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African Identities: a New Perspective Thesis submitted for the Research Master African Studies, African Studies Centre, Leiden University, the Netherlands by Bert van Pinxteren [email protected] Supervisors: Dr. Akinyinka Akinyoade, African Studies Centre Prof. Dr. Maarten Mous, Leiden University Centre for Linguistics Third reader: Prof. Dr. Ton Dietz, Leiden African Studies Assembly Cover: ‘Alkebu-Lan’, imaginary map of what Africa could have looked like in the mid-nineteenth Century, if Europe had not become a colonizing power. Map used with permission from its author, Swedish artist Nikolaj Cyon, http://www.cyon.se r3 African Identities – a New Perspective African Identities: a New Perspective 0.1 Abstract The UN Sustainable Development Goals acknowledge ‘that all cultures (…) are crucial enablers of sustainable development’. In academic literature on Africa, however, cultural diversity is analysed as a problem, rather than as an enabler. Africa is either seen as one culturally homogeneous whole or as incredibly diverse and fragmented – there seems to be nothing in-between. Therefore, the picture is incomplete at best. Yet information on culture is used as the basis for assertions on Africa and its problems in economic and other areas. This thesis questions both visions of African cultures, using Vansina’s theory on the autonomy of cultural traditions as its starting point. Methodically, it uses an approach developed in cross-cultural psychology. Cultures are described here as value systems that serve as common points of reference to peoples. Using the cultural dimensions approach of Hofstede and Minkov a new exploratory analysis has been made of current self-perceptions of Africans, using data from the World Values and Afrobarometer surveys. This leads to information on differences and similarities in cultural values between more than 200 ethnolinguistic groups from over 30 African countries. The information has been partly triangulated through Focus Group Discussions in Ghana and in Southern Africa and by comparing information from those countries with ethnographic and other literature. The thesis sheds new light on cultural differences and similarities in Africa. It shows that there are considerable cultural differences within Africa; not all cultures in Africa are equally ‘collectivist’, for example. The essentially Eurocentric shorthand method of equating language with culture cannot be used in Africa: in many cases, cultural areas share different languages; in other cases, one language may be shared by people with different cultures. The thesis shows that such situations may be relatively common in Africa. The thesis calls for a new perspective on African identities and draws attention to the need for rebuilding cultural autonomy, based in African languages. Keywords: Africa, culture, values, cultural autonomy, cultural dimensions, cross-cultural psychology, Vansina, Hofstede, Minkov, Botswana, Ghana, Lesotho, South Africa, Swaziland, sustainable development, World Values Survey, Afrobarometer survey, ethnicity, identity, African languages. 0.2 Acknowledgements This research was made possible in part through grants from the Uhlenbeck scholarship programme of the Faculty of Humanities of Leiden University and the Leiden University International Study Fund (LISF). I would like to thank the facilitators who have made my field visits and focus group discussions possible and so productive: Orisha Afa, Prosper Akortia, Dr. Theo Anderson, Dr. Louis Atsiatorme, Tsabedze Bhekumusa, Elize Botha, Prof. Andy Chebanne, Madi Ditmars, Dr. Sr Lucia Makoae, Dr. Palesa Khotso, Sthembile Dlamini, Dr. Edward Nanbigne, Dr. Julia Ramabenyane, Dr. Kgomotso Theledi, Alette Vonk and Dr. Nana Wiafe-Akenten. I would also like to thank those who contributed ideas and helpful comments during various phases of thesis writing. In addition to some of the above, these include Jacob Abudu, Dr. Katalin Buzási, Prof. Marleen Dekker, Dr. Kofi Dorvlo, Prof. Ton Dietz, Prof. Geert Hofstede, Prof. Michael Minkov, Prof. Kwesi Kwaa Prah, Dr. Harry Wels as well as my teachers and fellow students in the proposal writing and thesis writing classes at the African Studies Centre in Leiden. The responsibility for the opinions and assessments (and mistakes) in this thesis is entirely mine. The contributions of my supervisors, Dr. Akinyinka Akinyoade and Prof. Maarten Mous, have been key to completing this thesis. Lastly, I would like to thank my wife, Jeanine Bomhof, for accompanying me on part of the field visits and for bearing with me during this period. 1 African Identities – a New Perspective TABLE OF CONTENTS 0.1 Abstract .................................................................................................................................. 1 0.2 Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................ 1 1. INTRODUCTION – theoretical and methodological starting points ................................................ 4 1.1 Theoretical starting point: Vansina’s view on cultural autonomy .......................................... 4 1.2 Methodological starting point: cross-cultural psychology ...................................................... 6 1.3 Structure of the thesis ............................................................................................................ 6 2. CONCEPTS OF CULTURE – AND WHY THEY MATTER ...................................................................... 8 2.1 Nation, Culture and ethnicity – about the unit of study ......................................................... 8 2.1.1 How I understand culture and ethnicity ......................................................................... 8 2.1.2 Other concepts of culture ............................................................................................. 10 2.1.3 Nations, nationalities and peoples ............................................................................... 11 2.1.4 Ethnic groups, tribes and polities ................................................................................. 12 2.1.5 Culture and language .................................................................................................... 14 2.1.6 Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 14 2.2 On ethnic fragmentation and how Africa is viewed in economic literature ......................... 15 2.3 The literature on investment and cultural distance.............................................................. 16 2.4 Intercultural management literature .................................................................................... 17 2.5 Conclusions: why investigating culture is relevant ............................................................... 17 3. RESEARCH QUESTION ................................................................................................................... 19 4. A CLOSER LOOK AT CULTURAL DIMENSIONS ................................................................................ 21 4.1 Cultural dimensions: three main approaches ....................................................................... 21 4.1.1 Hofstede/Minkov .......................................................................................................... 21 4.1.2 Schwartz ....................................................................................................................... 22 4.1.3 Inglehart and Welzel ..................................................................................................... 24 4.1.4 Noorderhaven and Tidjani ............................................................................................ 25 4.1.5 Connections between the different approaches .......................................................... 25 4.2 Criticisms of the cultural dimensions approach .................................................................... 26 4.2.1 Immanent criticisms ..................................................................................................... 26 4.2.2 Transcendent criticisms ................................................................................................ 27 4.3 Conclusions; my position ...................................................................................................... 28 5. METHOD ....................................................................................................................................... 30 5.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 30 5.2 Why and how to use surveys and why look at ethnolinguistic groups?................................ 30 5.3 First step: WVS data analysis – national level ....................................................................... 33 5.3.1 Long-Term Orientation (LTO) ........................................................................................ 34 5.3.2 Indulgence versus Restraint (IVR) ................................................................................. 37 5.3.3 Individualism versus Collectivism (IDV) ........................................................................ 38 5.3.4 Power Distance (PDI) .................................................................................................... 38 5.3.5 MAS/FEM and UAI .......................................................................................................
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