The nightingale (furcinianregarhynclrus) was known for its song, considered as a dirge as early as Homer Od. 19.5 18 (Pollard 42-43). The loctis classicrrs is Plin. N.H. 10.29.43 but it can be found in Aesch. Supp. 60. Soph. El. 107. Theoc. 15.121. md Horace C. 412.5. Philomela and Prokne are often confused. Thompson 22. 104 unlawful love, shameless adultery, women's woes."3 These birds foreshadow the "unlawful" sexual relation between Melite and Clitophon; she "seduces" Clitophon while she is still married since she believes that her husband was killed at sea, but when he shows up. he charges his wife with adultery. Leucippe's woe occurs when she is taken by pirates and sold as a slave to Melite's house and Clitophon is told that she was seen being decapitated (5.7.4).an allusion to Itys' hte in the Philomela story. When Melite discovers that Clitophon's great love Lrucippe lives in her house"', she vies to kill Leucippe unsuccessfully. Almost all that is foretold occurs by the end of Book 5. and this shows the importance of the ekphrasis. This ekphrasis is the 1st of Tatius' rkphraseis and the most violent. It reveals the inherent violence found in nature and only by way of metaphor can one actually identify this connection. Its complexity is built around the number three. but thematically it is the most subtle of all the romance rkphraseis. This could be the reason that the main characters actually debate the meaning of the painting after seeing it, but in typical Tatian fashion. the ekphrasis symbolizes the events to come. iv) Andromeda in Tatius and Heliodorus-a return to Boscotrecnse The image of a "bound Andromeda is frequently found in ancient art. especially in Roman wall-paintings.'i5 so it should come as no surprise that two authors made her for their ekphraseis. The most detailed description is by Achilles Tatius which in fact does resemble u painting opposite the Galatea painting at ~oscotrecase"~while the shortest is a brief mention by Heliodorus which has the most impact in that Charikleia is conceived while her father gazed at this painting as he made ' Ach. Tat. 5.4.2: iporos napavopou. polx~ia~ava~~v~ou. ywal~~iov ~N)(TI~~TWV. I 74 Clitophon and MeIite meet Lrucippe in a "rowed" garden (5.17.3). '" LIMC lists at least 11 wall-paintings in the Pompeii region alone. A Corinthian amphora dated to the 6th century B.C.E. features a nude Andromeda msoutstretched and tied to piilm with a billowing veil or chiaina blowing behind her (Berlin (Ost) Staadiche Museen F 1652). '" Von Blanckenhagen's colour plates 42. I05 love to her mother, and suffers a comparable fate in Charikieia's identical "copy" of the painted Andromeda. Michael Andenon maintains suggests that, "Whereas Longus and Achilles Tatius employ paintings to initiate the process of story-telling. He tiodorus employs the painting of Andromeda to initiate the plot itself."'" Both authors emphasize her sexuality and reinforce the violence qain of a "chained" woman, but unlike the other ekphraseis. there is "hope" for the abducted woman in the person of Perseus. I) Tatius and Andromeda The wall-painting of Andromeda and its companion piece about Prometheus were painted by Evanthes at the temple of Zeus at Pelusium near ~lexandria.'~~The use of these four art-work ekphraseis and his focus on light leads Garson to speculate that Tatius had "a highly developed visual fa~ulty.""~I would go hnher and speculate that Tatius had some art training and was possibly a painter as well. As in the Philomela painting, Tatius states makes a general statement: "both are chained and then points out their similarities: "Both were bound to a rock: in both. beasts were the torturers-ne from the air. and one from the sea: their deliverers were Argives of the same family. his Hrracles and hers ~ersrus."~"Tatius has very neatly outlined their similarities but also alludes to other ekphraseis. Unlike the wrath of Poseidon against Andromeda. in the Moschus poem we learn that Poseidon "smoothes" the waves for his brother's abduction."' Likewise. one will recall Aeschylus' Promelheus Borind where 10 in the shape of a cow, and dso desired by Zeus, meets the chined Prometheus. Does the Prometheus symbolize Clitophon? Prometheus certainly In Anderson ( 1997) 3 15. See above p. 35 for discussion on Evanthes. In Gmon 86. I"' ~ch.Tat.3.6.3:6~u~Grutpiv iipgo. 'I Ibid., 3.6.4: lli-rpat piv apqoiv TO G~po~ptov.8fjp~s 6i U~T*auqoTv oi Gjpio~.T+ p~vkc a~pos.fi 6i ia Bahaaq~- 6-rrboupot 6t atr-rois 'Apy~iot660 myy~v~is.rQ ph'Hpadfj~. m=j 8i ll~pod~. IXZ Moschus Eriropa 120- 122: ~ai6' ah05 ~ap66ou~ro~6srEip ah05 'Evvouiyaios / / KCwa JC~TI&~VWVahirls YETT TO KEA~~OU/ / akro~aaiy~rc+ t 06 represents the wise god and friend to humans who angered Zeus but this is unlike Leucippe' lover who is quite passive throughout. However the "chained" element can be applied to him as a man unable to do anything except talk. Unlike the other ekphraseis which do not contain a "hero" to rescue the abducted woman, here we have a flying Peneus. which also parallels the "bird" theme of the Philomela myth. Yet, as in the other stories where the rkphrasis foreshadows events to come, Tatius plays with the reader's expectations, as Bartsch points out.''3 Clitophon is not the hero Perseus. but rather a weak "boy" who seems to lament over everything-tirst during the storm at sea which occurs prior to the ekphrasis (3.4) and then when robbers overtake their boat on the Nile (3.10). When Leucippe is "sacrificed" before Clitophon in a fake sacrifice. he laments again (3.16) attempting suicide just as his companions re11 him that Leucippe lives. Here the Andromeda image seems to foreshadow Leucippe since she is bound to the ground and "not killed." After Clitophon rejoices with a prayer to Zeus (3.11.6). he joins the Egyptian forces just as the Phoenix bird arrives at Hrliopolis. This bird is a symbol ofthe Sun and noted for its gold and porphyry colors 2s we11 as its halo which is deep blue and "rosy" (KU~VEO~ ia~lv.Po6015 ipq~pfi5).Hence the winged bird symbolizes Peseus who was created when Zeus came to hs mother in "a shower of golden Light" and it certainly does not symbolize Ciitophon. ,411 the action is fulfilled in Book 3 just as the Europa-Leucippe episode occurs in Book 1. md the Philomela-Leucippe story in Book 5. The actual description of Andromeda has four main parts which are detikd in various ways and, like Tatius' ekphrasis of Europa. omit certain details. One major detail laclang is the landscape setting since Tatius describes only the natural hollow of the rock where Andromeda is ~hained."~He then proceeds as follows: I83 Brutsch 39. 18-8 Ach. Tat. 3.7.1: 'OpGpumal piv oGv ~i5TO pkpov fl5 ~opqsfi ni~par BLAEL 6k TO 6puywa hiy~lvOTI pi TI^ air~6n~rroiqu~ x~ip. ahh' Ecmv aCrox8ov. Rock Andromeda Face Cheeks (Violets) Eyes Hands Fingers hang (Grapes) Sheer Clothes (spider's web) Sea Monster Head Above Tail Beiow Scales Neck Tail Belly Perseus Naked Mantle over shoulders Winged feet Hands Left --Gorgon's head Right-sickle-sword Andromeda has the longest description while Perseus and the monster vie for equal lengths. Just as in the Leucippe description. specific body parts are mentioned: the ryes are compared to violets but now they are fading, and the cheeks have only a little of the colour remaining. Compare Lrucippe's complexion to Andromeda's: Leucippe (1.4.3) Eyes wild with pleasure (6ppa yopyov tv i6ovfl) Cheeks white but stained in the cenue llnd imitating porphyry just as the Lydian women stain ivory. (AEUK~rrapa16. TO hru~ov uloov igolvkorso ~ai~UI~E~TO ~~opqGpav oiav ~i5TOV ~h~qav~aAu8ia Baxf~tpvi) Andromeda Eyes from her eyes beauty tlourished (~IC6i TGV oq8ahp3v hued TO ~ahhos) Nor were her eyes unshining. but appeared like the violets just recent with glimmer (ohTO TQV oqjeah~Qv&veo$ ~miva~Lp~~vov. ahh' EOIKE roT5 &prr papatvov~vol5io15 ) Cheeks in her cheeks sits fear (,hpiv yhp ~ai5nap~1ai5 TO 6205 ~a8q~a1) But the pallor from her cheeks were not completely unstained. it was gently stained with red ('AAA' OGTE T&V rrapa6v TO w~povtih~ov ~~O~VIKTOVjv. ipdva 61 ~i,ip~liB~i @/@amu~ ) Tatius connects the two rkphmseis. separated by almost three books, with specific an- flowery images. Notice that the verb "10 dip-stain" ((3~rrrro)'~*as well as "to turn "' Although the word (3amw has the sense of 'ZO dye" fabrics. Tatius also uses the verb in Leucippe's fake offering when the bandit wkes a sword and 'dips" into into her hem (haf3bv 108 porphyry" (gomiuuo) are used in both passages. The appropriate "pallor" (TO cj~pov) parallels the colour "white" (ANKI~), though obviously for different reasons, yet twice Tatius points out that Andromeda's eyes ;Ire "blooming" (ave~iand TO T~V0~0ah~6v &v80r) while Leucippe's eyes are "wild" or "gorgon-like" (yopybv). Is this a foreshadowing of the Perseus image carrying the Gorgon's head? Also missing from Andromeda's facial description is a mention of her mouth as shown in the Leucippe image. which presumably is deformed by lamentation. There are two garden references here: Leucippe's eyes are like violets fading and her arms are like vines held upright by the ropes while her fingers hang like grapes. The violets recall Leucippe's eyes in another descriptive passage where Leucippe is compared to a peacock and the tlowers of a garden ( 1.19). and her eyes flash like violets. Here we can assume that this is a bright blue colour (iov 6k fi TOYoq0ahpQv lpappalptv am). The comparison to grapes seems quite absurdly out of context here but all the ingredients for a funeral-with-death "wedding" are indicated here by the sentence. 'Thus was she bound. waiting for her fate, adorned for a bridal as one who was to be the bride of the King of ~eath.""~Tatius makes a final allusion to the Europa ekphrasis by describing her weddins clothes in a similar manner: Europa Length Colour Description chiton from chest to pelvis chiton is white reveals the body ~Aaiva~a K~TWTOG acbpa~o~ ~EUKO~o XIT&V TO 6i o&pa 6tb -$ EO~~~TOS 6-rr~qa {VETO. Girdle holds together the chiton fi avvdryouoa (churl rov xn6va Chi ton mirrors the body Cicpos Parrr~l~a~a -rfis ~ap5L'as: 3.15.4). pamw seems rather weak here but is Tatius trying to connect the three scenes?Not surprising, and apart from two other "dye" references, O'Sullivan 59 points out that the word only exists in these contexts. 1X6 Ach. Tat. 3.7.6: AE8~ratpiv ohoii~w TOV Bava~ov~K~~OVZV~ - k-rq~~ 8i VUU~IK~~~ imoh~op~vq,&m~p ' AtGov~i wpqq KEKOCQ~~~~V~.Trans. Gaselee. Andromeda foot-lengthened chiton chiton is white the weave is thin nobfipqs 6 xmcjv AEUKO~o XITCISV- TO iicpaapa h~rrrov like a spider's web, apaxviwv 601~05rrhouij not like sheep's hair oir ~araTilv T&V ~~OPQTE~OV T~Ix~~v. made by Indian women iU though the Europa description focuses more on the eroticism of her body ,IY7 the descriptions nre quite similar, pointing out the length of each chiton. its color and some descriptive detail. and ending in a tricolon crescendo but milking specific changes according to the different contexts. Is this a case of an artist relying on a standard pattern? More likely. Tatius ''weaves" certain images throughout his book to identify the characters with these mythical ekphraseis as well as to show-off his rhetorical abilities. 2) Tatius and Boscotrecase However, the greatest similarities exist between Tatius and the Boscotrecase ~ainting.''~The painting uses the smr green-blue hue 3s the Galatea painting already di~cussed.~'~although its background is more discernible than in Tatius' description. The rocky natural grotto parallels the "hollow" of Tatius' description, yet the ragged peak seems to resemble some "monstrous" hand which makes the scene even more disturbing. Andromeda takes up her central position just as in Tatius' description. with her arms outstretched and fingers of her right hand "hanging like grapes." She seems to be wearing a thin-wo~en'~~"floor-length" robe but dso has a chlaina draped over her -- -- - In' In' See above. p. 98ff. Inn See Von Blanckenhagen's colour plate 43 (Mythologicd Room ( 19), east wall). InY Seeabove,p.39ff. I"' The detaiI is difficuIt to ascertain and does not seem as sheer as in the Tatius passage, left shoulder and covering her right leg from the thigh down. Her facial detail is difficult to make out although she seems to be staring away resigned to her hte but not aware of nearby Perseus nor the threatening sea-monster. Perseus appears almost as in the Tatius' description: naked with a mantle over his shoulder, winged feet, his right hand holding a sword while left hand clutches his mantle. Whether the sword is a dual sickle-sword or he carries the Gorgon head under the mantle seem doubtful. The sea-monster has all the parts mentioned by Tatius but the painter has focused on its head, which seems to be blowing water from its mouth. As in the Galatea painting, the painter has included two narrative asides: a woman sits waiting below Andromeda covered with a veil. and a small vignette of Perseus securing an alliance with Andromeda's father Kepheus "tloats" just above this seated woman and parallel in height to the tlying Perseus on the left side. Behind the alliance scene on the right side. several Roman-styled buildings disappear into the background haze of the middle gound. and just along the height ofthe rocky-crag on the left side one can see a rids with faintly-painted buildings outlined by cypress trees. The hazy landscape. as in the Galatea painting, is drtinitely Italy and not Ethiopia or Egypt. The tigures are quite static with no overlapping breaking the composition. which is cross- shaped. into smaller areas. As I have noted before. Tatius' strong sense of structure and colour suggest that he was also a painter and that he knew the Andromeda- Prometheus images at Pelusium. and knew the artist of the Philomela painting as seen in the artist's st~~dio.'~'Unfortunately one will never know bur these parallels are quite compelling! nonetheless, one can see the outline of her msand upper torso quite well from the colour plate. "' See Giatrornanoldces 1990 for Tatius' life. 3) Heliodorus and Andromeda Heiiodorus wrote possibly a century after Tatius, and a major change seems to have occurred with the novel-it became more elaborately constructed while the ekpbis seems to have lost most of its relevance. The opening tableau is a good example where Heliodorus presents the battle scene as if it were a staged image (TOIOJTOV Bia~pov)imd the characters were frozen in time like a painting (niv qvfiv). ''' Is this an ekphrasis'? Reardon notes that Heliodorus builds narrative tension by requiring the reader ro use "hemeneutic efforts" to sort out the plot,""' and Fusillo states that the opening scene is central to the plot which we can infer acts like the opening ekphnseis of Tatius and ~ongus.'" but Heliodorus' complicated wording reveals a writer at play and we are left with ambiguity. Michael Anderson suggests that Heliodorus steers away from the "pornographic" representations of Andromeda: instead, "he invites us to wonder. and not to gawk at the naked This major shift away from the Tatian eroticism may be because Heliodorus was a Christian bishop 196- heemphasis throughout the entire novel is the preservation of the virginity of Charikleia. hence the numerous comparisons to Anemis. Hrliodorus refers ro an Andromeda painting through the words inscribed on Persinnn's belt who is Charikleia's mother. The belt explains Charikleia's origin. stating that she is a descendant of Perseus and ~ndromeda'97 and ' Heliod. 1.1.6-7: ~cxioupxoaiors noh~povkntMrjaa5. qovou~~a'i T~OTOU~. a-rrov6as ~ai apayas ~ntouvaylay.~ai -ro~oG~ov B~cr~pov Aqmaiy Aiyvmiol~im6~icar. 7 oi yap 61j ua~uTO 6~05~EWPOUS iatmous T~V~Eua0iaav~~ mvtiva~njv cncqviv i5irvav~o..defiling wine with blood and unleashing war at the party, combining wining and dying, pouring of drink and spilling of blood. and staging this tngic show for the Egyptian bandits. They stood on the mountainside (bandits) like the audience in a theatre, unable to comprehend the scene." Trans. J.R. Morgan. Iy3 Reardon 9. Iw Fusillo 26. '"' Anderson ( 1997) 320. ' Tatius was aIso believed to be a bishop (cf. Suidz Gaselee I agrees, Giatromanolakes 27-28 disagrees siting the early date of Trrtius). '* Heliod.: 'HCI~Vrrpoyovo~ BEGV uiv "Hhtos TE ~aiAlovuao~ flpCjav 5k ll~pdsTE ~ai 'AvGpopiEa ~aiMipvov iril TO~OL~. that there ye paintings of the heroic couple in the royal bedchamber.'98She then explains why Charikleia is white and not of the darker Ethiopian colour: "I knew the reason: during your father's intimacy with me the painting had presented me with the image of Andromeda. who was depicted stark naked, for Perseus was in the very act of releasing her from the rocks. and had unfortunately shaped the embryo to her exact likene~s.""~Thls is the only art-work ekphnsis in all of Heliodorus, although there are ''art" descriptions of a serpent band worn by Charildeia (3.4.1-5)and several comparisons to paintings (7.7.4, 7.7.7, 10.6.3). Likewise, Heliodorus has only two references to loci arnoeni: when Ky bele and her son Achaimenes piot against Theagenes in a rapaS~ioo5(7.13.1) and when a stop is made at an oasis.'w This oasis has all the elements of a locru anloenus (water. meadow, and trees) but there are no character descriptions nor art-work references nearby to reveal a pattern at work. Instead, Heliodorus employs mother standard feature of the romance, the "exotic" description whch included animals (Tatius' crocodile). places (Heliodorus' Meroe and Tatius' Alexandria) and gave "flavor" to the travel aspect of the novel. Heliodorus plays with the reader as Tntius did with his description of Europa- Lzucippe when he points out that "she is reproduced in this siri exactly 3s she appears in the painting"'0' and of course there is no description of Andromeda other than that she was naked and chained to the rocks. According to the UMC,Andromeda is - wn [bid. 4.9.3: TOUS 6i 0aAapou~ 'AvGpo~iGa~TE uai napui05 Epuatv krni~~hhdv. I" (bid.. 4.8.5: &ycj vkv rilv ai~iaviyvwpi Although Heliodorus follows Chariton's model by giving numerous "descriptions" of Charikleia, he rarely describes her features. Heliodorus, according to Scobie, uses similes more than any other of the novelists.'03 Just as Anthia was modeled after Artemis the huntress. so too is Charikleia, who is also a priestess of the goddess (1.2.6, 3.4.6. and 5.3 1.2). There are even descriptions of her as a young child (2.30.6) md a young woman where Heliodorus slips in a reference to Nausikaa as a young shoot (Epv05 TL)."' in dl there are ten descriptions of Charikleia. and yet only three physical attributes are given -her golden hair. arms. and eyes. This description occurs at the procession of Arternis at Delphi which recalls Xenophon's description of Anthia at Ephesus ( 1.2.6): C harikleia (3.4.2-6) clothes long purple chiton embroidered wirh rays of the sun xt~cha6i aAoupybv ~ro6fipq xpuaai~~KTT~I KQT~TI~CTTOV ~~~@EUTO serpent band b~oId darkened <&v~v6i ilr~piPAr1~0 0 yap X~UUO~VTO T?S T~XV~S E~~EA~~VETO hair neither braided nor loose 6 K~C(T) O~TET~VTI;) ~I~TT~OKO~O~TE~~V~ETOS most hangs down to her shoulders md her back fi piv rrohhi ~aiinraqivot~ &pots TE ~aivchtot~ crown of laurel ~TTE~~~IVETilv Bi an0 uoputpijs ~aiano ~ETWTTOU 5aqv~alrahot KAGVESZUT~E(POV rosy and golden curls Ijo6o~tGiiTE ~aifih~t;)uav 11 6 For example. see mosaic at Tunis. Bardo Museum A 390 and the wall painting in the Housc of the Dioscuri at Pompeii (Naples 8997). 2113 Heliod.: 120; Ach. Tat.: 110: Longus: 107; Char.: 49; Xen. Eph.: 4. cf. Schmeling (1980) 77. :IU /bid., 3.33.3: ~aearr~pipvos ri r6v ~ireaht5vbv~6pap~v. Od. 6.163: cpoivr~osvfov igvoc av~p~o~~vovivoqaa. hands left-golden arrow "E~EPEEi halg piv T~ Some similarities occur between the two women: Anthia too has reddish-golden hair (~6prl~a~y)'~~ with most flowing down her back (iaohhi ~aer~~ivrl),some braided (ohiyrl ne.rrhtzyptvq). but where her hair blows with the wind (npos njv T~Vhv~pov qophv ~ivouplvq),Churikleia's hair is crowned by laurel leaves so that it won't be shaken by the wind (oopriv ~aiqaripair Ego roc npiaov~osOUK ~qiiv-r~y).Both writers employ the standard items of Artemis (arrows. quiver and bow) ilnd the "purple" floor- kngth chiton but instead of Xnthia's fawn-skin draped over her robe. Charikleia wears the elaborate dual-serpent band. Heliodorus emphasizes light in this passage'06 as Chankleia' eyes shine stronger than the torch that she carries. creating a ring composition with the bright rays (xpuuair ar-riot) embroidered on her chiton and the brightness (uCha5) of her eyes. The bow is golden (roeov irrixpuoov). her curls are both rosy and golden (pobo~i5flTE ~a't fiht&uav),and the serpent band is completely gold with some of the gold darkened (6phaiv~~o)to imitate scales. Like Tatius' erotic description of Europa's body. Heliodorus presents an erotic embrace of the snake band around her breasts in which they are not portrayed as dangerous (.a~viT@ ~M~POTI~O@EPOG~) but rather "steeped in a sensuous languor as if lulled by the sweet joys that dwelt in Charikleia's bosom."'07 Unlike the other descriptions that describe a person's features from the head 1115 Aristotle de Sms. 439440b calls it yellow but ~av06~is a difficult colour to pin down. A common motif. '" Ibid., 3.4.4: ahh' rjypq ~tjpam8iapp~o~ivou~ &map arro TOG ~ara.ra orEpva fis uoprls ipipov ~a~~uva~op~vou5. 115 down, Heliodorus begins with the clothes, inserts an erotic ekphnsis and then works "up" to the head area always emphasizing the aspect of light and its most important vehicle, the eyes. It seems that Heliodorus was familiar with Chariton's novel'08 but there seem to be few parallels to Tatius (or the other novelists) when it comes to the ekphrasis pattern. md this suggests that the pattern was developed during the second century with the Second Sophistic movement and possibly "ran its course" by the time of Hrliodoms. However, the pattern does occur in varying aspects in the late Byzantine romances as well as Nonnos. More s:udy of later works would help to identify how much Heliodorus was influenced by this movement in regard to the ekphrasis. Nonetheless. Heliodorus' frequent character comparisons -id references to art-works as well us his emphasis on light. the principal effect in skiagraphia. supports the view that art-works still influenced the romance novelist. v) The Actaeon ekphrasis of Apuleius Apuleius is the only Latin romance novel writer of this period but he based his novel ~Vfetnrnorphosrson Lucius of Patrae's story wOvos.'09 which was itself based on the episodic romance and the popular novelle (bIilesim tales) of Xristides of bliletus.'" but the romantic "love" has been replaced by satiric sexuality creating a satire of the romance novel." ' This satirical aspect is rooted in the Milesian tales as Apuleius admits in his opening line (ism lMilrsio vnrins fabulas consercrm) md his Roman nmdtor Lucius begins to tell the reader a Fcibnla Grrcnniccl"' or a "Greekish" tale ( 1. I). Some satirical aspects are as follows: Apuleius physically places most of the novel in a small SOX Fusillo 25 notes that Heliodorus follows Chariton and Xenophon in the opening and second half of the story (linear plot). but the central narrative is embedded with secondary stories like Tatius. :IF) Scobie t 1978) 43. 11U Scobie (1969) 33. Hanson 2 notes that Apuleius follows the style of Aristides of Miletus, who was more pornographic in nature and told in a more "tlorid" Asianic style as opposed to the Attic style of the day. 11 I Mason 8-9. r12 Mason 1 translates Graecanicrrs as "adapted (into Latin) from Greek." I I6 area of Greece, unlike most Greek romances which take place through vast areas of the Near East; his main character is an "ass"; he inserts the "romantic" story of Psyche and Cupid almost in the center of the frame-narrative but counters it with the "erotic" encounters with the Photis in the beginning and the rich woman near the end of the novel; and he plays with the rose motif,"3 which begins as a symbol of love but becomes the only cure to change Lucius back to a human. Apuleius employs several rrairs of the ekphtic pattern while employing the only scuipture ekphrasis. The Actaeon-Diana sculpture is set around a grotto found within the atrium of Lucius' aunt's house: "the rock rose in the form of a cave, with moss, gass, leaves. bushes. and here vines and there little trees dl blossoming out of the ~tone.""~As well there are apple trees and gapes hanging on the vine. Like his setting of the Psyche episode. this locrrs lanoenris too follows the Homeric model. However. the structure and motifs of the Actaeon ekphrasis are strikingly similar to the locrrs omoenlrs descriptions of Totius and Longus. even if his motives were quite different. Apuleius portrays the well-known myth of the hunter Actaeon. who after seeing the goddess Diana batlung. is turned into a stag and tom apart by his own dogs. in an elaborate ekphrasis. .Although the ekphrasis occurs in the opening of Book 2. Scobie has shown that Books 1 and 3 are "interrelated and made of interlocking units"'" which foreshadow the metamorphoses of Lucius. who sees a naked witch instead of a naked goddess and as punishment is turned into an ass and of course becomes he"butt" of the satire. Lucius is a Roman traveling in Thessdy for some family business when one of his companions. Mstomenes tells some tales of magic and witchcrdt ( 1.2) which greatly interest Lucius. Book I introduces several motifs that will remain throughout 213 Scobie ( 1978) 45. 214 Apul. 2.4: sawm insitrgit in speluncae mod~irn,rnttscis et herbis er foliis er rrirgltlis er sicubi pampinis et arbuscuii~+alibi de fapi& firentibus. 215 Ibid. 51. the novel including curiosity (curiositas),eros (voluptas),and Light (lux) which becomes a metaphor for Lucian's "blindness" and gets him into trouble. According to Scobie. 'The very intensity of his inquisitiveness blinds him to an elaborate series of warnings which continue even after he has assumed the shape of an ass."'16 Apuleius' satirical purpose is evident in this blindness from the very beginning. Lucius' name in Latin suggests "light" and the maid Photis who leads him into his "asinine" condition is the Greek equivalent. In Book 1. Lucius, after being terrified by these stories but not heeding their "warnings". meets his wedthy aunt who leads him into the atrium that contains the Actaeon sculpture-the most obvious warning of dl and of course Lucius "misses" the sign. Lucius even mentions hat Actaeon was leaning forth "in his curiosity" looking at Diana. His Aunt also wms him (2.5) to beware of his host's wife, who is a witch, and as if kd into his own trap Lucius is even more "aroused by mention of the magical arts (2.6). He then falls into the erotic trap when he tinds himself alone with Photis. He is I 7 at her beauty while she cooks sausages, describes her briefly and then launches into a monologue on the importance of women's hair concluding that even Venus would never be "beautihi if she wm bald."""wo points arise here. First Xpuleian satire strikes again since in a very shon time Lucius will be completely covered in hair, and second the Venus motif which occurs in the description of Photis and later in the Psyche story is of course pervasive in Chariton. Apuleius lays out the ekphrasis pattern in Book 2 as follows: minor description of Lucius, Actaeon ekphrasis. major description of the maid Photis. and erotic :In [hid., 49-50. 117 Apul. 2.7: mirandibrrs sreri. "I stood in amazement." 218 [bid., 2.5: licer inquam Venus ipsujirerir. licrt omni Grariurrrrn choro stipara er toto Cupidinum poprtlo c*omiraraer balseo slro cirtcra. cinnama fraglans et balsama rorans. calva processerit, placere non porerir nec V~cicartosrro. "if she were Venus herself, surrounded by the whole chorus of Graces and accompanied by the entire throng ofcupids, wearing her famous girdle, breathing cinnamon, and sprinkIing balsam- if she came forth bald she could not even attract her husband Vulcan." Trans. Hanson. 11s encounter. His Aunt makes the first description when she comments on her nephew's appearance: "And his physical appearance is a damnably precise fit too: he is tall but not abnormal; slim but with sap in him, and of a rosy complexion; he has blond hah worn without affection, wide-awake light-blue eyes with flashing glance just like an eagle's. a face with a bloom in every part. and an attractive and unaffected walk.""' Just as Xrnophon and Tatius describe the features of their heroines by only mentioning their hair, ryes and complexion. Apuleius follows the same pattern only varying such features as his height (momisproceritas,). weight (srrcrilenta grcilitas). and gait (spcciosus et imrneditcmcs incessns.).We have a young male possibly in his late teens or early twenties according to the tlowery and colorful descriptions: rosy (rubor ), blond (flnvrrrn),bright blue (caesii ), flashing (micnntes)and tlowery Cfloridiirn). Like his fellow novelists, Apuleius uses the "jeweled"style of shon asyndeton phrases, sound repetitions of "r", "s". "c" and "f' or onnphora. separations of images (forexample. the gait is separated from weight and height by the "head region which lengthens into a tricolon and then a return to short 3-1 word descriptions. The interplay between these components creates balance. harmony and contrast, while evoking mood. atmosphere and kv~~~c~cr.""[t fol1ows as: height enomis proceritus. weight sricrilenra gracilitas. complexion nrbor ternperntris, hair jtnvrtrn et inafectatrrm capillitirim. eyes oclrli cnesii qrridern, sed vigiles et in cispectrc micanter. prorsus oquilini. face os qrroqrioversrim jluridum. gait speciosris et immeditanis incessris. 21') Ibid ,2.3: enomis proceritas. suclt fenra gracifitas.nrbor temperatus,j7avum er inaffectattlrn capilfirium,ocuii caesii quidem. sed vigiles et in aspecru micantes, prorsus aqrrifini. us quoquoversrrm floridurn, speciosrrs et inrmedirarus incessns. Trans. Hanson. 120 Scobie !1969) 42-43 suggests that enargeia is one of the seven stock devices that all oral-story teiIers and romance writers used. 119 Most of this description is of the head but the main focus is on the eyes. This reinforces the Platonic idea that the eyes carry the visual image and hence are the most important vehicle for the senses,"' but the emphasis here underlines the satirical wit of Apuleius again. Lucius is blind to everything around him. The ekphnsis follows not long after. Apuleius withholds the name of the myth being pomayed and instead describes each component. letting slip a mythological reference as he goes, but with holding the name .Actaeon until the very end. Apuleius uses ring composition with the goddess Diana as a frame, whom we meet as the first figure and the third last word of the ekphrasis. The Diana statue stands in the foreground as the viewer enters the room (intronintibr~sobvium ) and his description begins from the center of the room and works outward to the walls. The components reverse the descriptive pattern as seen in the locus urnoenris descriptions but follows the linear aspect of the E~irop~zckphrasis of Tatius. It can be broken down as fo1lows: Atrium 4 columns, statuettes Diana Robe flowing Dogs Eyes. cars, nostrils. mouths open. barking, rearing up Grotto Cave. moss. grass. leaves. bushes Shade-glistening Apples. grapes Pool Actaeon watches Diana The ekphrasis follows the Homeric locur czrnoenris pattern with its enclosed area. garden. art-works, and a water source and is obviously modeled on a Roman peristyle honus. The statuettes standing on columns in the comers of the room (cofrimnis qrtadnj5ariclrn per singulos angi rlos stantibra anolernbant stattlar ) re in force the enclosed area. The term quadrifaria or "divided into four parts" can be roughly equated to the four sides of Hippias' napa6~ioo$found in Tatius. and roughly equivalent to the "four 22 1 See above, p. 12- 1 3. 120 acres" of Alkinous' garden-court.'2 Instead of a meadow. Apuleius uses a grotto which also doubles as the backdrop for one of the atrium walls (Pone tergum deae suuim insurgit in sprluncae modurn). To generate enargeia. Apuleius works on all the senses. Like Europa's billowing veil by Tatius. the statues seem to have a sense of movement: Diana' robe flows back (veste rrjlutnim, ), the dogs are running (nirrunt),the water of the pool flows in gentle ripples (di.rcurrens in lenem vibrcltur rmdarn). and the hanging grapes possess movement (agitationis oficio carere ). One aspect of this lonrs arnoenus description. but not mentioned at 1111 by the other novelists, is the sense of smell generated by dl those flowers in a garden. Apuleius comes close to this when he mentions that the apples were ready to pick "when rnrrsry Autumn breathes ripe colour into them."'" Sound is another sense that the other novelists play with as in the birds and cicadas found in the gardens of Philetas and Hippias. but here the sound is more threatening as the dogs are depicted so redistically that "if the sound of barking bunt in from next door. you would think it had come from the marble's jaws.""' He emphasizes the "light7*aspect. not just for the "blindness" motif. but as tm integral part of the art-work ekphrasis. Diana's statue is Pxian marble-a very shiny (nirore lopidis) white colour which contrasts with the dark shadows of the grotto (intris rimbra) and even the grapes are skillhlly polished (irvciefabrrrime politat. dependent). Everything in this room is artificial but Apuleius mentions several times how "real" everything looks by means of words of "believing": credrmt~ir,plitubis, purrs, posse decerpi, credes. Even the retlecting pool reveals the "reality" of the grapes and parallels the artificid reflecting pool of Tuti~s.''~He also focuses on the skill of the -*?-I Ach. Tat. I. 15-1: ~iooap~s6k ?aav -rrh~upai Apul. 9.1: cum rn~tstl~lerrrtuarrtrtmnus nlatunrm colorem aflaverir. Musty or rnrrsrulenrus can aIso mean "abounding in new wine." 2ZJ lbid, 2.1: sicunde de pro-rirno larratrts ingruerit. ertm ptrrabis de faucibus lupidis e.rire. Trans. Hanson. " Ach. Tat. 1.15.8: TO 6k ii6wp r&v av0iwv jv ~a~ompov.45 6or~iv TO aha05 ~ival 6inhoSv. TO piv fls ahqeeia~.TO 8i fls mt65. 12 1 sculptor with more than sufficient superlatives: "the auiurn was very beautiful" (Atria longe pulcherrima), " (majestate numinis venerabile). and "in which this extraordinary sculptor made the greatest example of a work of an artisan" (in quo swnmtcm specimen operae fabn'lis egregiur ille sign$e.r prodidit ) . His most "poignanty*Line reveals that the sculptor made the art so well that, "art imitating nature is displaying similes of truth.""6 Apuleius has tried to recreate an artificial reality. typical of the novelist, but this artificiality points out that Lucius is blind to the moral statement of the sculpture, and instead seems seduced by the "beauty" of the image. His lengthy description of Photis, and especially his treatise on hair (2.8-9), also reveals that the seductive beauty seems to overwhelm our hero. This seems in contrast to the old woman's description of Psyche. who was "so dauling and glorious that it could not be described nor even adequately praised for the sheer poverty of human speech.""' Scobie acutely points out that "the 'efficient' motif of the Golden Ass is not the erotic. but the marvelous.""%verything in this novel hinges around marvelous occurrences, especially underlined by Lucius' metamorphoses. Again Scobie. although with some disdain says, "romance literature aims to generate the same emotion by presenting mirabilia in a strong visual manner." Hence the romance writer's constant use of ~vlr~~~~a""~which connects Apuleius with his Greek counterparts even though his aim seems quite different. 226 Apul. 2.4: ars aernula na;urae veritari sinriles e.rplicrrit. 22-7 Ibid, 1.28: tam praeciara prtlchitmdo nec txprimi ac ne suficienrer quidern laudari semanis humani penuria poterar. 3 Scobie ( 1969) 32, Ibid, 41. He also feels (40) that wondrous images appealed more to the lower classes than to the aristocrats, since it aimed for the "emotional reaction" as opposed to the intellectual. CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSIONS What can we conclude Erom this inquiry into the ekphnsis and the novel? First, the descriptive passages are an integral part of the novel just as Shadi Bmch concluded on Heliodorus and AchiUes Tatius, and are not merely used to "coiouf' their stones. Second, I have suggested that these descriptive passages form a pattem that can be seen in the novels of Apuleius, Longus and Xenophon of Ephesus as well. The integration of the an-work ekphrasis with descriptions of the main characters and the locus amoenur helps to develop the erotic setting of the novels. Whether it is the naive "romance" between Daphnis and ChlM. the voyeuristic intrigue of Tatius or the satirical humor of Apuleius, "eros" is the aim of the romance novel. The earliest novel by Chilriton and the latest by Heliodorus do not use this pattern but instead focus upon character descriptions. It appears that Chariton. who wrote prior to the majority of the novelists, was not influenced by the Second Sophistic movement of the second century C.E.as were the other novelists, while Hrliodorus, who lived a century later was possibly influenced by Christian beliefs and down-played the erotic aspect. The earliest novelists provided the inspiration for the later ones. and the influence of ths pattem can be seen in later Byzantine works. and right up to modern times. How are art-works. people and gardens related? The ekphnstic pattern is confined to a specific episode within one book of each novel. The an-work ekphrasis is placed at the opening of that book to foreshadow the action of the novel by means of the mythological characters who act as metaphors for the main characters: Lrucippe is Europa, Clitophon is Prometheus. Lucius is Actaeon. Cdlirhoe is Aphrodite, Anthia is Artemis, and Theapnes is Achilles. Certain attributes are seen in the hero-heroines. such as the beauty and sensuality of Aphrodite, the virginity of Artemis, the "chained" hero Prometheus. and the "larger-than-li fe" hero Achilles. The art-work c kphnsis has two crucial elements. Fiat, the characters ye frequently compared to various aspects of the garden through flowery language or visual colour equivalents: ChIe means "young shooty'and her cheeks are Like apples, Anthia means "flowery one" and her skin "blooms", while Leucippe's lips curl like a red rose and her eyes shine like "violets." Secondly, the characters are compared to art-works (whether actual or Literary): Cdlirhe and Photis are like Apllrodite Rising by Apelles, Leucippe is Like the painting of Europa, Charikleia is m exact copy of the painting of Andromeda, and Anthia is Artemis the huntress as depicted by Vergil or as a work of art. In this way novelists could associate art-works, characters or loci amorni or even dude to other literary works and visual elements as well creating characters who are "larger than life" in their natural and human beauty. kt-works have a sense ofeternity, and borrowing Horace's adage that literature outlasts the pyramids. the novelist creates Literary art-work characters who will "last forever." Although the art-work ekphrasis dates to Homer. there are significant differences between the epic and novelistic ekphrasis. The epic ekphraseis of Homer. Hesiod and Vergil focus on production and prompt a sense of wonder (8aC~a)through the "wonderful" technique of the heroic and divine shield image. Wonder is generated as well in the novelistic ekphrasis. but it focuses on the content and not the technique. This shift is seen very clearly in the use of the sophistic guide to explain the at-work since the viewer could possibly misunderstand the image. This guide. although usually identified as one of the male characters, is simply the author's voice and the ekphnsis is used to foreshadow. symbolize. or act as a metaphor for the story or a cenain chancter, usually the female character. Also. while the epic ekphrasis acts, as Dubois has stated, as citation. milestone. and synecdoche. the novel maintains these categories. but the romance ekphrasis does not merely act on its own 3s a "frozen namtive" but is a "condensed narrative.' The actions of the painting are proleptic for the actions in the rest of the novel.' 124 Particular features of the litervy style of the ekphnsis are elements found in paintings of the same period: a use of light, a concentration on the landscape. and a use of mythological characters. All of the Greek novelists employed painting or tapestry as the ekphtic medium while only the Roman Apuleius used a statuary grouping. Just as a painter paints a picture using light. colour and modeling to tell a story, the romance novelist used the same visual language to create a vivid image for the reader. One of the tools that the novelist employed was his emphasis on light and colour which is direcdy related to skiagrophia or "painting with shadows." Tauus used the same colours in hs Europa ekphrasis. in Hippias' garden. and in the description of Leucippe. while Lucius uses light to draw attention to his own blindness. and Heliodorus uses ir as a metaphor for purity and virginity. Around the first century C.E..the landscape became more prominent in sacro-idyllic and mythological paintings which were influenced by the pastoral poetry of the day. notably VrrgiI and Theocritus. The landscape became a fundamental setting for the characters in the painting, and in the case of Longus. the exterior setting for his two ckphraseis. iMythologicd characters have a long history in visual an, but just us the poetry of Theocritus' Idyll 1 1 inspired the Gularea painting with its mythological scene nt Boscouecase. so the mythological image of Andromeda similar to the one at Boscotrecase may have been the intluence for Tatius and Heliodorus. The connection between the visual and literary arts is well established here. Another constant feature of the rkphnsis and the locus amoenrcs is the emphasis on flowers, and they have certain features as well. A flower is beautiful but lasts only a shon while before age destroys it. Likewise. all of our hero-heroines are quite young; averaging 13- 15 for the females and 16-2 1 for the males. They are either entering puberty or at lest succumbing to love, and in the "bloom" of their life. Comparisons with "flowery" descriptions are typical: roses, narcissi, hyacinths, and violets were not just flowers but metaphors for lips. skin, hair. and ryes. The apple is a metaphor for the complexion of skin. but also could refer to breasts and "plucking a girl's virginity." The novelist is not creating anything new here-nly expanding on a long history of the "sexuality" of the garden metaphor. PIato suggested that beauty was mirrored through the eye, and the novelists expanded this idea by suggesting that some sort of erotic union occurred when the beautiful image entered the eye. Beauty like a flower coming to bloom draws the eye to desire it, and this desire also draws the heroine into the greatest danger. Rape and abductions were common themes throughout the ancient world, even for the gods. Seductive and beautiful as nature can be, the inherent violence found in nature is the other aspect of the romance novel. The garden is the loctrs classic~tsfor the abduction of maidens, and yet none of the novel heroines were ever abducted in a locus arnoenrrs. Instead the abductions are portrayed in the art-work ekphraseis: Europa is abducted from the flowery meadow. Actaeon sees Diana bathe in a rocky grotto. and Andromeda is chained to a crag. Even Longus. who places his art-works rkphraseis on temples in groves and parks, depicts violent images as well: Semele is destroyed by fire. Xriadne is abandoned on the beach, Penthrus is tom apart, babies are abandoned and pirates attack. The motif of a beautiful woman sitting near the flowers watered by a fountain and enclosed by walls became a metaphor for a woman's virginity. but ironically, just as the Christians developed their eternal garden of "pandise*'. the novelists used the at-work ekphrasis as an "eternal" garden-a paradise constructed on earth which is subject to violence and beauty. wonder and fear. sexuality and chastity. The tapestry holds a different clue to the abducted woman. Weaving a tapestry was a "woman's art" and it also gives a voice to the "silenced" ancient woman. Two tapestries are depicted in the novels: first in Xenophon of Ephesus. Ares submits to the power of Aphrodite. and this is perhaps the most significant motif in the ancient romance marking a shift away from the epic ekphrasis. Second, Tatius describes a painting that depicts the rape of Philomela by means of a tapestry. This reinforces the voice of the ancient woman who needed her art to express her rape-the visual image becomes a powerful medium. Likewise, the heroine of the novel, although usually 126 passive throughout, still maintains her "power", never loses her chastity, and retains her sense o t dignity, which the heroes fail to achieve. Having established a similar pattem, we can see individual characteristics in each of the novels. Chariton is straight forward and does not use the pattern but instead relies on numerous descriptions of CallirhM. Xenophon of Ephesus employs the pattern without a locus amoenus description. Instead he develops a tightly structured description of An thia employing asyndeton, tricoion crescendo and ring composinbn . Both authors use allusion to Homer und Xrnophon the Athenian to "show off' their learned styles. Longus employs the pattern although his two art-work ekphraseis have few descriptive qualities and can hardly be called ekphraseis. Instead he develops lush descriptions of the two loci nmoeni which are certainly relevant to his pastoral theme. However, his entire novel is a description of the art-work that he encounters at the Nymphs' grotto and one could say that the entire novel is one narrative ekphrasis. The highly structured description of Tatius ' opening book not only reveal his skills wirhin hsown work but reveals his source-Moschus' Europn. which set out the pattem and also the highly voyeuristic. erotic tone. A sophistic novelist like Tatius used certain attributes from each of the categories to reinforce the erotic connections: he describes Europa's body and then says that Leucippe reminds Cli:ophon of the Europa painting and follows with a description of only Lrucippe's face. Her complexion. curly hair and eyes reflect the flowers of Hippias' garden as well as the meadow depicted in the art- work. All this is told in the opening book and leads to a near erotic encounter in the opening of Book 2. Even in his Philomela ekphnsis garden imagery can still be found in the latent symbolism of the "bird" characters while the rape image openly reveals the violent side of nature. Tatius reveals what an excellent rhetorician can achieve and forces the reader to be very observant to catch his skill. Apuleius follows the set pattern but also develops various physical senses not usually mentioned in the art-work ekphnsis: smell and sound. The images of the Actaeon ekphrasis were so real that you could hear the dogs barking and could pluck the apples. His emphasis that everything is 127 &cia1 leaves one to wonder if the pattern is being mocked as well, but this is true of the Sophistic writen of his period. Heliodorus is something of a mystery. He follows the Homeric in medias res story line showing off a more sophisticated plot than the other novelists. and yet the pattern partially exists within the fust five books of his novel. There is no description of a lonrs arnoenus nor a formal ekphrasis, but the art- work was the impetus for the entire story which only concludes when Charikleia is "matched" with the original painting. Yet, as Anderson points out, Heliodorus downplays the erotic atmosphere-the nude Andromeda simply follows the common image used by painten of the day. Longus claims that his book will be "a plrasrire for dl humanity", and if considered with Apuleius' satire and parody. their stories remind us that the novel is lm "entertainment." Even the highly developed novel of Heliodorus and the intricately woven novel of Tatius still rely on a story line centered on the misfortunes of young lovers. Like the Second Sophistic writers of their day, the ekphrasis. character description and the locrrs urnornus description of the novel can be seen as rhetorical exercises. but at the same time. these descriptions were very relevant to the stories. Each writer develops his erotic atmosphere dong different paths of the proposed pattern, and not all parts are employed. As the painter mimics life. the writer mimics an. Both mediums created utiticiality but always by being mimetic of nature. Just as artists were inspired by the landscape to create the sacro-idyllic landscapes of the t*it century C.E.. so too the romance novelists were inspired to incorporate the landscape as an integral pan of their settings. and by incorporating a sense of light. colour and beauty which is found in art, gardens and young people, the romance novel truly became "a book of love." BIBLIOGRAPHY Abbreviations All journals not listed use abbreviations as in L'Annie Philologique. BMGS Byzantine and Modem Greek Studies. CP Clussicai Philoiogy CW Classical World EiMC/CV Echos dfr Monde Classique/Classical Views LIM C Le-ricon Iconograp hicum lklyholog iae Classicae. LS Liddell and Scott's Lexicon, 1940 ed.. 1966 Reprint. OCD 0-ford Classical Dictionary. third edition. 1996. ODB O.$ord Dictionary of By:antiurn. 199 1. RE Rralle-rikonflir Antike lrnd Clzristentum. RhrW Rheinisches ibluseurn, Frankfurt. ANCIENT TEXTS The authors appear in chronological order. a) CHARITON Text: Le Roman de Chuirias et CnllirhoP ed. G. ~Molinii(Paris, 1979). Translation: Ccrllirhoe ed. G.P.Gooid (Cambridge. Mass. and London, 1995). b) XENOPHON OF EPHESUS Text: Le Roman d'Habrocornrs et D 'Anfhia ed. Georges Dalmeyda (Paris. 1962). Translation: Anderson, Graham. Collected Ancient Greek Novels ed. B.P. Reardon (Berkeley, 1989). C) APULEIUS Texflmslation: Metamorphoses rd. I. MurHanson (Cambridge, Mass. and London, 1989). d) ACHILLES TATIUS Text: Le Roman de Lerrcippe' et Clirophon ed. Jean-Philippe Gmaud (Paris, 199 1). Translation: Achilles Tarius ed. S. Gaselee (Cambridge, Mass. and London, 19 17). e) LONGUS Text: Daphnis et Chloi! ed. M.D. Reeve, (Leipzig, 1986). Translation: Gill. Christopher. Collected Ancient Greek Novels ed. B.P. Reardon (Berkeley, 1989). f) HELIODORUS Text: Les ~tlzio~i~ursed. R.M. Rattenbury and T.W. Lumb (Paris. 1960). Translation: Morgan. J.R.. Collected Ancient Greek Novels rd. B.P. Reardon (Berkeley. 1989). g) OTHER Anncreonrea. in D. A. Campbell (ed.), (Cambridge. Mass. and London. 1987). Collected Ancient Greek iVovris ed. B.P. Reardon (Berkeley. 1989). dristot[e 's Tlleon, of Poetry cznd Fine An trans. & rd. S.H.Butcher (New York. 195 1). Horace. Ars Pocticn trans. H. Rushton Fairclough (Cambridge. Mass. and London. 1926). Lucian. The Hcdl (De Domo) uans. A.M. Harmon. (Cambridge. Mass. and London, 1913). , Essn;;s in Ponr(zirrrre trans. M.D. Macleod. (Cambridge. Mass. and London. 1925). , Dialoglies of r/ze Eo-Gods trans. M.D. Macleod. (Cambridge. Mass. and London, 1961). , Llrcius or The Ass trans. M.D. Maclcod. (Cambridge, Mass. and London. 1967). Lucretius. De Rerum Natrtrn trans. W.H.D.Rouse (Cambridge. Mass. and London. 1975). Philostratus. Imagines and Callistratus, Descriptions trans. Arthur Fairbanks (Cambridge. Mass. and London, 1960). Pliny. Natural History trans. H. Rackham (Cambridge, Mass. and London, 1984). Theon. Aelius, Progymnasrnata ed. Michel Patillon and Giancarlo Bolognesi (Pais. 1997). SECONDARY LITERATURE Akkadisches Hand~vorrerbuched, Bruno Meissner and Wolfram Von Soden (Weisbaden, 1972). Amigues, Suzanne. "Hyakinthos: Fleur mythique et plantes r6elles". REG 105 (1992- 1): 19-36. Anderson, Graham. The Novel in the Gmeco-Roman Wrld (London. 1981). Anderson, ;Michael J.. "The 10@P0fYNH of Persinna and the romantic strategy of Heliodorus' Aethiopica". CP ( 1997): 32345. Bddwin. Bury, "Lucian and Europa: Variations on a theme." Studies on Greek and Roman History and Literanire (Amsterdam. 1985). Barber. Charles. "Reading the garden in Byzantium: nature and sexuality". BMGS 16 (1992): 1-19. Bartsch, S.. Decoding the Ancient 1Vovel: rile render und tlze role of description in Achilles Tcrtiris and Heliohnts (Princeton, 1989). Beaton. Roderick. The ~tledievnlGreek Romance (Cambridge. 1989). B lanchard, 1M.E.. Description: Sign. Self: Desire (The Hague, 1980). Bruno, Vincent J. Hellenistic Painting Teclzniqrtes: T1ze Evidence of the Delos Fragments (Lciden. 1985). Byre C. S.. "Ekphraseis of works of art and places in the Greek epic from Homer to Nonnus". Univ. of Chicago dissertation. 1976. Cdame. Cluade. 7he Poetics of Eros in Ancient Greece trans. Janet Lloyd (Princeton, 1999). Cambridge History ofClassiccr1 Litrrcltctre ed. P.E. Easterling and B.M.W. Knox (Cambridge. 1985): 653-99. Clemente, Linda M.. Litera? objets d'art: Ekphrasis in ~MedirvalFrench Romance 1150-1210 (New York. 1992). Cook, A.B.. Zeus: A study in Ancient Religion (New York, 1964). Curtius. Emst Roben, European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages trans. Willard R. Trask (Princeton, 1953). Deticnne M., The Gardens ofddonis: Spices in Greek mythology trans. Lloyd J. (Hassocks, Eng., 1977). Dubel, Smdrine, "Ekphrasis et Enargeia", Dire L '~videncr: Philosophie et Rhitorique Antiq~tesed. by Carlos Levy and Laurent Pemot (Paris, 1997): 249-26.1. DuSois. Page, History, Rhetorical Description and the Epic: From Homer to Spenser (Cambridge. 1982). Edgecombe, R.S., "A Typolosy of Ecphrssis", Clczssic~zland ikfodern Literature 13 ( 1993): 103- 116. Forehand W. E. "Symbolic gardens in Longus' Daphnis and Chloe". Ernnos 74 (1976): 103-1 12. Fusillo. Massirno, 'Textual patterns and narrative situations in the Greek novel", Groningrn Culloqrtia on the Novel vol. 1 ( 1988): 17-3 1. Garson R. W.. "Works of art in Achilks Tatius' Ltucippe and Clitophon", Acta Classica 2 1 ( 1978): 83-86. Goldhill. Simon. Foucault T Virginiy: Ancient Erotic Fiction und the History of' Srxualir?,(Cambridge. 1995). Gombrich. E.H.Art and Illusion: A Study in the Psycholog ojSPictorial Representation (New York. 196 1). Grimal. Pierre, Les Jardins Romc~ins (Paris, 1969). Guillaud. Jacqueline and Maurice. Frescoes in she Time ojWPurnpcii(Paris, 1990). Hagstrum. kan. The Sister Arts: The Tradition of Literary Pictorialism and English Poetry from Dryden to Gmy (Chicago. 1958). Haight. Elizabeth Hazeiton. Essays on the Greek Romances (Port Washington. N.Y.. 1943). Hardie, Philip, "Vt pictun poesis? Horace and the Visud Arts", Horace 2000: A Celebration ed. Nidl Rudd (Ann Arbor, 1993). He ffernan. James A.W.. ~Musertmof Words: The Poetics of Ekphrasis from Homer to Ashbery (Chicago, 1993). Helms, Johannes. Characrer Portrayal in the Romance of Chariton (The Hague, 1966). Hunter, R.L., A Snuly of Daphnis and Chloe (Cambridge, 1983). Huxley, Anthony and William Taylor, Flowers of Greece and the Aegean (London, 1977). kin. Elemor, Colotlr Terms in Greek Poetry (Toronto. 1974). , "Flowers in the Landscape of Greek Epic", ElMC/CV n.s. 15 ( 1997): 375-390. Jacobson, Howard, "Violets and violence: two notes", CQ 48 (1998): 3 14-3 15. Jashemski W. F., The gardens of'Pornprii. Hercrrlnnenm and the viiias derrroyed by Vesrivirts (New Rochelle, N.Y ., 1979). loret, Charles. Lo Ross dons L 'Antiquire' rt au Moyn Age (Genkve, 1970). Kennedy. George X.. Progymnrzsmata: Greek T..r~bookrof Prose Composirion (FOR Collins, Colorado, 1999). Krstner. Joseph. "Ekphrasis as Frame in Longus' Daphnis und Cliloe". CW 67 ( 1973- 74): 166-L71. Keuls. Eva. Painter and Porr in Ancient Greece: Iconography and the Literary Ans (Teubner, 1997). , Pluto and Greek P~zinting(Leiden. 1978). Konstan. David, Se.rlml S~rnrnetq:Love in the Ancient Novel and Related Genres (Princeton, 1994). Laird. Andrew. "Vtfirlra poesis: writing art and the art of writing in Augustan poetry". An and Text in Rom~inCulttire td. las Elsnrr (Cambridge 1996). Leach. Eleanor Winsor, "Sacral-Idyllic Landscape painting and the Poems of Tibullus' First Book", Lntornus 34 ( 1980): 47-69, L t tou blon. Franqo ise, Lzs Liri~rComtnrrns Dtr Romans: StirPotypes Grrcs D 'Aventure et D 'Amour (Leiden, 1993). Ling, Roger. Roman Puinting (Cambridge. 199 1). Little. Aan iM.G., Decor, Drma and Design in Roman Painting (Alan M.G. Littie Publisher. 1977). Littlewood, A.R., 'The erotic symbolism of the apple in late Byzantine and meta- Byzantine demotic literature", BMGS 17 ( 1993): 83- 103. ."Romantic Paradises: The r61e of the garden in the Byzantine Romance."BMGS 5 ( 1979): 95- 1 14. Luckenbiil, Daniei David, Ancient Records of hsyria and Babylonia (New York. 1927). Mittelstadt, Michael C.,"Longus: Daphnis and Chloe and Roman Narrative Painting". Lntornus 26 (1967): 752-6 1. Montague. Holly. " Sweet and Pleasant Passion: Female and male fantasy in Ancient Romance Novels". Pornography cmd Representation in Greece and Rome. ed. Amy Richlin (Oxford University Press. 1992): 23 1-1-19. Motte, hdk.Prairies et Jardins de fa Gr2ce rlntiqw: De fa REfigion u la Philosophie (Brussels, 197 1). New Princeton Encyclopediu of poet^ and Poetics cd. Alex Prerninger and T.V.F. Brogan (Princeton. 1993). Nimis. Steve. "Memory und Description in the Ancient Novel". Arethusa 3 1 ( 1998): 99- 122. O'Sullivan. James N.,A Lexicon to Aclzifles T~rtius(Berlin, 1980). Pnndiri. Thalia A.. "Daphnis md Chloe: The m of pastoral play". Ramus 14 ( 1985): 116-141. Pedley . John Griffiths. Greek .Art cznd Archaeology :v Englrwood Cliffs, N.J.. 1993). Pollard, John. Birds in Greek Life and iklyth (London. 1977). Reinach, Xdolphe. Terns Grecs rt Lutins Relatijs d L'HLrfoire de la Peinture Ancirnne (Chicago, 192 1). Robens, Michael. nzr Jeweled Sryk: Poet? and Poetics in Lure Antiqtrity (Cornell. 1989). Schrneling, Gareth L.. Chariton ( New York, 1974). , Xenophon of Ephesris (Boston, 1980). Schmiel, Robert . "Moschus' Europa". Classical Philology 76 ( 198 1): 261-272. Scobie. Alexander. Aspecrs of the Ancient Romance and its Heritage: Essays on Apuleius. Petronius, and the Greek Romances (Meisenheim am Glan, 1969). , Apulrius Metnmorphoses (Asinus Aureus) Book I (Meisenheim amn GIan, 1975). Shaffer, Diana. "Ekphnsis and the Rhetoric of Viewing in Philosuatus's haginary Museum", Philosophy and Rhetoric ( 1998): 303-3 16. Steiner, Wmdy, Pictiires of Romance: Form against Conte-xt in Painting and Literature (Chicago. 1988). Stephens. Susan A. and John I. Winkler. Ancient Greek Novels: The Fragments. (Princeton. 1995). Swindler. MqHamilton. Ancient Painting: From the Earliest Times ro rhe Period of' Christian Art (Yale, 1929). Thompson. D' Arcy W..d Glusscrry oj. Greek Birds (Hildesheim. 1966). Vilborg, Ebbe. Achilles Tutius, Leucippe and Clitophon: A commentary (Goteborg. 1962). Von Blanckenhagen. Peter H. and Christine Alexander, Tlze Augristan Villa at Buscotrecnse ( Mainz am Rhein. 1990). Winkler. John J.. "The Education of Chloe: Hidden injuries of Sex". The Constraints of Desire: iTie Antlrropology 0fSe.r cmd Gmder in Ancient Greece (.New York. 1990): LO 1-26. Zanker G.. "Enargeia in the ancient criticism of poetry". RhM 7-4 ( 198 1): 297-3 1 I. Zridin. Froma I.. "Gardens of Desire in Longus' L21phni.sand Chloe: Nature. and Imitation". rd. James Tatum. The Searchjbr rlzr Ancient iVovel (Baltimore. 1994): 148- L70. APPENDIX I: EXTRACTS FROM THE NOVELS (Art-Work Ekphraseis, Loci Amoeni, Character Descriptions, and Erotic Encounters) 1. Chariton, Chaereas and Callirhoe a) Art-Work Ekphraseis The statue of Cdiirhoe beside the statue of Aphrodite (3.6.3) After giving birth, Cdlirho2 holds the baby admakes an offering to Aphrodite (3.8.5-6) i~r~uqfiuqa~TO -rrAiieos T~VTTE~IEUT~KOTOV ~aioi ~EV po80t5, oi 5k 7015. oi 6i air~ois anpavo15 icpuhhopohqaav au~o3~.6u-r~ ~~Aqo0fivai TO rip~vosavO&v ....rrp ~TOV p€v ohTOV uiov E~STLI5 aG*s ay~ahas~VE~~KE, ~ai &cpeq 8iapa ~ahhwrov. oiov OGTE (mypago5 Eypay~vOCTE rrhau-rqs Erhaa~vOCTE ~oiqisim6pqae pixpi vGv. o36~iryap airribv i~oiqa~v"APYE~IV 'AOqvCxv Ppiq05 iv ay~aAa15~opi C) Character Descriptions i) the maiden Description of Callirhoe (1.1.1) E~XEBvyar~pa Kahh~poqv roGvopa. Oaupamov Ti xpijpu napBivou ~ailiyaApa ohq5 rt~~hia~.fiv yap TO ~ahho5OWK av8pcjnivov ahha 8~Tov. 0361 NqpqiGos fi N3pqq5 T~Vop~tdv ahh' a3~fj~'AqpoGi-rq5 [mapBivov]. After hexing of the weddins plans, another comparison of Cdlirhoe (1.1.15-16) 'Funeral' of Callirhoe (1.6.2) Ti5 6v oharrayy~aal Girvalro K~T'agiav rilv €KKO~I~~~V~UE~VT/V: K~T$KELTO MEV Kahhipoq vvucptwjv iaeij-ra RE~IKEI~EVT] ~aiiri ~puuqha~ou~hivqs p~icwv TE ~ai KPE~TTWV. &aTT~VTE~ E~KQ 6 6i AeovGs ~ai-rravr~~ oi iv8ov Qmmauqs uiqvi61ov ~amhayquav, oya ~OKOCV~E~e~av iupa~ivai- ~ai yap fiv TI^ Aoyos iv TOTS aypois 'AqpoGiqv irr~qaiv~ueal. The bath and the beauty of Callirhoe (2.2.3) ~io~heofiuav6Q fih~tyuvTE ~aia~iapqeav i111u~h6~ ~ai~dhhov a~ro6uaauivq~ ~anlrhayqoav.&UTE ~v&E~V(IEV~~alj-5 8aupa@uua1 TO rpoa~xovcbs ~ETOV, (a>rrpouoxov E805av ( ~iiv6ov> i8oilaal- 6 xpcj~ybp AEUKO~~QTI~~EV fljK5 uappapuyfj TIVI opotov anohaprrov* rpuqrpa 6i aapc. &=E ~E~OLKEVQIpi ~ai4 rGv Ga~TirhwvEra94 uiya ~pau~aro~qq. Another comparison to Aphrodite (2.2.6) The marriage of Callirhoe to Dionysius (3.2.16) T~TETI~GTOV k~oupjaato p~fa TOV raqov. ~pivauayap a~aeyapqeijval ~ai na~pi6a~ai yivo~ TO ~ahhosivoptosv. imi 6E EA~PEMlhquiav orohiv rai a~(quvovVU~QIKOV. ~TTE~~~E~JEV~i5TO ~tAfjeo5. IT~VTET O~Vav~f3oqaav ''fi 'Aqpo6iq yu~~i."rropqupi8ay imorpchvvuov ~aiP66a rai ia. pirpov Eppulvov ~a6t~ouqr Another description of Callirhoe (41.8) rrpoihe~yhp ~~hav~ipov.A~Xupivq (piv) TUS rpixay. amparrrouua 6~ T@ rrpoohnw. ~airrapayu~voCaa TOGS @paxiova5(uai ras ~vipas)uxip rilv A~u~cjh~vov~aiKahhiucpupov ~cpaivr~o as 'Opipou. Another description of Cdlirhoe- the fame spreads us she travels to Babylon (4.7.5) TT~OET~EXEyap fis yuval~o~ri aipq. ~arayy~hhouaam&uiv avepcj-rrol5 OTI Kahh~poqrrapayiv~~at. TO n~p~Poq~ovdvopu. rb piya qua~asra~dpecdpa. Callirhoe dressed in black (5.9.7) Callirhoe compared to Artemis by the king of Persia (6.4.3) The final comparison to Aphrodite (8.6.11) ii) the young man 1 DescriptionoEChaereas(1.1.3) Xalp€as yap n5jv C(EI~~KIOV~6popqov. TT~VTOV ~XEP~XOVoiov 'Ax~hhCa~ai Nip~a ~cai'ImoAul-ov ~cxi'Ahutfi~aGqv nhaaral TE ~aiypacp~is UTTO~EIKV~OUU~ .... d) Erotic Encounters A pregnant Callirhoa explains to the slave Plugon her condition (2.8.4) ~POTIK~Vyap T~O~~UO~EVOIfiv rrpcbqv uGvoSov rod ya~ouXalpias ~ai KahA~poq, rapa-rrhqoiav to~ov6pvfiv rrpbs evu~rtrhaualv ahhihwv, ia6pporro~ 6i ixd3vuia njv avvouoiav ixoirla~voiru apyilv. 2. Xenop hon, Tlre Ephesian Story a) Art-Work Ekphraseis The ekphrasis of the tapestry in the bedchamber (1.8.2-3) 'Hv 62 airrois o Bahapos (oijrwQ ~r~rrolqpfvo5-~hivq xpucnj mpcb~tau~v;a~pw.t-o xopcpupois uai €xi m5 ~hivqsBapuhwvia ix~-rroi~th~ou~qvi- rtaicov~~s "E~wTE~. oi p~v'Acppo6iqv ~E~~TIEWOVTE~(fiv 6k uai 'AgpoGiq~E~KOV). oi 8k ~TXEGOV~E~ avaparar o~pou0oT~.oi 6€o~~qavou~ TT~EKOVTE~, oi 6k Gv0q ~EPOVTE~[3] raO~aiv TQ ET~W~EPEI fls a~qvqs-iv 8k TQ i~pw*Apqs fiv ohbnAtopCvos. ahh' cjs mpos ~popfvqvflv 'AgpoGiqv u~uoupq~fvo~,im~cpav~pivas, xhaviBa EXWV. 'Epws airrov cjtifiy~~.AaptraGa ixwv qppivrlv. b) Loci Amoeni (None) c) Character Descriptions i) the maiden Description of Anthia. fiat seen in the procession at the festival of Artemis (1.2.3-7) 'Hv 6i TO ~drhhuj,35 'Aveia5 oiov Baupaaat Kai -rrohir ra5 &Aha5 ~EPE~~~~ETO napeivou~.'Eq pkv ~oaapa~ai6~~a~~EYOVEI, fiu0~t5i airrfis to o6~airr' ajuop~ia, ~aio TOG qfipa~o~KOQC(OT rohlj~ Gpav OVVE@&AAETO-[ti] uopq EavOfi, fi mhhi K~~EIV~V~,bhiyrl x~rrh~ypivq,npbs ev~djv hvipwv q~opirv ~~vou~~ivq-ocpeahyoi yopyoi, qat6poi piv cj5 ~opqs, gog~poi6i cj5 acjtppovo~.idis xirhv aAouph5, cam05 ~isy6vu. p~~pif3paxti)v~v KCI~E~~~UOS;, v~Ppis TTEPIKEI~~V~, ywpmos avqp~tEvos, rota 6rtha, &KOVTE~~E~OVEVOI. K\~vE~~T~O~EVOI. [7] noAha~is airmjv kni TOG TE~~VOU~'L~OVTE~ 'Etpiato~npou~dvquav Cjs "A~TE~Iv.Kai TOT' oh bq10~iuqs~VE~~O~UE TO ~lh?00~, ~ai iaav nol~iAaitrapa TGV 0~opivovqwvai. rav pkv Ijv' iK~hfiC~05Ti)u ~EOVE~V~I ~E~OUPGIV. TGV 6k khhrlv ~tvkirrro -5 8~0c Il~pl~otqpi~~v'~Tpo0T)~ov~o 6k rrav~q ~ai ~~pou~mjvouv Kai ~oir5 yov~is awTij5 icta~aptrov:jv 6i 81aporl~osTOTS ~EO~~VO~Sanaa~v 'Aueia 6 ~ahfi. ii) the young man Description of Habrocomes (1.1.1-6) ....p +a 6i TI xpqpa [chpatdq-r~uch~a~os Ijn~ppahhouo-q] ~ahhous O~TE EV '1aviu 0th iv tirhhq y3 -rrponpov ~~vopfvou.[2] 03~05o 'Appo~oprlsa~i ~iv ~ai KUB' ipipav ~ahho5~~CETO. (NV~~V&I 8k ah@foi5 TO^ acbpa~o~~ahois ~ai Ta fi5 yuX?s aya0a- rralb~iavTE yap neoav ~~EAETQ~ai ~OUU~K~V TOIK~~T~V ~UKEI. 0ipa 6~ au~@~ai ilrxaaia ~aionhnpaxia uwvfieq yupvua~a~a.... [3] llpoa~ixov6i TO p~~pa~iq-~aiE~UIV $0 TIV~~d ~airrpoae~6vqoav ~~OVTE~ ~ainpoqu~av~o .... [6] ~i 6i now 'LE~OV fi Ciyahpa *E~wTo~E~E. KaTEy~ha, axicpaivf TE iau~ov"E~WTO~ .rrav~or ahh hi ova [~ai~ahh~i ochparos ~ai8uvap~1I. Kai E~EVOGTW~* OTOU ybp ' AQpo~opqsocp0~iq. OGTE &yahva ~ahovK~TE~~~VETO O~TEE~K~)V ~~VE~TO. d) Erotic Encounters The wedding night (1.9.9) 3. Apuleius, Metamorphoses a) Art-Work Ekphraseis Actaeon statuary group - Lucius enters his aunt Byrrhena's house and immediately sees the statuary grouping in the atrium (2.4) Atria longe prilcherrimci col~irnnisquadkfariam per singrrlos nngulos stantibics attolerubant stanis, palmaris ifeuefacies, qrine pinnis e.rp1iciti.s sine gressri pilae volr ibilis instabile vestigium piantis roscidis deliban tes nec iit manean t inhue rent r t iam3 volare credunt~ir.Ecce lapis Parim in Dimam factus tenet libratam totius loci medietatem, sign~rrnperfecte luctrlmt~imveste reflarum, procursti vegetum. introeun tibiis obvium et mairsrate nwnin is wnerabile. Canes unimqueseciis dear latera muniunt. qui canes et ipsi lapis erant. His oculi rninantur, artres rigmt. nares hiant, ora saeviunt, er, sicunde de pro-rim0 lafratus ingruerit, eum putobis tie faucibus lapidis exire: et - in qrio smrim specimen operae fabrilis egregius ille signqe...prodidit - sublatis canibis in pectlrs arduis pedes imi resisttinr, currunt priores. Pone tergurn deae sarum insurgit in spelrmcae modrim, mliscis et herbis et foliis et virgulis et sicubi pampinis et arbrrscrilis alibi de lupide florentibus. Spender inttis umbra signi de nitore lapidis. Srib extrema san' margine puma et uvae fabemSmepolitae dependent, qrins nrs aemrila nanirae veritati similes explicuit. Prrtes ad cibwn in& quaedarn. crrm mristrrlentus autumnus matunim colorern afflnverit, posse decerpi, et sijontent, qrii dene vestigio discurrens in lenem vibranir rindam, pronris ospe.reris, credes illos ut nrre pendentes racemos inter cetera veriratis nec agitation is oficio carere. Inter mediasfiundes lapidis Actaeon simulacrun~,cririosooptutu in Lorn versrim proiectris, iam in cervrim jerinris et in saro simrrl et in fonte lotriram Dianam opperiens visitrir. b) Locus Amoenus The grove of Cupid (and the wind of Zephyr) (4.35-5.1): Psychen alitem paventem ac trepidam et in ips0 scoprtli vertice deflentern. mitis arira rnolliter spiranris Zephyri vibratis kinc inde lnciniis et reflnto sincr sensim levuram suo trnq uillo spiritri vellens pnuliztim per de vexa rrip is e.rcelsae, vallis sribditae flu rentis caespitis gremio leniter delapsam reclinar. [j..I] Psyclze teneris rt herbosis locis in ipro roro roscidi graminis suave recubans, rontu nlmris pertrtrbntionr seciato, clrilce conq~iievit.Ianqrie rciflcienti recreaiiz somno, placido resurgit rmirno. Virlet lucum proceris et vustis orboribris consirrim. vide[fontem vitreo laticr pcri~icid~rrn. rkledio hici rneiiitrillio propejbntir ailnpsrirn domlis regia rst, czedijfcata nun hrtmanis manibrrs sed divinis crrtibris. c) Character Descriptions i) the maiden First description of the maid Photis. with whom Lucius has srverai sexual encounters (2.7): Ipsa linea tunica rnurui~ileamicta et russea fasceola prneninte nltirmiie nib ip papillas succinruin, illrid ciba ririm vuscri him floridis palmulis rotubat in circr r lunr et in orbis fleeribus crebm succutiens et simril rnembra sua lentirer illubricnns, irrmnpis sensim vibrantibris, spinam mobilem qriatiens placide decenter rindabat.... Second description of the maid Photis. which focuses on her hair and Lucius gives his reasons for this peculiar trait (2.8-9): Vel quid ego de ceteris aio, ctim semper mihi ri~zicacrrra fuerit captit capill~unqrie sedulo et publice prius intueri et domi postea perfui, sitque iridicii hriius apud me certa et stanca ratio: vel quod praec@rur pars ista corporis in apertu et persicuo posita prima nostris lcirninibur occririt, et quod in ceteris membris floridae vestis hilaris color, hoc in capite nitor nativrls operamr; deniqrir pleraque indolem gratiamqrie sriam probnturae lacinias omnes exrimt, amiclila dimovent, nudam puich~it~dinrm sumpraebrre se gesti~int,magis de aitis roseo rribere quam de vestis aureo colore placitrirae. At ver-uod nefas dicere, nee quod sit ullum hriiris rei tam dinrm exempirim!-si cr iir rslibet e-rimiae pt dcherrirnaeqr ie feminue caput capillo spoliaveris et faciem narivo specie ntdaveris, licet illa caelo clriecm, man edita, jluctibris erlucara, licet inquam Venus ipsa filerit, licrr omni Gratiarzim choro sripata et toro Cupidinrun poprilo comitata et balteo aio cincta, cinnamu flagfans rt balsam rorans, cal va processerit, placere non poterit nec Vtilcnno srio. [9/ Quid aim capillis ~*olorer nitor splendidris illricet, et contra solis acienl vegerus jiilgurat vel placidris renitet, nlir in contrariam gratiam variar aspectrcm, et nrinc arinrm coniscans in lrnem me Nis deprimincr rimbram, nrinc corvina nigredine caerulus coircmbnntm collis jlosculos ae~nrrlotzir,vel ctrm grittis A rnbicis obltnctris rt pectinis nrguti denre tenrt i discriminatus et pone rarsurn coactuc amatoris ocuiis occumens td instar specrili reddit imnginem gratiorem? Quid cum jkequrnri srrbole spissrls c~imulatverticem, vel prolirn serie porrectris dorsa permanat Y Tanfa denique est capillamenti dignitos lit qiiamvis aliro veste gemmiv ornniqrre cerero mrcndo e-rornuta rnulier incedar, tamm. nisi capillrim disrinrerit, omatn non possit olddire. Sed in meu Photide non operosrrs sed inordinatrrr omat~rsaddebat gratiam. Ubrres enim crines Zenirer rmissos rt cervice dependlilos ac dein per colln dispositos sensirnque sinrraro pcltagio residentes pnrilisper czd jinern conglobatos in summum verricern nodus ustrinrerat. Psyche's beauty (4.28-29): At vero puellae iunioris tam pmecipua, tam praeclnra prrlchitnrdo nec exprimi tzc nr suflcienter quidem foudnri sernonis ltumnni prnrtrin poteror. Multi deniqrrr civium et advenae copiosi, qrios r-rimii specrac~ilinrmor st1 idiosa celebritate cong regobat, inaccessne jormositatis admiratione stupidi et ndmoventes oriblis suis de-rterarn, pn'more digiro in rrecrltm pollicem rrsidmte, nt ipmprorsus clam Vrnerem venerabanrur religiosis adorarionibris. Iamqtre pro-rimas civitnres rr attiguus regiones fama pervaserat deim qriarn caerulurn projindm pelag i peperit et ros spurnantiurn fltrctuum rducavit iam n~rminissui passim tribura venia in mediis conversari stillancm germine nun maria, sed terras, Venerern alim virginali j7ore praeditarn pull~ilasse.... iamque per pinreas cornmeantern popnii frequenterJorib11s sertis et solutis apprmntur. Psyche's beauty is like a statue (4.32): Miran tur qrridem divinam speciem, sed ut simulacrum fabre poiiturn mirantur omnes... et q~ramvisgentib~rs totis complacitam odit in se suam fonnositatem. ii) the young man Aunt Byrrhena's description of Lucius. who is similar to his mother Salvia (2.2): "En" inqrti~"smctissimae Salvinr manis generosci probitas. Sed er cetera corporis e.uecrabi1iter ad [regrr lam qrra diligrnter nliqr i id crfingrrnt] amussirrz congnrenrin: inenomis procerits. srlcrrlenta yracilitm, nibor temperanu, jlavrtm et inaffectarum capillitium. ocrrli caesii quidern. sed vigiles rt in nspecni micantes, prorstis aquilini. os qrtoqrioversum floridrim+speciosrrs ct immeditatrls incessiw. " The description of Cupid (5.22): Viclet capitis ar irei genialem cnesariem rzm brosin ternrllentam cervices iucteas genasqrre prrrprrrerrr pererrantes criniwn globov decoriter impeditos, alios antependulus, alios retropendrrlos, quonrm splendore nirnio firlgurante iam et ipsrrm lwnen lrrcenrae vacillabnt. Per runeros volatilis dei pinnae roscirlae micanti jlore candicant, et qliamvis alis quiescentibrls e-~tzmaeplr~mrikle tenrllae ac delicatae tremrrle resnlmntes inqriietn lnscivirmt. Crrertrm corpris glnbellrrm cltqrce luciilentwn et qrwle peperisse Venerern non pclenitrret. Ante lectrrii pelrs iacebur arcris rt pharena rt sag iftrze, ma gni clei propitia telu. d) Erotic Encounters Lucian's sexual encounter with Photis (who appears like Venus rising from the sea) (3.16-17): Cornmodrim c-rcbrrertrm et ecct? Photis mea, iam domina crrbit~rmredditn, lueta proximut, rosn serru rt rosa sollrtn in sinri tribermte. Ac me pressim deosculato er corollis revincto ncjlore perspcro, rigit bibnm: idqire modico prim quam totm e.mrberem clemmter invndir, ~clcrelictrun pullulatitn lubellis minuens mequr respiciens sorbillat rlulciter... rVec mora arm, omnibrrs illis cibnriis vascrtlis rnptim remotis, laciniis cunctis srrir renrrdam crinibrcsque dissolrctis ad hilarem lasciviam, in speciem Veneris qriae marinus flrrcncs srtbit prtkhre refonnuto, pnrrlisper etiam glabellrrrn feminnl rosea pnlmuh poririlcs obumbrans dr indristria quam tegens verecundia. 4. Achilles Tatius, Leucippe and Clitophon. a) Art-Work Ekphraseis i) painting Europa's abduction depicted on the wall at the temple of Astarte at Sidon (1.1.3-13) ... opij ypacpfiv ava~~ipivqvy?~ apa ~ai8ahaaoqs. Eirpcjqs 4 ypaqrj- Oo~vi~wvi Bahaaaa* T16Gvos fi yfj. 'Ev h~tprjv~ai xop05 rrapeivov. [3] 'Ev fl Bahauuq ~aiipos~V~XE~O. ~ai Tois V&TOI~ ~ahi~rap8ivos ~T~EK&~~TO. hi Kpjmv fl raupg nhiouaa. 'E~opanoXXoi5 Sirv8~a1vo h~~pcjv.Siv6pwv air~oT5av~pipric-ro pahaye ~aicpu~av- auv~xfi ra 6iv6pa- ouvqp~cpfi~a niraXa- avvijmov oi mopBoi ~a qvhha. ~aiiyiv~~o Tois &V~EUIV 6pocpos fi TGV q~6hhwvavpnho~~. [3] 'Eypay~vo r~xviqsuno ~a niraha ~airilv UKI~V. ~aio fihi05 ipipa TOG h~ipch05KUTW arropasqv 61ipp~1. ouov TO ouvqp~qis T~V~irhhwv ~opqs avi+ev o ypag~3s. [S] "Ohov ~TE~XI u~~cpav&~a~o~o h~~pbv €~60rl~o. Ai 8k xpaa~aiT&V av0iwv G-rro ~a ~irahaT&V qu~&varor)(rl6ov in~qu~~uav,vap~~uao~ ~aibo6a ~aip3pp1vai. "YSop KUTU ~6uovippm TOG ~EIM(;~VOS fis ypacp?~, TO I-(€vavaQA6Sov ~arwe~varb fis y?s, TO 66 TO:< hve~at~ai TOT< (pVT0is TE~IXEO~EVOV. [6] 'Oxeqyos rrs iy&ypamo 8i~~hhav ~a~txov~air~pi piav apapav KEKU(~&S ~aiavoiywv rilv o6ov ra p~irpdt~t.'Ev &i T@ TOG ~EINC;IVO~TEAEL rpos ~aishi Bahanav fis yijs i~poAai5~a5 rapeivous ET~ n~piTois CIET~TTOI~SE~E~~VOI- ~opa~ ~a~a TGV &~OV h~hup€va~- TO u~~hasTI~V y~yupvwpfva~.TO p€v &vo TOG XIT~VO~.TO EE KUTWTOG n~6ihou-TO yap TOU~oq0ah~lolj~ avoi wamp acpia~iv urro cpo(3ov pihhovaat ~aipojv* raq x~ipa~chr hi TOV PoCv Gp~yov.[8J 'Err$a~vov pas fls Bahaaqs, ouov un~pavwpt~pov ~c3v ~apoGv u~r~piX~tvTO ~Gpa' E~KEU~V 6~ potjh~aea~ C~€V ws hi TOV TUU~OV Spap~iv. ipof3aia0a1 6i fl Bahuoq npoo~h8~iv.Tijs Ei Bahdrouqs fi ~norirgt-rrh?. TO pkv yap npos jv yfiv unipu0pov. KUUVEOV 6~ TO np05 TO ~~Ifhayos.[!I] 'Aqpos ~TIEXO~~TO~ai ni~pai ~aiKljpa~a* ai TTI~T~~Iqsfl5 Gn~pQeQAqpiva~,o aqpos TE~~~EUKQ~VWV as nirpa~, TO ~GpaKO~U~OU~EVOV ~ai n~pi T~S n~rpas huop~vov TOGS acppous. Tacpos iv ~f~qfl 0ahaucn-j ~yiyparrroTOTS K6pautv i'rro~oup~vo5,cjs iipou5 ava~aivov-ro~TOG ~\jCla~05. EvBa K~~TITO~EVOVTOG BOOSKUPTO@~(X~ ~6 UKEAO~. [lo] 'H TUXpeivos piaols ~TEK~~~TOTOTS V&TOI~ TOG 9005, ow ~r~ptfidt6qv. &Aha KUT~~hmpav, uw@6ua T& n06r. Aatg TOG ~ipos&ovivq. Gm~p jvioxo~xahlvofi- ~aiyap 6 poCs kimpamo rathq pdhhov npos TO fls XEI~Q~ ifh~ovjvlo~o\jp~vos. Xi~hv appi ra hpvafls 'rrapeivou ai6G. TO\~V~~EV &rr~~dthurn~~Aaiva ra K~TWTOG awpa~os-AEVKO~ o XIT&V- 4 ~AaTvaTrop~upd. TO 6k a6pa Sta fis iaefl~osh~qaiv~~o. [Ill 8a8irc; opgahos- yahp ~~~avivq. Xa-rrapa ar~vfi-TO dpvov €is i@v ~a~agaivovqup\jv~~o. Maroi T~Vmipvov ipipa npodmovns- fi auvayouaa c&vq TOV xl~dva~ai TO~S pa(ohs ~K~EIE.~ai iiyivET0 TOG acbpa~osK~TOM~OV o XIT&V. 1121 Ai x~ip~siipqm ~~ET~T~vTo,fi piv E~il~ipas. fi 8E in' oirpav. fip.rrl~o6i ayqoTv i~aripwe~vhip tilv Kqahjv fi ~ahrj-rrrpa h~hqT~V vch~ov i&m~m~auptvq' o 8k KO~ITO~TOG TI~TT~OUman06~v ~T~T~ToKVPTO~~EVO~' K(T~ GV 06TOs &VE~O~TOG CCJ~~U~OU. 'H Sk SiwV ~TTEK~~~~TO T+ ~adp~xh~ohqs vecbs. ijm~pio~iw TG ninhq ;(pop€vq. [13j n~pi61 TOV po3v chpxofiv~o6~hqiv~5, hratcov "E~WTES-E~ES 6v ~GT~viyyqpaq0al ~ai~a ~ivipa~a.'Epoq E~KETOV Po~v*"EPw~. ~IKPQV TTCI~~~OV,fpThCb~~1 TO m~pdv, fipTqT0 qaphpav. ~KpanlTO ri$l.~~~~cmpamo 62 ch~irii TOU Aia ~aiUTIEC~EL~~CI. G~TTEPa\j~oC Ka~ay~hcv. OTI 51' ahov yiyov~PoGs. The statue of Zeus and the paintings of Prometheus and Andromeda at the temple of Zeus at Pelusium (3.6.1-4 & 3.7.1-5) [6.1] 'EUTI 6~ Ev T@ n~hou~i~At05 i~pov &yaApa Kauiou. TO 6k iryahpa vaavia~os, 'Arrdhhwvl pdhhov EO~KC~~.oii-rws yap ih~~iasE~XE. flpoP6Phq~a18c iv x~ipa~ai EXEL (jotbv kx' ai/rj. fis 6i bores o hoyo~HUUTIK~~.. [I] ... ~EPI~E~MEV TOV v~cbv. [31 Ka~a6k TOV onto~o6o~ovopcSp~v ~i~ova Slnhiiv. Kai o ypap~irs Bvo/fypamo. EuavBqs piv o ypacp~us.6 6i E~K~V'Av8pop~6a. ~aiTTpo~qe~Gs, 8Eap6Tal p~v6~qw -61a TOGTO ybp au~oirsoipal Ev auvfiyay~vo Gwypacpos-a8~Acpai 6i ~airtjv dhhqv T\jxqv ai ypapai. [4l ni-rpat piv apcpoiv TO 6~apo~plov.Bfip~s 6~ K~T'aucpoiv oi 8fipiot. TQ p~v€g aE'po5. T~J66 i~Bahaaqs- i-rri~ovpot6k a\j~oi$'Apy~iot 6u0 ovy/€v€i~,TW g~v'Hpa~hijs, fl 8k n~pa~cs.... [7.11 'Opchpu~tat~EV oh TO p~~povfls ~opqsi xfrpa- 0ih~lSE TO 6pvy~a hiy~tvor1 pi TI$ aw~oTIETO~~KE x~ip. aAh' EUTIV a\j~oxeov[ fi ypaq~j].B~pa~vv~ yap TOG Ai0ov rov KOATIOV o ypacp~vs. cLs ETEKEV QUTOV fi yij. (21 'H 9k ~vi8pna1fi UKE~.~ai EOIKE TO eiapa. ~i piv ~iqTO ~ahhosa~ri80t5, ayahwa~~K~IVQ, ~i6i ~i5TU 8~apauai TO K~TO~,au~oq~&i~ ~acp~?).'ETil Si TWV TT~OCJC~TTWVa\j-5 ~ahho~ ~~~fpcxaral~ai6ioy [3] Ev UEV yap ~aisnap~lais TO 8605 ~aeq~al,i~ 6i TLIV oq0ah~dvavB~i to ~ahhos.'AM' OGTE TGV T~~~EIQVTO Cjxpov T~~EOV~~O~VIKTOV fiv, ipipa 6i r4 EpEir0~1PiParra1- O~YETO TC~Vocp€Iahp(;jv &v80s EQT~V apipt~vov. aAA1 ~OIKE TOTS 6p-n papaivopivo~qiots. oiirw~au jv i~oayqa~v o Swypaqos Eljpopqq popq. [4]Tas EE ~~'ipa5 ~li~pavE$ETT~TCIUEV. 6i &VW6~apos i~aTipavouvartrwv n€~pu-oi ~aplroi&i &m~p aprrihou (~OT~UE~~pipav~at, Kai ai p~vcbhival fir ~opqsh~parov i~ouaal TO AEVKOV is TO TTE~I~VOV p~~~pahov~ai~OI'K~CJIV ~~O~~OKEIV oi 8aKwhol. [5] A€~ET~I~EV 06v O~TWTOV Bava~oviuliqop~vq- :~KE 8i wpqi~C;js~a~oh~upivq, Gm~p 'AIBOVE~ vupcpq KEKOQC(~~EV~*1~08rjpqs o XITC~V, AEUKOF o x~TG~v-TO iiqaapa hamov. apa~viwv ~OIKOS rrho6, o\i uara T&V npo~ar~iavT~IX~V. ahha rara ev~bv tpiov TBVrrqvQv, oiov arb 6dv6puv ~~KOUU~Ivipara yuvair~s~qaivouu~v 'Iv6ai. Painting of Philomela's abduction as seen in an artist's studio (5.3.4-8) [1] M~~au-tpacp~isOGV -E'NXOV yap map~cmilytpyaqpi~;) (mypacpou-ypacpiv oppQ KEI~EV~V. fir15 ijrgvin~roTT~O~O~OIOV. O1hopiha5 yap E~XEqeopav rai ~v Piav Tqpior ~aiqy yXdqs ri(v ~opjv.jv 6i 6hodqpov rjypacpo TO Bliyqpa TOG 6pagaros. 6 rrinhor, 6 f rlpdy, fl ~parr~ca.[5] Tov rrtlrhov fimhopivov EiOTi(KE1 KP~TOG~~8Ef3&TralVa( - OLhopiha ~T~~E~~KEIKai kR~Ti8ElT@ nirhg T~)V 8a~whov~ai B~irvue T~U ucpaopa~ov as ypacpas- fi nporvq npos *v 6~i@v ~VE~JE~~KE~~ai8p1pG irpkrn rai chpyi (aapa ~hihuro. TOV xlr6va ra+ppqrm. qyiyupvos TO QTE~VOV fiv. ~v 6~c1av€TI' oq8aApoirr fjp~16~TOO Tqpius, jha@ ~a 61~ppcayo~aTOG XIT~VOS lni ~olj~ pamows E~~KEV.('Ev) ayraha15 ~XE*V O~hop+av o Tqp~us, ~AKWVnpb5 ~aurov by iviv TO uapa ~aiacpiyyov iv xpQ rilv a~prrhorfiv.[7] 'Cl6~ p~viv TOG nfnhou ypacpiv Gcpqv~v6 XE~WUEV. ahh' ~~E~KVUEponf)v pfhhovror mchpa~o~. b) Locus Amoenus Hippias' garden (father of Clitophon) (1.15.1-8) o 68 napa6r\ooc hhoos fiv p(ya rt ~pfiparrpoy oqBahuQv fi6ovfiv- wai rr~piTO Bhao~TE~X~OV 6~ CI~T~PKE~~i(Gv)o~ KO~ EK~T T~~EUP~TEIX~OU (TEQU~PEJ 61 j0aV rrhrupai) ~a~am~yo~WTOXOPQ KIOVOV. ljno 6l ~oisrioulv EVBOVjv fi TQV 6iv6pov navjyvply. [L]EBahhov oi ~ha6ot. mv$rnmwv irhhiho~y&Ah05 in' hhhov, ai yri~ovrrTGV rrr~irhwvmptrrhorai. T~Vpljhhov ntplpohai. TGV raplr6v uu~lrrhorai.~o~auq TI( fiv oplhia rGv pu~6v.[3] ivio~y6i TGVbiv6pwv TQV a6po~/pavKLTYQS rai upihac ~~~ETTE~~~KEI.q piv Crqprq~fvq nha~avou ~ai rrrplmr~a~ouoaba61v3 fl ~dgq-6 6i rirr05 n~pin~urqv ~ih1~8dr ~;)KEIOOTO TO 66v6pov raiy rr~plrhorai~.rai iyiv~rorQ 6xqpa TO qu~ov. a-rlqcrvo~6L 6 KIT TO^ TOG qUT06. [1] ~V~E~OI6i ~u~T~~GI~Ev TOG ~IV~~OU. rahh~015ETTQ)(OU~EV(II. TOTS p6Mot< Eeahhov. rai b ~aprro(bpaiav E~ETi]v &V~T(V~ai 6th ri($om$ T&V rahirvov t (51 ra 66 6v9q no~rihqv~XOVTCX rilv ~po~avkv gip~l uuv~~tgatvr TO rdrhho(. Iwai jv TOGTO fis yijy rropqupa ~aivapduoos uai Po6ov- gia pkv T@ b06c9 ~aiTQ vaprioaq.l fl ~ahue, 6uuov sis rnp~ypaqiv.rai jv cp~ahqTOG QUTO~. fl xpota 6i T~Vx~pi fiv K~AUK~cpirhhov iqtupiuwv, T@ 606cg piv a'ipa-ros ovou ~ai ya)la~+roS. TO ~a~oTOG g6AAou, Kai 6 vap~iuuo5qv TO ~6v6~010~ T@ K~TW TOG Po6ou. [q T@ iq ~ahucpiv 036apoG. xpoia 6i o'iav iMs Bahaaq~aorparrr~i yahjvq. iu piao~s8k ~oij&V~EUI rqfi au~pAu<~~ai n~ptqiyparro TETP~YOVO~ xapa6pa ~~1porroiq~o~~3PEicpan. TO 55 G8op T~Vav0iwv fiv ~a~ompov.415 ~OKE~VTO &ha05 €bal 8inhofiv. TO p€v fis ahq0~ias. TO 8k -5 ~~16s.[q ~)PVI~ES 8'0i piv XE~PO~~~EISmpi TO 6haos ~V~CLOVTO, 03s ~KOA~CKEVOVai T~Vav8pCj~tov tpocpai. oi 6i iAd0~povEXOVTES TO T~TE~OV, Tas T~V6iv6pmv KO~U(P&~Enal ~pax~cav.oi Gi ;(~ipofi0~r~,~acj~ ltai K~~KVOT ~ai y~ra~oy o K~~Kvo~ n~piT~S TCV irba~ovni6a~as v~pov~vos, o y1rra~o5iv oi~ia~qn~pi 6iv6pov K~E~~F(EVO~,o ra& ~ois&ve~o~ n~ptrnjpwv TO n-r~pov.~VT€)\UTIE bi fi ~ijvav060v %a T-Q T~V opvi0ov ~potq~ai iv &vOq rrrepc3v. C) Character Descriptions i) the maiden First description of Leucippe (1.4.3) roiaGqv EXOViyCj TOTE ini ~a\jpqy~ypappivqv Eljprjqv- 6vpa yopyov Ev fi&ovf~.KOV~ rrap~ta. TO Acuuov p~aovicpotviuu~~o ~ai E~I~E~TO nopqGpav oiav €is TOV ih~cpuv~aAuGia pamet yvvfi. TO o~opapo6ov &v@osfiv. o~av&pxq~at TO Po6ov avoiy~ivrc3v guAAwv ra x~ihrl. Comparison of Lrucippe to a peacock and the flowers (1.19) TO 6k KU~~OS~UTP~TTOV TOG Ta& ~TTov€&OKEI F(01 TOG AEVK~T~~~~ival npouchou. TO yap roc acjpa~o~~khhos airqs rrp05 T& TO^ h~ipavo~fiptc~v &vh' vap~iauou~EV TO TTPO~W~OV~UTI~~E xpoiav. p060v 8k ~VETTEV EK fis nap~lbs. iov 6i fi TGV ocp8ahpc;jv ipappatp~vaud. ai 6~ ~opat~omp~oup~vai p&hhov ~ihinovroKITTOG- TOIO~~TO~CV AEuKimqs ixi T~VTT~OU&STWV o ~EI~WV. After Leucippe's song of the rose. a comparison to the rose (2.1.3) d) Erotic Encounters Clitophon's encounter with iMelite (5.27.3-4) n~ptpahoirarl~o6v fiv~rxopqv~ai TrEp t-rth~~opivq5npbs as n~plftho~asO~K avrih~yov. - ~ai~-Y~VETO oua o uEp~~~~OE~EU. OGTE mpapvfis ~HQV8~q8iv~~v, dhhov roves r3v rapao~nrjvacppoStaiov. [4] aG~oupyo5yup o 'Epw< ~ai air~oqi61oraocpta~~. ~ai rrav~a ~h-rrov ali~Q ~r8Bp~vos pufiptov ... 5. Longus, Daphis and Chloe a) Art-Work Ekphraseis i) painting The painting in the grove of the Nymphs on Lesbos (Proem 1.1-2) 'Ev /\ia@q~0rlpdv 6v &ha~tNupcpGv &apa E%OV~ahh~u~ov &V E~OV, E~KOVQ yparniv. imopiav ipo~os.Kahov p~vrai TO irhaos. nohu6~v6pov. aveqpov. ~arrappu~ov.uia myfi rav~aET~ETE ~ai~a &v8q rai T& 6Bv6pa, ahh' fi ypaqq ~~prr~o~ipa~aiT~XV~V Exouaa IIEPITT~~ rai Tljxqv ~POTIKT~Y. &UTE nohhd ~ai TGV&VOV ~araqipqv j~aavT&V piv NvpcpGv i~i~a~.fis 6i E~KOVO~0~a~ai. yuva~~~skrr' ahfis T~KTOUO~Irai hhhat mapydrvol( ~oupo~aa~.na~dia ~KKE~UEV~. roipvta TPE~OVTQ. ~OI~€VESavalpoup~vot. V€OI UWVTI~E~EVOI. AQOT~~V~a~a5popi, rroh~piwvip@oAfi. Tlohha &Aha ~ainav~a ipw-rr~a i6ovra ME rai Baupaaav~a~~000~ iq~v avrrypayrat fi ypacpij. ~aiavacqqaapavos icqyq*v njs E~KOVO~+napas @iPhous~~~novquapqv ava8qpa wiv 'Epwm rai NGpcpaty rai Tlavi. ~-rfjpa6i ~~pmovn&av uvepcjrrot~, 6 ~aivoaoiiv-ra iaae-ra~rai Avrroljp~vov rrapapu0Tja~~at. TOV ipao0iv~a ava pvTja~t. TOV olj~Ipaa0h~a na16do~1. T~VTW~ yap ou6~is'Epw~a Eqvy~v fi (PE~~ET~I.~EX~L &v ~ahhos 6 wai ocp8ahpoi phirrootv. ipiv 6i o 8~05rapaqo~ QW(P~OVOGQI ~a T~VGhhov ypaq~tv. Temple of Dionysos in the center of Lmon's Garden (4.3) b) Character Descriptions i) the maiden Description of Chloe by Daphnis (1.17) Chloe's beauty at her wedding (4.33) ii) the young man Description of Daphnis while bathing (1.13) iv 6L 4 y~v~opq p~halva rai nohhfi, TO 66 aGpa lrrirau~ovfihicq E~K~UEVEIv tls ah0~pch{~u8ai fl OKI@ isKO~~F E~OKEI 6k fi Xhog 8€o~&vqraho~ 6 Ahgvly. OTI t6i 06) rrpo~~povah-@ aahos ~~OKEI. TO XOUT~OVEVO~I~E TOG ~ahhousaiflov .... Chloe's comment about Daphnis' beauty (1.14) nahbs o Aapvls. ~aiykp ~a &veq. rahov fi &ply{ auroii q6iyy~~al.rai yap ai kq6ov~yahh' tu~ivwvou6~ir pol hoyos. Comparison of Daphs and Dorco (shepherd competition for a kiss from Chl&) (1.16). Dorcon's speech: iycb. rrap8ivr. VE~~OV~ipi Aaqv~Gos. uai ~ychpiv f30u~oho~.o 6E ai~~oho~*TOCYO~~TOV (o6v iyw) ~p~irrovouov aiyQv Poq. ~aiAEUKO~ ~iyi cb5 yuha ~aimppos cb( 8ipo5 plhhov aydu8al. rai E0p~yi(UE) pfirr(p. ou Oqpiov. orj~oy66 ion pirpoy. ~ai ayfv~loschs yuvi. rai pthas ch5 hG~o5. Daphnis' reply: iv€ aie hvdep~ysvijorr~p TOV Aia. v~po6k rpayous TQV TO~~TOUPoi)v p~i dco bi ou6lv am' au~Ov. OTI yq6i 6 nav. ~ai~oiYE QV TO nhiov rpayos. apr~i61 pot 6 mp05 ~aicip~o5 opshiar ~aioivo5 hau~oq. oaa aypoirov rrhouuiov ripara. ayivsd( ~ipl. ~aiyap o Aldvuaoo(- pihay. ~aio ua~iv8oy. dhh ~p~irrwv ~ai6 b~ovuoos ZaTljpwv. o uCl~iv8osnpivov. ahoy 6~ ~aimrppbr hsahcbnqe rai rrpoy6vsto( h5 rpayoy uai AEUK~~chs ic EIUTEO~yuvfi. Gnathon, in love with Daphnis. describes the youth (4.17) iii) both lovers The beauty of Daphnis and Chloe (1.24) fi ~EVyap yupvov opQaa TOV Aagvlv in' a0poDv ivimrm TO ~6hho5rai ~TT~KETO ~r16kvalj~oir pipor pipva~eat6vvapdvq. 6 6k i6bv iv vr(3pi6t ~aim~qhvq, mimor opiyovaav TOV yauhov. piav +€TO rQv i~TOG dvrpou NupqQv op6v .... rai fi p~v E~KOUEV ~UTOGTilv ~opqv, OTI p~halva. pcp~oir, o 6k pihw TO TTPO~OTTOValjTi(5. 6~tAEUKOU ~aiBVEPEV~~S fiv. C) Loci Amoeni Philetas' Garden (2.3-4) K~~TTO~iaTi ~(01 T~V ipav x~tpihv(Epyov), ov i< oii vip~iv&a yfipa~ixauaapqv. i~~~tovqaavqv,oaa &pal qipouu~nav~a Exwv iv ab~@~a0' wpav iicauqv- Gpos FjoEa, ~piva~ai rj&~iveos ~ai ia auqo~~pa, 0ipou5 ~~KWVE~~aiaxpa5~~ ~ai pqha vav~a, vi3v 6pn~Ao1~ai au~a'i ~ai 601ai ~aipGp~a ~Aopa. TO~TOV TOV K~~OV opviewv ayfha~ouvipxov-ru~ TO kwe~vov. T&V E(~V TPO(P~V, T&V 8k k5 G&~v. avvqp~qfi~yap ~ai~arCra~tos ~ai n-qyais rprai ~a~appu~oyiiv n~p16Aq TIS dlv aipaarav &ha05 op6v oi ja~-ra~. Lmon's Garden (4.2-4)- in the center of the garden description. there is a brief ekphnsis of art works found on the walls of the temple to Dionysos (4.3). d) Erotic Encounters Chloe's kiss according to Dafnis (1.18) The destruction of the garden by Lampis, a suitor of Chle (and the "rape" of Chloe) (4.7) Consummation (4.40) Aaqvls 61 wai XMrl yupvoi avy~ara~hl8iv~l~~rrrp~i@ahhov ahh jhour wai ranqihouv, aypvrrviaav~~ris vur-ror kov oG6i yhafi~~s.~ai EGpad TI Aaqv15 &v aG~ov~TT~~~EUCJE Au~aivtov, ~aiTOTE Xhoq npc3~ovg~ae~v OTI TU irir fls Ghq~ y~vop~vajv xa18iov naiyvla. 6. Beliodorus, An Ethiopian Story a) Description of the art work: The serpent band worn by Charikieia in the procession (3.4.2-5) .... Cchvqv Gk irr~pCf3Arl~o~oi5 orEpvoq. wai o nxvqaap~vo~ ~KE~V~VTO TT~V fi~ E~UTO~tfXvqs K~TEK~EI~E~.oh .rrpoTEpov n TOIO~~TOVX~~KEUU~~EVO~ O~TEaljels Guvqaop~vo~.[3] Auoiv yap ~~~KOVTO~VTU p€v oupa'ia KaTa T&V ~ET~~P~VWV i6iapnr~TOUS 68 akiva~wo TOU~ pa 61anAieaq ~ai~aq u~cpahur G1oh1a0fiaa1 TOG Ppoxou cnJyxwprjaa~. ws TTEP~TTWV~ TOG S~apoC~a~a nhmpav t~a~~pav hqcha~v. [.I] Em5 civ TOUS ijq~~~OG 60u~'iV Iprr~lvahh' gprr~iv. orjX JTO PhoavpQ ~aiaqv~i TW f5hivpar1qofkpouy ahh' ljypa KChpaTl ~~(I~~EO~EVOU~ UTE^ an0 TOG KaTb Ta UTE~V~-5 KO~~S~VE~OU ~a~~uva~o~ivov~. Oi 6i iaav ~v ~iviihqv xpuuoi evxpoiav 6i ~uavoi. 0 yap xpuuoq GTO fis TEXV~Sip~haiv~~o 'iva TO pax xu ~aip~~apahhov fir pohiEo5 T@ GuveQ TO pehav0ir ~paeiv€.rrt6~i 'Hpiv ~poyovotBE~V piv "HAIO~TE ~aiAiowuos fip&wv 6E rT~pa~G5K-E ~ai 'AvGpogiGa ~aiMiuvwv iril TOUTOI~. Oi 6fi ~arpaathriou~ auha~ ~a~a ~a~po\i~ i6puuaprvoi ~ais~TTO rou~ov ypaqais i~oapqocrv+Tar pEv 8fi T~VcihAwv ~i~dvac TE ~ainpa5~1~ av8pCjui TE ~aiTE~I~PO~OIS ~v~ypacpov. TO~S 8~ 9aha~ous~075 'AvGpopfGas TE ~ain~pafw~ ipoulv B.rroi~thhov.IJ1 'Eu~oC8aTOTE fip6~. ~EK~TOU napj~ovros ETOUS /c 06 p~ yap~Tilv'YGpamrqs ~~V&~IUEVOC~O TE nai80v rjpTv y~yovo~wv.fip~p~iv TO p~oqppptvovmv~palv~v iimou 8~plvoO~a~a~Aivav~o(, rai got npoawvih~iror~ o narilp 6 uos, dvap a&@ TOGTO KE~~EIV~T~O~V~~EVOS, fiueoprlv €it mapaxpipa ~uoqopjaaaaiv ~a~apohjv .... [q ....im16i 66 aE hmev ani~~~ov.arrpocrqvhov Aierorrwv xp01i.r~amauya~ouoav. tiyb ~tvfiv ai~iav iyvchp~covOTI pol napa *v opihiav qvnpor TOV hugpa rrpouf3Aiya1 iv 'AvSpopi5av fi ypaqi ~rapaqoJaa~ai rrav~a~o0~v krrt6~i~aaa yvpvfiv. hp~ryap arrb T&V T~ETPGUo TT~pa&rr ~aqy~v. OC(OIOEIS~S ~KEI'v~ TO map& o\i~ Rj'NX&s ~~O~~WUEV. b) Loci Amoeni None other than a stop at a garden oasis (8.14.3). c) Character Descriptions i) the maiden Fiat image of Charikleia and Theageaes (1.2.1-3) ~opqKCI~@YTO in\ ni~pas. apfixavov TI ~aAAo5uai 8~45Eivat avan~ieouaa, TOTS uiv lrapoijal n~p~ahyofiuaq1povipa~o5 6i aiy~voi3~ETI TTV~OUCJU. [2] ACfqvg Ti]v KE~QA~VEUTETTO ~uigap~~pav TGV &~WV ~S~~TCTO ~aiTQ Aal@ (3paxiovi TO TO~OV~~~E~~IKTo- fi Aol~6i x~ip aqpov~ia~o5 arqcjpq~o. Mqp@ 6k T@ ~ECIG TOV ay~6ua0a*pa5 XEI~OS icp~8p& ~Ecpahjv~VE~XEV. [3] '0 6k ~paljpaul~EV K~T~K~~To ~aipt~pov uvaqdp~tv &m&p ;K ga0fo5 iimou TOG nap' ohiyou Bava-rov ~amcpaiv~~o,fiv0~t 86 uai iv TOGTOI~ avGpeiq TG ~ahh~l~ai 4 nap~la Ka~appiov~l TQ a'i~a~!gotvl~~ollivq ~EUKO~TI rhiov av+Aap.rr~v. '0cp8ahpou5 6i EKEL'VOU oi Q~Vrovot K~TEQTIWV. fi 6k 6yts *S KO~~S€9'6CXvti.l~ ~VE'~~KEKU~TO~TO O~&V QUTO~S ~~v~YK~ hage of Charikleia as a goddess (1.1.5-6) Kai ava h~youaaq p~vfis n~~pasdrv€8op~v. oi 6k 6ni TOG bpous hro 8avpaa~o~ apa ~ai~~*rrhfi~ew~ ijarr~p UTO rpqaflpoy -5 cjyew5 PArl06v~qBAA05 dhhov ~~E&ETOe'pvov* p~; PEAGv fl a8poa K~V~UE~K~~Y<~VTOV. ~puaouqoGs 8~ fls ia0fi~osrpo~ TOV fihtov av~auya vch~ot~nh~~urov 6uov ETTIT~EXO~U~V.[61 To65 p~vraCra E~E~EI~~TOU~ainUov T~VO~W~EVWV fi TC~V YIVO~EVWV Ciyvo~a-oi pEv ybp 8~ovnva EA~yov. ~aiBEOV 'Ap-rrp15 fi jv€y~cjp~ov 'latv, oi 6€ iip~~avirlrd TOC BE~VEK~E~~VV~~V ~aiTOV opcbp~vovnohirv qovov ~pyaaav~vqv. On the young girl Charikleia (2.30.6) &ye1 p~ rap' €QUTOV ~ai~E~KVUU~ ~opqv txpfixavov TI ~ai8alpoviov ~ahhos. fjv aha$ p~v€ma E-q yrfovivai ihc/~vkpoi 6~ ~ailjpa yapou TT~~QI~~E~V~WKEI. OWTW~&pa ~ahhoush'r~ppohfi ~ai E~TpEyf8ous ipqaalv @~EI rrpoaefi~qv.Kay& ~EV a~aufisE~~~~KEIV ayvoiq TE TGV~IVO~EVWV ~ai a~opim~?) 0ia T~VOPO~~VWV. The girl is now a young woman and adopted by Kalasiris (2.33.3-4) Kai uijv fi nai5 ~v~otiieaoirv 6uoi rais p~vaha ipfi ~ai6vopa TOUVOV ovo~a 'Hpo~6' fiplydv~raquvq fi0606a~~hosfid.15 - "Opqpos &v E%EV - &E\ 6i TOG VE& fls 'ApTipl605 icfihaa~v ~ahi~ai aoqi Xapi~h~ta,TOTE OTI ~ai&ayivqv jnq0ijvai T~OTE~UV~TOU Z~VO~EV. ahh' jmeiival ~oaoii~ovijaov dr~pa1qvi5 yuval~~iov~ahhor TOG npwrou nap' av&paa~virrayoyo~~pov. [2] "HYETOpiv yap iq' ap~avCrSrl~ an0 ouvopi6os hmrijs poGv jvtoxoupivq. xt~Qva6i ahovpyov ro6ipq ~puaaisa~~iut K~T~~TT~QTOV fi~lpi~cr~o ...... i KO~TJ8i OGTE navq 6161rh0~05 O~TE~~V~ETOS, ahh' 6 piv rohhi rai hrau)(ivors &pols TE ~aiVC~TOI~ int~ljpa~v~ miv 5i &no KOPU~?~~ai &no C(ETC~TTOUGaqvqs a-rrahol KAGVE~Ea~p~qov po60~161 TE ~airiA~Ciaav &~O(~~OVTE< ~ai uoP~iv ~ai5 aO(ijpa1~ &I TOG I~~EITOVTO~OGK E~I~VTE~. [61 "Ecp~p~sk Aal@p€v TO{OV i~ti~puuovh~p &UOV TOV ~E@OVfi5 gap€~pa5 aqpqpdvq5. 0aripa 61 hapna61ov ippivov aai oii~wsExouaa ~hfovalro TQV ocpBahpdv &has 4 T~V6a6wv a~Gya@v. The appearance of Chluikleia before the race at the Pythian Games (4.1.1) cjy~~aeaiTTOU TOV O~ay~vqv~Xri~ouua. fi ha~cpiv ippivov mpqopoijua Aa~raGrovBarepa 6i cpoivr~o~gpvos npop~phqpfvq, ~ai~av~iaa rev BEV TO 0ia~pov€9' iavev ETTEUT~E~EV. Eq0q 61 T~XCXoG6~i~ TOV 0raydvou~op8ahpov. heirs yap i6~ivo ~pGvTO TO~OU~EVOV. Charikleia in the bedroom, dressed like Artemis for her wedding to the pirate Trachinos (5.3 1.2) '06k pq6~vp~AAioa5 w5 Trvor T&V avay~aiwvEXE~YOVTO~ avI'ma~ai ~ai ha0Cjv ~impix~tTE *V oh~a6a~ai i5bv T+ Xapi~h~lavGdrcpvqs TE qipouaav i~ilfi5 ~acpahfisaeqavov ~ai~puoouq~i a-roAfi ~a~auya~ouaav(ev yap ir A~AcpGjv kpav €uefl~afipq)i~mo Cjs fi VIK~~~IOVfi ~v~aqtov k~op~vqv) ~ai ~6hha mpi airjv cpat6puvop~va~ai wpa mama605 arrop~pouu~va... Charikleia on her beauty (6.9.6) The beauty of her eyes (dressed as a beggar) (7.7.7) Kai TOTE 6 Q~ay~vq5Garr~p pfh~l TG (jipa~1Phqe~k ~ai ~3v uvyu~t~€vwv alj~oi~ avp@ohwv TO Aa~(~ra610vyv~piua~. kva~~viuas TE ~ai~ais Pohais TGV bcpeahpav fis XaprKA~iasijan~p irrr' a~~ivo~i~VE~~V &~urroljuqs ~a~avyaatl~is ... Charikleia on the stake (8.9.13) .... rr~p~ppkov-rosair* pbhhov G~~oxopo6v~os6i KU~' 6 pip05 O~B~~ELEVfi Xapi~h~ia ~airrcptauyu ~r~p~auyuu~a~o~TO ~drhhos~ai oiou iv mpivw Bahapq vupq~~o~Evqv. Charikleia tests her chastity walking on a scorching gridiron (10.9.3-4) ii) the young man The comparison of the young man Theagenes to Achilles (2.35.1) 'Eniv~ua~vo Xap~~hfjs ~ai ~iufjh0~v o VE~VI'QKO~ 'Axihh~iov TI TW Cjvm TWEWV ~ai np05 ~KE~VOVTO ph~ppa~ai TO gpovqpa avaqkpov. ope05 TOV aGxiva ~aia~o TOG p~~LjlrovTiJv KO~~Vrpos TO 6p010v ava~at~i<~v,fi rjis f;v €nayy~hia0upoG ~aioi ~.LuK~?PE~ &~EU~€PUSTOV dr~pE~~TUEOVTE<. oq8ahpo5 0\iITCd &J ~apOST05 xaponrj~~pov6~ p~Aatvou~vo$ao(3apov TE &pa uai OUK avfpamov PAfnwv, oiov BaAdrcrq~arro ~\jpa~o5 yahqvqv &pr~h~atvopivq~. The description of Theagenes in the procession (3.3.4-8) - jv S$ TO ~(ihqpaTO ipov O~ayfvqs- anaq irrforp~yr~v.WQTE E~O~E&V h' ampafls TO ~~IVO~EVOV~POTEPOV anav fi~aup6u0at. TOQOGTOV iv65 ocp0~i~ ra-riAapy~v. [5] ~'IMEVS ~EV~ai ah05 rai onhiqs WCIVWV ~aiGopv p~hiav xah~omopovkma~iov TO Sk ~pavosoh Gn~A0&v ahh' a-rro yuvvfis fis ~€qahii$ rroprrdov qotvr~ofiacpfi xhak6a ~ae~~pivo$.qs ~a p~v&Aha xpvcror i~toi~lhh~ ~06sAaxi0as iTil ~0b5KEVT~~~OU~ olthi~~v, fi n~povq6k 'Aeqv6v ~AEKP~V~VEUTE~E rilv QopyoOs K~cpahjv Owpara npoami~ouoav. [6] l?pou~Pahh~6E TI X~~ITO~ ~o'ic;YIVO~A~VOI~ ~ai av$pou hiy~iapi*, p~ihixovyap ~~~TNEIev ~EV ~opqv fipipa K~T&TOG ahivos B~a~aivouua~ai TOG ~ET~~ITOUTOGS PompljXOus napadhhouua 6k ~AavGGos as pas rois vcj-rors TOG 'imou ~aipqpoi5 i~i~ahhouua.[7] EXESijrv ~aiTOV 'irmov air-rov auvrivat -rij~cjpaloq-ros TOG ~EU-KOTOU ~aicbs ~ahov~ahhlu-rov ~EPEIV TOV fivioxov aiaeav~aeai, oi~oTOV auxiva wpaivov ~ai bpeov 065 fiv ~~cpahiv~EI'POV ~ai uogapav T~V6qph ~a~aTGV0~8ahpZlv hrt6tvEirwv gq~piTE ~aifiqip~n yaupoljp~vor. Eljqv~aTE nporo6i orhqv fl y-ij h~mbvi-rr~~po~&v E~Syahr-vov ~ivqpaTO Piipa ~anppG8pl 8qpch6~1s~VV~TKE~ ~aiTO fis w)(fis ~r~805~YKP(~TE~~( K~\~TTEIv ~~\~VQTOI ~(fih01~ TE ~ai&veealv ipahhov. ~irpiv~lavarr' cnj-roij mva cbs 68o~ouv&E~KO~EV~~' KP~UI~ yap aii-q via napa nasiv i~paniv~~o.pi civ qavfivai TI K~T'av0pcjrrov~ o TO @~ay€vousirrr~pphhhoi ~ahhos. The comparison of Theagenes to Achilles (4.3.2) ... a~pvovTI 0iupa ~air~piPh~mov ~ai oiov "Opqpo5 rov 'Axlhhia mjv iTit I~apavSpqpaxqv a0hofivra rrapimqalv. Theagenes traces his lineage to Achilles (4.5.5) avacpfpei 6' iau-rov E~S'Ax~hAia npoyovov KU~VOI ~ai~ITahr18~6ElV ~OIKEV, ~iSET T@ pqteei ~aiTQ K&~~EITOG v~avioun~~~aip~a8ai. TT~CTTOU~~VOV rilv 'Axihh~~ov Eiryiva~av-rhjv 6aov ohux~pqpwv &6i ayivwp K~T'~KE~VOV ahha fis havoias TOV ~YKOV~SG~TI ~a~arrpauvwv. Another description of Theagenes by Kybele, slave of Arsake (7.10.4) Eirpur TIr iv~a o~fpva~ai TOUS cjpous ~aiTOV airxiva bpetov ~aiE~E~~E~OV wnkp TOW^ cjrhhows aipwv ~ai€is Kopucpjv ~oir5aTravTa5 irn~pixwvyhau~iGv TO QA~ppa ~ai~pau-rov apa ~aiyopyov npoa~h~nwv.o ~araPompqo~TOW sravrws ~KE~VO~ evxap~tav &prl Sav8Q TC+ iouhq TTE~IUT~~WV... d) Erotic Encounters The "almost" sexual encounter in the cave (5.4.4-5) Movol 6i @€ayfvq~~ai Xapi~h~~a ~a~a TO amihalov u.rreA~irrov~oTO ir-rr~ppahhov T&V rrapovrwv 6~1vcSvayae~v piyrmov ~18ip~vorTOTE yap np&~ovi8ia ~ai rrav-ro5 amrqhhaypivo~TOG o>(hqaov~o$ahhrjhots ~V~OVTE~a~~apam8im0v ~aiohoq~pGv rr~pinho~i5v TE ~aicpthrlpa~wv ~VE-rripnhav-ro. 151 Kai rrav~wv apa hi8rfv ~~TTEUOVTE~E~XOVTO id TT~E~UTOVahhihov oiov~i~~TTE~UKOTE~, iryv~irav~osp~v ETI ~ai~rape~vE\jov~o~ C~OTO~ KO~EVVG~EVOI Baupuui 6i IjYpoi~~ai 8Epuois E~TahAjhou5 ~~pavwp~voi~a't~a8apois povov p~yv~?pevoirois qihipaatv. fi yap Xapid~laTOV 0~ayfvqv~i TI napa~tvoCv~a aia0orro ~aiav6p1~op~vov urropvrjo~~TGV ~~KOV avim~hh~v, o 6i 06 ~ah~~lfi~irraviy~~o ~ai craqpov~iv pu6iw~fiv~ix~~o fipw~os viv ihartwv fiSovfis 8i ~p~irrwvy~vop~vos.