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Magombeyi. At the National Water Authority: Tommy Rosen, Elisha Madamombe, Charles Sakuhuni, and my brother-in-law and longstanding chairman of the Mzingwane Catchment Council, tezvara Phanuel Ncube. At ICRISAT, Andre van Rooyen, John Dimes and my mai gurus Bongani Ncube and Sifiso Ncube, and the drivers with whom I spent so much time in the field, especially Mr Masuku, Mr Manyani, Mr Mlotshwa and Mr Mpofu. At the University of Zimbabwe, Hodson Makurira, Innocent Nhapi and Aiden Senzanje, and the technicians who also spent time with me in the field, especially Farai Zihanzu, Percy Sena and Douglas Maguze. At WaterNet, Lewis Jonker, Johan Rockström, Themba Gumbo, Bongani Ncube (again), mkoma Washy Nyabeze, Nick Tandi, Martha Hondo, Moriah Makopa, Admire Mutowembwa, Jean-Marie Kieshye-Onema and Rennie Munyayi. At the Dabane Trust, Steve Hussey and Ekron Nyoni. In the Netherlands, I benefitted greatly from interactions with many staff and PhD fellows, especially Gerald Corzo Perez, with the time developing HBVx together and with whom I shared the Tison Award - and also Marloes Mul, Hodson Makurira (again), Collin Mabiza (again), Marieke de Groen, Ilyas Masih, Jeltsje Kemerink and Ann van Griensven. In , to my new colleagues at Golder: Keretia Lupankwa, Koovila Naicker, Nico Bezuidenhout and Gerhard van der Linde, for your support in the last months of this long journey, and Washy Nyabeze (again), Marieke de Groen (again), Themba Gumbo (again) and Bongani Ncube (again) for your advice and encouragement. To the many Masters students from University of Zimbabwe, UNESCO-IHE, TU Delft and University of Twente, it was a pleasure supervising you and your contributions to this work, direct and indirect is highly valued.

To my field assistants, Tius Sibanda, Sanelisiwe Sibanda, Tutanang Nyati, Patrick Nyati, Regis Mukwane, Brighton Sibanda, Daniel and Saddam Mkwananzi and my mai ninis Sipatisiwe and Sipetokuhle Ncube your contribution was also vital. Additional rainfall data was obtained with the help of the Railway Company, Safaris, Tod’s Guest House and the communities of Zhulube (), Fumukwe and Manama (), Maranda, Nemangwe and Chengwe (Mwenezi) and , Tongwe, Malala and Masera (Beitbridge). The assistance of baba mkuru Hayi Mpofu (Zhulube Irrigation Scheme), Felix Whinya (Zhovhe Dam), Tod’s Guest House, Paul Bristow and Rob Smith (Mazunga), and the District Administrators and Rural District Councils of Insiza, Gwanda, Mwenezi and Beitbridge Districts has been essential and is gratefully acknowledged.

This thesis is an output of the CGIAR Challenge Program on Water and Food Project 17 ‘‘Integrated Water Resource Management for Improved Rural Livelihoods: Managing risk, mitigating drought and improving water productivity in the water scarce Limpopo Basin’’, led by WaterNet, with additional funding provided by the International Foundation for Science (Grant W4029-1). Work in the field was also supported by ICRISAT Matopos, the Dabane Trust, the University of Zimbabwe Department of Geology and World Vision Insiza ADP. Piezometers were designed and manufactured by the Dabane Trust and installed with their assistance. The opinions and results presented are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the donors or participating institutions.