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Acute Radiation Syndrome: Assessment and Management

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Acute Radiation Syndrome: Assessment and Management Product Code: SMJ06-10B CME Topic Acute Radiation Syndrome: Assessment and Management Elizabeth H. Donnelly, CHP, ME, Jeffrey B. Nemhauser, MD, James M. Smith, PhD, Ziad N. Kazzi, MD, Eduardo B. Farfán, PhD, Arthur S. Chang, MD, and Syed F. Naeem, MS venture, or proximity to a nuclear weapon detonation or an Abstract: Primary care physicians may be unprepared to diagnose and industrial accident) the diagnosis of acute radiation syndrome treat rare, yet potentially fatal, illnesses such as acute radiation syn- (ARS) will elude most practicing clinicians. Due to the credible drome (ARS). ARS, also known as radiation sickness, is caused by threat of radiological and nuclear terrorism, however, healthcare exposure to a high dose of penetrating, ionizing radiation over a short providers should have a basic understanding of the diagnosis and period of time. The time to onset of ARS is dependent on the dose management of ionizing radiation-induced illness and injury. received, but even at the lowest doses capable of causing illness, this will occur within a matter of hours to days. This article describes the clinical manifestations of ARS, provides guidelines for assessing its Pathophysiology of ARS severity, and makes recommendations for managing ARS victims. Among cells, sensitivity to radiation varies according to cell cycle length. The rate at which a cell replicates and divides is an Key Words: acute radiation syndrome, radiation health effects, ra- important determinant of radiosensitivity. During mitosis, when diation injury, radiological emergencies genetic material is most exposed, cells are most vulnerable to the effects of radiation. Spermatogonia are easily damaged by ion- izing radiation. Lymphocytes, erythroblasts, and other hemato- ew clinicians will ever see a patient with a radiation- poietic cells are also fairly radiosensitive, as are the cells of the induced illness or injury. Moreover, whereas other un- F gastrointestinal tract. Muscle, bone, and collagen-producing cells common illnesses may present with characteristic findings, are less mitotically active and therefore among the least sensitive ionizing radiation injury typically presents without distin- to the effects of radiation.1 guishing signs and/or symptoms. Indeed, there are no patho- gnomonic physical findings associated with ionizing radia- tion-induced illness. Acute radiation syndrome (ARS), The Classic Syndromes of ARS sometimes known as radiation toxicity or radiation sickness, Differences in cellular sensitivity to ionizing radiation is an acute illness caused by irradiation of the entire body (or underlie the classic division of ARS into three syndromes: most of the body) with a high dose of radiation over a very short period of time (usually a matter of minutes). In the Key Points absence of an obvious exposure (e.g., a therapeutic misad- • Acute radiation syndrome is a continuum of clinical manifestations that includes a prodromal phase that may progress, depending on the radiation dose, to the From the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA; Savan- nah River National Laboratory, Aiken, SC; and Idaho State University, hematopoietic, gastrointestinal or central nervous/car- Pocatello, ID. diovascular syndromes. Reprint requests to Ziad N. Kazzi, MD, Centers for Disease Control and • Observation of sequential declining absolute lympho- Prevention, National Center for Environmental Health, Radiation Studies cyte counts in the first 48 hours after exposure is a Branch, 4770 Buford Highway, NE (MS-F58), Atlanta, GA 30341-3717. Email: [email protected] rapid and available method to assess radiation dose. None of the authors have any financial disclosures to declare or conflicts of • The management of acute radiation syndrome is interest to report. mainly supportive, including antibiotics, blood prod- Accepted December 15, 2009. ucts, and in certain cases, colony stimulating factors Copyright © 2010 by The Southern Medical Association and stem cell transplant. 0038-4348/0Ϫ2000/10300-0541 Southern Medical Journal • Volume 103, Number 6, June 2010 541 Donnelly et al • Acute Radiation Syndrome: Assessment and Management hematopoietic, gastrointestinal, and neurovascular. Damage of exposure, nausea, vomiting (occasionally severe), anorexia, to increasingly radioresistant cells correlates with the magni- and crampy abdominal pain are characteristic findings.4 Cu- tude of the absorbed radiation dose and is a marker of overall riously, at exposures much above 1000 rad (10 Gy) vomiting syndrome severity. The signs, symptoms, and pathology as- is suppressed and not seen as part of the early symptoms.6 sociated with the three ARS syndromes are not, however, The presence of diarrhea early in the course of the illness is entirely distinct from each other. Instead, adverse effects of a particularly ominous sign. Death from the gastrointestinal radiation exposure overlap, forming a spectrum of disease.1 syndrome is most often due to multisystem organ failure, overwhelming sepsis, and complications due to bleeding. Pa- Hematopoietic (Also Known as Bone Marrow) tients generally succumb to absorbed doses of 600 to 1000 3,4 Syndrome rad (or more) within weeks of exposure. The rapidly dividing hematopoietic stem cells and pro- genitor cells of the bone marrow are highly sensitive to the Neurovascular Syndrome effects of ionizing radiation. At absorbed doses between 20 Of the three major organ systems included in the spec- and 200 rad (0.2 – 2 Gy), ionizing radiation produces a mild, trum of ARS, the nervous system is generally regarded as the brief arrest in cell division and a clinically insignificant de- least sensitive to the effects of ionizing radiation. At exposure crease in cell counts. (Note: Acute radiation exposure is mea- doses approaching and exceeding 1000 rad (10 Gy), vomiting sured in units of absorbed dose known as rad or gray (Gy) is suppressed6; at the same time, a more global sedation oc- where 1 rad is equal to 0.01 joules of energy deposited per curs referred to as the “fatigue syndrome.” Clinical features kilogram of tissue. One Gy is equal to 100 rad or 1 joule of of this syndrome include fever and headache and, with in- energy deposited per kilogram of tissue.) Although some pa- creasing dose, altered reflexes, dizziness, confusion and dis- tients may complain of mild nausea or headache following orientation, ataxia, and loss of consciousness.4 exposure to a dose as low as 35 rad (0.35 Gy), these health At very high doses – 3500 rad (35 Gy) and above – effects are transient and do not constitute ARS. Exposures in penetrating ionizing radiation damages larger blood vessels 2 excess of 200 rad (Ͼ2 Gy) produce clinical ARS. resulting in circulatory collapse.4 Increased intracranial pres- Lymphocytes – the blood cell line most sensitive to ionizing sure, cerebral vasculitis, and meningitis may be seen. At doses radiation – are the first depleted in ARS. Following depletion of in excess of 5000 rad (50 Gy) victims will succumb within 48 lymphocytes, granulocyte and platelet levels will decline over a hours or less.6 The expected bone marrow and gastrointesti- period of days. Mature red blood cells are cleared from the nal injuries do not have sufficient time to manifest themselves circulation at a slower rate and over a longer period of time. before the victim’s demise. Rapid-onset anemia solely caused by acute ionizing radiation exposure would be unusual; underlying causes of red cell de- pletion (such as bleeding) should be sought.2 Phases of ARS Early-onset adverse health effects associated with the Each ARS syndrome follows a predictable course that hematopoietic syndrome include nausea and vomiting, head- can be divided into four clinical phases (or stages).3,4,7,8 ache, fatigue, fever, and transient skin reddening. None of these effects occur as a result of bone marrow radiation ex- Prodromal Phase posure but serve as harbingers of more serious adverse health effects. Their severity and rapidity of onset correspond to the Nausea and vomiting are hallmarks of the prodromal radiation dose received.3 phase. Time to vomiting can range from minutes to days Later-occurring adverse health effects are a consequence of following exposure. More rapid onset suggests a higher ab- hematopoietic stem cell loss. Clinicians should anticipate im- sorbed dose. In addition, other nonspecific health effects in- paired immunity and consequent infection, as well as bleeding clude fever, headache, parotitis, abdominal cramping, skin and poor wound healing due to low platelet counts. Death – erythema, conjunctivitis, and hypotension. Symptoms typi- usually due to infection and/or hemorrhage – occurs within cally last no more than 48 hours. weeks to months of high-dose ionizing radiation exposure. Left untreated, approximately half of all people exposed to a dose of Latent Phase more than 350 rad (Ͼ3.5 Gy) will die within 60 days.4,5 Patients experience apparent clinical improvement for a few hours or even up to a few weeks postexposure as adverse Gastrointestinal (GI) Syndrome health effects abate. By this time, however, the reservoir of At doses between 600 and 1000 rad (6 – 10 Gy), adverse pluripotent stem cells – whose function is to replace cells lost health effects are more severe and abrupt in onset than are the through natural attrition – has been significantly and critically health effects seen following exposures associated with the depleted. Adverse health effects associated with cellular loss hematopoietic syndrome. Occurring within
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