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ISSN 0350-3828 ISSN UDC 796 UDC , 2017 Belgrade,

Научни часопис из области спорта и физичког васпитања • Вол. 71, бр. 2, децембар, 2017. , децембар, 2017, 2

FIZI^KA KULTURA Journal of Sport Sciences & Physical Education • Vol. 71, Issue 2, December 2017 December 2, Issue 71, Vol. • Education Physical & Sciences Sport of Journal Physical Culture, December, 2017, 2 Physical Culture, December,

ISSN 0350-3828 Београд, 2017. УДК 796 www.fizickakultura.com PHYSICAL CULTURE Phys. Cult. (Belgr.) ISSN 0350-3828 Belgrade, December, 2017 Vol. 71 № 2: pp. 75-202 UDC 796

PHYSICAL CULTURE is a scientific journal, publishing scientific articles from the fields of sport and physical education, as well as from related bio-medical, humanistic, social and natural sciences. Only original articles which were not published elsewhere with original results out of scientific investigations or with new empirical experiences will be accepted. The first issue of “Physi- cal Culture” was published in 1950, continuing the tradition of the journal “Physculture”, which had been published since 1947.

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Editor-in-Chief Editorial Board Branislav Jevtić Milan Čoh (Slovenia) Janko Strel (Slovenia) Editors Daniela Daseva () Dragoljub Višnjić Frane Erčulj (Slovenia) Irina Juhas Slavko Trninić (Croatia) Stanimir Stojiljković Marco Machado (Brasil) Duško Ilić Vujadin Mujović () Marija Macura Paul Maman (India) Dušanka Lazarević Jose Maria Buceta (Spain) Dragan Mirkov Spomenka Mujović (Serbia) Slobodan Jarić (USA) Contact person / manager Vasiliot Thanopoulos (Greece) Saša Golub Dusan Hamar (Slovakia) Đorđe Stefanović (Serbia) Faculty of sport and physical education Belgrade Josef Tihany (Hungary) Blagoja Parovića 156, 11030 Beograd Kasuba Vitalij Aleksandrovic (Ukraine) Е-mail: [email protected] Andrey Krasnikov (Russia) Herbert Hartman () Language Editors Ken Hardman (UK) Gordana Vekarić (English) Jeanne Keay (UK) Bojana Sabo (Russian) Igor Štirn (Slovenia) Meral Tarar-Tutus (German) Damir Sekulić (Croatia) Goran Marković (Croatia) Language Instructor Goran Ćirović (Serbia) Sida Bogosavljević Lusy Power (UK) Jerzy Kosiewicz (Poland) Address Mihajlo Mijanović (Montenegro) PHYSICAL CULTURE Ivo Jirasek (Czech) Blagoja Parovica 15611030 Belgrade, Serbia Mirela Damian (Romania) Phone: + 381 11 3531 000; Fax: + 381 11 3531 100 Mehmet Gunay (Turkey) E-mail: [email protected] www.fizickakultura.com Printed by: NEWPRESS, Smederevo Journal is published twice a year Publication is financially supported by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Serbia, No.451-03-83 / 2009-02, dated June,15th 2009 Copyright @ Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Belgrade

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ФИЗИЧКА култура / одговорни уредник Бранислав Јевтић. - Год. 4, бр. 1/2 (1950)- . - Београд : Факултет спорта и физичког васпитања, 1950- (Смедерево : Newpress). - 30 cm

Полугодишње. - Наслов и текст у обрнутом смеру на енгл. језику; наслов на обрнутој насловној страни: Physical culture. - Је наставак: Fiskultura = ISSN 1451-981X. - Друго издање на другом медијуму: Физичка култура (Online) = ISSN 2217-947X

ISSN 0350-3828 = Fizička kultura (Beograd)

COBISS.SR-ID 1340932 PHYSICAL CULTURE ISSN 0350-3828 Belgrade, December 2017 Vol. 71, № 2: pp. 75-202 UDC 796

CONTENTS 2017/2 REVIEW PAPER Đorđe Jakovljević PERSONAL AND SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS OF A SUCCESSFUL RESEARCHING CAREER IN THE FIELD OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY BIOMEDICAL SCIENCES – PERSONAL REVIEW / OVERVIEW ...... 75

SCIENTIFIC PAPERS Alyson J Crozier, Todd M Loughead, Krista J Munroe-Chandler TOP-DOWN OR SHARED LEADERSHIP? EXAMINING DIFFERENCES IN ATHLETE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS BASED ON LEADERSHIP STATUS IN SPORT ...... 86

Filip Kukić, Aleksandar Stanković, Vladimir Mrdaković, Dusko Ilić, Miloš Ubović INTRA-SESSION AND INTER-SESSION RELIABILITY OF ELECTROMYOGRAPHY IN LEG EXTENSION DURING MAXIMUM VOLUNTARY ISOMETRIC CONTRACTIONS OF QUADRICEPS: THE EFFECT OF KNEE ANGLE ...... 99

Anida R. Fazlagić, Milena Belić THE CONNECTION OF PERFECTIONISM AND FLOW WITH ATHLETES OF A DIFFERENT PERFORMANCE LEVEL . . 111

SHORT REVIEW Vladan Vukašinović STEVAN TODOROVIĆ, LIFE AND WORK OF A PERFORMER, ARTIST, EDUCATOR AND FOUNDER OF ORGANIZED SPORT IN SERBIA ...... 118

PROFFESIONAL PAPERS Ana V. Vesković, Nikola M. Petrović ETHICS EDUCATION IN APPLIED SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ...... 127 Bojan Leontijević, Aleksandar Janković, Lazar Tomić TACTICS OF ATTACK OF FOOTBALL TEAMS IN THE CHAMPIONS LEAGUE KNOCKOUT PHASE IN SEASONS OF 2015/2016 AND 2016/2017 ...... 137 Hajnalka F. Požar, Čaba F. Požar RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LIFESTYLE AND NUTRITIONAL STATUS AMONG ADOLESCENT ...... 145

THEMATIC PART OF THE JOURNAL: „SCIENTIFIC MAGAZINE „PHYSICAL CULTURE” - 70 YEARS OF DURATION” INVITED PAPERS Božo Bokan THE JOURNAL “PHYSICAL CULTURE” – 70 YEARS OF DURATION ...... 154 Nenad Živanović PHYSICAL CULTURE – A FRAMEWORK FOR THE MEDIA CLARIFICATION OF MAN’S CULTURAL BEING ...... 166 Adam Petrović A DIALOGUE ON THE SPORTS TRAINING THEORIES IN PROFESSIONAL AND SCIENTIFIC PERIODICALS ...... 172 Branislav Jevtić SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL “PHYSICAL CULTURE” ON THE MISSION TO DEVELOP SCIENTIFIC AND SOCIAL COMMUNITY ...... 182

ERRATUM: Hamid Arazi, Saedi Tahmineh, Izadi Mani ASSOCIATION OF ANTHROPOMETRIC, PHYSIOLOGYCAL AND PHYSICAL TRAITS TO SUCCESS OF ELITE MALE MOUNTAIN CLIMBERS ...... 195 ERRATUM: Goran Kasum, Marija Mladenović THE SELF-PERCEPTION OF ATHLETES WITH DISABILITY ...... 196

LIST OF AUTHORS ...... 197 REVIEWER LIST...... 198 MANUAL FOR AUTHORS...... 199 ФИЗИЧЕСКАЯ КУЛЬТУРА ISSN 0350-3828 г. Белград, декабрь, 2017 г., книга 71, № 2: стр. 75-202 УДК 796 СОДЕРЖАНИЕ 2017/2

ОБЗОРНАЯ СТАТЬЯ Джордже Яковлевич ПЕРСОНАЛЬНАЯ И СИСТЕМАТИЧЕСКАЯ НЕОБХОДИМОСТЬ УСПЕШНОЙ ИССЛЕДОВАТЕЛЬСКОЙ КАРЬЕРЫ В ОБЛАСТИ МЕЖДИСЦИПЛИНАРНЫХ БИОМЕДИЦИНСКИХ НАУК – ЛИЧНЫЙ ОБЗОР/ ЭКСКУРС...... 75

НАУЧНЫЕ СТАТЬИ Алисон Й. Крозиэр, Тодд М. Лоугхэд, Криста Й. Мунро-Шандлер ИЕРАРХИЧЕСКОЕ ИЛИ РАСПРЕДЕЛЕННОЕ ЛИДЕРСТВО? ИССЛЕДОВАНИЕ РАЗЛИЧИЙ В ПОВЕДЕНИИ СПОРТИВНЫХ ЛИДЕРОВ НА ОСНОВАНИИ ЛИДЕРСКОГО СТАТУСА В СПОРТЕ ...... 86 Филипп Кукич, Александр Станкович, Владимир Мрдакович, Душко Илич, Милош Убович НАДЕЖНОСТЬ ЭЛЕКТРОМИОГРАФИИ ВНУТРИ И МЕЖДУ СЕССИЯМИ ПРИ МАКСИМАЛЬНЫХ ВОЛЬНЫХ ИЗОМЕТРИЧЕСКИХ КОНТРАКЦИЯХ ЧЕТЫРЕХГЛАВОЙ МЫШЦЫ: ВЛИЯНИЕ СУСТАВНОГО УГЛА ...... 99 Анида Р. Фазлагич, Милена Белич СВЯЗЬ ПЕРФЕКЦИОНИЗМА И ВООДУШЕВЛЕНИЯ У СПОРТСМЕНОВ С РАЗНЫМ УРОВНЕМ УСПЕШЕОСТИ . . . . 111

КРАТКИЙ ОБЗОР Владан Вукашинович СТЕВАН ТОДОРОВИЧ: ЖИЗНЬ И ДЕЯТЕЛЬНОСТЬ ЗАНИМАЮЩЕГОСЯ СПОРТОМ, ХУДОЖНИКА, ПРОСВЕТИТЕЛЯ И ОСНОВОПОЛОЖНИКА ОРГАНИЗОВАННОГО СПОРТА В СЕРБИИ ...... 118

СТАТЬИ ПО СПЕЦИАЛЬНОСТИ Анна В. Вескович, Никола М. Петрович ЭТИЧЕСКОЕ ОБРАЗОВАНИЕ В ПРИКЛАДНОЙ ПСИХОЛОГИИ СПОРТА ...... 127 Боян Леонтиевич, Александр Янкович, Лазарь Томич ТАКТИКА НАПАДЕНИЯ ФУТБОЛЬНЫХ КОМАНД В ФИНАЛЕ СОРЕВНОВАНИЯ ЛИГИ ЧЕМПИОНОВ В СЕЗОНАХ 2015/2016 и 2016/2017 ...... 137 Гайналка Ф. Пожар, Чаба Ф. Пожар СВЯЗЬ МЕЖДУ СТИЛЕМ ЖИЗНИ И СТЕПЕНЬЮ УПИТАННОСТИ У ПОДРОСТКОВ ...... 145

ТЕМАТИЧЕСКАЯ ЧАСТЬ ЖУРНАЛА „НАУЧНЫЙ ЖУРНАЛ „ФИЗИЧЕСКАЯ КУЛЬТУРА“ – СЕМЬДЕСЯТ ЛЕТ СУЩЕСТВОВАНИЯ“ – СТАТЬИ ПО ПРИГЛАШЕНИЮ

Божо Бокан ЖУРНАЛ ФИЗИЧЕСКАЯ КУЛЬТУРА :70 ЛЕТ СУЩЕСТВОВАНИЯ ...... 154 Ненад Живанович ФИЗИЧЕСКАЯ КУЛЬТУРА КАК РАМКА МЕДИЙНОГО ПОЯСНЕНИЯ ЧЕЛОВЕЧЕСКОГО КУЛЬТУРНОГО СУЩЕСТВА . 166 Адам Петрович ДИАЛОГ О ТЕОРИЯХ СПОРТИВНОЙ ТРЕНИРОВКИ В НАУЧНОЙ ПЕРИОДИКЕ И ПЕРИОДИКЕ ПО СПЕЦИАЛЬНОСТИ ...... 172 Бранислав Йевтич НАУЧНЫЙ ЖУРНАЛ «ФИЗИЧЕКАЯ КУЛЬТУРА» В ВЫПОЛНЕНИИ МИССИИ РАЗВИТИЯ НАУЧНОГО И ОБЩЕСТВЕННОГО ОБЪЕДИНЕНИЯ...... 182 ЭРРАТУМ Арази Хамид, Саеди Тахминех, Изади Мани ВЗАИМОСВЯЗЬ АНТРОПОМЕТРИЧЕСКИХ, ФИЗИОЛОГИЧЕСКИХ И ФИЗИЧЕСКИХ ХАРАКТЕРИСТИК С УРОВНЕМ УСПЕШНОСТИ ЛУЧШИХ АЛЬПИНИСТОВ ...... 195 ЭРРАТУМ Горан Касум, Мария Младенович САМОВОСПРИЯТИЕ СПОРТСМЕНОВ-ИНВАЛИДОВ ...... 196 СПИСОК АВТОРОВ ...... 197 СПИСОК РЕЦЕНЗЕНТОВ В 2017 г...... 198 РУКОВОДСТВО ДЛЯ АВТОРОВ ...... 199 Phys. Cult. (Belgr.) 2017; 71 (2): 75-85 PHYSICAL CULTURE

REVIEW ARTICLE UDC: 796.012.1:612.766 doi:10.5937/fizkul1702075J

PERSONAL AND SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS OF A SUCCESSFUL RESEARCHING CAREER IN THE FIELD OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY BIOMEDICAL SCIENCES – PERSONAL REVIEW / OVERVIEW

Đorđe Jakovljević

Cardiovascular Research Centre, Institute of Cellular Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, and Newcastle upon Tyne Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust,

Abstract A multidisciplinary approach to scientific research is necessary in order to find answers to complex questions in the field of medical and biomedical sciences. The author of this paper is a member of and coordinates the work of a multidisci- plinary team composed of medical specialists, general practitioners, molecular biologists, biochemists, physiologists, psychologists, physiotherapists, bioinformaticians, physicists, statisticians and engineers. The team has been managed a research program over the previous several years in the following areas: cardiovascular ageing, heart failure and physical activity. The aim of this review article was to present the findings of several research projects and papers published in renowned international scientific journals in the areas of: I) studying the process of cardiovascular ageing , its impact of physiological processes and interaction with physical activity, and II) improving the diagnosis and treatment of heart failure in primary and secondary health care. Overall aim of the research programme has been twofold; I) to improve general health and functional capacity of older people and patients, and II) to improve health care system and clinical practice. In addition to a brief presentation of the scientific papers and their findings, this review article will also des- rbibe ways of securing research funding and grant application procedures required for the research within the higher education system in the United Kingdom.

Key words: MULTIDISCIPLINARY APPROACH / BIOMEDICAL SCIENCES / CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES / HEART FAILURE / PHYSICAL EXERCISE / RESEARCH / UNITED KINGDOM

INTRODUCTION and systems of both developed and developing coun- tries. There is an outstanding example of the Research A multidisciplinary approach is required in or- Councils UK with the annual budget of more than £3 der to find the answers and solutions to complex billion in research covering the full spectrum of ac- research questions in the fields of medical and bio- ademic disciplines from the medical and biological medical sciences. Multidisciplinarity implies the in- sciences to astronomy, physics, chemistry and engi- volvement (engagement) of several academic disci- neering, social sciences, economics, environmental plines and professional specialties in addressing and sciences and the arts and humanities. (Harper; Wal- solving a pre-defined problem (Youngblood, 2007). port, 2016). New, multidisciplinary approaches are necessary to One of the greatest challenges facing mankind in meet many, if not all, scientific and research as well the next 30-50 years will be a drastic change in the as economic and social challenges of today. It is obvi- population demographic structure, predicting that by ous that only such an approach can contribute to the 2050, one in three people will be > 65 years old, and innovations promoting the economic development, one in 10 people will be > 80 years old (Lakatta, Levy, psychophysical and social well-being of the citizens 2003). These changes are of tremendous economic

Correspondence to: Djordje Jakovljevic, Cardiovascular Research Centre, Institute of Cellular Medicine, 75 Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4HH, United Kingdom. Email address: [email protected] Jakovljević Đ., Personal and system requirements..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 75-85 and social significance. Responding to the demo- ageing process (Lakatta, Levy, 2003). These changes graphic changes will require the adaptation of many lower the threshold of the occurence of clinical symp- aspects of people’s lives, including the way we work, toms and signs associated with cardiovascular diseas- take care of, communicate and “interact” with others, es (Shih et al, 2011). Magnetic resonance imaging adjust the immediate environment where we live and of the heart and blood vessels is one of the leading work, learn and use technology. In order to adapt to non-invasive methods of evaluating the structure and such conditions successfully, it is necessary to under- function of cardiovascular system (Hollingsworth, stand the nature and implications of the demographic 2012). changes as well as the details of the biological ageing Physical activity plays an important role in the process itself. prevention and management of cardiovascular dis- From the point of view of medical and biomedical eases (Chodzko-Zajko et al, 2009; Berry, 2013). Reg- sciences, it is necessary to understand the molecu- ular physical activity reduces the rate of overall and lar, cellular and physiological changes which directly cardiovascular mortality between 30-40% (Shiroma, affect the ageing process of humans. These changes Lee, 2010; Blair et al, 1995; Talbot et al, 2007). On the result in a decline in quality of life, functional capac- other hand, people who are physically inactive show a ity, and lowering the threshold for the occurrence 63% greater risk of developing cardiovascular diseas- of chronic diseases which contribute to an increased es (Chomistek, 2013). Despite the fact that physical mortality and morbidity in the elderly. The author of activity plays a very important role in maintaining this article is a member and leader of the multidis- general health and cardiovascular function, the age- ciplinary team composed of medical specialists, gen- ing process leads to a decline in physical activity and eral practitioners, molecular biologists, biochemists, cardiovascular function (Talbot, Metter, Fleg, 2000; physiologists, psychologists, physiotherapists, bioin- Wilson & Tanaka, 2000; Tanaka et al, 1997). formaticians, physicists, statisticians and engineers. Although regular physical activity can attenuate The task of this multidisciplinary team is to en- physiological, molecular and cellular process associ- hance the understanding of the ageing process with a ated with ageing,, as indicated recently in a review ar- particular emphasis on cardiovascular and metabolic ticle (Jakovljevic, 2017), further research is necessary changes and to identify potential therapeutic phar- to define the details of the interaction between the macological and physiological interventions which ageing process, physiological function and physical will improve the quality of life and function of the activity. In a previous study, we examined the correla- elderly, slow down the ageing process, and affect the tion between cardiac function and vascular (arterial) prevention of chronic diseases. function in relation to the age (Houghton et al, 2016). The aim of this review article was to present the The results have shown that arterial stiffness is an ex- findings of several scientific and research papers of cellent indicator of the cardiac function in the older, the specified multidisciplinary team in the fields of: I) but not in younger age. studying the process of cardiovascular ageing and its It is also necessary to determine molecular mech- interaction with physiological interventions, and II) anisms as potential causes of heart function deteoria- improving the diagnosis and treatment of heart fail- tion with ageing.. A study we have recently published ure in primary and secondary health care. confirmed the role of cardiac energy metabolism (high-energy phosphate metabolism measured by Cardiovascular system ageing and physical magnetic resonance spectropsopy) in preserving the activity cardiac function in the elderly (Nathania et al, 2017). The age of an individual is a major risk factor for The results of these studies have influenced the de- the occurrence of cardiovascular diseases, which are velopment of new ideas and research projects aiming the leading cause of mortality and morbidity in the el- to identify new pharmacological and physiological derly in developed countries (Harper, Walport, 2016). interventions which will reduce arterial stiffness and/ In the absence of clinical hypertension or a diagnosed or enhance cardiac energy metabolism in order to im- cardiovascular disease, structural and functional prove the myocardial systolic and diastolic function. changes in the heart and blood vessels result from the Daily physical activity can be objectively measured

76 Jakovljević Đ., Personal and system requirements..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 75-85 using accelerometers and pedometers in research and HEART FAILURE – FROM clinical practice. According to the results of previous DIAGNOSIS IMPROVEMENT, THE research, and based on an average number of steps EFFECT OF PHYSICAL EXERCISE taken by an individual, respondents can be catego- ON PATIENT OUTCOMES TO rized as ‘low physically active’ (<7.500 steps per day) MECHANICAL CIRCULATORY or ‘very physically active’ (> 12,500 steps per day) SUPPORT AND COMPLETE (Tudor-Locke, Bassett, 2004). Using this approach, RECOVERY we have quantified the effect of the objectively meas- ured physical activity on the changes in cardiac func- Early diagnosis of heart failure tion, structure and metabolism resulting in relation Heart failure or cardiac insufficiency is a clinical to physiological ageing (Jakovljevic et al, 2015). In a syndrome accompanied by the symptoms and signs single-center cross-sectional study involving 63 par- caused by structural and/or functional abnormalities ticipants (female), the results have shown that a high of the heart which result in a decrease in cardiac out- level of daily physical activity is required to preserve put at rest or under stress (Ponikowski et al, 2016). cardiac metabolism and functional capacity repre- The prevalence and incidence of heart failure increase linearly due to the changes in demographic structure sented by cardiorespiratory fitness, i.e. maximum ox- and the improved outcome in coronary artery diseas- ygen consumption. However, another study indicated es. Over 2% of the population aged > 45 have heart that an increased level of physical activity actually has failure, and the prevalence exceeds > 10% in the pop- limited effect on the reduced cardiac autonomic func- ulation over 70 (Ponikowski et al, 2016). Heart failure tion in the elderly (Njemanze et al, 2016). is associated with a very poor prognosis (5-year mor- In addition to the described clinical studies, we tality rate is 42%), frequent hospitalization and high also lead the research program of basic sciences ap- medical costs (Hobbs et al, 2007). plying the experimental methods which involve mice. Early diagnosis of heart failure is crucial because This program allows us to define the molecular and it allows the implementation of a therapy which re- cellular mechanisms responsible for a reduction in duces mortality and morbidity, while improving the physiological function due to the ageing process, us- quality of life and functional capacity in patients ing the heart muscle tissue (myocardium) itself, large (Ponikowski et al, 2016). However, the diagnosis is arteries, the central nervous system, skeletal muscles, complicated and imprecise, especially in the early and other organs, thus enabling the identification of stages of the disease. Even though the patients seek new goals for the development of pharmacological medical help due to the symptoms they have, many and physiological therapeutic strategies. We are espe- of these symptoms and signs need not be associat- cially focused on better understanding of the changes ed only with the reduced cardiac function, but also in and the role of mitochondria, as unique but very with age, obesity or respiratory problems (Mant et al, complex organelles responsible for a whole range of 2009). General practitioners play a key role in the ear- energy processes occuring at the cellular level as well ly detection of heart failure (Hobbs et al, 2010). How- as for the proper functioning of cells, organs and or- ever, medical research has shown that heart failure is ganisms themselves. difficult to identify in primary care, thus patients are In order to unify and synchronize scientific re- not referred to specialists when this is optimal, but search in the field of clinical and basic sciences re- very often in later stages of the disease (Hobbs et al, garding the study of the ageing process and the im- 2010; Roberts et al, 2015). The main reason for such pact of physiological and pharmacological effects situation is that heart failure is recognized as a com- plex disease presented with cardiac dysfunction, and on it, in 2015 we created a project, applied for and general practitioners do not have access to the simple, received the funding from the UK Medical Research relatively inexpensive methods which they can apply Council in the amount of £ 5.5 million for a period of in their practice to evaluate cardiac function which 5 years (2016-2021), which enables the research and will help them diagnose and monitor heart failure functioning of the Center for the Study of the Aging (Fonseca 2006; Fuat, Hunigain, Murphy, 2003). Process within which the author of this article leads In addition to evaluating symptoms and signs, the field of cardiovascular research. general practitioners currently have access to (use) an

77 Jakovljević Đ., Personal and system requirements..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 75-85 electrocardiogram and analyze biomarkers, such as and Primary Care Research at the Universities of B-type natriuretic peptide. However, the diagnostic Oxford and Cambridge, the applications for the UK precision of both methods has been reduced (Roberts National Institute of Health Research (NIHR) worth et al, 2015; Khunti et al, 2004). The reduced precision £2.3 million are being prepared for a five-year re- of these tests also affects late diagnosis as well as in- search multi-center program aiming to confirm the accurate referrals from primary to secondary care diagnostic precision of the CORS test on a large sam- which are very expensive for the health care system ple size, its economic evaluation as well as the imple- (42 million pounds per year) and worrying for the mentation of the CORS test and the clinical practice patients. of primary care. Heart ultrasound (echocardiography), performed in secondary care, and specialist examination is a The role of physical activity in heart failure reference method applied to diagnose heart failure Clinical guidelines suggest physical activity to be (Ponikowski et al, 2016). However, waiting times integrated into rehabilitation program as one of the for echocardiographic examination may be up to 12 main components of heart failure management (Pon- weeks (Commission, 2007), which results in late diag- ikowski et al, 2016). Meta-analyses have shown that nosis. On the other hand, 2/3 of the patients referred regular physical activity improves functional capac- from primary to secondary care on the basis of the ity and quality of life, at the same time affecting the biomarker results, symptoms and signs do not have reduction of symptoms and hospitalization in heart a confirmed diagnosis of heart failure after the echo- failure patients (Davies et al, 2010; Piepoli et al, 2011; cardiography and specialist examination performed. Lewinter et al, 2015). Also, physical activity may, to Therefore it may be observed that there is a strong some extent, affect the improvement of cardiac func- need to identify new modern diagnostic methods tion itself when heart failure has been already diag- which will lead to the improvement of clinical prac- nosed (Haykowsky et al, 2007; Mezzani, Corra & Gi- tice in primary care and the good patient outcomes annuzzi, 2008). in regard to the early detection (diagnosis) of heart Although the benefits of physical activity in heart failure. failure have been clearly defined, it is known from Bearing in mind the aforementioned facts, we clinical practice that most patients show a reduced have developed a simple, non-invasive test which im- level of regular physical activity (which is directly as- plies the continuous measurement of cardiac function sociated with morbidity and mortality rate) (Walsh et (cardiac output) at rest and during a cardiac stress test al, 1997; Sato et al, 2012; Jehn et al, 2009). Despite (CORS, cardiac output response to stress test) using a clear recommendations, very few patients with heart method for estimating cardiac function based on elec- failure (<10%) participate in the rehabilitation pro- tric signal processing (bioreactance). In our previous grams organized by the health care system due to a research we previously confirmed validity and relia- lack of resources and the direct exclusion of heart bility of bioreactance method for monitoring cardiac failure rehabilitation programs from commissioning function at rest and during stress exercise (Jakovljevic agreements (Dalal et al, 2012). Furthermore, patients et al, 2012; Jakovljevic, Trenell & MacGowan, 2014; do not participate in the physical activity programs Okwose et al, 2017; Perkins et al, 2016; Jones et al, that are implemented in health care institutions due 2015). The CORS test has been developed for the pur- to transport difficulties, home and work obligations, poses of primary care and with the aim to enhance and, in some cases, due to their reluctance to attend early diagnosis and improve the accuracy of referrals group exercise programs (Beswiski et al, 2004; Dalal from primary to secondary care. The researchers en- et al, 2010). For these reasons, the adapted physical gaged in the ongoing program focus on the diagnos- activity programs that can be performed by a patient tic precision (sensitivity and specificity) of the CORS in the home environment have been designed, and test, its acceptability by patients, general practitioners they are as safe and efficient as the institutionalized and medical technicians. The initial phase of this re- programs, as demonstrated in patients with coronary search program has been funded by the UK Medical artery diseases (Dalal et al, 2010; Taylor et al, 2010; Research Council (MRC) in the amount of £ 220,000 Dalal et al, 2007). for the period 06/2016 - 03/2018. In cooperation with On the other hand, there are no appropriate re- the Directors of the Departments of Public Health cords regarding the efficiency and characteristics of

78 Jakovljević Đ., Personal and system requirements..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 75-85 the physical activity programs performed in the home Mechanic circulatory support in heart failure environment in patients with heart failure (Dalal et al, – Bridge-to-Recovery? 2012). Also, there is a lack of research in regard to the Left Ventricular Assist Device (LVAD) is applied optimal dosage and type of physical activity which very successfully in clinical practice for the treatment will correspond to the aspects of safety and efficacy of of advanced heart failure. Initially, LVAD was de- such program performed in the home environment. signed to be used to preserve the life of a patient un- In 2010, we published the study aiming to define til a donor’s heart becomes available for heart trans- the effect of aerobic training compared to strength plantation to be performed (“bridge-to-transplanta- training in the patients with chronic heart failure tion”). However, in the past several years, LVAD has (Jakovljevic et al, 2010). The results have shown that been approved by the FDA to be used as a destina- both interventions were safe and there were no nega- tion therapy (‘bridge-to-destination’), which implies the fact that a patient with the implanted LVAD may tive consequences for patients. Nevertheless, the aer- be removed from a transplantation list since LVAD obic exercise program proved to be more efficient in enables the patient to improve the quality of life and regard to the improvement of functional capacity and functional capacity (MacGowan et al, 2015; Lanne- cardiac function. man & Birks, 2014 In some cases, LVAD can lead to The previous studies evaluating the effects of partial or complete cardiac recovery (‘bridge-tо-re- physical activity have shown that the physical activity covery’) (Lanneman & Birk, 2014). The LVAD im- programs which are more frequent (≥5 times a week) plantation is associated with a whole range of histo- and of longer duration (≥30 min per day) are more logical, biochemical, anatomical, physiological, and effective in regard to improving the quality of life and haemodynamic changes observed in patients during function in patients (Ress et al Taylor et al, 2014). a prolonged chronic left ventricular support using Walking programs performed in the home environ- LVAD (Hall et al, 2011; Birks, 2013). In addition, a ment and using pedometers to monitor a number of great number of clinical studies have confirmed that steps are effective ways to increase physical activity the LVAD implantation reduces mortality while im- (Harris et al, 2017). Regarding the volume of physi- proving the quality of life and functional capacity in cal activity, a large population study published in the patients (Laphor et al, 2010; Pagani et al, 2009). We Lancet journal confirmed that an increase in physical have also shown that the use of LVAD can improve activity by 2000 steps per day in relation to the base- cardiac function (Jakovljevic et al, 2010a; Jakovljevic line (pre-intervention) level is related to a 10% reduc- et al, 2010b). The cardiac function improvement can tion in the risk of cardiovascular diseases (Yates et al, be achieved to the extent that it is possible to remove 2014). Based on these facts, we developed a home- LVAD and avoid heart transplantation with a very based physical activity intervention for patients with good long-term outcome (Birks, 2010; Frazier et al, chronic heart failure (ACTIVE-at-HOME-HF) and 2015). The recovery rate sufficient to remove LVAD have recently confirmed its feasibility and acceprabil- has been observed in only 5-24% of patients (Birks, 2010). However, a special strategy including a com- ity. The major findings of the study were presented bination of LVAD and medication using β2-receptor at the European Heart Failure Association Congress agonists can stimulate the myocardium recovery and in Paris in 2017 (Okwose et al, 2017). The study has allow the LVAD explantation (removal) in a larger shown that such an intervention is possible, safe and number of respondents than previously shown (Birks acceptable to patients, and it can lead to the improve- et al, 2006). ment of quality of life and functional capacity. This Since 2006, the multidisciplinary team to which single-center feasibility study was funded by the UK the author of this paper belongs has aimed to im- Health Ministry, the National Institute of Health Re- prove clinical practice, patient outcomes and enhance search (NIHR), in the amount of £ 108,450. A mul- scientific knowledge in the field of heart failure, the ti-center project aimed at defining the clinical- and application of LVAD and, most importantly, to iden- cost-effectiveness of ACTIVE-AT-HOME-HF inter- tify the most effective strategy which will lead to the vention in patients with chronic heart failure is under myocardium recovery. In previous studies, we have preparation. The estimated value of the project will shown that a unique measure of the overall cardiac amount to 680,000 pounds. function, the so-called cardiac power output (CPO)

79 Jakovljević Đ., Personal and system requirements..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 75-85 is the best indicator of heart failure severity and it is supported by the British Heart Foundation (BHF) greatly differentiated between patient groups, such and the European Research Council (ERC), we are as advanced heart failure, LVAD patients, and those preparing two research grant applications for a 5-year with the LVAD removed due to the recovery resulted multidisciplinary research project in the total amount in response to the chronic use of LVAD and the use of £3.2 million in which the colleagues from , of β2-receptor agonists (Jakovljevic et al, 2010a). Fur- Spain and Serbia will also participate in addition to thermore, we have been dealing with the problem of those from the UK. The aim of this project is to devel- identifying the physiological variables which can be op a computer simulation model using clinical, mo- used as an indicator of cardiac function in patients lecular, histological, biochemical, physiological and with LVAD (Jakovljevic et al, 2011), as well as with the genetic characteristics which will precisely I) iden- problem of a haemodynamic response to the acute in- tify the patients whose hearts will respond to LVAD terruption of LVAD support in order to find an opti- implantation most adequately with the aim of com- mal strategy for cardiac function recovery evaluation plete recovery; II) define early recovery during LVAD in LVAD patients (Jakovljevic et al, 2010b). therapy and help in deciding on the optimum time Also, within our research program, we have made of LVAD explantation; and III) present a plan for op- a longitudinal comparison of the functional capacity timal pharmacological therapy prior to, during and recovery, quality of life and physical activity between following LVAD therapy. the patients who underwent cardiac transplantation and those who underwent LVAD implantation (Jak- ovljevic et al, 2014). The results of this study con- CONCLUSION firmed the effectiveness of LVAD therapy, but we also presented a new finding indicating that 6 months fol- A multidisciplinary approach to scientific re- lowing LVAD implantation, functional capacity im- search is necessary in order to address the complex provement compared to the patients who underwent issues of today, including significant changes in the heart transplantation. population demographic structure which repre- Recently (in April 2017) we published the paper sent one of the biggest challenges in the fields of the on the topic of ‘LVAD - bridge to recovery’ where we population’s health, health care systems, economic have shown for the first time that 40% of the patients and social achievements. In this paper, the findings with previously implanted LVAD can fully recover of the research conducted by the multidisciplinary after LVAD explantation, thus demonstrating cardi- team have been presented with an emphasis on un- ac function which is equivalent to the cardiac func- derstanding structural and functional changes in tion of a healthy person of the same age, who nev- cardiovascular system and the role of physical activ- er had a heart disease (Jakovljevic et al, 2017). The ity in preserving function and mortality prevention. paper was published in the best scientific journal of Additionally, a research program in the field of heart cardiology (Journal of the American College of Car- failure has been described, from the improvement of diology), which is the top-rated among 137 world heart failure diagnosis, the role of physical activity in journals available in this field with its impact factor improving the function and quality of life in patients, of 19.9. The results of this study made a ‘breaktrough’ to the effects of left ventricular assist devices on re- and were referred to in the news both in the UK and covery in advanced heart failure. Among others, our around the world. The scientific paper itself has been most recent and most important studyfindings have classified into a category including 5% of the papers been presented, which has indicated that a significant that have attracted the greatest attention of the read- number of patients with progressive heart failure can ers worldwide. Several British media interviews, in- be completely recovered by applying a combination cluding the BBC, have been realized. of mechanical circulatory support and adequate me- In order to pursue our research program in the dicament therapy. field of mechancical circulatory support using LVAD,

80 Jakovljević Đ., Personal and system requirements..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 75-85

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PERSONAL- UND SYSTEMNOTWENDIGKEITEN EINER ERFOLGREICHEN FORSCHUNGSKARRIERE IM BEREICH DER MULTIDISZIPLINÄREN WISSENSCHAFTEN – PERSÖNLICHER ÜBERBLICK / RÜCKBLICK

Zusammenfassung Ein multidisziplinärer Zugang zu wissenschaftlicher Forschungsarbeit ist notwendig, um die Antwort auf komplexe Fragen im Bereich medizinischer und biomedizinischer Wissenschaften zu finden. Der Verfasser dieser Arbeit ist Mitglied und Koordinator eines multidis- ziplinären Teams, das aus Fachärzten, Allgemeinärzten, Molekularbiologen, Biochemikern, Physiologen, Psychologen, Physiotherapeuten, Bioinfomatikern, Physikern, Statistikern und Ingenieuren zusammengestellt ist. Dieses Team realisiert ein mehrjähriges Programm in Be- reichen der Erforschung von kardiovaskulären Alterungsprozessen, Herzinsuffizienz und körperlicher Aktivität. Ziel dieses Überblicksar- tikels ist es, die Ergebnisse einiger wissenschaftlicher Forschungsprojekte und Arbeiten des beschriebenen multidisziplinären Teams vor- zustellen, die in angesehenen internationalen Zeitschriften in Bereichen: 1) der Erforschung von Alterungsprozessen von kardiovaskulären Systemen und des Einflusses von physiologischen Prozessen auf diese Systeme und II) der Verbesserung der Diagnose und Behandlung von Herzinsuffizienz in primärem und sekundärem Gesundheitsschutz veröffentlicht wurden. Die vorgestellten Untersuchungen und ihre Ergebnisse sind auf die Verbesserung der allgemeinen Gesundheit und der funktionalen Kapazität der Patienten einerseits, und auf die Verbesserung des Gesunheitsschutzsystems und der klinischen Praxis andererseits orientiert. Außer einer kurzen Vorstellung der wis- senschaflichen Arbeiten und ihrer Ergebnisse, beschreibt dieser Überblicksartikel auch den Applizierungsprozess, die Planung und die Sicherstellung von finanziellen Mitteln für die wissenschaftliche Forschungsarbeit im Hochschulsystem des Vereinigten Königreichs von Großbrittanien.

Schlüsselwärter: MULTIDISZIPLINÄRER ZUGANG / BIOMEDIZINISCHE WISSENSCHAFTEN / KARDIOVASKULÄRE KRANK- HEITEN / HERZINSUFFIZIENZ / KÖRPERLICHE ÜBUNGEN / FORSCHUNG / GROßBRITTANIEN

Received: 01.11.2017 Accepted: 05.12.2017

85 Phys. Cult. (Belgr.) 2017; 71 (2): 86-98 PHYSICAL CULTURE

ORIGINAL SCIENTIFIC PAPER UDC:796:005 doi:10.5937/fizkul1702086K

TOP-DOWN OR SHARED LEADERSHIP? EXAMINING DIFFERENCES IN ATHLETE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS BASED ON LEADERSHIP STATUS IN SPORT

Alyson J Crozier¹, Todd M Loughead², Krista J Munroe-Chandler²

¹University of South Australia, School of Health Science, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia ² University of Windsor, Department of Human Kinetics, Windsor, Ontario, Canada

Abstract The purpose of this study was to examine differences in athlete leadership behaviours based on one’s athlete leader status. Intercollegiate athletes (N = 299) self-identified their leadership status (i.e., formal leader, informal leader, fol- lower) and rated the frequency of their own leadership behaviours. Results revealed that formal athlete leaders engaged in Training and Instruction more often than informal athlete leaders; with informal athlete leaders reporting higher frequencies than followers. Further, formal and informal athlete leaders reported engaging in Social Support more of- ten than followers. These findings provide preliminary evidence of a top-down approach to leadership among athletes. No differences were found for Democratic Behaviour and Positive Feedback, suggesting that athlete leadership also is distributed among teammates. Results highlight important practical implications for sport practitioners in regard to athlete leader development.

Keywords: SHARED LEADERSHIP /GROUP DYNAMICS/SPORTS TEAMS/STATUS/ ATHLETE LEADER

INTRODUCE zier, Loughead, & Munroe-Chandler, 2013; Fransen, Coffee, et al., 2014; Loughead, Hardy, & Eys, 2006). There is an emerging consensus in the sport liter- In particular, status reflects the amount of im- ature that athlete leadership is important for both in- portance or prestige an individual possesses or is dividual and team outcomes. Specifically, the behav- accorded by virtue of their position in relation to iour of athlete leaders positively contribute to player others (Jacob & Carron, 1998). As such, individ- satisfaction/enjoyment (Eys, Loughead, & Hardy, uals within a group setting can be categorized hi- 2007; Price & Weiss, 2013), confidence (Fransen, erarchically according to their perceived status in Coffee, et al., 2014; Price & Weiss, 2013), team co- comparison to others. In other words, those who hesion (Callow, Smith, Hardy, Arthur, & Hardy, have greater status would be positioned higher on 2009; Vincer & Loughead, 2010), and performance the status hierarchy than someone with lower status. (Callow et al., 2009). Given these positive benefits, it In sport, four major sources of status (Jacob John- would appear worthwhile to examine factors which son, 2004) have been identified, which include an may impact the behaviour athlete leaders display. individual’s physical attributes (e.g., performance, One such factor may be an athlete’s leadership status experience, role as leader, playing position), psycho- on the team, as researchers have identified multiple logical attributes (e.g., positive attitude, fostering athlete leadership roles which exist in sport (Cro- team spirit), demographic attributes (e.g., age, in-

86 Correspondence to: Alyson J Crozier, [email protected]; Todd M Loughead, [email protected]; Krista J Munroe-Chandler, [email protected] Crozier A. J., et al., Top-down or shared leadership? ..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 86-98 come), and relationships with external others (e.g., of athlete leader was proposed, a third role which parental support). Although it can be argued that all has been acknowledged by researchers is the role of four sources of status are important for sport teams, the athlete non-leader (i.e., the follower) (Crozier et the present study focused on the physical attribute al., 2013). of an athlete’s role on the team, and in particular the The present study was guided by Locke’s (2003) role of being an athlete leader. In fact, the role as integrated model of leadership developed in organ- leader is one of the most important sources of status izational psychology, which proposes that shared endorsed by team sport athletes (Jacob & Carron, leadership involves both upward or downward hi- 1998). erarchical influence and lateral influence. When ap- In their study, Jacob and Carron (1998) used plied to athlete leadership, the hierarchical influence captains or co-captains to define the role as lead- would indicate that captains and assistant captains er. This frame of reference is of particular interest (formal types of leaders) are recognized as the high- given that being an athlete leader can be more than est source of athlete leadership status, followed by simply being prescribed a leadership role such as informal athlete leaders, and then by followers (i.e., being named as team captain. Rather, athlete lead- hierarchical influence). As for the lateral influence of ership is a complex, dynamic process in which the the model, team members are viewed as being equal leadership roles within teams is assumed by mul- and interdependent with each other (regardless of tiple athletes (Bucci, Bloom, Loughead, & Caron, status). Several assumptions are associated with 2012; Crozier et al., 2013; Fransen, Vanbeselaere, Locke’s model. The first is that all team members De Cuyper, Vande Broek, & Boen, 2014). The notion are not created equally based on their status – for- that leadership roles can be occupied by numerous mal leaders have greater status than informal lead- individuals is rooted within the approach of leader- ers, and both types of athlete leaders having greater ship being shared or distributed (Pearce & Conger, status than followers. The second assumption is that 2003). The concept of shared leadership is in con- both lateral and hierarchical influence contributes trast to the traditional approach where one person to team effectiveness and should not be considered is in charge with others following. This traditional mutually exclusive (Pearce & Sims, 2002). top-down approach has dominated the research of While Locke’s (2003) integrated model of lead- leadership within sport which has examined the role ership has not been examined, to our knowledge, of the coach as leader. Only in the past decade has in relation to athlete leadership, research has indi- research been paid to understanding shared leader- cated that a formal hierarchy does exist in sport, ship in sport, such that both coaches and athletes which provides structure regarding how individu- can provide leadership within the team (Loughead als should enact their roles (Benson, Hardy, & Eys, & Hardy, 2005). 2016). Further, there is some evidence highlighting In regard to athlete leadership specifically, the the models applicability, in that certain athlete lead- role of athlete leader is defined as an athlete occu- ership roles (i.e., formal and informal) may provide pying a formal or informal role within a team who differing and/or similar types of leadership behav- influences other team members toward achieving a iours to their team. In a qualitative examination of common goal (Loughead et al., 2006). This defini- the benefits associated with the presence of formal tion highlights that leadership roles can be shared and informal athlete leaders, Crozier et al. (2013) or broadly distributed among members of the team, reported that task leadership behaviours were cit- and that two types of athlete leader roles exist. For- ed as a benefit associated with formal leaders (e.g., mal leaders are those individuals designated as captains) but not for informal leaders. In contrast, leaders by the organization or team (e.g., captains), the results further identified the leadership behav- whereas informal leaders are those individuals who iours of encouraging teammates and seeking input emerge as leaders through experience and interac- from teammates as important behaviours of both tions with other team members. Since this definition formal and informal leaders. While these findings

87 Crozier A. J., et al., Top-down or shared leadership? ..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 86-98 suggest that formal and informal leaders are bene- Behaviour (make decisions independently of team ficial in that they provide different but also similar members). leadership behaviours to their team, it was not able Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to assess the relative frequency of behaviour that the to examine whether there are differences between different leadership roles exhibit. an individual’s leadership behaviours within team Further, with some exceptions (e.g., Benson, sports depending on one’s self-rated athlete leader- Hardy, & Eys, 2016) there has been little research to ship status. On the one hand, Locke’s (2003) inte- date examining the role of followers in sport. From grated model of leadership would suggest differenc- organizational psychology we know that followers es in leadership behaviours based on an individual’s are associated with having less responsibilities than status (i.e., top-down approach). As research has in- leaders (Vanderslice, 1988) and that they are viewed dicated that formal leaders are cited more frequently and feel less important than those who occupy lead- than informal leaders as performing task-oriented ership roles (Hoption, Christie, & Barling, 2012). functions (Fransen, Vanbeselaere, et al., 2014; Loug- However, what the above results fail to indicate is head et al., 2006), it was hypothesized that athlete whether athletes (leaders and followers) engage in similar or different amounts of leadership behav- leaders would differ in the frequency in which they iours contingent on their leadership role (status). reported engaging in Training and Instruction be- Determining which behaviours athletes in differ- haviours. Further, as captains have indicated they ent leadership roles perceive themselves to display use autocratic techniques (as part of their role, see would provide practical knowledge for professionals Dupuis, Bloom, & Loughead, 2006), it was hypoth- working with athletes (i.e., coaches, sport psycholo- esized that formal athlete leaders would engage in gists). In particular, knowing which athletes (i.e., more Autocratic Behaviour compared to informal roles) are displaying specific leadership behaviours leaders. On the other hand, the model also suggests would allow practitioners to develop leadership there is the possibility that leadership is shared and training programs tailored specifically for an en- there would be no differences based on status (i.e., tire sport team. Currently, much of the leadership shared approach). Given that research has reported training athletes receive is catered toward the formal athlete leaders, regardless of formal/informal status, leader (Gould & Voelker, 2010). However, informal are beneficial as they provide support to teammates leaders also act as a primary source of leadership to as well as seek input from teammates (Crozier et al., many athletes (Fransen, Vanbeselaere, et al., 2014), 2013), it was hypothesized that frequency of Social and thus should be provided opportunities to en- Support, Positive Feedback, and Democratic Behav- hance their leadership skills. iour would not differ based on athlete leader sta- In terms of the leadership behaviours of interest tus, such that these behaviours are shared similarly to the current study, although a variety of meas- among athlete leaders. Last, as there is evidence in ures have been used to assess athlete leadership, organizational literature that followers view them- the Leadership Scale for Sports (LSS; Chelladurai & selves as having less responsibilities (Vanderslice, Saleh, 1980) has shown strong psychometric prop- erties compared to other measures modified to as- 1988) and are less important than leaders (Hoption sess athlete leader behaviours (Loughead, 2017). et al., 2012) it was predicted that followers may en- In particular, the LSS measures five dimensions of gage in leadership behaviours to a lesser extent than leadership behaviour: Training and Instruction (im- athlete leaders. However, as there is a paucity of prove athletic performance); Positive Feedback (rec- research in sport examining followers, no a priori ognize and reward good performance); Social Sup- hypotheses were advanced for which specific leader- port (show a concern for the welfare of team mem- ship behaviours would differ from those of the ath- bers); Democratic Behaviour (allow team members lete leaders. to participate in decision-making); and Autocratic

88 Crozier A. J., et al., Top-down or shared leadership? ..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 86-98

METHODS participants identified themselves as a formal athlete leader, 135 (45.1%) as an informal athlete leader, and Participants 98 (32.5%) were classified as an athlete non-leader. A total of 299 intercollegiate athletes (90 male, The leadership dispersion found in the current study 209 female) from both college and university inter- using a self-selection method of leadership is simi- collegiate teams participated in the study. All par- lar to what research has found in previous studies ticipants competed in either the Ontario University (Crozier et al., 2013; Fransen, Coffee, et al., 2014; Athletics (OUA) Association or the Ontario Colleg- Fransen, Vanbeselaere, et al., 2014). es Athletic Association (OCAA) and were members Athlete leader behaviours. The participants of interdependent sports teams that included bas- self-rated their own leadership behaviours using ketball (n = 43), ice hockey (n = 122), and volley- the Leadership Scale for Sports (LSS; Chelladurai ball (n = 134). The mean age of the participants was & Saleh, 1980). The LSS has typically been used to 20.71 years (SD = 2.07). The participants had been measure transactional coaching behaviours but has involved with their current team for an average of been used effectively to assess athlete leadership be- 2.17 years (SD = 1.19). haviours (Loughead & Hardy, 2005; Vincer & Loug- head, 2010). In addition, the LSS has shown strong Measures psychometric properties compared to other meas- Athlete leader status. Athlete leader status was ures that have been modified when assessing athlete determined by the participant self-identifying the leader behaviours (Loughead, 2017). The LSS is a leadership role they occupied on their current team. 40-item inventory that measures five types of lead- Participants were presented with a description of a ership behaviours. The Training and Instruction di- formal athlete leader (i.e., an athlete that is selected mension consists of 13 items and assesses leadership by the team or coach to be in a leadership position, behaviour aimed at improving athletic performance such as captain, co-captain or assistant captain) and (e.g., “I explain to team members the techniques an informal athlete leader (i.e., established through and tactics of the sport”). Positive Feedback con- interactions with team members, not formally ap- tains five items and reflects the tendency to rein- pointed by coach or team). The participants were force behaviour by recognizing and rewarding good asked to select one of these two athlete leadership performances (e.g., “I express appreciation when a roles as it applied to them. If a participant did not se- team member performs well”). The dimension of lect either of these two options, they were classified Social Support consists of eight items and reflects as a follower. This method has been used in previous the degree to which an individual shows concern for research in order to categorize athletes into the lead- the welfare of his/her teammates (e.g., “I help team ership role they perceived themselves as occupying members with their personal problems”). The Dem- (Crozier et al., 2013; Martin, Balderson, Hawkins, ocratic Behaviour dimension consists of nine items Wilson, & Bruner, 2016). Although we acknowledge and reflects the extent an individual allows partici- the discrete nature of this categorization, this meth- pation from teammates in decision-making (e.g., “I od was deemed appropriate for classifying athletes let fellow team members share in decision making”). into their self-rated leadership status for this study. Autocratic Behaviour includes five items and repre- Similar categorization methods have been used in sents the tendency to make decisions independently research examining starting status (i.e., whether from the team (e.g., “I work relatively independent they are a player who begins the competition on the of other team members”). All items were scored on playing surface and typically receives regular play- a 5-point Likert type scale anchored by 1 (never) ing time; Eys, Carron, Bray, & Beauchamp, 2003) and 5 (always). The LSS has demonstrated conver- whereby self-rated starting status was a variable gent (Paradis & Loughead, 2012) and discriminant of interest (Jeffery-Tosoni, Eys, Schinke, & Lewko, (Vincer & Loughead, 2010) validity, as well as ac- 2011). In this study, results indicated that 67 (22.4%) ceptable internal reliability values when assessing

89 Crozier A. J., et al., Top-down or shared leadership? ..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 86-98 athlete leadership behaviours in athletes (Loughead If significant, to determine which specific athlete & Hardy, 2005; Vincer & Loughead, 2010). Thus, leadership behaviours differed in relation to athlete this inventory is measuring its targeted constructs leader status, post-hoc analyses were conducted. making it a viable tool for measuring leadership be- Post-hoc univariate ANOVAs have typically been haviours in athletes. For the current study, it should used to determine where the differences are found also be noted that the athlete leadership dimension in a MANOVA (Huberty & Morris, 1989; Tonidan- of Autocratic Behaviour had an alpha coefficient of del & LeBreton, 2013), and are the dominant fol- .61 and was removed from further analyses. low-up procedure in sport and exercise psychology research (e.g., Greenlees, Webb, Hall, & Manley, 2007; Landers, Arent, & Lutz, 2001; Loughead & Procedure Hardy, 2005; Weiss & Smith, 2002). However, there Following university ethical approval, coaches is one major shortcoming to using successive uni- were contacted via e-mail seeking permission to sur- variate ANOVAs to follow-up a significant MANO- vey their athletes. After each coach had given per- VA. By utilizing multiple ANOVAs, researchers are mission, a convenient time was set to meet with the ignoring the correlations found between dependent athletes prior to or after a practice session. At this variables (Bray & Maxwell, 1982; Dillon & Gold- meeting, the purpose of the study was explained to stein, 1984; Huberty & Morris, 1989). In order to the athletes. Confidentiality of individual responses account for correlated dependent variables in a was assured with the primary researcher adminis- MANOVA design, Tonidandel and LeBreton (2013) tering the questionnaires (i.e., demographic details, have applied the technique of relative weight analysis athlete leader status, and LSS) in separate unmarked (Johnson, 2000) to the post-hoc assessment of sig- envelopes. Completed questionnaires were placed nificant MANOVAs. Relative weight analysis uses a back into the envelope to further ensure confidenti- variable transformation approach that creates a set ality. The return of the questionnaires signified con- of new variables that is maximally related to the sent to participate in the study and completion of original variables but are orthogonal (uncorrelated) the questionnaires took approximately 15 minutes. to one another. Thus, relative weight analysis allows In addition, all participants were given the opportu- researchers to evaluate the relationship between the nity to fill out a ballot for a chance to win a $50 gift independent variable (i.e., athlete leader status) and certificate to a sporting goods store as an incentive the dependent variables (i.e., athlete leadership be- to participate in the study. haviours) while taking into account the intercorrela- tions among the dependent variables. Thus, relative Data Analysis weight analysis (Tonidandel & LeBreton, 2011) was conducted using the R statistical package (R Core In order to address the study’s purpose, a Team, 2013) to control for potential intercorrela- MANOVA was conducted to examine if formal ath- tions between the four athlete leadership behaviours. lete leaders, informal athlete leaders, and athlete fol- The relative weights associated with each dependent lowers would differ in the frequency in which they variable (i.e., athlete leadership behaviours) repre- displayed certain leadership behaviours. An athlete’s sented a measure of relative effect size (i.e., the per- self-rated leadership status served as the independ- centage of variance accounted for in each dependent ent variable, with the four remaining dimensions of variable by the independent variable; Tonidandel & the LSS serving as dependent variables. As the dis- LeBreton, 2013). Further, in order to account for tribution among leadership statuses were unequal, family-wise error with four dependent variables, the Pillai’s trace statistic was examined as it is con- a Bonferroni adjustment was applied (p = .05/4 < sidered the most robust statistic when data violates .0125) to a Tukey post-hoc comparison with strict MANOVA assumptions (i.e., equal cell sizes; Olson, confidence intervals (99% confidence interval [CI]). 1974).

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RESULTS these athletes perceived themselves as providing me- dium to high frequencies of leadership behaviours Descriptive Statistics (means ranged from 3.00 to 4.29, a 5-point scale). Ta- Table 1 contains the means, standard deviations, ble 2 contains the correlation coefficients between the and alpha coefficients of the variables examined in four athlete leadership behaviours. the present study. In general, the means suggest that

Table 1. Means and standard deviations for the leader behaviour dimensions distinguished by leadership status Variable Formal Informal Non-Leader α

3.61 3.28 3.00 Training and Instructiona .90 (.65) (.63) (.67)

3.76 3.59 3.53 Democratic Behavioura .70 (.53) (.57) (.54)

4.13 3.97 3.72 Social Supporta .79 (.51) (.59) (.59)

4.27 4.29 4.16 Positive Feedbacka .76 (.57) (.49) (.53)

2.62 2.62 2.55 Autocratic Behavioura .61* (.67) (.67) (.66)

Note. aScores for the athlete leadership behaviours range from 1-5, with higher numbers representing a greater frequency *Dimension was deleted from further analyses due to low alpha value; Standard deviations are contained within the parentheses underneath their respective means.

Table 2. Bivariate correlations between athlete leadership behaviour dimensions Variable 2. 3. 4. 1. Training and Instruction .496** .452** .314**

2. Democratic Behaviour - .423** .406**

3. Social Support - .406**

4. Positive Feedback - Note. ** p< .01

Main Findings weight analysis are presented in Table 3, and show The overall MANOVA revealed a significant that the independent variable of athlete leader status multivariate effect for leadership status, Pillai’s trace was significantly different for the athlete leadership = .138, F(8, 588) = 5.447, p < .001, η2 = .069, indi- behaviours of Training and Instruction (e.g., provid- cating that an athlete’s self-rated leadership status ing instruction to teammates to help increase perfor- significantly differentiated the self-rated frequency mance), and Social Support (e.g., helping a teammate of leadership behaviours. The results of the relative through a difficult time).

91 Crozier A. J., et al., Top-down or shared leadership? ..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 86-98

Table 3. Relative weights and confidence intervals for each dependent variable

95% Confidence Intervala Dependent Variable Relative Weight Lower Bound Upper Bound Training and Instruction .076* .028 .137 Democratic Behaviour .007 -.016 .021 Social Support .030* .003 .068 Positive Feedback .002 -.029 .009 Note. * indicates the relative weight significantly different from zero at p < .05; aIf zero is not included, relative weight is significant

Using the Tukey procedure for planned compar- tion than followers (p < .01, CI = .02, .52). As for the ison post-hoc analysis, we found that athlete leaders athlete leadership behaviour of Social Support, it was who self-rated themselves as being a formal leader found that self-rated formal athlete leaders (p < .001, also perceived themselves as engaging in significantly CI = .14, .67) and informal athlete leaders (p < .01, CI more Training and Instruction than informal athlete = .03, .47) perceived themselves displaying this lead- leaders (p < .01; CI = .04, .61) and followers (p < .001, ership behaviour to a greater extent than followers. CI = .29, .90). Similarly, informal athlete leaders per- No other differences were found (see Figure 1). ceived themselves to use more Training and Instruc-

Figure 1. Frequency of self-rated leadership behaviours by athlete leader status Note. * p < .01

92 Crozier A. J., et al., Top-down or shared leadership? ..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 86-98

DISCUSSION sults of the current study add to the extant literature by highlighting that formal and informal leaders re- In this research study, we examined whether an ported using social support behaviours to a similar athlete’s leadership status differentiated an individu- degree, yet to a greater degree than the athletes con- al’s self-rated leadership behaviours in sport teams. A sidered followers. This finding is novel when looking MANOVA, with relative weight analysis (Tonidandel at the frequency of athlete leader behaviours. & LeBreton, 2013) and planned comparison post-hoc While providing some evidence that leadership tests were conducted to examine differences in be- status can differentiate the behaviours of athlete lead- haviour based on athlete self-rated leadership status ers, the results also indicated that two of the athlete (i.e., formal, informal, and non-leader). Results will leader behaviours did not differ between statuses. be discussed in relation to Locke’s (2003) integrated As such, results also provide support for the shared model of leadership. leadership approach within Locke’s (2003) model. First, results lend support to the top-down ap- Specifically, results indicated that both Democrat- proach of leadership in Locke’s (2003) model, as ic Behaviour and Positive Feedback were displayed athlete leadership status differentiated two dimen- equally among athletes. In essence, all athletes report- sions of athlete leader behaviours. In support of our ed consulting with their teammates before making a hypotheses, it was found that formal athlete leaders decision that affected the group, while also reward- reported using Training and Instruction leadership ing teammates for good performances. Although this behaviours more frequently than informal athlete finding may seem somewhat intuitive, as both dem- leaders and followers, with informal athlete leaders ocratic decision-making and positive feedback would displaying it more than athlete followers. In regard be desirable among athletes regardless of status, this to formal athlete leaders, this may not be surprising, was the first study to our knowledge to statistically as captains and assistant captains are often selected examine whether differences would emerge in lead- based upon their skill level or sport-specific expe- ership behaviours among athletes. As no differences rience (Loughead & Hardy, 2005; Moran & Weiss, emerged for these two behaviours, results provide ad- 2006; Price & Weiss, 2011), suggesting they would ditional insight into the shared nature of leadership have the knowledge to provide task instruction. Fur- in sport. ther, research has found that majority of athletes who Most intriguingly, an examination of the means perform task-oriented functions (e.g., provide tacti- indicated that regardless of whether the participants cal decision-making) occupy a formal leadership role self-identified as an athlete leader (formal/informal) (Loughead et al., 2006). In relation to informal athlete or athlete non-leader (follower), all three groups rat- leaders, results provide support for the task-oriented ed the frequency of their leadership behaviours rela- function in which emergent leaders may provide. tively high (i.e., above the mid-point on a five-point While supporting previous work indicating that both scale, see Table 1). Although we found significant formal and informal leaders provide task-oriented differences for two of the leadership behaviours, the functions within teams (Fransen, Vanbeselaere, et al., overall finding suggests that leadership is distributed 2014), the current study revealed that informal lead- among the team, such that all team members perceive ers do so to a lesser degree than formal leaders, but to themselves as engaging in leadership behaviours, re- a greater degree than followers. gardless of if they are a leader or follower. In addition Results also indicated that both formal and infor- to research that has suggested every team member at mal athlete leaders were found to provide more So- some point occupies a role of followership (Benson cial Support (i.e., concern for the welfare of others) et al., 2016), the current study adds to that knowl- compared to followers. While in contrast to our hy- edge by revealing that every team member, including potheses, results do align with previous work which followers, at some point perceives themselves as en- indicated that both designated leaders (i.e., formal) gaging in behaviours typically considered leadership and emergent leaders (i.e., informal) provide social behaviours. functions (e.g., promotes good relations among team Taken together, the results support Locke’s (2003) members, deals with conflicts between teammates, is integrated model of leadership when applied to ath- trusted by team members) within the team (Fransen, lete leadership in sport. Specifically, Locke’s model Vanbeselaere, et al., 2014; Loughead et al., 2006). Re- indicates a top-down approach, whereby individuals

93 Crozier A. J., et al., Top-down or shared leadership? ..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 86-98 who have greater status (e.g., CEO or team captain) results of this study further supports this idea by in- have the capacity to influence others who have low- dicating that followers also viewed themselves as dis- er status (e.g., employee or teammate). Further, the playing leadership behaviours to a similar degree as model also suggests that leadership can be distrib- their leader counterparts. In fact, recent research has uted among individuals. That is, leadership can be found that athletes, regardless of leadership status, “shared”, and is a dynamic mutual process involving who attended leadership workshops over the course the emergence of both formal and informal leaders of a season, engaged in leadership behaviours more (Pearce, Manz, & Sims, 2009). Within the framework frequently and had greater perceptions of task moti- of shared leadership, all team members have the po- vational climate and athlete satisfaction at the end of tential to be a leader contingent on the situation and the season (Duguay, Loughead, & Munroe-Chandler, the capacities of the individuals within that situation. 2016). Taken together, these findings suggest that Team members provide leadership when their back- followers may have the ability to influence the team ground and strengths are required and will relinquish environment, even if they do not regard themselves leadership to others when they are needed (Manz, as a leader. Pearce, Mott, Henson, & Sims, 2013). Top-down or While the results of this research contribute to hierarchical leadership is still present with some indi- the athlete leadership literature, it is not without viduals holding positions of responsibility (e.g., team its limitations. The use of self-report measures may captains) and making decisions when required, but have resulted in response bias in terms of social de- the leadership process is fluid and can shift to oth- sirability. In order to minimize this limitation, the er individuals (Locke, 2003; Manz et al., 2013). This questionnaires were distributed and returned to the aligns with research in organizational psychology, investigator in unmarked envelopes and were com- where group tasks were achieved through collective pleted independently by the athletes. Further, having leadership (where a number of individuals emerged self-rated measures for both predictor and criterion as leaders to guide a group through specific challeng- variables may have contributed to common method es; Friedrich et al., 2009). In sum, the findings from bias (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). the present study indicate that both approaches to While having coach- or peer-assessed leadership sta- leadership (i.e., top-down, shared) are present within tus/behaviours will avoid this issue in future work, re- athlete leadership. sults still provide an interesting insight into athletes’ Given that all athletes engaged in leadership be- self-perceptions concerning leadership behaviours. haviours regardless of leadership status, the findings Specifically, regardless of an individuals’ self-per- of this research have important implications for sport ceived leadership role (i.e., formal, informal, follow- practitioners and researchers. More specifically, as er), all athletes’ perceived themselves as displaying athlete leadership behaviours have been positively re- leadership behaviours. lated to perceptions of cohesion (Hardy, Eys, & Loug- Further, as it is obvious within a team who is a head, 2008; Price & Weiss, 2011, 2013; Vincer & Loug- formal leader (either they are a captain or they are head, 2010), satisfaction (Eys et al., 2007), enjoyment not), individuals may have self-rated as an informal (Price & Weiss, 2013), and collective efficacy (Price & leader, so as not to be viewed as a follower (which Weiss, 2013), it would follow that leadership behav- may be associated with negative connotations). In or- iours be fostered in all athletes in order to influence der to circumvent this bias, participants were asked individual and group outcomes. Therefore, coaches to read the definitions of the two leadership roles and and sport psychology consultants should be aware then instructed to indicate whether they perceived of how athletes’ behaviours can influence aspects of themselves as being either a formal or informal lead- the team environment and should provide opportu- er. Individuals were also instructed to continue to the nities for all athletes to develop their leadership abil- next section if they did not perceive themselves as oc- ities. For example, all athletes could be provided the cupying either of the leadership roles (i.e., leave the opportunity to attend leadership development work- leadership role section blank). In this sense, partici- shops to enhance their leadership skills. By allowing pants were unaware that they would be categorized as all athletes to develop leadership behaviours, athletes a “follower” in this study if they opted to not choose may begin to feel as though their leadership contribu- one of the two options, as the follower was not a tions to the team are benefiting the entire group. The choice presented to the participants. This choice was

94 Crozier A. J., et al., Top-down or shared leadership? ..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 86-98 excluded in order to reduce the chance that partici- most frequently by athletes based on their eligibility pants would rate themselves as an informal leader to at the intercollegiate level (1st year, 2nd year, 3rd year, avoid being characterized as a “follower.” and so on). This would help to determine which lead- Another limitation relates to the low internal con- ership behaviours should be targeted for intervention sistency value found for the athlete leadership behav- at different experience levels. iour of Autocratic Behaviour. Thus, we were unable Although the purpose of the current study was to to examine whether this leadership behaviour might determine whether differences in leadership behav- differ based on athlete leadership status. This low val- iour can be found based on leadership status, only ue has been reported in previous coaching leadership four possible leadership behaviours were examined. research (Murray, 2006; Westre & Weiss, 1991) and As this study provides initial evidence that leadership athlete leadership research (Paradis & Loughead, occurs in both a hierarchical and lateral direction, 2012). The low alpha value found may be the result future work may provide additional insight into this of utilizing an inventory (i.e., LSS) that was originally relationship by examining other athlete leader behav- designed to examine coaching leadership behaviours iours that have been identified (e.g., transformational (Chelladurai & Saleh, 1980). Although responses to leadership). the athlete leader version of the LSS have supported In summary, the results provided support for its validity and reliability (Vincer & Loughead, 2010), Locke’s (2003) integrated model of leadership as ap- previous studies examined athletes’ perceptions of plied to athlete leadership. In particular, athlete lead- their peers’ leader behaviours, whereas we measured ership occurs in the traditional top-down approach, athletes’ perceptions of their own leadership behav- whereby those with greater status sometimes engaged iours. Therefore, the items reflecting the dimension in more leadership behaviours than those with low- of Autocratic Behaviour may have been perceived as er status. However, the results also suggested that a negative behaviour and participants did not want leadership is distributed among team members, such to identify themselves as engaging in this type of be- that individuals who did not identify themselves as a haviour. Conversely, the dimension of Autocratic Be- leader (i.e., followers) were providing similar levels of haviour simply may not correctly reflect leadership leadership behaviours. However, the mean ratings of behaviours displayed by athletes. Therefore, future leadership behaviour from all athletes were above the research should examine whether the Autocratic Be- mid-point, suggesting that all athletes engage in lead- haviour dimension of the LSS is relevant to athlete ership-type behaviours regardless of leadership sta- leaders. tus. As formal and informal athlete leader behaviours Though the present study provides insight into have been the focus of previous athlete leadership leadership behaviours of athletes occupying different research, results indicate that followers’ behaviours leadership roles, future directions can be suggested. should also be taken into consideration in future re- This research was focused on examining the physical search. status attribute of leadership role (Jacob & Carron, 1996). Given that other attributes have been deemed to be important indicators of status, such as experi- Acknowledgments ence (Jacob & Carron, 1996), future research may This study was supported by an Ontario Graduate wish to examine whether this variable distinguishes Scholarship and a Master’s Social Sciences Human- athlete leadership behaviours. For instance, Canadian ities Research Council (SSHRC) Scholarship to the intercollegiate sport is characterized by a five year eli- first author, and a SSHRC Insight Research Grant to gibility rule for athletes. It would be interesting to de- the second and third authors. termine which leadership behaviours are being used

95 Crozier A. J., et al., Top-down or shared leadership? ..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 86-98

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HIERARCHISCHES ODER GETEILTES LEADERSHIP? UNTERSUCHUNG DER UNTERSCHIEDE IN VERHALTENSWEISEN VON SPORT-LEADERN AUF GRUND DES LEADER-STATUS IM SPORT

Zusammenfassung Ziel dieser Untersuchung ist die Erkundung der Unterschiede in den Verhaltensweisen von Sportleadern auf Grund des eige- nen eingeschätzten Leader-Status. Sportler verschiedener Colleges (N = 299) haben selbstständig ihren Leader-Status identi- fiziert (formeller Leader, informeller Leader, Anhänger) und die Häufigkeit ihres eigenen Leaderverhaltens eingeschätzt. Die Ergebnisse haben gezeigt, dass formelle Sportleader häufiger in Training und Schulung engagiert sind als informelle Leader; bei informellen Sportleadern ist das Engagement in diesen Dimensionen größer als bei Anhängern. Bei formellen und infor- mellen Sportleadern ist ein intensiveres Engagement in gesellschaftlicher Unterstützung ausgeprägt als bei Anhängern. Die Ergebnisse gewähren präliminäre Beweise für einen hierarchischen Ansatz des Leaderships bei Sportlern. Es wurden keine Unterschiede in demokratischem Verhalten weder in positivem Feedback festgestellt, was darauf hinweist, dass Sport-Lea- dership auch unter den Mitspielern distribuiert wird. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit geben wichtige „praktische Implikationen“ für alle Sportarbeiter in Bezug auf die Entwicklung des Sportleaderships. Schlüsselwörter: GETEILTES LEADERSHIP / GRUPPENDYNAMIK / SPORTTEAMS / STATUS / SPORTLEADER

Received: 27.06. 2017. Accepted: 27.10. 2017

98 Phys. Cult. (Belgr.) 2017; 71 (2): 99-110 PHYSICAL CULTURE

ORIGINAL SCIENTIFIC PAPER UDC:796.012.11:577.35 doi:10.5937/fizkul1702099K

INTRA-SESSION AND INTER-SESSION RELIABILITY OF ELECTROMYOGRAPHY IN LEG EXTENSION DURING MAXIMUM VOLUNTARY ISOMETRIC CONTRACTIONS OF QUADRICEPS: THE EFFECT OF KNEE ANGLE

Filip Kukić¹, Aleksandar Stanković3, Vladimir Mrdaković², Dusko Ilić², Miloš Ubović3

¹Strategic management and performance improvement Department, Abu Dhabi Police, United Arab Emirates 2 University of Belgrade, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Serbia 3 Profex, Academy of Healthy Living, Belgrade, Serbia

Abstract Numerous factors can influence the reliability of the signal obtained by electromyography EMG among which the type of contraction is practically fundamental. This study aimed to investigate intra- and inter-session reliability of EMG for maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) of the knee extensors at different joint angles. Nine healthy male students from the Faculty of Sport and Physical Education voluntarily joined the experiment. Main characteristics of the subjects were: age 23±1 years, body weight 80.8±7.8 kg and body height 182±7 cm. EMG signal from three surface heads of quadriceps femoris was recorded – vastus lateralis (VL), vastus medialis (VM), and rectus femoris (RF). Subjects had to perform 3 MVIC as fast as possible, as strong as possible at 6 different knee joint angles on 2 occasions separated by 7-8 days. The intra-class coefficient of correlation (ICC) was used to identify relative intra- and inter-session reliability, while standard error of measurement (SEM) was used to calculate the absolute reliability of each tested muscle. All muscles showed high intra-session reliability (ICC=0.488-0.988 and SEM=1.38-11.35). VL showed good inter-session reliability for most of the conditions (ICC=0.603-0.948), VM for two knee angles (ICC120°=0.764 and ICC130°=0.788), RF was not reliable for any knee angle. This study indicates that RF does not need to be used in EMG testing in leg ex- tension MVIC due to lack of reliability between two sessions, and If EMG RMS from VL and VM will be tested, knee angle of 120° should be used for the testing.

Keywords: TESTING / BETWEEN-DAY / WITHIN-DAY / REPEATBILITY

INTRODUCTION Luca, 1997; Larsson, 2003). To overcome some of the factors and to make EMG signal comparable between The surface electromyography (EMG) signal rep- the muscles and between tests, the signal should be resents motor unit’s neural activity recorded on the normalized (Mirka, 1991; Burnett et al., 2007; Dan- muscle’s surface. Activation of the motor unit leads to kaerts et al., 2005). Because muscle activation varies contraction of every muscle fibre innervated by that with a change in joint angle, comparison of the EMG motor unit which brings the production of the mus- signal in different muscle lengths should be done with cle force. Furthermore, the force produced by mus- a normalized signal as a relativized level of muscle ac- cle partially is a result of the amount and timing of tivity (Mirka, 1991; Merletti et al., 1999). Regarding the motor unit activity (Wang and Butchman, 2002; practical applicability, the use of normalisation meth- Farina et al., 2014; Enoka and Duchateau, 2015). Nu- od is needed for the reliability evaluation of the EMG merous extrinsic and intrinsic factors can influence signal. the quality of the signal obtained by the EMG: tech- In recent history, different approaches to reliabil- nical error, equipment error, learning effects, biolog- ity were reported. Mostly, reliability was investigated ical variance (Ball and Scurr, 2010; Burden, 2010; De for different intensities (Campy et al., 2009; Larsson

Correspondence to: Filip Kukić; e-mail: [email protected] 99 Kukić F., et al., Intra-session and inter-session reliability of electromyography..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 99-110 et al., 2003; Mathur et al., 2005; Rainoldi et al., 2001; calculated ICC for 25 consecutive strides and found Smith et al., 2012). Campy et al (2009) examined the ICC>0.80 for 7 out of 13 tested muscles where VL and hamstring muscles at different contraction intensi- RF had ICC<0.80 with RF more reliable than VL, ICC ties and found high test-retest reliability coefficients for RF=0.794 and ICC for VL=0.394 (Smoliga et al., (ICC=0.70-0.92 and SEM=9.72-24.94%) only for the 2010). In the study with lateral step-up conditions, medial hamstring across low to moderately high iso- Worrel et al (1998) found high intra-session reliabil- metric contraction intensities, 10-60% of maximal ity with ICC ranging from 0.89-0.98 for VM and VL voluntary contraction (MVC). In the same study, lat- and 0.67-0.99 for hamstring and gluteus maximus. eral hamstring muscle showed moderate reliability On the other side in the same study was reported that coefficient (ICC=0.57-0.68 and SEM=13.12-21.35%) inter-session reliability ranged from poor to moder- only at low contraction intensities, 10-30% of MVC ate with ICC ranging from 0.06-0.67 and 0.34-83 for (Campy et al., 2009).Another study demonstrated the same muscle groups (Worrel et al., 1998). high reliability (ICC=0.80-0.95 and SEM=9-69) for Only 2 out of 9 above mentioned studies dealt knee extensor muscles for two sets of 100 dynamic with both, the inter- and intra-session reliability maximum concentric right knee extensions separated (Worrel et al., 1998; Smith et al., 2012) and they had by 7-8 days (Larsson et al., 2003). Mathur et al (2005) different results. Both studies reported good EMG investigated the reliability of median frequency and reliability for the intra-session repetitions, but one amplitude of EMG at 80% and 20% of maximal vol- study reported poor to moderate reliability EMG for untary contraction held to exhaustion. For both, me- inter-session (Worrel et al., 1998) while another study dian frequency and amplitude, the initial, final and reported moderate to high reliability of the EMG for normalized EMG showed moderate to high reliability inter-session design (Smith et al., 2012). It seems that for vastus lateralis (VL), vastus medialis (VM) and there is a certain amount of the studies that explained rectus femoris (RF) at both contraction levels: ICC = reliability of the EMG in various study designs with 0.59–0.88 for MDF; ICC = 0.58–0.99 for amplitude different tasks. However, to our knowledge, there is (Mathur et al., 2005). Similarly, Rainoldi et al (2001) a lack of the evidence exist regarding the reliability showed a high level of reliability (ICC>70%) for 50 for the basic relationship muscle activity – muscle seconds sustained contraction at 50% MVC. In the length (EMG – L), during MVIC. Also, not many weight-bearing control study, Smith et al (2012) re- studies dealt with both intra- and inter-session re- ported high inter-session reliability of the quadriceps liability, and there is an existing inconsistency with muscles in most of the tested conditions, ICC=0.60- the results. Thus, more data regarding that matter is 0.94. In the same study authors found similar results needed. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to for the intra-session reliability because ICC was from investigate the effect of knee angle on intra-session 0.63-0.95. and inter-session reliability of the EMG for MVIC. When it comes to intra-session reliability, many Four hypotheses will be tested: 1) intra-session will studies showed moderate to high level of reliability, show high reliability across all knee angles and mus- depending on the task used (Larsson et al., 1999; Fauth cles; 2) inter-session reliability will have moderate to et al., 2010, Smoliga et al., 2010; Smith; 2012; Worrel high level of reliability depending on the knee joint et al., 1998). Larsson et al (1999) aimed to investigate angle, and the muscle followed among which VL will the during-the-day reproducibility by using the pro- be the most reliable. tocol that involves 10 maximal dynamic extensions with a one-hour rest. They followed the EMG signal of VL, RF and VM and the results showed a high lev- METHODS el of reliability for all muscles, ICC=0.83-0.98 but VL was the most reliable (Larsson et al., 1999). Another Since this study included 9 participants and two study of reliability included 3 different tasks maximal testing session, this study could be classified as a pilot voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC), jump from study conducted by the laboratory principles using the height and cutting and the reliability of EMG was cluster sample (Hopkins, 2000). very high with all ICC values greater than 0.80 (Fauth et al., 2005). Smoliga et al (2010) investigated the Participants reliability of the EMG in competitive runners. They Nine healthy male students from the Faculty of

100 Kukić F., et al., Intra-session and inter-session reliability of electromyography..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 99-110

Sport and Physical Education voluntarily joined voluntary contraction (MVC). The beginning of the the experiment. Main characteristics of the subjects contraction was followed by the fourth channel where were: age 23±1 years, body weight 80.8±7.8 kg and foot switcher was connected. Foot switcher was posi- body height 182±7 cm. All subjects were involved in tioned on the front edge of the tibia where the lower physical activity minimum 3 times a week for last 3 leg was in contact with the lever arm. The change in years. There was no evidence of any knee injury or voltage caused by the pressure of the tibia on the lever neurological disorders in their medical history. All arm was recorded, and it presented the beginning of participants were informed about the purpose of the the contraction. study, and they could leave the study at any moment. The study was approved by the ethical committee of Familiarization and settings the Faculty of Sport and Physical Education following Subjects came to the laboratory on 2 occasions: the Declaration of Helsinki regarding human exper- one week before the first testing day and then 3 days imentation. before the first testing day to get familiar with the testing procedures. First familiarization session was Equipment used for the setting of the isokinetic chair (Kin-Com, Electrode placement Chattanooga Group, Inc. Chattanooga TN) according EMG signal from three surface heads of the to subject’s anthropometry and to get familiar with quadriceps femoris were recorded: VL, VM, and RF the contraction mode. The horizontal position of the using surface Delsys Single differential Surface EMG of the thigh was fixed for all participants, while the sensors (Delsys Ink., Boston, MA). Electrodes were back support and whole chair were adjusted to fix placed by Delsys manual guide (Delsys technical the hip joint position in 90°. The axis of rotation of note 101: EMG sensor placement). A ground elec- the dynamometer and the axis of the rotation of the trode was placed on the hip joint of the opposite leg. knee joint were aligned by moving the head of the dy- The skin was shaved at the location of the electrode namometer. The same principle was used to parallelly placement, cleaned with alcohol, and lubricated with align dynamometer lever arm and tibia. Two separate ultrasound gel for better electrical conductivity. The crossbelts were used to fix upper body to the arm- electrodes were placed on the most prominent point chair, one belt fixed hips to the chair, and one belt was of the muscle belly following Delsys manual guide used to fix the thigh to the chair. Force detection sys- (De Luca, 2002). Electrode positions were marked tem was positioned 1cm above the lateral malleolus. on the skin by the waterproof marker so the day to The chair positions for every knee joint angle were day position can be controlled. To avoid cross-talk, marked and written down. Keeping the same position electrodes were placed at the minimum of 3 cm from of the chair for both testing days kept technical error each other and tightly fixed with medical tape around of the measurement at the minimum. Second famil- the leg and over the electrodes, so there is no move- iarization session was used for getting more familiar ment of the electrodes. Additional tapes were used to with the contraction mode and for marking the plac- fix the cables. es for electrodes placement.

EMG signal acquisition and processing Testing procedure Single differential multichannel EMG amplifier of Before the testing, all participants did warm up 1000Hz was used to register EMG signal. Sampling protocol of 10 minutes cycling on the bicycle ergom- frequency was 2000Hz, and A/D converter with 12- eter, followed by 3-5 minutes dynamic stretching. bit precision in the voltage range of ±0.002V. After stretching, electrodes were positioned and with Original Delsys software (Delsys EMG works 4.1) fixed electrodes participants were positioned in al- was used for signal processing. To estimate muscle ready individually prepared Kin-Com dynamometer activity level, root mean square (RMS) calculation chair. Subjects had to perform 3 maximal voluntary was used. According to the De Luca (1997), RMS is isometric contractions (MVIC) as fast as possible, as a measure of the power of the EMG signal. Window strong as possible in 6 different, randomly selected, length was 100ms with 80ms of overlapping. For fur- knee joint angles. Tested angles were 80°, 90°, 100°, ther statistical analysis, first 2 seconds of each con- 110°, 120°, and 130° of knee extension (angle between traction were normalized relative to highest maximal femur and tibia). Duration of each contraction was

101 Kukić F., et al., Intra-session and inter-session reliability of electromyography..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 99-110

3 seconds. Rest period between contractions was 45- oldi et al., 2001). Variability among subjects must be 60s. After the testing in one joint angle was finished, significant. If that is not the case, limits of the ICC do participants had 3-5 minutes of rest, and during that not match the theoretical limits of 0.0–1.0, and it can- time, the next joint angle was set. Contraction cor- not be considered valid. Practically, it is possible for rectness was controlled by the force output. Every ratios to range from negative to positive infinity. In contraction that contained stretch-shortening cycle that case, the alternative measure of reliability - stand- or lasted less than 3s was repeated until 3 successful ard error of measurement (SEM) was used to express contractions were recorded. Subjects could see the the absolute reliability of the measure (Smith et al., force output so they can give their best in every con- 2012). Since there were two testing sessions and three traction. Also, for better motivation, they were highly trails for each knee angle, additionally paired-sample supported by the testing team. The identical protocol T-test was used to determine if differences in nor- with the same order of knee angles has been conduct- malized EMG magnitudes occurred between testing ed in both testing sessions. sessions (Smith et al., 2012). One-way ANOVA was used to test if differences existed between three trails Statistical analysis (Larsson et al., 1999). In both statistical analyses, the All RMS values were written in Microsoft Excel for level of significance was set at a<0.05. The standard further analysis. The descriptive statistics for mean error of measurement (SEM) was used to calculate and standard deviation was conducted in Microsoft the absolute reliability between two testing sessions Excel. For reliability analysis software SPSS Statistics and is determined from the standard deviation of the 17 was used. Intraclass Coefficient of Correlation with scores. The smaller the SEM, the better result is (Wier,

95% confidence interval (ICC2,1 two-way random ef- 2005; Mathur et al., 2005). fect) was used to identify within and between-day reliability (Larsson et al., 2003), using p<0.05 level of significance. ICC has been chosen as a measure of RESULTS relative reliability because it considers between and within-subject variance (Larsson et al., 2003; Mathur Simple descriptive statistics shows the differenc- et al., 2005; Wier, 2005). ICC values of more than 0.75 es between test-retest means and standard deviations represent high reliability, values of 0.60-0.74 repre- of normalized EMG signal for each tested muscle. sents medium reliability, and low or lack of the re- Figures 1-3 show that VL has the smallest differenc- liability would be for all values below 0.60 (Smith et es between two testing sessions comparing to other al., 2012). For acceptable reliability level, the value of two tested muscles. The smallest differences in VM 0.75 was taken as per previous study (Dankaerts et occurred at the knee angle of 120° and 130° (Figure al., 2004). Sometimes a negative ICC can occur which 2). In RF only knee angle of 110° seem to have a small means that the within-subject variance exceeds the difference between means (Figure 3). between-subject variance (Larsson et al., 2003; Rain-

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103 Kukić F., et al., Intra-session and inter-session reliability of electromyography..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 99-110

Intra-session reliability in this study. ANOVA results for VL and VM from Table 1 shows the results of absolute and relative the angle of 110° are shown to be highly reliable ac- intra-session reliability among 3 consecutive trials. cording to ICC results (0.988 and 0.985 VL for VM). ANOVA detected significant differences between Furthermore, SEM values for these two muscles are means only in VL and VM at the knee angle of 110° smallest at the same angle (3.60 and 1.38, respective- (Sig=0.021 for VL and 0.011 for VM). Results for all ly). All SEM values were relatively low which makes other tested angles for each muscle did not show any that absolute intra-session reliability relatively high significant difference in trail-trail means. (Table 1). Almost all SEM results were in range of 1.38-7.28, except VL at 130° which was slightly high- Table 1. Intra-session reliability statistics for all knee er (11.73). In other words, 95% confidence interval angles and muscles. in which the true results of 3 consecutive trails are ANO- likely to fall is relatively narrow, which could also be Knee Muscle VA ICC SEM an indicator of the good validity of EMG. Practically, angle when it comes to trail-trail analysis, use of EMG is a Sig very precise method. VL 0.546 0.975 5.32 VM 80 0.898 0.976 1.85 Inter-session reliability RF 0.253 0.956 5.26 Table 2 shows the results of absolute and relative VL 0.684 0.979 6.64 inter-session reliability. According to T-test statistical VM 90 0.546 0.970 2.20 analysis, VL mean values from 2 testing sessions are RF 0.793 0.962 2.99 not significantly different for all tested knee joint an- VL 0.348 0.956 3.63 gles with the highest p-value at 110° (p=0.853) and VM 100 0.590 0.966 1.80 smallest at 100° (p=0.163). VM and RF also did not RF 0.079 0.944 4.36 show a significant difference between means from VL 0.021 0.988 3.60 two testing session except RF at the angle of 80° VM 110 0.011 0.985 1.38 (p=0.006). The smallest difference for VM was found RF 0.602 0.795 2.95 at the knee angle of 120°, and for RF at 110° (p=0.869). VL 0.600 0.982 6.11 In terms of consistency, VL showed the most consist- VM 120 0.250 0.922 7.15 ent reliability relative to knee joint angles, while in RF 0.343 0.448 7.28 terms of the best reliability with the smallest differ- VL 0.382 0.846 11.73 ence between means VM showed the highest p-value VM 130 0.940 0.955 3.61 at 120° of knee angle. Overall, T-test showed that VM RF 0.315 0.939 4.90 had the lowest p values among 3 followed muscles ex- ICC results from table 1 indicate moderate to high cept at the 120° of knee angle where VM was the most reliability for all muscles across all joint except RF at reliable muscle. 120° which is the only non-reliable trail-trail result

104 Kukić F., et al., Intra-session and inter-session reliability of electromyography..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 99-110

Table 2. Inter-session reliability statistics for all knee angles and muscles.

T-test Muscle Knee angle ICC SEM p value VL 0.696 0.603 25.09 VM 80 0.162 0.507 15.63 RF 0.006 0.197 18.97 VL 0.547 0.933 7.30 VM 90 0.334 0.578 14.64 RF 0.401 0.341 20.47 VL 0.163 0.867 8.37 VM 100 0.053 0.501 11.35 RF 0.667 0.104 25.57 VL 0.853 0.872 12.08 VM 110 0.057 0.258 14.03 RF 0.869 -0.033 31.43 VL 0.564 0.948 9.09 VM 120 0.916 0.788 10.01 RF 0.036 0.277 20.92 VL 0.615 0.660 15.01 VM 130 0.206 0.764 7.14 RF 0.682 -1.54 43.63

Comparing to T-test, ICC results showed similar reliable ICCs were in range of SEM from 7.14-12.08. results for VL muscle (Table 2). The only joint angle Comparing to intra-session 95% confidence inter- of 80° and 130° were slightly below the criterion val- val for inter-session is slightly but acceptably wider. ue of 0.75 which was chosen as the lowest acceptable However, it should be considered when using EMG level of reliability for this study. In other words, VL analysis in testing sessions divided by one week. showed very consistent reliability across the tested range of muscle length. On the other side, VM and RF differences between two sessions were insignifi- DISCUSSION cant in most of the angles in T-test which is not the case with ICC. According to ICC results, VM showed Intra-session reliability sufficient reliability only at the knee angles of 120° The results of this study showed that intra-session and 130° (ICC=0788 and 0.764, respectively), while reliability is high for all tested muscles across all joint RF did not show reliability at all in any of tested knee angles (ICC=0.795-0.988 and SEM=1.38-11.71), ex- angles. Additionally, results from SEM showed the cept RF at 120° (ICC=0.448). Similar results for ICC lowest values right on the knee angles which were re- were reported in study that tested within-day relia- liable either for VL or VM. The highest reliable SEM bility in voluntary isometric contraction (ICC=0.95 value found for VL at the angle of 110° (ICC=0.867, for VL, 0.97 for VM and 0.96 for RF), jump landings SEM=12.08) and the lowest was at 130° for VM (ICC=0.90 for VL and VM, and 0.93 for RF) and cut- (ICC=0.764, SEM=7.14) (Table 2). In other words, all tings with ICC=0.94 for VL, 0.88 for VM, and 0.78

105 Kukić F., et al., Intra-session and inter-session reliability of electromyography..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 99-110 for RF (Fauth et al., 2010). Additionally, Larsson et al with SEM=7.14 and 10.01). It was also observed that (1999) investigated intra-session reliability on 3 sets T-test generally indicated the smallest differences be- of 10 dynamic contractions and found high reliabil- tween means of VL compering to VL and RF, which ity for VL, VM and RF with ICC=0.89-0.96 for the is additional evidence of EMG signal from VL being mean of ten contractions, and ICC=0.83-0.97 for the the most consistent among three tested muscles. The contractions with the highest peak torque. Moreover, problem with T-test was that it showed non-signifi- their ANOVA results showed no difference among the cant differences between two testing sessions for most sets in both cases, which goes in line with our results of the conditions. More precisely, only RF muscle at that showed insignificant differences between means one knee angle was shown to have significant differ- in 3 consecutive trials in most of the cases. Only two p ences in means. This could be due to the nature of values in our study (VL and VM at 110°) showed sig- T-test which measures the straight-line association nificant differences but followed with high ICC which and not agreement between two measures which could be due to small sample size and correspond- is not the appropriate way of estimating reliability ing big standard deviation. Smith et al (2012) found (Larsson et al., 2001). That is why this study addition- that intra-session reliability is moderate to high for ally employed ICC analysis that considers between most of the weight bearing force control conditions and within-subject variance for relative reliability, that were used. The lowest ICC was 0.34 and highest and SEM for the absolute reliability which is deter- 0.94, but the majority of the results was above ICC of mined from standard deviation of the scores from all 0.75 with corresponding SEMs of not more than 0.20. subjects and ICC reliability coefficient (Larsson et al., Intra-session reliability in running for EMG RMS of 2003; Mathur et al., 2005; Wier, 2005). VL and RF showed good reliability for RF but insuffi- Knee angle of 120° of showed highest reliability cient for VL with ICC=0.394 and 0.794, followed with values for VL and VM while lengthening the muscle SEM of 0.126 and 0.075 or normalized SEM=34.77 further resulted in lowered reliability levels for VM and 30.18 (Smoliga et al., 2012). It could be due to and lack of reliability for VL. Rectus femoris did not large standard deviations of the mean which reflects show reliable activation on any of tested angles. Ma- inter-subject variations due to differences in body thur et al. (2005) reported day to day reliability to be composition or differences in motor patterns among low to very high (ICC=0.68 for VL, 0.88 for VM, and individuals. (Smoliga et al., 2010). Furthermore, dy- 0.91 for RF) during sustained contraction of 20% of namic activity depends on variations in muscle length MVC. They also reported a decreased level of reliabil- and shape, and therefore this affects EMG throughout ity for RF and increased for VL, when the contraction soft tissue filtering since the distance between elec- intensity was set to 80% of MVC (ICC=0.66 for RF, trode placement and the active motor unit is cyclical- 0.83 for VM, and 0.84 for VL). This was explained by ly changing (Smoliga et al., 2010). the inverse correlation between force production and Even though there are some variations in absolute force variability – higher force shows higher with- and relative intra-session reliability results, our and in-subject variability which may affect day to day re- other studies conducted in dynamic and isometric liability (Mathur et al., 2005). In the study of Larsson conditions showed high reliability of EMG for RMS et al. (2003), the results showed lack of reliability of between consecutive trails, when the electrodes once three surface quadriceps heads when the RMS signal positioned had not been moved. When comparing was normalized (ICC=-0.02 for VM, 0.43 for RF and isometric to dynamic contractions of leg extensor 0.52 for VL). Even it was very low, normalized EMG muscles, isometric conditions undoubtedly showed reliability for VL in this study was higher than for high reliability for all three surface heads. In that re- VM and RF (Larsson et al., 2003). However, protocol gard, the first hypothesis of this study has been shown in this study consisted of 100 dynamic movements to be true. where electrode position could be compromised, and it cannot be certain if the activation from the same Inter-session reliability motor units were recorded in every consecutive con- Inter-session reliability is shown be moderate traction. Also, authors used different normalization to high for VL at 90°, 100°, 110°, 120° (ICC=0.872- method which, as they said, should be further inves- 0.948 with SEM=7.30-9.09, respectively), and mod- tigated (Larsson et al., 2003). Rainoldi et al (2001) re- erate for VM at 120° and 130° (ICC=0.764 and 0.788 ported similar results as ours. They used knee angle of

106 Kukić F., et al., Intra-session and inter-session reliability of electromyography..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 99-110

130° for isometric contraction and for amplitude var- reliability at 80% MVC. Even though ICC for RF at iable only VL showed reliable activation. The prob- 20% MVC was higher, its SEM was lower as well as able cause for lack of repeatability of the activation VM’s and VL’s SEM values (9.8-17.2 for 80% MVC pattern in VM could lie in the muscle fibre length, vs 14.8-22 for 20% VMC) (Mathur et al., 2005). Note in the portion of VM where the electrode should be that most of the moderate to high ICC values were placed. Vastus medialis oblique is a small part of the followed by SEM values less than 15, which is also the VM close to the knee, and those fibres are short. Thus, case in our study. Thus, this might be the evidence of day to day placement could influence the signal ob- the good validity of the approach and precision of the tained (Rainoldi et al., 2001). The overlapping of the electrode placement. actin and myosin filaments seem to be the most opti- It cannot be assumed that two muscles within a mal on these muscle lengths as well as the angle of the region or similar function will be equally reliable. The muscle attachment to the bone. Thus, Golgi tendon same holds true for the knee extensor muscles, name- organ will not be neither excited nor inhibited. Fur- ly with the VL being more reliable in RMS than other thermore, joint surfaces are in such position, so there two tested muscles. However, VM also showed good is no high intra-articular pressure and anterior cruci- reliability on 120° and 130° of knee joint angle. The ate ligament is relatively relaxed which again removes discrepancy between reliable and non-reliable mus- excitation and inhibition reflexes that could influence cles could be due to consistency of muscle activation the muscle activation (Gandevia & McKenzie, 1998; patterns between muscles crossing one joint versus McGinty et al., 2000). It could be concluded that these the one crossing two joints. Comparing to the VL and knee joint angles might be the best positions for the VM, RF is a two-joint muscle which could cause the acquisition of the EMG signal in quadriceps testing redundancy of the muscle activation in non-specific when the leg extension is planned to be used. These contraction conditions, and increased redundancy muscle lengths allow maximal muscle activation lowers the reliability. Contrary, natural pattern of the while other factors are minimalized. RF requires the adjustment of its activation in ac- Standard Error of Measurement has frequent- cordance with the hip-knee relation, and RF has been ly been used as a measure of absolute reliability shown to doing it very reliably (Mathur et al., 2005; (Larsson et al., 2003; Campy et al., 2009; Mathur et Stensdotter et al., 2003; Larsson et al., 2003; Smoliga al., 2005; Smith et al., 2012). Results of Larsson et et al., 2010). According to mentioned above, the con- al (2003) were very different after they normalized clusion could be made that inter-session reliability of EMG signal. When RMS was expressed in µV, RF, normalized EMG RMS from MVIC is subject to var- VM and VL showed high reliability (ICC=0.89 for ious factors such as sample size, type of contraction, RF, 0.88 for VM and 0.83 for VL) but the SEM values number of joints included, statistics used, and muscle were very high (SEM=49, 49, 63). In other words, rel- length. ative reliability was high but absolute was low. On the other side, when RMS was normalized, ICC showed lack of reliability with VL having the highest ICC, CONCLUSION but the SEM values were much lower (SEM=17 for RF, 19 for VM, and 16 for VL). Campy et al (2009) Our study dealt with the effect of muscle length conducted the inter-session reliability for medial and on reliability, and the conclusion could be made that lateral hamstring muscles at different contraction reliability between consecutive trails is not affected by intensities. For every intensity that showed reliable the change of muscle length in any tested muscle. On results (ICC=0.77-0.92), SEM values were below 14 the other side, when the testing sessions are divided (SEM=9.72-13.57). Comparing to mentioned study, by 7-8 days, change in muscle length does affect the our results showed better relative reliability followed reliability of both, single-joint and multi-joint mus- with the low corresponding absolute measure of re- cles of quadriceps femoris during leg extension. Fur- liability as well. Furthermore, results of Mathur et al thermore, the most reliable surface head of quadri- (2005) suggest that 80% MVC contraction intensity ceps femoris is shown to be vastus lateralis followed could be a better choice than 20% MVC for EMG by vastus medialis, while rectus femoris did not show investigations because relative reliability was similar any reliability in activation. Thus, the second hypoth- for both intensities, but SEM showed better absolute esis of this study is also proved to be true because the

107 Kukić F., et al., Intra-session and inter-session reliability of electromyography..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 99-110 reliability of all tested muscles was affected by knee more fatty or obese participants is questionable. This angle and VL was the most reliable among the tested test with MVIC could not be conducted with the pop- muscles. Additionally, the angle of 120° of knee ex- ulation that has any medical condition of the knee tension is shown to be the only angle reliable for both joint. VL and VM which suggests that this angle might be a good choice for the leg extension testing if it includes MVIC and EMG. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study was a short experimental investigation This study is part of the Master Degree Thesis: of possible methodological issues when electromy- Reliability of EMG signal during maximal isometric ography is used in leg extension MVIC at different contraction of quadriceps femoris at different muscle knee angles, and 2 practical advices could be made: lengths in open and closed kinetic chain, Belgrade, 1) RF can be excluded due to lack of reliability; 2) If Serbia, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Uni- EMG RMS from VL and VM will be tested, knee an- versity of Belgrade. gle of 120° should be used for the testing. This research is part of the project Effects of ap- plied physical activity on the locomotor, the met- abolic, psychosocial and educational status of the LIMITATIONS population of the Republic of Serbia, under number Certain methodological limitations could influ- III47015 and 41007, which is financed by Ministry of ence the applicability of the results. The sample of the Education and Science of the Republic of Serbia – Cy- subjects was clustered which means participants were cle of Projects 2011-2016. chosen by their physical ability to do the test. The age We would like to thank to Serbian Institute of range of participants was very small, and the sample Sport and Sports Medicine for granting us the use of included only male participants, so the application of their laboratory for physical assessment. Also, special the results to older population or female population thanks to Profex Academy of Healthy Living for al- is not possible. All participants of this study were very lowing us to use their Delsys EMG system. fit with very low amount fat tissue, so application to

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109 Kukić F., et al., Intra-session and inter-session reliability of electromyography..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 99-110

ZUVERLÄSSIGKEIT DER ELEKTROMYOGRAFIE WÄHREND UND ZWISCHEN SETS BEI MAXIMALEN ISOMETRISCHEN KONTRAKTIONEN DES QUADRIZEPS: EINFLUSS DES GELENKWINKELS

Zusammenfassung: Verschiedene Faktoren können Einfluss auf die Zuverlässigkeit von elektromyographischen Signalen (electromyography – EMG) ausü- ben, von welchen die Art der Kontraktion praktisch die wichtigste ist. Ziel dieser Studie ist es, die Zuverlässigkeit der EMG während einer maximalen Kontraktion (maximal voluntary contraction – MVC) von Extensormuskeln im Kniegelenk bei verschiedenen Gelenkwinkeln im Rahmen eines oder zwischen zwei Sets festzulegen. Neun gesunde, körperlich gut vorbereitete Studenten der Fakultät für Sport und Körperkultur haben auf freiwilliger Basis an diesem Test teilgenommen. Die Grundcharakteristiken der Prüflinge waren: 23+/- 1 Jahr, Kör- permasse 80.8+/- 7.8 kg und Körpergröße 182+/-7 cm. Analysiert wurde das EMG-Signal mit 3 unterschiedlichen Köpfen des Musculus quadriceps femoris: äußerer Kopf (VL), innerer Kopf (VM) und gerader Kopf (RF). Die Prüflinge hatten die Aufgabe, 3 möglichst schnelle und möglichst intensive MVC in 6 unterschiedlichen Ausgangswinkeln im Kniegelenk in 2 Sets durchzuführen, die 7 – 8 Tage voneinader lagen. Das statistische intra – class – coefficient – of – correlation - Verfahren (ICC) wurde verwendet, um die relative Zuverlässigkeit auf Ebene des Sets selbst und zwischen den Sets festzustellen, während das standard - error - of - measurement – Verfahren (SEM) angewendet wurde, um die absolute Zuverlässigkeit jedes getesteten Muskels auszurechnen. Alle Muskeln wiesen eine hohe Zuverlässigkeit im Rahmen des gleichen Sets vor (ICC=0.488-0.988 und SEM=1.38-11.35). VL wies eine gute Zuverlässigkeit zwischen den Sets für die Mehrheit der Ausgangsbedingungen (ICC=0.603-0.948) vor, VM für zwei Gelenkwinkel (ICC120°=0.764 und ICC130°=0.788), RF zeigte für keinen der Ausgangswinkel im Kniegelenk Zuverlässigkeit. Diese Studie weist darauf hin, dass RF wegen einem Mangel an Zuverlässigkeit zwischen zwei Sets nicht für EMG-Tests während MVC bei einer Beinextension geeignet ist und und dass der Winkel von 120° bei EMG RMS Tests für VM und VL angewendet werden sollte.

Schlüsselwörter: TEST / ZUVERLÄSSIGKEIT / SET ZWISCHEN 7-8 TAGEN / / SET IM LAUFE VON EINEM TAG

Received: 01.03. 2017 Accepted: 06.11.2017

110 Phys. Cult. (Belgr.) 2017; 71 (2): 111-117 PHYSICAL CULTURE

ORIGINAL SCIENTIFIC PAPER UDC: 796:159.923 doi:10.5937/fizkul1702117F

THE CONNECTION OF PERFECTIONISM AND FLOW WITH ATHLETES OF A DIFFERENT PERFORMANCE LEVEL

Anida R. Fazlagić, Milena Belić

State University in Novi Pazar, Department of Philosophical Sciences, Psychology Study Program, Serbia

Abstract Athletes often report on the experiences of absolute dedication and flow that represent an extraordinary experience and act motivatively. Motivation is a natural product of our essential desires and needs, and the flow as a mental state relieves us of fears of judgment, which can be a motivational component of the flow model. The aim of this research was to find out to what extent perfectionism and flow are present in a group of athletes, whether perfectionism and the flow experience are linked, and which socio-demographic variables they correlate with. The research involved 50 profession- al athletes with participation at all competitive levels, from local level competitions to world level competitions. The instruments applied are the Multidimensional scale of perfectionism, the Questionnaire of Flow, the Semi-Structured Interview and the Questionnaire on Socio-demographic Characteristics. Through interviews, we received data on situa- tions and emotions during the flow experience, where close to 98% of the athletes stated that they were not aware of the flow experience during its occurrence, but they could retrospectively invoke that feeling which remained the greatest and lasting trophy of their success. Almost on all sub-scales of Multidimensional scale of perfectionism, athletes achieve higher results compared to the general population. The results of the research have shown that there is no correlation between the flow experience and perfectionism, except when it comes to the connection of the flow experience with concern due to errors and this relationship is negative.

Key words: PERFECTIONISM / FLOW /ATHLETS

INTRODUCTION fectionism have been developed which have multi-di- mensionality as a common thread (Frost et al., 1990; Perfectionism is usually defined as a tendency for Flett end Hewitt, 2002; Bieling, Israeli, , 2004). infallibility in all aspects of life (Flett, Hewitt, 2002). However, results of the research which studied perfec- Some authors consider that the perfectionism is a re- tionism as a multi-dimensional concept have shown lationship that an individual makes with his environ- that perfectionism does not bring a priori to nega- ment, and the nature of that relationship depends on tive outcomes, but can also have a positive impact on the type of support that serves to maintain a certain human functioning and achievement. Accordingly, kind of perfectionist behavior. That’s why they con- the so-called positive and negative perfectionism are sider that perfectionism should be viewed more like distinguished (Hamachek, 1978; Stoeber, Otto, 2006; a term that describes patterns of behaviour than as Fedewa, Burns, Gomez, 2005). Terry-Short, Owens, an immutable personality trait (Slade, Owens, 1998). Slade and Dewey (1995), among others, suggest the Not so long ago, in psychology, perfectionism was theoretical basis for the difference between positive seen as a one-dimensional construct which could and negative perfectionism, the so-called a dual pro- be a disturbing factor in all human functioning and cess model of perfectionism. According to these au- achievement, but also a disturbing factor in the as- thors, the difference can be explained in accordance pect of satisfaction with life and overall health (Beck with Skiner’s behavioral perspective that emphasizes et al., 1979; Accordino et al., 2000 Ashby, Rice, 2002). the function of a certain behavior. Accordingly, the However, with recent research, many concepts of per- differences between the positive and the negative as- pects of perfectionism are not in the behavior itself,

Correspondence to: Anida R. Fazlagić, e-mail: [email protected] 111 Fazlagić A., & Belić M., The connection of perfectionism..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 111-117 but rather result from different motivations in their tivities that at the given moments require complete basis. Positive perfectionism refers to cognitions and commitment, which at the same time does not allow behaviors aimed at achieving high goals, in order to the thinking about anything else; 6) A sense of con- achieve positive consequences, and it is encouraged trol over the situation - people do not enjoy being in by positive support and the desire for success. Nega- control, but in the sense of achieving control in dif- tive perfectionism refers to cognitions and behaviors ficult situations. A feeling of flow is also the feeling aimed at achieving high goals in order to avoid neg- that a certain skill is completely ruled. 7) A changed ative consequences, and is encouraged by negative sense of time - the subjective sense of time during the support and fear of failure, therefore is often accom- flow does not look like a real, objectively measured panied by fear, too high standards and frustrations. time; 8) Feedback, a direct and immediate reaction Frost et al. (1990) distinguishes the following di- to stimulation - success and failure are obvious in the mensions of perfectionism: excessively high person- activity, so that behavior can be adapted to the new al standards, concern about performance errors, the situation in time; 9) Activity itself is rewarding - sat- suspicion of the quality of personal performance, the isfaction arises from performing certain activities. It perception of parental expectations and parental crit- is about intrinsic motivation, which does not require icality, and the excessive need for precision, organiza- any external rewards. tion and order, resulting in the construction of Multi- On the basis of everything that has been said about dimensional Perfectionism Scale (Multidimensional perfectionism and the flow experience, it is clear why Perfectionism Scale, MPS-F) (Frost et.al, 1990). these concepts are closely related to sports. Sports ac- The author Czikszentmihalyi describes flow as a tivities, especially those related to professional sports complete commitment to one activity. The state of which involve competitive activities, at the same time the flow is accompanied by an extraordinary con- involve high abilities, a tendency to be the best and centration, the focus of attention is only on a given an attempt to outperform any established personal or activity, and the person experiences a feeling of hap- external standard. On the other hand, well trained, piness and pleasure at the same time (Csikszentmi- high intrinsic motivation and complete dedication halyi, 2006). There are several factors that stimulate are often the correlates of the flow experience and of- the state of flow: clear goals of unambiguous feedback ten present in sports. and the balance between capabilities and tasks. Ceja Therefore athletes are constantly facing dilemmas and Navaro (Ceja, Navaro, 2009) argue that there are because: (according to Bajraktarević, 2008): other factors that can influence the occurrence of • an athlete can (and should) be unique and unre- flow: the greater possibility that requests are experi- peatable, but at the same time he is expected and enced as challenges, and not as a threat, and a feeling asked to be like everyone else; of coherence and meaning. According to Baumann • an athlete needs to prove as much as possible su- and Scheffer (Baumann, Scheffer, 2010), the predic- periority over his opponent, but to respect him tive circumstance of experiencing flow is given to in- at the same time; dividuals with a motive for achieving the flow. The • an athlete should set his competitive aspirations motive for achieving flow is derived from various ac- very high and very real at the same time. tions that individuals have learned to apply in specific It is exactly internal conflicts that athletes have situations, and are made up of two motives: a motive in trying to respond to demands during the achieve- to look for challenges and a motive to solve problems. ment of competitive results that causes greater anxie- In flow, there are several dimensions that char- ty and the need for constant growth and development acterize or contribute to this feeling (Nakamura and of cognitive, emotional and personality traits that can Csikszentmihalyi, 2002). These factors are as follows: contribute to success in sports. Therefore, the aim 1) A challenging activity that requires skills or a bal- of this paper is to examine whether perfectionism is ance between opportunities and challenges; 2) State present through its multidimensional constructs in of mind and activity; 3) Loss of self awareness – the athletes, whether the flow is related to sporting sit- flow requires maximum concentration and focus on a uations and in what connection the flow experience particular activity; 4) Clear Goals - help to complete and perfectionism defined as a multi-dimensional commitment to particular activity; 5) Concentration construct are. and focusing - it involves dealing with certain ac-

112 Fazlagić A., & Belić M., The connection of perfectionism..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 111-117

THE METHOD about errors - 0.85; Organization - 0.87; Parental ex- pectations - 0.79; Personal standards - 0.79; Suspicion Respondents in personal performances - 0.77; Parental objections The research involved 50 athletes of different - 0.60. The respondent responds by evaluating the de- performance categories. The sample consisted of 38 gree of agreement with individual items on the 5-de- (76%) male respondents and 12 (24%) female re- gree Likert’s type scale (from 1 – I completely agree to spondents, the average age of 23 (М=22,80 (16- 41); 5 – I completely disagree). The total score is calculat- N=50) ed as the sum of the matching points with individual The average length of the sports service is 12 items on all subscales except for the subscale Organ- years (M = 11.68, N = 50). The largest number of re- ization. Items related to Organization are not taken spondents, 100% of them, participated in local level into account when calculating the overall scale result competitions, 98% participated in national level com- due to the low correlations of that subscale with other petitions, 94% of respondents participated in inter- subscales, as well as with the sum of all the items of national level competitions, while 38% participated perfectionism scale. in the world level competitions (N = 50). The survey The flow experience questionnaire was conducted in November and December 2013, on Flow experience questionnaire authors Csiksz- a sample from the South-West Serbia. The data were entmihaly & Csikszentmihaly, 1988, consists of 11 collected during home visits or visiting clubs of re- claims, but due to the specificity of the sample, we spondents. selected the six items we used in this study. In order to leave the space for supplementing the state of flow Instruments through a semi-structured interview, by adjusting the questionnaire we tended to increase the objectivity of Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale the results. The reliability of the flow questionnaire The multidimensional perfectionism scale restructured for this study was checked by the coef- (MPS-F; Frost et. 1995) consists of 35 claims that ficient of internal coexistence, and the custom ques- measure perfectionism through six dimensions. Di- tionnaire has satisfactory reliability with α = 0,891. mension Personal Standards is conceived as very high The respondent responds by evaluating the degree of personal standards and the overriding importance agreement with individual items on the 5-degree Lik- attached to these high standards in self-evaluation. ert’s type scale (from 1 - does not look like me to at all Dimension Concerns about errors is conceived as to 5 - very similar to me). The total result is equal to negative reactions to errors, the tendency to interpret the sum of the values ​​given by the respondent. the error as equal to failures, and the tendency to be- lieve that a person will lose respect of others after the Semi-structured interview failure. A tendency towards the belief that parents of In order to get a fuller picture of the respondents some athletes set high goals and that they are overly and their ability to reach the state of flow, we used critical comprise the dimension Parental Expecta- a semi-structured interview. During the research, tions, or Parental Objections. Dimension Suspicion respondents reported on their own experiences, feel- in personal performances is described as a feeling ings and activities when performing. of insecurity in personal actions or thinking, and as a tendency to feel that tasks are not satisfactorily Questionnaire on sociodemographic features completed. Emphasis on importance and preference The questionnaire was designed for the research of order and organization constitutes the last com- purposes. Through this questionnaire, we tried to get ponent of perfectionism, called Organization. The basic information about athletes such as the category scale has satisfactory reliability, and the coefficient of sport (individual or group), the number of partic- of internal coincidence ranges from 0.77 to 0.93 in ipations in the competitions, the motives for dealing our study α = 0.81. According to the obtained results, with sports and the years spent in sports. the subscales show satisfactory reliability: Concerns

113 Fazlagić A., & Belić M., The connection of perfectionism..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 111-117

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 1. Support sources for athletes Qualitative processing of results Support Involment The athletes who took part in this research show (%) a certain tendency to achieve the flow experience Parents 55 through a total score on the scale of 22, 54 (M = Coach 37 22.54, SD = 3.42). Starting from the assumption that Friends 5 the theoretical range of results on a scale is from 0 to Audience 3 30, the achieved result observed through the average value can indicate the inclination of athletes to expe- During the interview, athletes reported that their rience the state of flow. We tested the results on the success was the result of persistent and hard work, scale with a semi-structured interview. and that only genuine love for sports was a support- During the interview, we tried to find out from the ing factor and a condition for achieving a state of respondents whether they had experienced a state of flow. Table 2 shows the factors of motivation for deal- flow. Since the flow is a state an individual is not aware ing with sports. of in the moment of experiencing, this experience can Table 2. Factors that affect motivation expressed in only be discussed when it is over and when we look percentages at it from a certain time distance. Therefore, during Factors of motivation * (* Answers Part (%) the interview, we tried to find out how individuals de- to the question: “I'm dealing with scribe this experience. Almost all of the interviewed sports due to..“ ) athletes reported on the same feelings, thoughts, the Health 6 conditions through which they passed and which Awards 2 they experienced during the flow. Furthermore, the Friendships 0 flow is characterized by the state of focus and concen- True love for sports 92 tration. During the interview, most athletes reported on the visualization of winning, medals, goals scored as motivation factors to persevere in their efforts and Perfectionism and the flow experience achieve a sense of euphoria over the victory. Internal We used descriptive statistics and correlation to control locus and intrinsic motivation help when at- examine the relationship between perfectionism and taining a state of flow. the state of flow. The results were processed in the However, for the success achieved, besides the SPSS 18.0 statistic program. athlete, its environment and the support it has from Table 3 shows the descriptive values of the results others is significant. Table 1 gives a percentage view obtained on Perfectionism scale’s subscales. Accord- of social support, significance of others, which ath- ing to our results, the total values of all subscales are letes evaluated in relation to their importance. increased relative to the standard values.

Table 3. Arithmetic mean of achieved results on sub-scales of Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale Arithmetic mean Arithmetic mean Standard Sub-scales of the on a sample of deviation author of the scale athletes Concern for error 18,52 22,36 8,09 Organization 21,97 27,12 2,88 Parental expectations 11,71 15,64 4,35 Personal standards 20,77 27,96 3,70 Suspicion in personal 10,08 10,00 3,54 ability Parental objections 7,34 10,48 2,76

114 Fazlagić A., & Belić M., The connection of perfectionism..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 111-117

The results of our research have shown that in al- interpersonal aspect of perfectionism (Hamachek, most all subscales of the MPS-F scale, our respond- 1978), and emphasizes that self-evaluation of perfec- ents have increased scores in relation to the arithme- tionists, above all, depends on the perception of the tic mean obtained by validating the scale. level of acceptance by significant others, and not ex- On the scale Concerns for errors where concern clusively about (un)achievement of high standards of due to errors is defined as negative reactions to errors, achievement. In addition to this, perfectionists often the tendency to interpret the error as equal to failures, require others to achieve high goals, which can also and the tendency to believe that a person will lose determine the characteristics of their psychosocial respect of others after the failure, respondents have adaptation (Habke, Flynn, 2002). Generally speaking, achieved a high score. Since the interpretation of the athletes with high personal standards tend to re-eval- failure is equal to failure, athletes obviously have dif- uate the goals achieved they often declare as insuffi- ficulty to accept the failure and mistakes they make. cient and easily achievable goals, which increases the On the subscale Parental expectations athletes risk of developing various difficulties. also showed significantly higher scores than on the However, what is particularly relevant to our sam- standard test results. A tendency towards the belief ple is that there is no doubt in personal ability. Di- that parents of individuals set high goals and that mension Suspicion in personal performances is de- they are overly critical comprise the dimension of Pa- scribed as a feeling of insecurity in personal actions rental Expectations or Parental Objections. The liter- or thinking, as well as a tendency to feel that tasks are ature often states that three elements are responsible not satisfactorily completed. Obviously, engaging in for the success of an athlete: the abilities of the athlete, sports activities contributes to self-confidence (Bar- parents and the coach (Barjaktarević, 2008) but the jaktavević, 2008). personal capacity of an individual, investing in phys- The correlation between perfectionism and the ical and tactical preparation, as well as developing state of flow was also examined. The results are shown motivation for achieving are also additional elements in Table 4. of success. According to the results of our research, a qualitative analysis showed that most athletes indi- Table 4. Correlation of the subscales of multi-dimensional cated that their parents and coach were their biggest perfectionism scale with a flow experience support. However, we are often the witnesses of the Sub-scale F l o w indirect role of parents, namely, their overwhelming experience desire for success, possible dreams that did not come 1.Concern for errors -,152** true or that they still have, lack of cooperation with 2. Organization the coach and, most importantly, the constant expec- ,108* tations for the best results from the athlete, they cre- 3.Parental expectations ,096 ate pressure with the athlete (Rice, Ashby, Preusser; 4.Personal standards ,059 1996). In the process of growing an athlete, the need 5. Suspicion in personal performance for parents to be with him and to understand him is ,013 one of the basic needs that provides the child with se- 6. Parental objections ,013 curity and stability, where every decision of the child *p<0,05 ; **p <0,01 is created in cooperation with parents who are suffi- ciently involved in the situation. The involvement of Generally, the results indicate a very weak linkage parents in the training process is a crucial component of the flow experience with perfectionism. When it that reduces the discrepancy between athletes, par- comes to certain subscales, statistically significant ents and coach, which reduces objections, and there- correlations are missing. Statistically significant, but fore expectations (Barjaktarević, 2008) low, negative correlation of the Flow experience with One of the most sensitive subscales for testing the Concern about errors subscale was obtained. The perfectionism is the subscale Personal Standards. Ac- flow experience implies a certain spontaneity, seizing cording to Greblo (Greblo, 2012), advocating the idea the moment (to which the etymological significance that a multi-dimensional approach to the study of per- of the word implies as well) (Nakamura and Csiksz- fectionism is necessary (Hewitt et al 2003) he refers to entmihalyi, 2002), while Concern about errors im- early theorists who reported on the importance of the plies a desire for perfection filled with fear of possible

115 Fazlagić A., & Belić M., The connection of perfectionism..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 111-117 mistakes, which leaves no space to any kind of relax- CONCLUSION ation. The flow experience is in a positive statistically Although there is a tendency to observe perfec- significant connection with Organization. The corre- tionism as an aggravating factor for athletes, we must lation obtained is low, but it suggests that a certain accept that the inclination to perfectionism has good measure of order, work and control over oneself and sides, especially if we take into account its adaptive their own time is probably one of the correlates of a forms. The possibility to develop adaptive perfection- superior experience. ism is characteristic for athletes who strive for perfec- The flow experience of the athlete can act moti- tion, but only for personal reasons and intrinsic mo- vating and therefore needs to be nurtured and en- tives. Our sample showed that the true motive that couraged. It would be important to suggest coaches drives them in sports is true love for sports. However, and sports workers that the excitement of the flow it is obvious that we must consider the pressure of experience through frequent praise, patience, meet- parents and significant others as a significant factor. ing the needs of athletes, is important for the forma- Striving for infallibility contributes to achieving top tion of intricative motivation. Intricative motivation results, but does not provide a supreme experienc- has long-term effects on the formation of an athlete’s es that are invaluable prize and motivating factor by personality, and spontaneously on the success of the themselves. athlete himself as well. Notes: This work was created within the 179002 Project funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development Republic of Serbia.

REFERENCES

1. Accordino, D. B., Accordino, M. P., Slaney, R. B. 8. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The Psychology (2000). An investigation of perfectionism, mental of Optimal Experience. New York: Harper and Row. health, achievement, and achievement motivation in 9. Fedewa, B. A., Burns, L. R., Gomez, A.A. (2005). adolescents. Psychology in the Schools, 37, 535-545. Positive and negative perfectionism and the shame/ 2. Ashby, J. S., Rice, K. G. (2002). Perfectionism, dys- guilt distinction: adaptive and maladaptive charac- functional attitudes, and self-esteem’s structural teristics. Personality and Individual Differences, 38 equations analysis. Journal of Counseling and De- (7), 1609-1619. velopment, 80, 197-203. 10. Flett, G.L., Hewitt, P.L. (2002). Perfectionism and 3. Barjaktarević, J. (2008). Psihologija sporta: teorija i maladjustment: An overview of theoretical, defi- empirija. [Psychology of Sport: Theory and Empire. nitional, and treatment issues. U: G.L. Flett i P.L. In Bosnian]. Sarajevo: Arka pres. Hewitt (Ur.), Perfectionism: Theory, research, and 4. Baumann, N., Scheffer, D. (2010). Seeking flow in treatment (str. 5-31). Washington, DC: APA. the achievement domain: The achievement flow 11. Frost, R. O., Heimberg, R. G., Holt, C. S., Mattia, motive behind flow experience.Motivation and J. I., Neuberg A. L. (1990). The dimensions of per- Emotion, 34, 122-134. fectionism. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14, 5. Beck, A.T, Rush, J., Shaw, B.F., Enery, G. (1979). 449-468. Cognitive therapy of depression. New York: The 12. Greblo, Z. (2012). Šta se skriva iza pojma “perfe- Guilford Press. kcionizam”. Povijest proučavanja i pregled različi- 6. Bieling, P. J., Israeli, A. L., Antony, M. M. (2004). tih konceptualizacija perfekcionizma. [What lies Is perfectionism good, bad, or both? Examining behind the notion of “perfectionism.” History of models of the perfectionism construct. Personality study and review of various conceptions of per- and Individual Differences, 36, 1373-1385. fectionism. In Croatian]. Psihologijske teme, 21, 7. Ceja, L., Navarro, J. (2009). Dynamics of flow: A (1), 195-212. nonlinear perspective. Journal of Happiness Studies, 13. Habke, A.M., Flynn, C.A. (2002). Interpersonal 10, 665-684. aspects of trait perfectionism. U: G.L. Flett, P.L.

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Hewitt (Ur.), Perfectionism: Theory, research, and 17. Rice, K. G., Ashby, J. S., Preusser, K. (1996). Perfec- treatment (str. 151-180). Washington, DC: APA. tionism, Relationships with Parents, and Self-Es- 14. Hamachek, D.E. (1978). Psychodynamics of nor- teem. Individual Psychology, 52, (3), 246-260. mal and neurotic perfectionism. Psychology, 15, 18. Slade, P. D., Owens, R. G. (1998). A dual process 27-33. model of perfectionism based on reinforcement 15. Hewitt, P. L., Flett, G. L. (1991). Perfectionism in theory. Behavior Modification, 22, (3), 372-391. the Self and Social Contexts: Conceptualization, 19. Stoeber, J., Otto, K. (2006). Positive Conceptions Assessment, and Association With Psychopathol- of Perfectionism: Approaches, Evidence, Chal- ogy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, lenges. Personalitiy and Social Psychology Review, 60, (3), 456-470. 10, (4), 295-319. 16. Nakamura, J., Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2002). The 20. Terry-Short, L.A., Owens, R.G., Slade, P.D. Dew- concept of flow. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez ey, M.E. (1995). Positive and negative perfection- (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 89- ism. Personality and Individual Differences, 18, 105). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. (5), 663-668.

VERBINDUNG ZWISCHEN PERFEKTIONISMUS UND DEM ERLEBNIS VON ERGRIFFENHEIT BEI SPORTLERN VON UNTERSCHIEDLICHER ERFOLGSEBENE

Zusammenfassung: Sportler berichten häufig von Erlebnissen absoluter Hingabe und Ergriffenheit, die eine außerordentliche Erfahrung darstellen und einen motivierenden Einfluss ausüben. Motivation ist ein natürliches Produkt unserer essentiellen Wünsche und Bedürfnisse, Ergriffenheit als mentaler Zustand befreit uns von der Angst vor Einschätzung, was eine Motivationskomponente im Ergriffenheitsmodell sein kann. Ziel dieser Untersuchung war es, festzulegen, in welchem Maße Perfektionismus und Ergriffenheit bei Sportlergruppen vertreten sind, ob sie untereinander verbunden sind und, wenn dies der Fall ist, mit welchen soziodemografischen Variablen sie korrelieren. An der Studie nah- men 50 Sportler aus allen Wettbewerbsebenen teil – von Wettbewerben auf lokaler Ebene bis zu Wettbewerben auf internationaler Ebene. Als Instrumente wurden die Multidimensionale Perfektionismus-Skala, ein Fragenbogen über Ergriffenheit, das halbstruktuierte Interview und ein Fragebogen über soziodemografische Merkmale angewendet. Mit Hilfe des Interviews wurden Informationen über Zustände und Emotionen während eines Erlebnisses der Ergriffenheit erfragt, wo 98% der befragten Sportler aussagten, dass sie sich des Erlebnisses der Ergriffenheit im gegebenen Moment nicht bewusst sind, aber retrospektiv dieses Gefühl zurückrufen können, das für sie die größte und dauerhafteste Trophäe ihres Erfolgs darstellt. Sportler erzielen auf fast allen Ebenen der Multidimensionalen Perfektionismus-Skala Ergeb- nisse, die in Bezug auf die allgemeine Bevölkerung höher liegen. Ergebnisse der Untersuchung haben gezeigt, dass es keine Verbindung zwischen dem Erlebnis der Ergriffenheit und Perfektionismus gibt, außer wenn es sich um die Verbindung zwischen dem Erlebenis von Ergriffenheit und Besorgtheit wegen Fehlern handelt. In diesem Fall ist die Verbindung negativ.

Schlüsselwörter: PERFEKTIONISMUS / ERGRIFFENHEIT / SPORTLER Received: 03. 05. 2017 Accepted: 11. 12. 2017.

117 Phys. Cult. (Belgr.) 2017; 71 (2): 118-126 PHYSICAL CULTURE

SHORT REWIEV UDC:796:929Тодоровић С. doi:10.5937/fizkul1702118V

STEVAN TODOROVIĆ, LIFE AND WORK OF A PERFORMER, ARTIST, EDUCATOR AND FOUNDER OF ORGANIZED SPORT IN SERBIA

Vladan Vukašinović

The University of Belgrade, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Serbia

Abstract In 2017, 160 years were marked since the beginning of the organized physical exercise (1857) and 126 years since the emergence of Sokol movement in Serbia (1891). The great contribution of Academics Steva Todorovic, Dr. Vladan Djordjevic and Dr. Vojislav Rasic to the beginning and development of physical culture in the Principality and the King- dom of Serbia, was evoked. 160 years since the arrival of Academic Stevan Todorovic in the capital of Belgrade, in which he started his cultural and enlightenment work in 1857, was also denoted. At the „School of Painting” which he opened, „Group for Gymnastics and Fighting” was also founded, as the first organized association for physical exercise. This Group preceded the idea of acceptance of „Sokolstvo”, the development of modern sport and the affirmation of physical culture in Serbia. The aim of this paper is to highlight the contribution of academic Steva Todorovic to the overall cul- tural and educational progress of Serbia, including physical culture. The historical method was compiled of authentic documents from 1899, 1908, 1912, 1927, 1938 which were not available and known to the wider and professional public, gymnastic and Sokol membership. Key Words: STEVAN TODOROVIC / PHYSICAL CULTURE / EDUCATION / CULTURE / ART / SERBIA

INTRODUCTION STEVAN TODOROVIĆ – BIOGRAPHY OF A YOUNGER Among the prominent promoters of physical ex- PERFORMER ercising in Serbia, who are even today, after more than a century, considered charismatic visionaries of StevanTodorović (13/04/1832, Novi Sad – gymnastic and Sokol exercising, we include Vladan 22/05/1925, Belgrade), was by origin from Herze- Đorđević, Vojislav Rašić, Laza Popović, Miroslav govina. His father Jovan, from the town of Trebinje, Vojinović... However, among these famous begin- a Herzegovinian rebel, participated in the First Ser- ners of the physical exercising movement, we must bian Uprising for seven years, since he was 19, until add one more great man of Serbian gymnastics and he suffered a minor wound. When the Ottomans de- Sokol movement, as their true founder – Stevan “Ste- scended in great force upon the rebels, he survived by va” Todorović (Vukašinović, 2016). He was the first fleeing across the Sava river to the Austrian bank, to to leave and impress an undeniable and strong mark, Bežanija, near the town of Zemun. By chance there he in his own manner, on the emergence of organised met his parents and from there they moved to Novi physical exercising and founding and development Sad, where they traded in Turkish tobacco. Stevan’s of civilian gymnastic and cultural societies in the mother Jelena, from Bela Palanka in the foothills of framework of socio-cultural changes in Serbia from Mt. Avala, related to the Uprising leader Vasa Čara- the middle of the 19th and until the beginning of the pić through the female line, also fled from Serbia with 20th century. her parents to Novi Sad where they successfully con- tinued their trading business (Simić, 1951).

118 Correspondence to: Vladan Vukašinović, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Blagoja Parovića 156, 11300 Belgrade, e-mail: [email protected] Vladan Vukašinović V., Stevan Todorović, life and work..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 118-126

because his father had died some time earlier that same year, without him knowing. After the defeat of the revolution in 1849 Steva re- turned from Vienna and went to Belgrade to his uncle who took care of his further education. In his brewery he learned how to produce beer, but every free mo- ment he used “to draw and paint with watercolours, every wall was covered with his works”. The uncle, recognising Steva’s talent and his, since childhood, only desire – to become a painter, took him to Vienna in 1850 and enrolled him at the second semester of the Academy of Fine Arts. The life circumstances in his youth were not in- clined towards Todorović, but he made his path on Photo 1. Stevan Todorović his own during his school years, without a scholar- ship. Six weeks after the enrolment at the Academy Stevan was born in Novi Sad, in a family with his uncle died and Steva lost a monthly income of 150 seven children – four sons and three daughters. The forints. He returned to Belgrade to inherit his un- tobacco trade brought to the family a significant in- cle’s property, only to find his uncle’s house robbed. come until 1937, when their shop and house burnt in Soonafter, both the house and the brewery were tak- a great fire. Stevan enrolled at a Novi Sad elementary en from him by a banker and a pasha, and the entire school, but when he was seven, he moved with his scheme was devised by Steva’s lawyer. After his return parents to Szeged, where his parents bought a warm to Vienna, Steva enrolled at Professor Waldmüller’s and a cold public bath by the Tisa river. Between private school. The assistance from his mother was 1839 and 1846 he finished elementary school in Sze- not enough to pay for his education and he was forced ged and five years of high school. At the Serbian Ele- to support himself until the end of 1852 by giving mentary School, supported by the Serbian Orthodox private drawing and singing lessons. His inseparable Church, Steva learned to write according to the or- friend KornelijeStanković with whom he shared a flat, thography of Vuk Karadžić from the deacon Dimitri- taught him to sing, because he was a wonderful bari- je Popović. The educational influence of this teacher, tone, and while he studied in Vienna some suggested who was famous for being a cousin of Đura Daničić that he should study opera singing (Simić, 1951). and Karadžić’s supporter in the reform of the Serbi- This was a difficult period for Steva. Without any an language and orthography, was enormous during income he returned to his mother in Szeged, and then the school years of the gifted and erudite Todorović went to Vienna, after which he enrolled at the Munich (Simić, 1951). The famous gymnastics and martial Academy of Fine Arts (at the end of 1853), but after arts teacher at the Szeged High School, Đorđe Mark- nine months, because of lack of money, he returned ović Koder, also had a huge influence on Stevan’s life to study in Vienna (1854) with the famous professor (Todorović, 1968). The young high school student Carl Rahl. In the meantime, he spenthis money once was impressed by gymnastics and fencing and this more and returned to Szeged to visit his mother and would be important for the building of Todorović’s earn more for his studies. He painted portraits in personality, which the future would confirm. several places in Vojvodina and went to Novi Sad (in In the middle of 1846 his father took him to Vi- the fall of 1855) where he spent ten months. With the enna for further education and there he finished teachers of the Serbian High School ĐorđeNatošević, the sixth and seventh year of high school. After the Jovan Gavrilović and Jovan Đorđević he practiced graduation he enrolled at the Vienna Lyceum, where gymnastics and fencing in the High School gymnas- he studied philosophy. When the 1848 Revolution tics department and there he discussed the impor- erupted, he was recruited into the student regiment, tance of exercising. In the spring of 1856 he joined which allowed him to support himself, since his con- KornelijeStanković as a “sonorous” baritone at his tact with his family was interrupted by the war, and concerts in larger towns and he got a third of their earnings to continue his studies. Steva became a fa-

119 Vladan Vukašinović V., Stevan Todorović, life and work..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 118-126 mous baritone who “always left a great impression at concerts”, and in the fall of 1856 he had a very suc- cessful concert in Belgrade, “when all the cultured Belgrade met him for the first time”. He went to Vi- enna once again and stayed in Carl Rahl’s school until April 1857, where he was remembered as the most successful among the first Serbian painters (Todor- ović, 1899; Jeftimijades, 1938; Simić, 1951).

STEVAN TODOROVIĆ, PERFORMER AND GYMNASTICS, MARTIAL ARTS, SINGING TEACHER

During his stay in Munich Steva practiced gym- nastics and fencing. That was a good opportunity for him to get directly introduced to the system of Ger- Photo 2. House at Kosančićev venac Street (Belgrade) man tournament gymnastics, as well as to the organi- sation and methodology of private institutes for exer- He grouped Lyceum students according to their cising. It was probably there that he got the idea to es- talents and interests, and soon the Company for tablish a similar association upon his return to Serbia. Gymnastics and Martial Arts was formed, later re- Destined for wider vocations, Todorović had other named the First Serbian Association for Gymnastics interests also. While studying in Vienna, in the circles and Martial Arts (1857). Practising gymnastics and of the progressive Serbian youth he talked about “the fencing, the Company quickly gained favour and great culture which our people are in need of”, the educa- popularity among the students, and it even received tional importance of art, physical exercising, music, support from Prince Mihailo Obrenović. Young in- singing, and theatre” asnational tasks of the young tellectuals who would later hold important positions Serbian intelligentsia “which will make sacrifices for in Serbian politics, science and education – Vladan the sake of future generations” (Simić, 1951), so as to Đorđević, Miloš S. Milojević, Milan Kujundžić, Če- catch up with the advanced European nations. domir „Čeda“ Mijatović, Ljubomir Kaljević, Steva Next year Steva permanently settled in Belgrade Popović „Crni“, Andra Nikolić, and others – also (May 1857), and since he was tireless and entrepre- practised gymnastics there (Đorđević, 1927; Petrović, neurial he immediately opened the Painting School 1983). in Kosančićev venac St., in the house of the iconog- “Šćeva”, as he was nicknamed by his students, en- rapher Milija Marković Raspop. In his private “insti- deavoured to diversely educate the youth in a patri- tute” he taught the Lyceum students to draw, paint, otic spirit. He devoted a lot of time to them, beside sing, he told and interpreted the Iliad for them, recit- to his painting, seeing in them the bearers of future ing Shakespeare’s tragedies, and as a great aficionado changes in Serbia. Šćeva’s former student, the writer of physical exercising, he taught them gymnastics and Čeda Mijatović, later wrote how it had all begun in fencing, all for free. On his enthusiasm Steva wrote New Spark in 1900 (Jeftimijades, 1938): the following in his Autobiography: “He taught us to swim in the waves of mu- “I immediately set down to expand my work be- sic, to emerge from them rejuvenated, with our side painting to all other necessities, and especially to souls cleaner and nobler. However, his workshop introduce harmonic singing and physical exercising soon became to us a true academy for skills, lit- as the basis for a healthy body and spirit. But much erature, aesthetics and morality. We visited him needed to be done to improve the neglected home at any time of day, early in the morning and late education” […] “The physical exercising proceeded in the evening. We stood around him, observing difficult in the beginning, because Belgrade populace him while he worked and listening to him.” […] did not understand the benefits of this, and there was “He was jovial, always jocund, witty, spirited…” even disapproval.” […] “One merciful and fortunate thought en-

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sured that this self-sown academy develop and lesson in this building. At this demonstration the take us to higher planes.” […] “That was when drawings and aquarelles of Steva and his students Steva started organising music and aesthetics were shown, popular and church songs were per- nights where there would be singing and an is- formed, followed by a demonstration of gymnastic sue from literature and aesthetics would be dis- and fencing skills. This public class, of which much cussed. Practically unintentionally he became was said and written later, had been attended by our dear and great teacher. When he had real- Prince Mihailo, who expressed to Steva, after the ised this himself, then, to make a full circle of demonstration was over, his “particular pleasure”, our education, he began teaching us drawing and and delighted with the students’ achievements de- gymnastics. That was how we were fortunate to, cided to provide Todorović with better working con- from 1857, go for free to a school, which was as ditions (Simić, 1951). priceless as gold, and which had no peer before and after. When Steva had gathered around him- self and impressed a significant number of young men, in the autumn of 1857, in conjunction with them, he established a association for physical exercising named The First Serbian Association for Gymnastics and Martial Arts.

THE FIRST SERBIAN GYMNASTICS ASSOCIATION AND GYM

That 1857 Belgraders were proud that their town Photo 3. The building of Turkish han (Belgrade) was among the first Slavic cities to have its own gymnastic association, and their thanks went to Encouraged by this success Steva asked the Prince the young academic painter StevanTodorović, who to help him by sending him on a study and profes- stood in the first ranks of the young Serbian bour- sional development trip to Rome, for a year or two. geoisie when cultural societies started being estab- The Prince granted this wish and advised him to lished (Jovanović, 1957). He taught in his workshop, wait further instruction in Vienna, but, because of and when the number of students had grown he ad- a scheme of a palace administrator Steva did not re- dressed Belgraders in the press to help him with that ceive this help, and because he was already in Vienna useful endeavour. That was how exercising contin- he spent his savings while waiting for the promised ued in Sava Spahija’s warehouse near St. Michael’s help. He did not lose the desire to learn more even on Cathedral. That was how the first gym in Belgrade this occasion, and so he spent time visiting Professor came to be. Rahl’s school. He lived with “his good friend” Kor- 1 In spite of objections to these activities from the nelijeStanković until the middle of the 1861 sum- 2 public, such as a parent report to the police that mer, while Jovan Bošković helped him to find money “such games are being played that children could to return to Belgrade. In Belgrade, he settled in the break arms and legs”, Steva managed to deal with “Kruna” inn, and after two months he found himself these difficulties relying on his connections, since in even greater debt. Since he could not pay the ex- among his students there were also children of im- penses, the innkeeper sold his paintings and equip- portant figures. When it came to a one-day ban, the ment in the market. Minister of Education Kosta Nikolajević intervened (Simić, 1951). From Raspop’s house and the small Spahija’s 1 Kornelije Stankovic, the first Serbian educated composer, con- warehouse he moved his Painting School into the ductor, pianist, music writer. 2 Jovan Boskovic, at the time professor of Grammar building of Turkish Han (the nowadays location of School, linguist, educator at the court of Obrenovic, the University of Belgrade Rectorate). Soon, on the theater critic, professor of the High School, member of third day of 1860 Easter, Steva gave the first public the Serbian Royal Academy, Minister of Education.

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Todorović’s students could be joined in their exercises in the gym and on the summer exercising grounds by high school students. During the summer break, he took the students on study trips to , and Switzerland, and they kept journals, which would be handed to the Prince upon their return to Serbia. This is what Steva wrote about that: “The first thing I would do was examine my stu- dents’ home education and knowledge acquired at school” […] “It required a great effort on my part to tame these little savages, to form in them the sense for noble deeds, and particularly the love for Serb- dom and the fatherland.” Steva marked the beginning of this pedagogical work as a turning point in his life, remembering “the miserable past” and difficult moments from his youth. This all happened at the moment of great dejection Photo 4. Staro zdanje (name of a building) due to pennilessness, when he was dependent upon the help of his friend Jovan Bošković, for his life to suddenly become more carefree, filled with acquaint- ENLIGHTENMENT TROUGH ances and recommendations: “And only now did I see EXERCISING what this world is like: now when I had everything in abundance, offers came from all sides even for my Gaining the Obrenović favour, at the beginning of dear painting” (Simić, 1951). November 1861 Todorović became the tutor to Prince Steva also considered a turning point in his life, his Mihailo’s ten-year-old illegitimate son, Velimir Todor- marriage to Poleksija Ban, the daughter of the poet and ović. That was probably one more reason why Steva got dramatist . Poleksija was one of Steva’s stu- a good pay and a large apartment with a balcony and dents, who charmed him with her talent for painting two chambers, for his studio and gym, in the “Staro and her pleasant spirit, though he was also flattered zdanje” hotel (in the 7. juli St. at the modern day loca- that she was the daughter of a famous poet, writer and tion of the National Bank of Serbia) where he could also politician. Their joint and extensive work would bring place modern gymnastics equipment even in winter. In him the realisation of great ambitions in painting. The the summer of 1862, at his own expense, the Prince also Prince allowed him to stop teaching and unexpected- built the summer exercising grounds near the Kalemeg- ly rewarded him with a wedding gift of two thousand dan Fortress – across Realka school, at the modern day ducats, and thus helped him to go to a honeymoon. location of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts This trip served Steva and Poleksija’s further profes- – with the most modern exercising equipment (Tru- sional development in Florence and Rome, where they jić, 1976). Steva’s gymnastics association operated until copied the works of classical artists – Raphael, Titian, 1864. Intensive work in the well-equipped gym and in Rubens, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Giorgione the exercising grounds in the open continually attracted and others (1864-1865) (Simić, 1951). new members, middle school students, and so the num- In the spring of 1865 Steva accepted the position ber of students in his School grew to 80. of the assistant professor for free-hand drawing at the At the beginning of 1861 Steva started teaching, newly founded Technical Faculty of the Belgrade High- beside Velimir, other students chosen by the Prince, er School. In September he was already appointed as and his contract stipulated that this work should the drawing teacher in a Belgrade high school, and af- last for six years. In his “Staro zdanje” apartment, ter two months he received a permanent employment he taught drawing, singing, gymnastics and fencing, in Realka (Todorović, 1899). That was how, in spite of while for other subjects – foreign languages, piano considering painting his life’s call, Steva would spend and others – he hired “particular” teachers. In these his life working as a teacher, from 1865, until 1894, groups there were even girls. The Prince allowed that when he was let into retirement at his own request.

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EXERCISING, PATRIOTISM AND abroad on state missions and was quite active in the- “NATURAL KNOWLEDGE” OF atre and singing companies. STEVAN TODOROVIĆ FROM He participated in politics and was loyal to the CULTURE, SCIENCE AND ART Liberal Party. Despite his high social standing, fruit- ful work and favour of the Obrenović dynasty, due One hundred and sixty years have passed since to the rivalry between the Liberal and Progressive StevanTodorović, a visionary and father of cultural parties he felt on his own skin the degradation of and artistic life of the backward Principality of Ser- the teaching profession. In just a few months of the bia, arrived from progressive Vojvodinato Belgrade. same year at the “recommendation” of the Minister of He immediately shook the languid spirits of the Education Kosta Cukić, he was transferred from the apathetic provincial milieu and continued working Technical Faculty to Realka. In his advanced years he passionately on the cultural-educational growth of belonged to the higher stratum of the Serbian bour- his fellow Belgraders. He worked tirelessly with his geoisie, but at the end of the 19th century his work heart full of endless love, with inexhaustible strength developed outside the ruling circles. In the war with of his spirit and body and the faith in the better life the Ottomans (1876) he stoically shared the fate of and people, giving all of himself so that the values Serbian soldiers, as a father and grandfather. In a let- of a better cultural life may take roots among the ter from the front he wrote to his Poleksija that he Serbian people and in their state. He left important, “was lamenting that he had not arrived to the site of deep and undeniable marks on the social, cultural, a fierce battle a day earlier” and that “it didn’t trouble artistic and sport life. him that he was sleeping on the ground and that he Diversely educated, refined, talented, noble, tire- had felt the blessing of all manner of insects, when he less, a patriot, intolerant towards foreigners in the marched with such a brave army” (Simić, 1951). From singing societies and theatre, sensitive to the poverty the front he sent, relying on stagecoaches, drawings among the people and in the association, generous to for the foreign newspapers and salary paycheques, so his friends, always caring for his “dear” mother… An that Poleksija and their four children, Zorica, Ljubica, academic painter, and the teacher of drawing, paint- Miloš and Milan, would not be without money. ing and other skills, the author of critiques and po- Serbian art critics consider him one of the most lemics, an actor in his youth, a theatre decorator, a famous and most revered painters of that period and baritone singer, gymnast and fencer. The greatness the leading representative of Romanticism in Serbian of his diverse work and contribution to the cultural painting. He held his first exhibition, the first one in development of Serbia from the middle of the 19th century, was characterised by rich painting opus, Serbia in general, in Belgrade in 1859, and it received pedagogical work with children and the youth, as the highest praises and excellent criticism. He made well as activities in the founding and development of around a thousand drawings, genre paintings, por- numerous cultural-artistic and sport institutions and traits, aquarelles, twenty iconostases and historical societies. compositions, and in this he had a great help in his From this time distance Steva’s mental strength wife Poleksija. He made some 300 representative por- and endurance are awe-inspiring. He served dili- traits of his contemporaries, members of the Obreno- gently in the education system, where he held be- vić dynasty, and a number of writers, scientists, well- tween 18 and 22 classes a week, always a number known merchants, chroniclers. In his most fruitful of different subjects: free-hand drawing, geometry, phase (1850-1880), he created famous works, among Serbian history, the history of trade and crafts, ge- them a group portrait of Belgrade gymnasts and a ography, descriptive geometry, ornamnetics, archi- self-portrait from 1854 which is one of the most val- tecture and topography, German language, and on uable works of Serbian Romanticism (Kusovac et al., his own accord gymnastics and fencing. He left be- 2002). A huge number of Todorović’s works have not hind a considerable opus in historical and church been preserved, drawings from the 1876-1878 wars painting, portraiture and landscape painting, and with the Ottomans and from his journeys were sto- also managed a painting, sculpting and gymnastics len in 1918, along with great historical compositions, school, and a fencing department, participating in works from international exhibitions were either ru- all cultural-artistic events in Belgrade, travelling ined or stolen by the enemy during the Great War.

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music and acting. He was the founder and from 1865 member of the First Belgrade Singing Association for 33 years, a long-time president, and that was why he was elected as the permanent president of this asso- ciation. In his AutobiographySteva remembers how he diligently worked to remove German, and other foreign actors and singers, from the performance of Serbian songs (Todorović, 1899).

STEVAN TODOROVIĆ – PHYSICAL CULTURE AND ORGANIZED EXERCISING IN SERBIA

The Autobiography that StevaTodorović wrote in his late years in exile (in 1915 in the town ofVranje, Photo 5. Group portrait of Belgrade gymnastics, and 1917 in Rome), also encompasses a part of his 1858-1859. total engagement in the development of physical cul- ture, and those were activities in the establishment of physical exercising in the Painting School, i.e. in the Company for Gymnastics and Martial Arts, and to a lesser extent, the functions in gymnastics and the Sokol movement. However, enough of relevant source data not included in theAutobiography on Steva’s contribution to the development of physical culture in the Kingdom of Serbia has been preserved. Steva’s work in education, which started in 1857, is considered the beginning of the first emergence of organised physical exercising (gymnastics) in Serbia, from which the Sokol movement and modern sports would spring out. From then on, during the coming decades, Steva would be in the centre of all important events in the physical culture of Serbia, almost until the end of his 93-year long and fruitful life. His initial experiences in the development of physical exercising were precious for the further advance of gymnastics and Sokol movement. His students from the Compa- Photo 6. Stevan Todorović - Autoportrait, 1854. ny established and helped, twenty years later, other similar societies in the Kingdom of Serbia. And Ste- Steva was a tireless cultural worker, significant in va was, as one of the founders and a functionary in the development of music and theatre life of Belgrade the Belgrade Association for Gymnastics and Martial which was unparalleled in the Serbian culture of the Arts (1882) – on many occasions the vice president second half of the 19th century. In 1857 Steva became a of this association (1882-1884 and 1889-1891); the member of a Belgrade amateur theatre troupe. He was president (1884-1886 and 1888-1889); and a member the manager of the amateur theatre in “Kneževapiv- of the Managing Board (1882-1891). When Belgrade ara” inn, and in it he acted, directed, made backdrops gymnasts accepted the Czech Sokol System, Steva and decorations, and in various manners participated was still active and performed a number of highest in 53 plays, until the establishment of the National functions: he was the president of the Belgrade Gym- Theatre where he assisted as a scenographer. Until nastic Association “Soko” (1906-1909); the president deep old age he worked on the improvement of vocal of the unified Association of Sokol Association “Dušan

124 Vladan Vukašinović V., Stevan Todorović, life and work..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 118-126 the Mighty” (from 1910); the president of the Associa- THE BIOGRAPHY OF STEVAN tion of Serbian Sokols (from 1908 until the beginning TODOROVIĆ – ETERNITY OF of the First , the so called All-Serbian Sokol SERBIAN EXERCISING AND SPORT Association); a representative of the Serbian Sokol MOVEMENT movement in the All-Slavic Sokol Association (from 1910). He was a member of the Committee for the Es- The enormous and tireless work brought to Steva tablishment of the Belgrade Gymnastics School and recognition and material security for a comfortable the Committee for the Gymnastics Exams; he con- life in his late years. For everything he had done dur- tinued helping the founding of gymnastic and Sokol ing his life StevaTodorović was honoured and reward- societies throughout Serbia; at his own request he ed. In the Serbian-Ottoman Wars (1876-1878) he was taught gymnastics in Belgrade Realka (1874-1881). decorated with the Order of the Cross of Takovo of the fourth and third class, as a war painter and news- paper reporter. For his artistic work he was decorated with the Order of Saint Sava of the third and second class, the Order of the White Eagle of the fifth class, and Karađorđe’s Star of the fourth class, the Order of Prince Danilo of the fourth class, Order of the Crown of Italy of the second class… He was chosen as an honorary, and not long after, a regular member of the Serbian Royal Academy (1902), the honorary mem- ber of the Academy of Arts and the Italian Catania Academy. For his contributions to the sport, he also received numerous recognitions. Togy- mnasts and Sokols, once, and now, Steva has been a pioneer, father, a great man of physical exercising. StevanTodorvić died on 22 May 1925 and was Photo 7. Stevan Todorović in his late years buried in the Belgrade New . For this last farewell to Uncle Steva many people gathered – the Beside these managerial activities Todorović common citizenry, official representatives of numer- participated in the slets of Bulgarian“Junak” in So- ous institutions, artists, actors, singers, and gymnasts, fia (1910), Sokols in Zagreb (1911) and Prague at Sokols and sportsmen. the First All-Slavic Sokol Slet (1912) as a represent- ative of the above mentioned associations. During Notes his war exile in Italy he participated in the founding At the Faculty of Sport and Physical Education - of the Serbian Football Club “Soko”. After the end of University of Belgrade, on November 3 and 4, 2017, the Great War, even though quite old, Todorović was the Scientific Meeting was held „160 years since the elected to the lifetime positions of honorary president beginning of organized physical exercise (1857) and of the Belgrade Sokol Department upon its founding 126 years since the emergence of Sokol movement in (1920) and honorary head of the Sokol Association of Serbia (1891)”. Within the program, representatives of Belgrade-Matica. With these acts Steva received a de- the Faculty, members of the Sokol Association of Ser- served recognition for the pioneer steps he had under- bia and Belgrade, Sokol Association Belgrade Matica taken in the organising of physical exercising, and for and participants of the scientific gathering, honored his long work on the development of gymnastics and in the gardens of the great ones at the New Cemetery, Sokol movement in Belgrade, Serbia and farther. “Un- laid wreaths on the graves to academics Steva Todor- cle Steva”, as the Sokols later called him, in the sport ović, Dr. Vladan Đorđević and Dr. Vojislav Rasic. At expert community is mostly known as the founder, the scientific conference were presented the results of and to some, the father of sport in Serbia (Rašić, 1908; the research on this work, about the life and impres- Todorović, 1899. and 1912; Jeftimijades, 1938; Simić, sive works of Steve Todorovic. 1951; Jovanović, 1957; Todorović, 1968; Trujić, 1976; Ilić i Mijatović, 2006; Vukašinović, 2016).

125 Vladan Vukašinović V., Stevan Todorović, life and work..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 118-126

REFERENCES 1. Đorđević, V. (1927). Успомене, културне скице 9. Rašić, V. (1908). Spomenica na prvo srpsko sokol- из друге половине 19. века, 1. [Memories, cultural sko veče. [Memory on first Serbia Sokol evening. In sketches from the second half of 19 century, 1. In Serbian]. Beograd. Serbian] Novi Sad: knjižara „Slavija“. 10. Simić, M. Z. (1951). Autobiografija Steve Todoro- 2. Ilić, S., and Mijatović, S. (2006). Историја физичке vića. [Autobiography of Steva Todorović]. Novi културе Кнежевине и Краљевине Србије, део 3. Sad: Matica srpska. [History of physical culture in the principality and 11. Todorović, S. (1968). Steva Todorović (1832-1925) Kingdom of Serbia, part 3. In Serbian]. Beоgrad: i Prvo srpsko društvo za gimnastiku i borenje u Fakultet fizičke kulture Univerziteta u Beogradu. Beogradu. [Steva Todorović. In Serbian]. Zbornik 3. Jeftimijades, M. (1938). Čika Steva Todorović. [Uncle za istoriju fizičke kulture Srbije, 2-3, 7-12. Steva Todorović. In Serbian] Oko sokolovo 2, 26-28. 12. Todorović, S. (1899). Autobiografija. [Autobio- 4. Jovanović, B. (1957). Поводом стогодишњице graphy. In Serbian]. Godišnjak Srpske kraljevske организованог физичког васпитања у Србији. akademije, 12, 189-207. [On the occasion of hundred years of the organised 13. Todorović, S. (1912). Savez Sveslovenskog Sokol- physical education in Serbia. In Serbian]. Physical stva. [Union of all Slovenian Sokol. In Serbian]. culture 7-8. 326-332. In S. Obradović (ed.), Sokolski godišnjak za 1911. 5. Kusovac, N., Vrbaški, M., Grujić, V. and Kraut, V. Beograd: Savez sokolskih društava „Dušan Silni“, (2002). Stevan Todorović 1832-1925. [Stevan Todo- 34-37. rović 1832-1925. In Serbian]. Novi Sad: Narodni 14. Trujić, N. (1976). Физичка култура у школама muzej Beograd, Galerija Matice srpske. Србије у 19. веку. [Physical Culture in schools in 6. Matić, М. (1975). Родоначелник покрета физичке Serbia in the 19th century. In Serbian]. Beograd: културе у Србији – Стева Тодоровић. [The Foun- Komisija za istoriju, arhiv i muzej fizičke kulture der of physical culture movement in Serbia – Steva Srbije. Todorović. In Serbian]. Physical culture, 2. 12-15. 15. Vukašinović, V. (2016). Гимнастика и сокол- 7. Petrović, V. (1927). Todorović Stevan. [Todorović ство у Србији до 1941. године, великани срп- Stevan. In Serbian]. In S. Stanojević (ed.), Narodna ске гимнастике и соколства. [Gymnastics and enciklopedija, 4. Novi Sad: štamparija Budućnost. Sokol in Serbia until 1941, great names of Serbian 8. Petrović, V. Ј. (1983). Физичка култура до 1941. gymnastics and Sokol. In Serbian]. Beograd: год. [Physical culture until 1941. In Serbian]. In М. University of Belgrade, Fakultet sporta i fizičkog Maletić (ed.), Sociajalistička republika Srbija, II tom vaspitanja. (pp. 429-454). Beograd: Književne novine.

LEBEN UND WERK DES TURNERS, KÜNSTLERS, AUFKLÄRERS UND BEGRÜNDERS VON ORGANISIERTEM SPORT IN SERBIEN STEVAN TODOROVIĆ

Zusammenfassung Im Jahr 2017 wurden 160 Jahre seit Beginn von organisierten körperlichen Übungen (1857) und 126 Jahre seit der Erscheinung der So- kolbewegung (1891) in Serbien gefeiert. Evoziert wurde der riesige Beitrag, den der Akademiker Steva Todorović, dr. Vladan Đorđevic und dr. Vojislav Rašić zu den Anfängen und der Entwicklung von Körperkultur im Fürstentum und Königtum Serbien geleistet haben. Es wurden 160 Jahre seit der Ankunft des Akademikers Stevan Todorović in der Hauptstadt Belgrad gekennzeichnet, in der er 1857 seine kulturelle und aufklärerische Arbeit begann. Im Rahmen der Malerschule, die er eröffnete, wurde eine „Genossenschaft für Gymnastik und Kampfsport“ als erste organisierte Gesellschaft für körperliche Übungen gegründet. Diese Genossenschaft war ein Vorgänger für die Akzeptanz der Sokolbewegung, die Entwicklung des modernen Sports und die Affirmierung von Körperkultur in Serbien. Ziel dieser -Ar beit ist es, den Beitrag des Akademikers Stevan Todorović zum insgesamten Progress von Kultur, Bildung und Körperkultur zu erleuchten. Durch eine historische Methode wurden authentische Dokumente aus den Jahren 1899, 1908, 1912, 1927, 1938 bearbeitet, die der breiteren und fachlichen Öffentlichkeit und Mitgliedern von Gymnastik- und Sokolvereinen nicht zugänglich waren.

Schlüsselwörter: STEVAN TODOROVIĆ / KÖRPERKULTUR / BILDUNG / KULTUR / KUNST / SERBIEN

Received: 05. 11. 2017. Accepted: 06. 12. 2017.

126 Phys. Cult. (Belgr.) 2017; 71 (2): 127-136 PHYSICAL CULTURE

PROFESSIONAL PAPER UDC:796:159.9 doi:10.5937/fizkul1702127V

ETHICS EDUCATION IN APPLIED SPORT PSYCHOLOGY

Ana V. Vesković¹, Nikola M. Petrović²

¹University of Belgrade, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Serbia ² University of Belgrade, Faculty of Philosophy, Department of Psychology, Serbia

Abstract In applied sport psychology psychologists are often required to provide their services outside of the framework of tradi- tional clinical practice, which has its advantages and limitations. Practitioners often face specific dilemmas and cannot find guidelines in the ethics code. Education in the field of ethics has been empirically proven as a powerful factor in the prevention of ethics violations. This issue becomes more important as there has been a growing number of psychologists in this field in recent years. That is why the focus of this paper is describing the specificity of ethics in applied sport psy- chology. Based on the review of the relevant literature, three most common issues have been identified: setting bound- aries, confidentiality and competence. In the second, lesser, empirical part of the paper, the results of a pilot study on ethical beliefs related to the behavior of sports psychologists are presented. Data were collected on a sample of students of psychology (N = 92), some of which might become sport psychologists. Some of the behaviors that are necessary for effective practice but are atypical for traditional clinical practice (for example, the presence of psychologists in competi- tions) are seen as unethical by almost half of the respondents. Most of the respondents have similar beliefs regarding the disclosure of confidential information to trainers. Recommendations which refer to the need to develop specific training programs in applied sport psychology ethics are also presented.

Keywords: CLINICAL SPORT PSYCHOLOGY / ETHICAL DILEMMAS / BOUNDARIES / CONFIDENTIALITY / COMPETENCE

INTRODUCTION of ASP appear characteristic ethical questions and possible ethical dilemmas that the practitioners meet. Sport psychology is a relatively young discipline Beside the ones characteristic for clinical psychology, that left the broader frames of psychology, sport they include the ones characteristic for sport psychol- sciences and medicine during 1960s (Stapleton, ogy and sport culture in general (Brown, & Cogan, Hanks, Hayes & Parham, 2010). Two sub-disciplines 1994; Moore, 2003). ASP belongs to the interdisci- differentiated themselves within sport psychology plinary areas where ethical questions are extremely (Wylleman, Harwood, Elbe, & Caluwé, 2009): aca- important (Petitpas, Brewer, Rivera, & Van Raalte, demic sport psychology and applied sport psycholo- 1994). gy (ASP). Sport psychology intertwines with clinical psychology within ASP. Besides the practice of pro- viding clinical services (e.g. work with athletes that ETHICAL CODE AND ETHICS have mood disorder and eating disorders), the inter- EDUCATION ventions that are, by their nature, educational, also apply within ASP, including training of mental skills With a view to regulating the practice of this ap- required for top sport achievements (skills of relaxa- plied discipline, various professional associations tion, setting of goals, imagination, and other), learn- have developed ethical codes, establishing the rules ing communication skills with co-players and trainer of (un)desired behaviour and acting in certain situ- and many others (Stapleton, et al., 2010; Weinberg, ations. Thus, for example, the National Association & Gould, 2011). In accordance with the specificities for Sport and Physical Education published “Ethical

Correspondence to: Ana V. Vesković, е-mail: [email protected] /Nikola M. Petrović, 127 е-mail: [email protected] Vesković A. V, & Petrović N. M., Ethics education..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 127-136 standards in providing services of NASPЕ members“. tency. As sensitivity for these questions is consid- The Association for the Advancement of Applied ered to be crucial for the efficient sport psycholo- Sport Psychology accepted, in principle, the guide- gist practice, and there are no published papers with lines of the Ethical Code published by the American this topic in our environment, the first objective of Psychological Association. In our environment, eth- the paper is their presentation. In the recent years, ics of psychologists has been regulated by the ethi- more and more our local psychologists have dealt cal code of the Serbian Association of Psychologists with ASP, and only three out of seven accredited (DPS, 2000), within which the specificities of ethics faculties of psychology have subjects that are relat- of sport psychologists have not been explicitly pro- ed to some area of professional ethics (non-specific, vided. Often and unfortunately, sport psychologists for psychology in general). In addition, the courses meet various ethical dilemmas for which there are regarding professional ethics are an exception, rath- not prescribed clear rules of behaviour (Lavallee, er than a rule (Petrović, 2016). The research shows Kremer, Moran, & Williams, 2004; Weinberg, & that the beliefs are important because the psycholo- Gould, 2011). This is precisely why the education of gists’ behaviour is mostly in accordance with beliefs students and experts in ethics represent the strong- (Pope, Tabachnik, & Keith-Spiegel, 1987; Rubin & est weapon in fighting against the violation of ethi- Dror, 1996) and because they can largely influence cal rules (Vasquez, 1992). Its basic goal is adoption the psychologists to respect or violate professional of a certain way of thinking in meeting with ethical ethics (Petrović, 2016). In our environment, in most dilemmas in practice and their solving (Pack-Brown cases, the practitioners of ASP are psychologists, & Williams, 2003). The Association of Applied Sport often without an additional formal education and Psychology (AASP) has prescribed minimal stand- training. The second objective hereof is to present ards for obtaining the sport psychologist certificate. the results of the explorative research - a pilot study According to these standards, which are the only - in which we have examined the beliefs of psycholo- ones recognised by the American Olympic Com- gy students (future psychologists) regarding behav- mittee, the post-graduate studies of sport psychol- ioural ethics of sport psychologists. ogy should also contain the ethics module (Wylle- man, Harwood, Elbe, & Caluwé, 2009). Adoption and respect of professional ethics is connected to MOST COMMON ETHICAL the professional identity of the practitioners in this QUESTIONS IN APPLIED SPORT area (Haberl, & Peterson, 2006). It is determined by PSYCHOLOGY education, training, and qualifications (Wylleman, & Lavallee, 2004). Most practitioners are graduat- Setting of boundaries. Clear boundaries are set ed students of psychology specialised in sport psy- within the counselling and psychotherapeutic rela- chology through additional trainings. On the oth- tionship with a goal to define the roles of each side er hand, many modern educational programmes in the relationship and to protect clients’ welfare in sport sciences include counselling and trainings (Speight, 2012). In the last two decades, the litera- in clinical psychology. Their different professional ture has considered that not every crossing of the identity leads to their not abiding by the same ethi- boundaries represents their violation and is not nec- cal code (Brown, & Cogan, 1994). The ability of rec- essarily detrimental to the client (Barnett, Lazarus, ognising and development of special sensitivity for Vasquez, Moorehead-Slaughter, & Johnson, 2007). ethical questions and possible ethical dilemmas is Consultations held by sport psychologists can, by crucial for ethical behaviour that influences compe- their nature, represent crossing of the boundaries tency (Brown, & Cogan, 1994). (Moles, Petrie, & Watkins, 2016). Actually, when The subject of this paper аrе ethical beliefs and be- sport psychologists consider appropriateness of their haviours of sport psychologists. The paper presents behaviour, they should see it through the prism of some ethical questions which are most frequently the sport environment (Speight, 2012). Besides per- mentioned as characteristic for ASP in the literature forming their practice in traditional places, in con- by foreign authors (Brown, & Cogan, 1994; Huang, sulting rooms within the private practice or the uni- & Hung, 2008; Moore, 2003; Stapleton et al., 2010;): versity, it is usual that the sport psychologist holds setting of boundaries, confidentiality and compe- the consultations with athletes and trainers outside

128 Vesković A. V, & Petrović N. M., Ethics education..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 127-136 the classical psychotherapeutic setting, for example, “beware“ of close interactions, and to have superfi- in the room for preparations before the competition, cial conversations. The literature mentions the ex- in the locker room, during a trip (on the bus, plane), perience of the psychologist that was often invited in the hotel (Andersen, Van Raatle, & Brewer, 2001; to attend such social events. He imposed himself in Brown, & Cogan, 1994; Etzel & Watson 2007; Moore, the role of driver in the situations when alcohol was 2003; Stapleton, et al., 2010; Haberl, & Peterson, consumed, which enabled him to be involved in the 2006). This particularly regards the psychologists event, but also to keep a professional relationship that work with sport teams or within sport organisa- and to preserve the boundaries (Brown, & Cogan, tions (Moore, 2003). More often than not, the sched- 1994). Another characteristic situation that can be ules of the athletes are already planned in advance ethically questionable regards the venue of holding and they keep the athlete occupied throughout the consultations with athletes during trips. Let us im- day, and it does not leave room for the sessions to agine a frequent situation when there is no availa- last the usual 45-60 minutes, but there is time only ble separate room for holding consultations in the for short interventions that are sometimes per- hotel. Holding consultations with athletes in the formed during meals (Stapleton, et al., 2010). Such hotel lobby can lead to violation of the confidenti- practice enables the psychologist to help the athlete ality principle. Also, the psychologist can hold the function as optimally as possible, in order to real- consultations with individual athletes or a group of ise his/her personal goals and the goal of the team athletes in the hotel room (Moore, 2003) which may and/or sports organisation (Moore, 2003). Athletes open a question of potential sexual intentions (some can feel more at ease when the psychologist is with psychologists solve this situation by working with them and when they can have consultations when the door open). Finally, the psychologist does not they need them (for example, right after the compe- have to avoid such situations at any cost, but repre- tition, or upon defeat). The next advantage of such sents him/herself in a professional manner in these manner of work is in existence of more possibilities situations, making his/her role and manner of his/ for the psychologist to know better both the trainer her involvement clear for everybody (Moore, 2003). and the athlete, as well as to see their reactions in the critical situations. It is clear that in the described Confidentiality. A good relationship between environment the boundaries are less rigid than in a professional, whether he/she is a psychologist, clinical practice. In addition, ethical dilemmas may psychotherapist, consultant, supervisor, sport psy- appear in those situations when there is more social chologist, and a client (that can be an individual interaction (APA, 2002). For example, the psycholo- athlete, sports team, a trainer and other club offi- gist can be invited to attend the celebration after the cials, parents of the athlete) represents a key com- team victory or the trainers can invite him/her to ponent for the successful outcome (Stapleton, et al., have a drink in the bar. How should the psychologist 2010). Trust makes a basis of this relationship. Even act if he/she gets in such situation? If he/she refuses the slightest violation of the confidentiality principle to come, it might create a distance in the relation- can reflect negatively on their relationship. Most of- ship (and closeness in the psychologist-athlete rela- ten the third party - parents of the athlete, the train- tionship is crucial). Usually it takes longer for the er or other club officials can direct the athlete to the psychologist to develop a good working alliance and psychologist and realise the first contact with him/ closeness with athletes and other officials (if he/she her. It is not rare that the third party presumes that works within a certain sports organisation), and to he/she is automatically entitled to the information still be respected and trustworthy person (Moore, regarding the sensitive data on the treatment and 2003). On the other hand, one should not neglect progress (Moore 2003). The additional complication the second possible scenario: athletes that have can develop if the third party finances the treatment. come to the psychologist to solve specific problems This is a frequent situation with the parents that are and that have built a good working alliance with the highly involved in the sports activity of their chil- psychologist can seek help in the future after the dren. It might happen that the psychologist works in initial treatment is over. If the psychologist accepts parallel with the athlete and his/her parents. It is ex- the invitation to such events, it is necessary to be tremely important to develop a special sensitivity for always aware of his/her professional boundaries, to additional questions and for keeping confidentiali-

129 Vesković A. V, & Petrović N. M., Ethics education..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 127-136 ty. In such cases the confidentiality issues are much chology (eating disorders, anxiety, depression, etc.). more complex and require a special caution and bal- In some cases the trainer can actively participate in ancing. One of the most delicate issues is to what ex- the treatment. In such case it is necessary to ask the tent every family member counts on confidentiality athlete for the written consent on the possibilities of within the family, which is especially emphasized if disclosure of the information (and to what extent it the family members come individually as well. The can be given to the third party). More often than not, two-way errors are possible. If the psychologist gives the trainers informed on the confidentiality bound- plenty of information (without violating a confiden- aries ask the consultant the questions regarding the tiality principle), it may look as if the confidential- athlete’s progress. For example, if the athlete has made ity principle was violated. Contrary to that, if the a progress, the trainer wants to know the topics of the psychologist offers too few information, it can cre- psychologist’s conversation with the athlete, most ate a suspicion regarding the process itself. In such probably in order to know how to support the athlete situations, the psychologist will act best if he/she in future situations. These situations are more fre- encourages the family members to exchange the in- quent if the trainer and the psychologist know each formation when they consider it appropriate. When other personally. Then the psychologist can ask the there is a doubt of such possibility, the psychologist athlete what and how much information he/she can can ask each family member which part of the infor- disclose to the trainer. This situation is awkward for mation would be appropriate for sharing with other all parties involved, and it can be prevented by setting family members. the agreement in advance, and the consultant’s com- When the sports psychologist works with profes- munication with the third party should be planned in sional sports organisations, he/she cannot assume advance as well. The APA code envisages that the psy- the same confidentiality boundaries as when he/she chologist can give the information to the third party, works with an individual athlete (Gardner, 2001). In but only such that directly regards the achieving of a that process one should bear in mind the objectives certain objective (professional or scientific) and only of the athlete and the objectives of the sports organ- to a certain person. Other information that is not di- isation if it has hired the psychologist (in such case rectly connected to the goal of the treatment must not the organisation is a client as well). Trainers, club of- be disclosed (APA, 2002). ficials, even the media can consider themselves en- Holding consultations in public places, during titled to this privileged information. For example, the training or during the competition is anoth- let us imagine that the sports club (the third party er important aspect of the practice for which the in the relationship) hires the psychologist to evalu- psychologist should develop a special sensitivity ate the characteristics of the athletes’ personalities (Huang, & Hung, 2008). Athletes should pay atten- and that the psychologist’s task is to draft the reports tion to the people around them, but the psychologist to the sports club. It is necessary to inform the ath- has to converse carefully on the confidential infor- letes thereof. That is why during the very first con- mation that other persons can overhear. Andersen tact with the third party the psychologist should set et al. (2001) give two suggestions regarding such clear boundaries of confidentiality of information in situations. One of them is that the psychologist and the relationship with the athlete (Moore, 2003). If, for the athlete try to find a sound proof room, and the example, the third party asks the psychologist for the other is to schedule the consultation regarding the information on the athlete, he/she should direct it to sensitive matters for another time. the athlete. As the relationship between the psycholo- gist and the third party may influence the quality and Competency. Sport psychology is a specialised duration of the psychologist-athlete relationship, a domain and it requires a specialised competency relationship of trust should be developed between (Brown, & Cogan, 1994). It is wrong to believe that them. One of the first steps is to encourage the third competency for sport psychology can be acquired by party to support the athlete’s treatment which implies developing a huge interest in sport psychology top- respecting of confidentiality. If the consultant is a ics, by reading the literature, or that former athletes psychologist, he or she might happen to work with or trainers possess such competency. Psychologists the athlete on the issues that go beyond the sport pro- can be competent for counselling or psychotherapy, gress, even with the ones in the field of clinical psy- but in order to become competent for sport psychol-

130 Vesković A. V, & Petrović N. M., Ethics education..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 127-136 ogy, it is necessary to acquire a specific knowledge 17 (18,48%) boys. The average age of the participants from sport sciences, as well as to continuously im- is 22,08 years (SD=1,59). A majority of students is prove themselves (Stapleton et al., 2010). It is also on the third year of studies, 79 (85,87%), and the rest important to possess certain competencies within the is on the fourth year, 13 (14,13%). The percentage of sub-specialty. So, for example, practitioners notice students that declined to participate in the research significant differences in working with the athletes of was insignificant (10,6%) and non-systemic. The re- different competitive ranking (Stapleton et al., 2010). search was anonymous, and the questionnaires were It is equally important to take into account specific applied via the platform SurveyMonkey. aspects when working with young athletes, with uni- versity athletes, within sports organisations or with Instrument professional and top athletes, as well as specificities The questionnaire contains 9 items which de- of each sports branch. Upon the completed formal scribe hypothetical behaviours of sport psycholo- programmes which include sport psychology cours- gists, and the participants should estimate ethicality es, with a view to protecting the client’s welfare, it is of these behaviours on the five-point Likert scale important for the psychologist to go to supervision, (from 1 = undoubtedly unethical to 5 = undoubted- that may vary from frequent to annual, to a super- ly ethical), by indicating to what extent they agree visor - field expert and to a peer supervisor (Barney, that certain actions are not ethical. The statements Andersen, & Riggs, 1996). The relevant literature in the items are in the third person, e.g. ’’Disclosing (Brown, & Cogan, 1994; Moore, 2003; Stapleton et al., confidential data on the athlete to the trainer“. The 2010) shows a consensus that psychologists can cross author’s theoretical knowledge and practical experi- the borders of their competency in two manners. One ences served as the sources used for determining the of them is that the psychologist is hired to work with content of the test items. the athlete with a view to improving the competition performance, and he/she discovers a psychopatho- logical problem (e.g. eating disorder, mood disorder) RESULTS during work. If he/she is not trained for application of the treatment of such problem, and if he/she fails Most items in the questionnaire describe com- to refer the athlete to the colleague that is a special- plex ethical issues. The results obtained (f and %) are ist in this field, he/she performs the practice outside presented in Table 1. The psychologist’s behaviours his/her competency. The other reflects in that the regarding accepting the invitations for going to the psychologist builds a counselling/psychotherapeutic match, to the celebration, romantic or sexual involve- relationship with the athlete that wishes to improve ment with the client, regard the principle of respect- his/her competition performance, without being ing boundaries. The results of this research show that competent for working on improvement of the sports two thirds of participants consider the romantic in- performance – has not mastered the mental training volvement with a former client undoubtedly unethi- for athletes. Also, the application od measuring in- cal, or ethical in rare situations. Even bigger level of struments which the psychologist is not qualified for, agreement exists (almost all participants) regarding represents crossing of the competency boundaries the sexual involvement with a current client, which (Moore, 2003). is strictly forbidden by the ethical code. This behav- iour is estimated as undoubtedly unethical by the students. However, some 70% of the students think BELIEFS OF PSYCHOLOGY that attending the team celebration after the victory is STUDENTS REGARDING THE undoubtedly unethical or ethical in rare situations. If BEHAVIOURAL ETHICS OF SPORT one bears in mind that sport psychologists frequent- PSYCHOLOGISTS ly hold their consultations in non-traditional places, including competitions, the concerning data is that Sample and procedure almost half of the students (47%) considers accept- Psychology students of the Faculty of Philoso- ing the invitation to the competition to be unethical. phy of the University of Belgrade took part in the Only less than 10% of the participants opine that such research (N=92), out of which 75 (81,52%) girls and behaviour, characteristic for sport psychologists, is

131 Vesković A. V, & Petrović N. M., Ethics education..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 127-136 undoubtedly ethical. Interesting data were obtained the data to the team owner is undoubtedly unethical, regarding the confidentiality principle – disclosure of and the biggest consensus (91%) was achieved re- the data to the parents, trainer and owner of the club, garding the belief that disclosing of the data on the as well as including testimonials of athletes regarding athlete to his/her trainer is undoubtedly unethical. the psychologist’s work as advertisement. More than No participant opted for the answer that disclosing a half of the participants think that including of testi- of the data to the trainer is ethical in most situations monials of athletes regarding the psychologist’s work or undoubtedly ethical. When it comes to competen- in advertisements is undoubtedly unethical. Approxi- cy, a relatively high percentage of examined students mately one fifth of the participants think that disclos- (85%) think that counselling related to the problem ing the data on the underage client to their parents which the psychologist is not competent for falls un- is undoubtedly unethical. A significantly higher per- der the category of unethical behaviour. centage of them, close to 60%, think that disclosing of

Table 1. Frequency and percentage of answers of the participants for each category of questions in the questionnaire

Undoubtedly Ethical Behaviour Ethical Undoubtedly unethical behaviour that is behaviour ethical Questionnaire items behaviour in rare sometimes in most behaviour situations ethical situations f(%) f(%) f(%) f(%) f(%) Celebrating with the team in the bar after the 35 (46,1) 18 (23,7) 13 (17,1) 7 (9,2) 3 (3,9) victory Accepting the client’s invitation to the match 15 (19,7) 21 (27,6) 16 (21,1) 17 (22,4) 7 (9,2) or competition Romantic involvement with the former client 38 (50,0) 14 (18,4) 14 (18,4) 4 (5,3) 6 (7,9) Sexual involvement with the client 74 (97,4) 1 (1,3) 1 (1,3) / / Including of athletes’ “testimonials“ of the successful work of a sport psychologist in 39 (51,3) 26 (34,2) 7 (9,2) 4 (5,3) / advertisement Disclosing confidential data on the underage 16 (21,1) 33 (43,4) 15 (19,7) 8 (10,5) 4 (5,3) client to his/her parents Disclosing confidential data on the athlete to 69 (90,8) 5 (6,6) 2 (2,6) / / the trainer Disclosing of the data on the progress in 45 (59,2) 15 (19,7) 10 (13,2) 4 (5,3) 2 (2,6) working with the client to the team owner Counselling the client regarding the problem which the psychologist is not competent to 34 (44,7) 31 (40,8) 7 (9,2) 2 (2,6) 2 (2,6) solve

DISCUSSION and able to respond to the clients’ changing needs. They meet ethical dilemmas atypical for the stand- For achieving professional objectives within ASP, ard psychotherapeutic practice, that most frequent- it is important for the psychologists to integrate into ly regard the questions of preserving the boundaries the sports environment and to adapt their practice to in the environment that is not considered traditional the requirements of sport culture. Such environment for the psychologist’s practice, the questions of confi- requires the psychologist to be spontaneous, flexible dentiality and the questions of competency (Brown,

132 Vesković A. V, & Petrović N. M., Ethics education..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 127-136

& Cogan, 1994; Moore, 2003). On the other hand, it ies, and that they have not attended specific courses goes without saying that psychologists should abide in sport psychology ethics, while in the research of by the ethical code, and that they should acquire a Moles et al. the participants were certified ASP prac- specific ethical knowledge that influences the manner titioners (including psychologists or experts in sports of their behaving with ethical challenges. The devel- sciences). Actually, these behaviours can be necessary opment of a specific sensitivity for ethical questions is for efficient and professional performing of sport psy- especially important for the psychologists that work chologists’ practice (Haberl, & Peterson, 2006) and it within sports organisations Gardner 2001). Bearing is obvious that the beliefs of American psychologists in mind that, in the recent years, there have been in- have changed over time. The participants in this re- creasingly more psychologists engaged in this field in search think that sexual involvement with the former our environment, and that we do not have a formal client is undoubtedly unethical, which corresponds to ethical education in this area nor the Serbian Asso- the results of Petitpas et al. (1994). These researchers ciation of Psychologists’ code emphasizes the specif- reported that more than 92.7% participants does not icities of ethics of sport psychologists, the first objec- consider this behaviour to be ethical in any situation. tive hereof has been to present characteristic ethical Confidentiality in the psychologist-athlete rela- dilemmas and possible situations in which they may tionship is deemed a foundation stone of the efficient be generated. The second objective has been to exam- practice (Moore, 2003). Usually it takes longer for ine empirically how the psychology students – future the psychologist to realise a good working alliance, experts of which some may prefer working within closeness and trust relationship with the clients. This ASP – estimate ethicality of the sport psychologists’ is precisely why it is recommended to the psycholo- behaviour in certain situations. gist to accept to perform a part of his/her practice “in In the context of performing ASP, the boundaries the field“, when the athletes need it most. The litera- are less rigid comparing with the classical psycho- ture emphasises that attending various social events therapeutic practice (Andersen et al., 2001; Brown, & does not have to be detrimental to the client’s pro- Cogan, 1994; Etzel & Watson 2007; Haberl, & Peter- gress or to their relationship. In such circumstances son, 2006; Moore, 2003; Stapleton et al., 2010). Unlike it is essential that the psychologist is aware of his/ numerous researches related to the boundaries in the her behaviour at all times and to preserve profession- psychotherapeutic and counselling relationship, there al boundaries in the relationship (Brown, & Cogan, is almost no research dedicated to the same questions 1994). In fulfilling the needs of the team, as of the in- in the sport psychologist/athlete relationship with dividual athletes in the team, the psychologists faces which we can compare the results of our research. the requirements related to respecting the confidenti- Almost half the participants thinks that going of the ality principle (Stapleton et al., 2010). If the psycholo- psychologist to the sports competition is unethical, gist works with underage athletes whose parents are and even more of them, some 70%, shares the opin- interested in the details of the progress and course ion on attending social events by the psychologist. of the treatment, the psychologist has to protect the Our results are endorsed by the research of Petitpas et entrusted information. One of the key steps in this al. (1994), according to which more than 40% of the process is for the psychologist to support the third participants - ASP practitioners registered with the party in the relationship (parent, trainer, club official) AAASP in USA considers attending social events to to respect the confidentiality principle and to inform be undoubtedly unethical, and slightly less than 25% them thereof during the very first contact (Moore considers it to be ethical in rare situations. However, 2003). Somewhat unexpected results were obtained the results of the research of Moles et al. (2016) do in our research. Namely, there is a relatively high not endorse the results of our research. According to consensus of the participants regarding that disclos- the results of that research, over 90% of the partic- ing the confidential data on the athlete to the third ipants thinks that attending competitions and spe- party is an unethical behaviour. The answers obtained cial events and small social gatherings belong to the are in accordance with the code which envisages that category of behaviours that are mostly professional. the psychologist may disclose to the third party only When we compare the differences in the results ob- the information regarding the achieving of a certain tained, we should bear in mind that the participants professional goal (APA, 2002; DPS, 2000). However, in our research were students of final years of stud- while almost 80% of the participants estimates that

133 Vesković A. V, & Petrović N. M., Ethics education..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 127-136 disclosing the data to the athletes’ parents is some- engaging them and with their demands to athletes times ethical and around 40% believes the same about and psychologists. Viewed from that angle, it would disclosing information to the team owner, it repre- be important to examine the views of physical edu- sents a paradox that less than 10% of respondents cation and sport students about how much the be- thinks that disclosing the data to the trainer (who is haviour of sports psychologists is ethical or unethical. the only one in the role of instructor, mentor, demon- The obtained results would be the starting point for strator, professional adviser) falls under the category creating ethical education programs for future sports of ethical behaviour in certain situations. In the lack coaches (and not just psychologists), and the results of empirical data for the interpretation of the results of this research would gain more ecological validity. obtained, we can express the assumption that precise- ly the specific role and responsibility of the trainer is something that causes our participants to doubt and CONCLUSION fear the possible unintentional abuse of the data. Working with the problems which the psycholo- For professional and efficient performing of the gist is not qualified for is opposite to the principle complex ASP practice, it is necessary that the psy- of competency. Achieving of competency within chologist fully understands his/her professional role ASP requires possession of specialised knowledge and that he/she assimilates his/her practice in the and skills (Brown, & Cogan, 1994) that represent sport culture in accordance with specific require- an integration of various fields of psychology, sport ments and needs of a unique clientele. In parallel medicine and sport sciences. For the efficient prac- with the ever growing interest and the increasing tice, it is necessary that the psychologist knows the popularity of this interdisciplinary field, appear nu- specificities of each sports branch, level of competi- merous questions related to the manner of providing tion and characteristics of each athlete. The variety the best services possible, respecting ethics. One of of questions and issues which the practitioners meet the newest is working with athletes via internet (e.g. has led to the development of certain sub-specialties through Skype), because they often travel abroad and (Stapleton, Hanks, Hayes & Parham, 2010). Upon the psychologists can’t always travel with them. As in our completion of the formal education, a continuous im- environment ASP is still gaining its reputation, it may provement and various form of supervision can sig- happen that the inefficient practice discredits not only nificantly contribute to the further development and the psychologist, but the profession as well. Besides, maintaining the competency (Barney et al., 1996). In this first empirical data on ethical beliefs regarding our research, some 85% of the participants estimated behaviours of sport psychologists indicates the need that counselling the clients for the problem which the for development of specific training programmes in psychologist is not competent for falls under the cat- ASP ethics in our environment. The starting point egories of unethical behaviour (undoubtedly and in and the role model for developing such programmes rare situations). The corresponding research findings can be training programmes and experiences of the were obtained in the research of Petitpas et al. (1994) sport psychologists from the countries in which such according to which some 87% of the participants programmes have already been developed. considered working with the problems for which the psychologist does not have a formal training to be unethical behaviour, and at the same time some 73% Notes: The study was supported by the Ministry of of the participants considered counselling the athlete Education, Science and Technological Development without the training in the area of counselling and/or of Republic of Serbia (III47015; No 47008). psychotherapy to be unethical (or in rare situations ethical) behaviour. In practice, sports coaches, whether they are more or less actively involved with a sports psychologist, may influence the frequency of ethical dilemmas by

134 Vesković A. V, & Petrović N. M., Ethics education..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 127-136

REFERENCES

1. Anderesen, M. B., Van Raatle, J. L., & Brewer, B. W. Psychology: Discussion and Recommendations (2001). Sport Psychology Service Delivery: Staying for Practice. Professional Psychology: Research and Ethical While Keeping Loose. Professional Psychol- Practice, 34, 601–610. ogy: Research and Practice, 32, 12–18. 14. Petitpas, A. J., Brewer, B. W., Rivera, P. M., & Van 2. American Psychological Association. (2002). Ethi- Raalte, J. L. (1994). Ethical beliefs and behaviors cal principles of psychologists and code of conduct. in applied sport psychology: The AAASP ethics American Psychologist, 57, 1060–1073. survey. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 6, 3. Barnett, J. E., Lazarus, A. A., Vasquez, M. J. T., 135–151. Moorehead-Slaughter, O., & Johnson, W. B. (2007). 15. Pack-Brown, S. P., & Williams, C. B. (2003). Ethics Boundary issues and multiple relationships: Fanta- in a multicultural context. London: Sage Publica- sy and reality. Professional Psychology: Research and tions, Inc. Practice, 38, 401–410. 16. Petrović, M.N. (2016). Efekat etičke pozicije i 4. Barney, S. T., Andersen, M. B., & Riggs, C. A. edukacije na etička uverenja psihologa koji se bave (1996). Supervision in sport psychology: Some psihoterapijom u Srbiji. Primenjena psihologija, 9, recommendations for practicum training. Journal 261–272. of applied sport psychology, 8, 200-217. 17. Pope, K. S., Tabachnick, B. G., & Keith-Spiegel, 5. Brown, J. L., & Cogan, K. D. (2006). Ethical clinical P. (1987). Ethics of practice: The beliefs and be- practice and sport psychology: When two worlds haviours of psychologists as therapists. American collide. Ethics & behavior, 16, 15–23. Psychologist, 42, 993–1006. 6. Društvo psihologa Srbije (2000). Kodeks etike psi- 18. Rubin, S., & Dror, O. (1996). Professional ethics of hologa Srbije. [Code of Ethics of Psychologists of psychologists and physicians: Mortality, confiden- Serbia, In Serbian] Beograd: Društvo psihologa Sr- tiality, and sexuality in Israel. Ethics and Behavior, bije. 6, 213–238. 7. Etzel, E., & Watson, J. (2007) Ethical challenges 19. Speight, S. (2012). An exploration of boundaries for psychological consultations in intercollegiate and solidarity in counseling relationships. The athletics. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 1, Counseling Psychologist, 40, 133–157. 304–317. 20. Stapleton, A., Hanks, D., Hayes, K., & Parham, W. 8. Gardner, F. L. (2001). Applied sport psychology in (2010). Ethical dilemmas in sport psychology: A professional sports: The team psychologist. Profes- dialogue on the unique aspects impacting prac- sional Psychology: Research and Practice, 32, 34–39. tice. Professional Psychology: Research and Prac- 9. Lavallee, D., Kremer, J., Moran, A.P., & Williams, tice, 41, 143–152. M. (2004). Sport Psychology: Contemporary Themes. 21. Wylleman, P., Harwood, C. G., Elbe, A.-M., & de New York: Palgrave Macmmillan. Caluwé, D. (2009). A perspective on education 10. Haberl, P., & Peterson, K. (2006). Olympic-size and professional development in applied sport ethical dilemas: Issues and challenges for sport psychology. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10, psychology consultants on the road and Olympic 435–446. Games. Ethics & Behavior, 16, 25–40. 22. Weinberg, R., & Gould, D. (2011). Foundations 11. Huang, C. J., & Hung, T. M. (2008). Ethical issues of Sport and Exercise Psychology (5h Ed.). Cham- in sport psychology services: Dual relationships, paign, Illinois: Human Kinetics. confidentiality, and competence boundaries. Bul- letin of Sport and Exercise Psychology of Taiwan, 13, 53–69. 12. Moles, T. A., Petrie, T. A., & Watkins, C. E. (2016). Sex and Sport: Attractions and Boundary Cross- ings Between Sport Psychology Consultants and Their Client-Athletes. Professional Psychology: Re- search and Practice, 47, 93–101. 13. Moore, Z.E. (2003). Ethical Dilemmas in Sport

135 Vesković A. V, & Petrović N. M., Ethics education..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 127-136

ETHISCHE BILDUNG IN ANGEWANDTER SPORTPSYCHOLOGIE

Zusammenfassung In der angewandten Sportpsychologie wird von Psychologen oft erwartet, ihre Arbeit außerhalb des Rahmnes der traditionellen klinischen Praxis zu machen, was Vorteile, aber auch Begrenzungen hat. Praktiker sind oft mit spezifischen Dilemmas konfrontiert und können nicht alle Antworten im Ethikkodex finden. Empirisch wurde dokumentiert, dass ethische Bildung ein wichtiges Instrument im Kampf gegen den Bruch von ethischen Prinzipien darstellt. Sie bekommt an Kraft, unter anderem auch wegen der Tatsache, dass in den letzten Jahren die Anzahl von Psychologen in diesem Bereich angestiegen ist. Aus diesem Grunde befindet sich der Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit auf dem ersten Ziel – der Beschreibung des Spezifikums der Ethik in der angewandten Sportpsychologie. Auf Grund einer Revision von relevanter Literatur wurden die drei häufigsten Fragen ausgesondert: die Festlegung von Grenzen, Vetraulichkeit und Kompetenz. Im zweiten, kleine- ren empirischen Teil wurden Ergebnisse einer Pilotstudie über ethische Überzeugungen in Bezug auf das Verhalten von Sportpsychologen vorgestellt. Die Informationen wurden an einem Muster von Psychologiestudenten (N=92) gesichert, von denen manche vielleicht den Beruf des Sportpsychologen aussuchen werden. Manche der Verhaltensweisen, die für effiziente praktische Arbeit unumgänglich, aber untypisch für die traditionelle klinische Praxis sind (z.B. Anwesenheit eines Psychologen bei einem Wettbewerb) wurden fast von der Hälfte der Prüflinge als unethisch eingeschätzt. Die größte Übereinstimmung der Prüflinge wurde bei der Frage über die Enthüllung von vetraulichen Informationen dem Trainer gegenüber erzielt. Auf Grund dieser Arbeit wurde eine Empfehlung formuliert, die sich auf das Bedürfnis nach Entwicklung von spezifischen Trainingsprogramms für Ethik in angewandter Sportpsychologie bezieht.

Schlüsselwörter: KLINISCHE SPORTPSYCHOLOGIE / ETHISCHE DILEMMAS / GRENZEN / VETRAULICHKEIT / KOMPETENZ

Received: 09.11.2017 Accepted: 05.12.2017

136 Phys. Cult. (Belgr.) 2017; 71 (2): 137-144 PHYSICAL CULTURE

PROFESSIONAL PAPER UDC :796.332.052.242.093.1(4) doi:10.5937/fizkul1702137L

TACTICS OF ATTACK OF FOOTBALL TEAMS IN THE CHAMPIONS LEAGUE KNOCKOUT PHASE IN SEASONS OF 2015/2016 AND 2016/2017

Bojan Leontijević, Aleksandar Janković, Lazar Tomić

University of Belgrade, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Serbia

Abstract The aim of this study is to find out characteristics of tactics of attack of teams which play in the finals of the Champions Leagule by analyzing competition activities and also to use comparative analysis for the same competition in two com- petition seasons and point to the potential tendencies in tactical preparation of teams for the very end of the competi- tion. The analysis involved quarter-finals, semi-finals and finals in seasons 2015/2016 and 2016/2017, i.e. 13 matches in each season. The tactical action was analyzed by monitoring variables that describe the ways of beginning, realization and completion of successful attacks, but also the overall characteristics of play when a team was in ball possession (scope, success and speed of passing the ball). Results of this study showed that that there are no significant differences in tactical demonstration of teams that play the final round of the competition in two competition seasons. The appli- cation of continuous attacks is dominant, beginning by cutting a pass and winning “the second ball” on the opponent’s half, while the final pass is in most cases the centre and back lateral passing. However, significand difference was discov- ered only in efficiency during the passing game, which was significantly greater in the 2016/2017 season (p=0.013) and partially in the longer ball possession also in the 2016/2017 season. The kind of analysis in the field of foodball tactics is valuable because it provides a possibility to define the criteria for achieving results on the highest level, but to predict potential tendencies in developing offensive foodball tactics.

Key words: FOOTBALL / COMPETITION ACTIVITY / GAME ANALYSIS / SUCCESSFUL ATTACKS / PASSING GAME

INTRODUCTION site for competition on the highest level. The training process for each of the types of preparation, through Moments of the game that more or less influence evolution of the football game has been changing and the final result can be identified by analyzing competi- adapting according to demands and characteristics tion activities in football on the individual or the team of the same game. Evolution of the foodball game is level (Castelano et al., 2012; Liu & Gomez., 2014; Liu moving towards the intensified activities of players et al., 2015a). Studies that deal with this kind of analy- with and without the ball that directly influence the ses in a longer period of time aim at discovering these group and team actions in certain standard situations technical and tactical parameters of the game correlat- of the game (Wallace & Norton, 2014). Significantly ed with success, and, on the other hand, serve to en- higher scope and intensity of movement of players visage new trends, and above all, football game tactics during the game, and on the other hand, reduction (McGarry et al., 2002). Results of these studies and of time of the active play are indicators of changes in their explanation function to define theoretical pro- demands of players necessary for competition on the cedures in evolutive development of football, but they elite level. Besides, significantly greater closeness of also have a significant role in technological process and players on the area but also the speed of movement of preparation for certain football competitions. the ball on the pitch point to changes in organization A high level of technical, tactical, physical and of the game on the group and the team level (Wallace psychological preparation is a necessary prerequi- & Norton, 2014).

Correspondence to: Bojan Leontijević, Faculty of sport and physical education, 137 B. Parovica 156 str, 11030 Belgrade, Serbia; e –mail: [email protected] Leontijević B., et al., Tactics of attack of football teams..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 137-144

One of the most systematic overviews of methods METHOD of football game analysis was presented by Sarmen- to et al. (2014), who divided the research activity in Research sample football into descriptive, comparative and predictive The sample of matches that were analyzed for analysis. The space of description is related to the needs of this study included the final matches of the description of technical, tactical and physical perfor- Champions League (CL) in seasons 2015/16 and mances of a football player; the comparative analysis 2016/17. Matches played in quarter-finals, semi-fi- mostly take into consideration the level/type of the nals and finals were observed, i.e. 13 matches of this competition and position of a player in a team, while competition for each season, therefore the total of 26 the prediction of actions based on the already seen is matches were analyzed. a space in which standard protocols are defined. For all types of analyses, towards determining character- Sample of variables and ways of data istics of offensive tactics, the structure of attack ac- collection tions that ended with the shot on the opponent’s goal Since the result represents the basic measure of was observed (Lago – Penas et al., 2010; Castellano success in football, which is the consequence of suc- et al., 2012; Mitrotasios & Armatas, 2014; Liu et al., cessfully completed attack actions of a team, to de- 2015b) but also the quality of the passing game and scribe the tactics of attack, variables that point to the the way of realization of some standard situatios like structure of successful attacks were observed (all of- breaks of the game, offensive transitions and the like fensive actions were finished by the shoot on the op- (Janković et al., 2009; Almeida et al., 2014; Liu et al., ponent’s goal): 2015b; Janković et al., 2016). − Number of shots on the goal (successful attacks); Based on the current directions in the football − Accuracy of successful attacks – inacurrate, ac- game analysis, a need arose to continuously monitor curate and efficient; tactical manifestation at the highest quality competi- − Time interval of realization: 0 – 15 minutes, 15 – 30 min., 30 – 45 min., 45 – 60 min., 60 – 75 min., tions of modern football in order to accurately define 75 – 90 min. and 90 – 120 min.; directions of the game development from the tactical − Zone of initiation of successful attacks – attacks prospective, but also to identify those technical and started from the defence, middle or attack zone; tactical elements of the game that can be character- − The way the successful attacks started – “cutting ized as the coach’s surprise for a certain match. the ball”, winning the tackle, throw-in (the at- Therefore, the object of this research was the high- tack that started by throwing the ball in), free est quality club competition in football, the Champi- kick play (the attack started after the free kick, ons League, in two succesive seasons of competition, and the ball was not directed to the opponent’s that is, the tactics of attack of teams which played in penalty area), “the second ball” (coming into the finals. The specificity is the fact that the FC Real possession after “winning” the ball that had Madrid was the winner of the competition in both never been in control by either team), offensive seasons, so it was interesting to see whether and to stoppage and attacks started by the goalkeeper’s what extent Real and other teams changed their tacti- pass; cal plan of the game. − Types of successful attacks – continuous, coun- Thus, the aim of this paper was to determine char- ter-attacks and set pieces attacks; acteristics, as well as to define modern tendencies in − Structure of successful attacks – number of par- relation to the tactics of the attack of teams that com- ticipant players, number of passes, duration of pete on the highest level, in this case in the Champi- an attack; ons League. Based on the results of studies completed − The way of coming into position for the shot on so far, it was expected that certain characteristics of the goal (assistance) – individual attack, “the the offensive tactics specific for the competition itself second ball”, centre, back pass, long pass; would be sorted out, but also that parameters of the − Zones from which shots on the goal were direct- game related to individual preparation, the idea of the ed – 0 - 5 m, 5 - 11 m, 11 - 16 m and >16 m; coach, specificity of teams that have qualified for the − The segment with which the shot was made – finals of the competition etc. would be discovered. head, left leg, right leg.

138 Leontijević B., et al., Tactics of attack of football teams..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 137-144

Together with successful attacks, towards defining petition seasons 2015/2016 and 2016/2017 were as- the attacking tactics, variables that point to the orien- sessed by nonparametric chi-square test, while for tation of the game in situations when the team was in examining differences between two independent ball possession were monitored: competitions the Mann–Whitney U test was used in − Total duration of the ball possession during the certan variables. The level of statistical significance match, number of ball possession situations, du- was p<0.05. All statistical tests were processed using ration of ball possession; SPSS 17.0 program (SPSS INC Chicago, IL). − Number of successful passes, percentage of suc- cessful passes, the speed of passes (number of precise passes in the unit of time by the achieved RESULTS possession of the ball). The analysis of previously recorded matches start- Results of this study have shown that teams that ed with creation of the observing protocol (Carling et appeared in the finals of the competition in the al., 2005). That protocol was used for each match and 2016/2017 season were slightly more offensive, which each team separately. While observing matches, each was confirmed by the data according to which the successful attactk and action that ended with the shot average number of successful attacks was 11.5 com- on the goal was recorded in the observation sheet. pared to the previous season - 9.5. The ratio of ina- Video materials were taken from the TV channels currate, accurate and efficient shoots towards the goal Premium sport - HD, Bein sports – HD, Sky sports – was 48% - 41% - 11% in the 2015/2016 season, and HD, and Premium Calco – HD. 49% - 38% - 13% in the 2016/2017 season. Observing successful attacks realized in certain Data processing time intervals, it can be noted that the number of Each variable was processed by standard descrip- such attacks in seasons 2015/16 and 2016/17 was tive statistics (total and mean value, as well as stand- equal, however, in the 2016/2017 season more attacks ard deviation). Differences in distribution of certain were realized in the introductory parts of the first and tactical indicators within one group between com- the second halftime (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Number of successful attacks in relation to time intervals of the duration of the game in the competition of the Champions League (seasons 2015/16 and 2016/17)

When the type of the attack is in question, the the break of the game is proportionally represented analysis showed that the application of continuous in both seasons (Table 1). Somewhat smaller percent- attacks, counter attacks and successful actions after age of shots to the goal after the break in the season

139 Leontijević B., et al., Tactics of attack of football teams..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 137-144

2016/17 was manifested through the increase in the The teams most often started successful attacks in number of successful attacks from the game (contin- both competition seasons from the attacking third of uous attacks and counter attacks). The largest num- the pitch, then from the middle zone, and the least ber of shots on the goal occurred after organization number of successful actions started from the defence of continuous attacks, and the fact in connection zone (Table 1). Besides, the analysis shows that in the with this data is the average duration of successful second season (2016/2017) the number of attacks start- attacks that was 13.9 seconds in the 2015/16 season, ed from the attacking third is slightly larger compared and 13.57 seconds in the second competition season to the first season (46% - 49%) while on the other hand (Table 2). fewer attacks started from the middle zone (36% - 32%).

Table 1. Zones from which successful actions were initiated, types of realized successful attacks, zones of direction and segments used to shoot on the goal in the Champions League (seasons 2015/16 and 2016/17)

Results show that shots on goal in both seasons tion showed that in both seasons teams performed most rarely came from zones 0 – 5m and 11 – 16m, successful attacks with 3 – 5 players, at which most as well as that players in the observed matches most often there were 4 passes before a shot on the goal often shot from the 5 – 11m zone and the area >16m (Table 2). (Table 1). However, in the 2015/16 season, the per- The total duration of possession of the ball in one centage of realized shots from the 5 – 11m zone was game was slightly longer in the 2016/17 season and smaller than from the area >16m, while in the sea- the difference is 45 seconds per a match, besides, the son of 2016/17 the number of shots from the 5 – 11m teams were in ball possession slightly longer in the zone was larger compared to shots outside the 16-me- second season, in average 16.8 seconds (Table 2). ter area. Shots performed with a leg were dominant, The dynamics of the play in both seasons was in most cases the shot was realized using right leg equal, which was confirmed by the results of the (46% - 48%), then left leg (34% - 33%) and finaly us- speed of passes, but the teams in the second season ing head (20% - 19%) (Table 1). were more successful in passing the ball from one Winning “the second ball” and cutting the ball are player to another (Table 2). the most often used forms to start a successful attack, Results further show that the end of successful at- and the significant number of actions that ended with tacks was mostly different after assistences of centre a shot towards the goal started after organizing an of- shots, then after individual actions, long passes, back fensive break (Figure 2). passes and finally after “the second ball” won. Togeth- The analysis of the attack structure, observed ac- er with the listed, a significant increase in the case of cording to the number of players who participated assistences with centre shots and back passes in the and the number of passes during a successful ac- second season is also interested (Figure 3).

140 Leontijević B., et al., Tactics of attack of football teams..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 137-144

Figure 2. Ways to initiate successful attacks in the Champions League (seasons 2015/16 and 2016/17)

Table 2. Structure of successful attacks, ball possession and passing game in the Champions League seasons 2015/16 and 2016/17)

Figure 3. The number of successful actions in relation to the way of coming into the position to shoot on the goal in the Champions League (seasons 2015/16 and 2016/17)

141 Leontijević B., et al., Tactics of attack of football teams..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 137-144

DISCUSSION passing game and ball possession resulted in the shot on the opponent’s goal. For such a tactical plan it is Results of this study showed that the finals of the necessary to have players who are firstly technically Champions League demand a certain level of tech- skilled for such way of playing a game. Thus, teams nical and tactical manifestation, taking into account that base their offensive actions exclusively on a di- the fact that there are no significan differences in the rect play (counter attack) or rely on a break cannot structure of successful attacks of teams that ranked achieve good results continuously. However, such a into the quarter-finals of this competition in two statement can be further examined in some future competition seasons. However, certain technical and studies if we take into account the fact that these tactical elements of play sorted out which are differ- matches are eliminatory, and, at the same time, their ent to a certain extent and in that way they point to importance is significantly greater, the play itself is certain innovations in preparations of teams for the more cautious, teams tend to risk less, primarily try- finals of the competition. ing to score a goal, they lose ball possession less fre- Realization of successful attacks in relation to quently in the phase of the initiation of the attack, etc. time intervals of duration showed that there are no The quality in the game by applying the continous differences in the dynamics of the play between two attack, among other things, can be analysed by effi- competition seasons, however, it is noted that in the ciency in the ball possession manifested through the first 15 miniutes of both half terms there were more success in passing the ball. The 2016/2017 competition active periods in the 2016/2017 season. Both seasons season was more efficient in relation to the previous are characterized by a larger number of shots on goal one (a larger number of goals), probably contributed in the second half-time, which is generally the case by the data according to which the teams were in ball in other competititons (Sgro et al., 2015; Liu et al., possession for 45 seconds longer during the match. Be- 2016), but it is interesting that in the second season sides, the second season is characterized by significant- there was the largest number of shots on goal exactly ly greater success in passing game (p=0.013), while the in the introductory part of the game, which can be speed of the ball during passing was equal. Thus, the linked to the data according to which in 70.9% of cas- conclusion is imposed that it is necessary to technically es the first team that scored the goal won the match prepare a player for a game as for the successful pass- (Michaildis et al., 2013). ing the ball and for playing under pressure in order to According to some analyses, getting in posses- achieve results in football at the highest level. Results of sion of the ball way deep on the opponent’s half of the study that analyzed competitions on the different the pitch is one of the factors that directly attects the level (national leagues) also showed that the duration success in modern football (Mackenzie & Cushion, of ball possession, successfulness in passing game and 2013; Almeida et al., 2014; Janković et al., 2016). The the speed of the ball during passes are the basic indica- results of this study showed that the teams which dif- tors of success (Bekris & Gioldasis, 2014; Leontijević et ferentiated by their quality and ranked in the finals al., 2015; Barreira et al., 2016) of this competition tend to apply pressing in order to Ball possession nearer to the opponent’s goal, ap- take possession of the ball from the opponent as close plication of cutting the ball and winning “the second to the opponent’s goal as possible and thus attack the ball” during the start of actions that end in shot on the distraught defense of the opponent. A slightly higher goal, suggest the application of pressing at the very percentage of attacks started from the attacking third beginning of the opponent’s attack which was slightly of the pitch in the 2016/2017 season which, among more often applied in 2016/2017 competition season. other things, influenced greater efficiency of success- Moreover, the distance of the shot is a data which is ful attacks compared to the 2015/2016 season. correlated with the positive result and the efficiency Application of continuous attack, according to of the shot itself (Michailidis et al., 2013; Liu et al., results of this study, represents a dominant form of 2015b), so that a slightly larger number of shots from offensive action organization. If we take into account the 5 – 11-meter zone in the 2016/2017 season result- the data according to which is directy linked with ed in larger number of scored goals. However, there the positive result (Leontijević et al., 2015), it can be is an interesting data according to which there are said that for ranking in the finals of the competition more and more shots on the goal after lateral passes a tactical commitment in the play according to which (centre) and back passes, having in mind the data ac-

142 Leontijević B., et al., Tactics of attack of football teams..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 137-144 cording to which the number of centre shots during To provide a more detailed analysis and more a match negatively correlatew with the success in the precise discovering of the game mechanisms, it is game (Liu et al., 2015b; Liu et al., 2016). necessary to examine the structure of continuous attacks, counter attacks and set pieces in the future studies. Also, using comparative analysis, elimination CONCLUSION matches and the group phase of the competition, it is necessary to examine whether and to which extent The analysis of the finals of the Champions League the importance of the game affects the tactical plan in seasons 2015/2016 and 2016/2017 showed that of the game. Of course, the analysis of each subse- there is no clearly defined structure of attacking ac- quent competition season will only determine certain tions that end with a shot on goal for this level of competition. The application of continuous attacks, a standards in the offensive tactics of football on the high percentage of success in the passing game with highest level, but also point to the actual tendencies the distribution of the ball, especially in the attacking of development and improvement. third of the pitch represent dominanat forms of reali- The value of this kind of analysis in the field of zation of successful attacks. Also, it can be concluded, football tactics is reflected in clear directions when it based on some differences, that there is an increasing comes to preparation of a foodball team which tends tendency in the offensive tactics to play through the to be highly ranked in the Champions League. There- wing positions, to employ the players of impeccable fore, necessary parameters of the game have been de- technical skill which increases accuracy in ball pass- fined precisely, i.e. criterion of demands for the high- ing, and affects efficiency of the final pass and the shot est level of competition have been determined. On the on goal. Besides, there is an increase in number of at- other hand, theoretical value of such an approach in tacks inititated in the attacking third of the pitch, that analysing competitive activity in football is the defini- is, the application of high-pressing at the beginning tion of current demands in the football tactics on the of the opponent’s attack which has become more fre- highest level and prediction of potential tendencies of quent choice in the defensive orgranization. development in the forthcoming period.

REFERENCES: 1. Almeida, C.H., Ferreira, A.P., & Volossovitch, A. 6. Janković, A., Leontijević, B., Mićović, B. (2009). (2014). Effects of match location, match status and Tendencije razvoja taktike igre kroz analizu us- quality of opposition on reagaining possession in pešnih napada na XVI, XVII i XVIII svetskom UEFA Champions League. Journal of Human Ki- prvenstvu u fudbalu [Trends in development of netics, 41(1), 203 – 214. tactics through analysis of successful attacks on 2. Barreira, J., Vendite., C., & Vendite L.L. (2016). the XVI, XVII and XVIII World Cup]. In Kopriv- Analysis of shots and passing sequence of a soc- ica V. and Juhas I. (eds.). Proccedings from inter- cer team and its opponents during 2014 Brazilian national conference: The teoretical, methodological Championship. International Journal of Sports Sci- and methodical aspects of competitions and athletes ence, 6(4), 163 – 167. preparation, (115 – 120). Beograd: FSFV. 3. Bekris, E., & Gioldasis, A. (2014). Winners and los- 7. Janković, A., Leontijević, B., Tomić, L. (2016). ers in top level soccer. How do they differ?Journal Attacks of the soccer teams participationg in the of Physical Education and Sport, 14(3), 398 – 405. Champions League and the Serbian Super League. 4. Carling, C., Williams, A.M., Reilly, T. (2005). Physical culture, 70(1), 80 – 87. Handbook of soccer matches analysis. A systemat- 8. Lago – Penas, C., Lago – Ballesteros, J., Dellal, A. ic approach to improving performance. Routledge, & Gomez, M. (2010). Game – related statistics that London. discriminated winning, drawing and losing teams 5. Castellano, J., Casamichana, D., & Lago, C. (2012). from the Spanish soccer league. Journal of Sports The use of match statistics that discriminate be- Science and Medicine, 9, 288 – 293. tween successful and unsuccessful soccer teams. 9. Leontijević, B., Janković, A, & Ćosić, N. (2015). Journal of Human Kinetics, 31, 139 – 147. Uporedna analiza taktičkog ispoljavanja fudbalera

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Partizana na utakmicama u evropskim takmičenji- tions for future research. Journal of Sports Scienc- ma i Super ligi Srbije [Comparative analysis of tac- es, 31(3), 639 - 676. tical manifestation of Partizan players to matches 15. McGarry, T., Anderson, D. I., Wallace, S. A., in European competitions and the Super League Hughes, M. D., & Franks, I. M. (2002). Sport com- Serbia]. In Kasum G. and Mudrić M. (eds.). Con- petition as a dynamical selforganizing system. ference proceedings at: The effects of physical activ- Journal of Sports Sciences, 20(10), 771 - 781. ity application to anthropological status of children, 16. Michaildis, Y., Michaildis, C., Primpa, E. (2013). youth and addults, (pp. 443 – 450). Beograd: FSFV Analysis of goals scored in European Champi- 10. Liu, H., Gomez, M.A. (2014). Relationships be- onship 2012. Journal of Human Sport & Exercise, tween match performance indicators and match 8(2), 367 – 375. outcome in 2014 Brazil FIFA World Cup. Confer- 17. Mitrotasios, M., & Armatas, V. (2014). Analysis ence: VIII Congreso Internacional de la Asociacion of goal scoring patterns in the 2012 European Espanola de Ciencias del Deporte. Spain. Football Championship. The Sport Journal. Avail- 11. Liu, H., Yi, Q., Gimenez, J.V., Gomez, M.A., & Lago able at http://thesportjournal.org/article/analy- – Penas, C. (2015a). Performance profiles of foot- sis-of-goal-scoring-patterns-in-the-2012-europe- ball teams in the UEFA Champions League consid- an-football-championship/. ering situational efficiency. International Jorunal of 18. Sarmento, H., Marcelino, R., Anguera, M. T., Performance Analysis in Sport, 15, 371 – 390. Campanico, J., Matos, N., & Leitao, J. C. (2014). 12. Liu. H., Gomez., M.A., Lago – Penas, C., & Sam- Match analysis in football: A systematic rewiew. paio, J. (2015b). Match statistics related to winning Journal of Sports Sciences, 32(20), 1831 – 1843. in the group stage of 2014 Brazil FIFA World Cup. 19. Sgro, F., Barresi, M., & Lipoma, M. (2015). The Journal of Sports Sciences, 33(12), 1205 – 1213. analysis of discriminant factors related to team 13. Liu, H., Gomez, M.A., Goncalves, B., & Sampaio, match performance in the 2012 European Foоt- J. (2016). Tehnical performance and match to ball Championship. Journal of Physical Education match variation in elite football teams. Journal of and Sport, 15(3), 460 – 467. Sports Sciences, 34(6), 509 – 518. 20. Wallace, J.K., & Norton, K.I. (2014). Evolution of 14. Mackenzie, R., Cushion, C. (2013). Performance World Cup soccer final games 1966 - 2010. Journal analysis in football: A critical review and implica- of Science and Medicine in Sport, 17(2), 223 – 228.

ANGRIFFSTAKTIK VON FUßBALLMANNSCHAFTEN IN DER ENDPHASE DER CHAMPIONS-LEAGUE IN DEN SAISONS 2015/2016 UND 2016/2017

Zusammenfassung Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, durch eine Analyse der Wettbewerbsaktivitäten Charakteristiken der Angriffstechnik von Teams zu entdecken, die in der Endphase der Champions-League spielen, sowie durch eine parallelle Analyse der gleichen Meisterschaft in zwei Wettbewerbssai- sons auf eventuelle Tendenzen in der Taktikvorbereitung für die Endphase der Meisterschaft hinzuweisen. Die Analyse umfasste das Vier- telfinale, Halbfinale und die Finalspiele in den Saisons 2015/2016 und 2016/2017, also je 13 Fußballspiele in beiden Saisons. Das taktische Vorgehen wurde durch Verfolgung von Variablen analysiert, die Beginn, Realisierung und Abschluss von erfolgreichen Angriffen beschrei- ben, aber auch der insgesamten Charakteristiken des Spiels, wenn das Team im Besitz des Balls ist (Umfang, Erfolg und Geschwindigkeit im Zuspielen des Balles). Die Ergebnisse dieser Untersuchung weisen darauf hin, dass es keine bedeutenden Unterschiede in der taktischen Vorgehensweise der Teams gibt, die in der Endphase der Meisterschaft in zwei Wettbewerbssaisons spielen. Es dominiert die Anwendung von kontinuierlichen Angriffen, die mit Abschneiden und Eroberung des „zweiten Balles“ in der gegnerischen Spielhälfte begonnen wer- den; das finale Zuspielen bezieht sich in größtem Maße auf Flankenstoß oder Rückpass aus seitlichen Positionen. Ein bedeutender Unter- schied wurde nur in der Effizienz beim Passspiel entdeckt, der bedeutend größer in der Saison 2016/2017 (p=0.013) war und teilweise im längeren Ballbesitz ebenfalls in der Saison 2016/2017. Der Wert dieser Art von Analyse aus dem Bereich der Fußballtaktik spiegelt sich in der Definierung der Kriterien für die Erzielung von Ergebnissen auf höchster Ebene, aber auch in der Prädiktion eventueller Tendenzen in der Entwicklung von offensiven Fußballtaktiken.

Schlüsselwörter: FUßBALL / WETTBEWERBSAKTIVITÄT / SPIELANALYSE / ERFOLGREICHE ANGRIFFE / PASSSPIEL

Received: 25.09. 2017 Accepted: 15.11.2017

144 Phys. Cult. (Belgr.) 2017; 71 (2): 145-153 PHYSICAL CULTURE

PROFESSIONAL PAPER UDC:613.25-053.6:796.012.1 doi:10.5937/fizkul1702145P

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LIFESTYLE AND NUTRITIONAL STATUS AMONG ADOLESCENT

Hajnalka F. Požar¹, Čaba F. Požar²

¹Preschool Teacher and Sport Trainer High school in Subotica, Serbia ²Technical School “Ivan Saric” Subotica, Serbia

Abstract To prevent excess weight, the eating habits and lifestyle among adolescence arouse great interest in public health. The aim of this study is to analyze the lifestyle and nutritional status of this age, also to determine the difference between the habits of the students that attend the Medical and Technical school and to find out that knowing about the importance of a healthy lifestyle would have an effect on everyday habits. The research was conducted as a cross-sectional study in a Medical school and a Technical school in Vojvodina. The re- search instrument was a questionnaire, which is anonymous and voluntary, filled out by 209 students, aged 14-18 years. Analysis of the data was analyzed by the statistical package SPSS. We used descriptive statistics and statistical signifi- cance between the two schools was tested using the Pearson χ2 test. Students of the technical school don’t think about health, but they are physically more active. They have a higher percentage of overweight students (18%). The students of the Medical school are thinking about health, physically less active, and have a higher percentage of underweight students (10%). With appearance is satisfied with 44% of respondents. One-third believes that they have overweight and should lose a weight. The knowledge about the importance a healthy lifestyle in students of medical school affect consciousness in selecting foods, the desire to control their own weight, but does not influence to the regular physical activity.

Key words: EXERCISE / DIET / HEALTH / FOOD

INTRODUCTION cardiovascular diseases and diabetes up to 60% (Des- potović, Ilić, Irgutinović & Marković, 2013). In the world and also here the problems of im- A healthy lifestyle is most commonly defined as proper diet and physical inactivity in high school are engaging in physical exercise, sports and recreation, present.Inadequate nutrition of young people seri- and active lifestyle defined by the quantity of exercise. ously compromises their physical and mental devel- However, lifestyle is a multidimensional measures opment, reduces learning capacity and worsens eat- of behavior, and can not be defined only by physical ing habits that affect the prevalence of disease, not activity, because it was determined by other behav- only in adolescence but also in adulthood. As a result iors that are associated with health, especially healthy of inadequate nutrition, being overweight and obesity diet (Markus, 2012). Proper diet and regular physical can be found in 20-30% of children and adolescents activity are the basis of a healthy lifestyle, these are in Europe (WHO, 2004). Most worrying is the fact behaviors that improve health, and as such should be that obese children remain obese in adulthood, and adopted at a young age (World Health Organization, are prone to and often suffer from non-contagious 2005). chronic diseases (cardiovascular disease, cancer, di- However, the entire system of nourishment in abetes) these are responsible for 86% of deaths and schools are not based on the principles of proper 77% of diseases in Europe (Ilić, 2010). Certain dietary nutrition, instead it is left to the economic interests changes and physical activity can prevent the cases of of individuals. Everything that is offered to young

Correspondence to: Hajnalka Požar; e-mail: [email protected] 145 Požar H. F., & Požar Č. F., Relationship between lifestyle and..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 145-153 people in the immediate vicinity of the school is far healthy foods and to regularly engage in physical ac- from what would be a healthy meal at school (Bogar tivity as a result of a specific curriculum, as well as & Kosić-Bibić, 2013). It is in adolescence, that young detailed knowledge about certain diseases and there- people consume more food outside the home, usually of their prevention. irregularly, they tend to skip meals, usually breakfast. “Fast food” meals are frequent outside the home, a lot of snacking between meals, drinking sweetened METHODS drinks, eating sandwiches as alternatives for school lunches. Such a diet is poor in fruits and vegetables, The sample of respondents as well as high quality sources of protein which leads The survey was conducted as a cross-section- to deficiencies such as diseases or excessive ener- al study in which 119 (56,9%)students participated gy intake. Many adolescents are unhappy with their from the Medical high school “7 April” in Novi Sad appearance, and adolescence is also a period when (nursing course), 44 male (37,0%) and 75 female young people begin to go on diets (Ilić, 2010; Cvijo- (63,0%), and 90 (43,1%) students from the Technical vić, 2011). high school “Ivan Sarić” in Subotica (electric techni- Cultural influences on physical activity are great. cian courses), 63 male (70,0%) and 27 female (30,0%), Time for rest and work is increasingly carried out in students aged 14- 18 years. inactivity, because children while watching television, This study included 107 (51,2%) male, and 102 playing video games, spending time on the computer, (48,8%) female subjects, of the total 209. The respond- using means of transport only moving from one sit- ents were from different parts of Vojvodina (Serbia), ting position to another (Lešović, 2014). the larger percentages were from Novi Sad (30%) and The importance of health education and learn- Subotica (20%), and the surrounding villages (4%). ing about proper nutrition and the positive effects of physical activity have been recognized by the educa- The sample of variables and instruments tion system. Although it has not been integrated into Data was obtained by interviewing. The survey the educational plan of every elementary and high was conducted during the school year of 2015/16., school, in medical schools thanks to the specificity with the participation of. The survey was completely of subject (such as Hygiene with health upbringing anonymous, the students filled it out voluntarily. To during the 2nd year, Health Care internal and surgical share the survey, the written consent of the school di- patients during the 3rd and 4th year and Medical bio- rectors was obtained. chemistry during the 4th year of schooling) it is most- For research was used a questionnaire (Ilić, 2010; ly learned, so the students of the medical are better Despotović, Ilić, Irgutinović & Marković, 2013), informed in comparison to other schools (The curric- which in addition to general demographic data, con- ulum for the field work: Health and social services). tains questions about the anthropometric parame- The goal of this paper is to examine the lifestyle ters, the frequency of physical activity (1. Once a day among adolescent, to examine the difference in life- 2. Two or three times a week, 3. Once a week, 4. Less styles of students attending the medical and techni- than once a week 5. Never), the thinking about health cal school, to discover the extent to which knowledge and holding diet (1. No, 2. No, but I should , 3. No, about the importance of proper nutrition and physi- because I need to gain weight, 4. Yes), and the atti- cal activity affects the way of life. tude towards own body (1. Extremly too thin, 2. Too The specific objectives of the research was to de- thin, 3. Good body weight 4. A little fat, 5. Extremly termine the nutritional status by using body mass overweight) index, and to discover what is the opinion of high school students on their own weight and whether Data processing they think about their health when choosing a diet. The analysis was done in SPSS 20.0 software pack- The main hypothesis is that a larger number of age. For statistical analysis of the data descriptive students feed incorrectly, which results in increased methods and non-parametric analysis, statistical sig- body weight and dissatisfaction with their own body nificance between the two schools and gender were weight. The specific hypothesis is that students at tested using the method of cross tables and Pearson’s medical schools pay more attention to choosing χ2 test (Chi-square test).

146 Požar H. F., & Požar Č. F., Relationship between lifestyle and..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 145-153

RESULTS

In Table 1, 2 and 3 are shown, the basic descriptive mass index (BMI) of respondent by sex and age. In parameters age, body weight, body height, and body Figure 1 is shown the structure by sex and age.

Table 1. Anthropometric characteristics of the study participants

Parameters x ̅ ± SD Std. Error Range Age (years) 16,22±1,11 0,074 14-18 Weight (kg) 65,49±11,80 0,816 43-100 Height (cm) 179,60±110,53 0,600 154-197 Body mass index 22,02±3,017 0,2087 14,5-32,7 (kg/m2)

Table 2. The descriptive parameters of the subjects according to sex

Parameters Boys Girls x ̅ ± SD Range x ̅ ± SD Range Age (years) 16.11±1.20 14-19 16.32±1.10 14-19 Weight (kg) 71.18±11.33 45-100 59.53±9.05 43-90 Height (cm) 177.56±7.18 160-197 166.17±5.81 154-180 Body mass index (kg/m2) 22.47±3.02 16.9-30.9 21.54±2.95 14.5-32.7

Table 3. The descriptive parameters of the subjects according to the age

Parameters 14 год. 15 год. 16 год. 17 год. 18 год. 19 год. x ̅ ± SD x ̅ ± SD x ̅ ± SD x ̅ ± SD x ̅ ± SD x ̅ ± SD Weight (kg) 56.67±6.12 65.96±11.65 66.60±13.33 66.16±10.77 61.39±9.63 68.75±15.74 Range 50-68 43-100 44-100 45-90 48-80 52-90 Weight (kg) 170.67±11.08 171.53±7.89 173.52±8.46 172.07±8.95 169.26±9.55 171.50±11.12 Range 159-188 155-193 154-197 159-196 155-186 156-182 Body mass index 19.47±1.15 22.36±3.19 21.98±3.37 22.16±2.66 21.38±2.50 23.13±2.78 Range 17.4-20.7 15.4-29.2 14.5-32.7 16.9-31.1 17.7-28.6 21.3-27.2

Fig. 1. Structure of respondents by sex and age

147 Požar H. F., & Požar Č. F., Relationship between lifestyle and..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 145-153

According to this research results of our students Overweight (BMI 25-29.9) was 15.3% of students, are 8.6% underweight (BMI 18.5), 7.5% of men and 20.5% of men and 9.8% of girls (p=0.024). There is no 9.8% of women, 10% of medical students and 6% of difference in the incidence of overweight and schools. technical school students. Obese (BMI 30 and over) was 1.4% of the students, Normal weight (BMI 18.5-24.9) had 74.6% of stu- 0.9% of men and 1.9% women, who were identified dents, 71% of men and 78.4% of girls. In the high- as students of technical school. Distribution of BMI er percentage of technical school students (75.5%). by age is shown in Figure 2.

Fig.2. Body mass index (kg/m2) distribution by age When choosing food for breakfast healthiness is by girls, and by students of the medical school (47%) still considered by 30.1% of students. More frequent- than the technical school students (31%), with sta- ly by medical students (32.8%) than technical school tistically correlation p=0.039. On average 40% of re- (26.7%) students. Sometimes does it 49.3% of the re- spondents occasionally thinks about healthiness and spondents, more women (51%). While 20% of the re- their choice of food for lunch and dinner. spondents never thinks about healthiness at breakfast, Physical activity daily is done by 32.5% of chil- more men and students of technical schools (41%). dren, 45% of boys and 20% girls (p=0.001). This At lunch 48.3% of the children are considering health- includes 39% of students from the technical school iness, more students of medicine (53.8%) than technical (p=0.038). Exercise 2-3 times a week is done by 40% school (41%). More girls (52%), than boys (45%). of them, mainly girls (44.9%). Almost 15.3% exercises When choosing foods for dinner healthiness is less than once a week or never trains (Figure 3). still considered by 40% of the students, more often

Fig.3. The frequency of physical activity by school and sex

148 Požar H. F., & Požar Č. F., Relationship between lifestyle and..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 145-153

With their appearance 44% of respondents was and that they should lose weight (Figure 4). While satisfied, 57% of boys and 30% girls, with statistical 12.4% of respondents (19.6% girls) already hold a significant correlation p=0.001. One-third believes diet, 15% of medical school students and 9% of tech- that is overweight (50% of girls and 19.6% of boys), nical school students.

Fig.4. The attitude towards one’s own body, by school and sex

Students that are overweight engage in physical less physically active and exercise only once a week activity 2-3 times a week (43.8%) and daily (40.6%), (66.7%). Some of them they think should lose weight, they are aware that they have excess weight, and that while there are those who are satisfied with their cur- they should lose weight, and 28% are on a diet. It is rent weight, however none of the obese children are positive that they recognize the importance of daily holding a diet. There is a correlation between the po- or at least regular physical activity, and thus attempt sition of one’s own body weight and body mass index to reduce or maintain weight. Obese children are (p=0.000), and also with dieting (p=0.032) (Table 4).

149 Požar H. F., & Požar Č. F., Relationship between lifestyle and..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 145-153

Table 4. Relations between body mass index and physical activity, dieting and attitude towards their own body Body Mass Index Underweight n Normal Overweight n Obese Total (%) n (%) (%) n (%) n (%) Physical activity р=0.21 Once a day 3(16.7) 51(32.7) 13(40.6) 1(33.3) 68(32.5) 2-3 times a week 9(50.0) 60(38.5) 14(43.8) 0(0.0) 83(39.7) At least once a week 3(16.7) 19(12.2) 2(6.2) 2(66.7) 26(112.4) Least once a week 2(11.1) 19(12.2) 1(3.1) 0(0.0) 22(10.5) Never 1(5.6) 7(4.5) 2(6.2) 0(0.0) 10(4.8) Diet р=0.03* No,I am satisfied with my weight 11(61.1) 74(47.4) 6(18.8) 1(33.3) 92(44.0) No, but I should to lose weight 1(5.6) 44(28.2) 16(50.0) 2(66.7) 63(30.1) No, because I need to gain weight 6(33.3) 21(13.5) 1(3.1) 0(0.0) 28(13.4) Yes 0(0.0) 17(10.9) 9(28.1) 0(0.0) 26(12.4) Attitude towards one’s own body р=0.00** Extremely thin 2(11.1) 3(1.9) 1(3.1) 0(0.0) 6(2.9) Something too thin 6(33.3) 27(17.3) 1(3.1) 0(0.0) 34(16.3) Pretty good weight 9(50.0) 75(48.1) 7(21.9) 1(33.3) 92(44.0) Slightly thick 1(5.6) 49(31.4) 21(65.6) 1(33.3) 7234.4) Extremely overweight 0(0.0) 2(1.3) 2(6.2) 1(33.3) 5(2.4)

**Statistical correlation is significant at the level p≤0.01; * Statistical correlation is significant at the level p≤0.05

DISCUSSION when they found that normal body weight had 81% of the girls and 3% were underweight, and 16% had According to the results of studies on the health of excess weight (in our study, we found 9.8% under- the population in Serbia in 2013, they registered an weight and 11.76% of girls are overweight). 68% of increase in the percentage of obese children (4.9%) boys had normal weight, 7% was underweight and compared to 2006 (2.6%). Also a significantly high- 25% were overweight (in our study we found 7.48% er percentage of moderately obese (13.2%) and obese malnourished boys and 21.49% with excess weight). (7.5%) children were recorded among children aged Observing the schools, we found that students 11-14 years (Boričić, et al., 2014). of technical school have a larger percentage of daily According to our results, in the sample we are physical activity. Here we identified 17.8% overweight identified 16.7% overweight and obese children, who and 6.6% underweight students. While, students of are a warning about the low quality of their diets and the Medical school have a lower percentage and rarely physical inactivity. However, as we don’t found an ex- engage in physical activity. Here we identified 15.9% tremely large number of excess weights, we reject the of overweight and 10% of malnourished students. basic hypothesis. As for the differences between men and wom- The status of nourishment in our study is some- en, we noticed that men are physically more active, what more favorable in comparison to the survey mainly satisfied with their weight, only 5% hold a conducted in Bor (central Serbia) among primary diet. Girls, however, are less frequently (2-3 times school pupils in 2011 (Stanković & Mihajlović, 2011), per week) engaged in physical activity. Almost 50%

150 Požar H. F., & Požar Č. F., Relationship between lifestyle and..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 145-153 of girls considered themselves overweight, and 20% ing, sports games and stretching) while the control already hold a diet. group attended a conventional program of physical Broken down by age, we identified among 15 year education (sports games through exercise, gymnas- olds 21%, among 16 year olds 20.7%, among 17 year tics, base of sports). Both groups had a regular two olds 12.5% and among 18 year olds 11.1% of respond- hours of physical education per week, during the ents with excessive weight. Obviously, the percentage school year. The results are reported positive effects of excessive weight respondents declines with age. of programmed physical activity in the control group Nutritional status of adolescents is of great inter- (p 0.001) in both sexes, reducing the percentage of fat est to public health, in terms of prevention of diseas- (mean difference = -5.58%) and waist circumference es associated with obesity. The effects of obesity in (-2.33 cm), and an increase in clean weight (+2.05 young people can lead to long-term health problems. kg), while the opposite was observed in the control It is important to emphasize that physical activity group. This points to the role of physical education in childhood and adolescence should be constantly teachers, as the just choice of physical activity can stimulated, in which the biggest role has physical ed- achieve reduction of body weight and contribute to ucation teachers. the health of adolescents in the context of regular The teacher of physical education, through its ac- teaching physical education classes. tivities in the school and outside the school, in sports Also examined was the impact of programmed clubs, plays an important role in physical and mental and self-selected physical activity on physical fitness development of children with effect on the person- of adolescents (Neto et al., 2014). One group of stu- ality of young people, directly assisting its formation dents performed physical activity according to their and development. The teacher makes the students own rhythm in the following sports: basketball, vol- develop skills in accordance with the talent, potential leyball, handball, football and swimming. While predisposition, influence at the same time education- another group of programmed physical activity is al of their personality (Krasniqi, et al., 2008). performs specified conditional exercise. Training Several studies confirm this fact. Thus, for exam- for both groups lasted 60 minutes. Intervention with ple, in India examined the effect of daily physical ac- programmed physical activity showed more changes tivity beside of regular school hours on body com- in physical abilities, the cardiorespiratory state and position in obese men aged 9-15 years (Apte & Rao, strength of the lower and upper extremities. 2013). The intervention involved the 5 sessions per According to previously analyzed, the greatest po- week, beside school hours for a period of 50 minutes. tential is found in the decision that the state recognizes After one year, assessed the impact of physical activ- the importance of prevention hronical noncommu- ity on reducing obesity. They found that participants nicable diseases through adequate nutrition and reg- show a significant reduction in body fat (1.0%), re- ular physical activity from an early age. School sport duction of skinfold thickness, too, there was a signifi- should contribute to improving public health, but in cant reduction in indicators of central obesity - waist the analysis of this problem is usually stated that there circumference (from 1.8 to 1.1 cm) with respect to are a small number of sports sections, which operate their original measurement. This indicates that the non-systematic. Today the little number of school has potential benefits of 50 minutes daily physical activity a regularly organized sport sections, so sport in schools justify the introduction in the curriculum of schools, regularly engaged in only 3-5% of the students, and for better health adolecenata. one of the main problems is the existence only 2 hours However, the benefits of regular physical activi- of physical education per week (Provincial Secretariat ty could be reach up within the current school pro- for Sports, Vojvodina, Serbia, 2007) gram, modification of content. It’s been proven in However, as it was submitted in the “Strategies for Brazil, where nearly 400 subjects aged 15-17 years the development of sport school in Vojvodina for the involved in research on the impact of physical activi- period 2013-2017” highlights, daily physical activity ty on body composition (Farias, Gonçalves, Morcillo, should be incorporated into the curriculum, while Guerra-Júnior, & Amancio 2015). The study group this is not achieved, the emphasis should be put to is subjected to a specific program of physical activity sport in schools should is available as an optional during the regular physical education classes (aerobic subject, or by providing a variety of free sections of activity, muscle strength exercises, running, jump- sport within the the school.

151 Požar H. F., & Požar Č. F., Relationship between lifestyle and..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 145-153

Also, more emphasis should be placed on school primarily in the frequency of physical activity, which meals. The good and bad habits acquired in child- is present in higher percentage among students of hood remain until the end of life, and improper diet technical schools and boys. In assessing the nutri- can have significant consequences. The development tional status we found more malnourished students of eating habits of school children most affected by between medical school, while in technical school the parents, but we must point out the impact of the more obese student. Mostly women believe that they school on the formation of the child’s personality and have an excess weight, and the large number from adopting healthy eating habits and behavior. the medical school is already hold uncontrolled Special significance have a school meal, because diet. Mainly students from medical school think children six or more hours spend in school, and dur- about their health when choosing food. Knowledge ing that time consumed largely unhealthy meals, about the importance of proper nutrition and phys- snacks, fast food and soft drinks, with high fat and ical activity among medical school students affect concentrated carbohydrates, which can cause over- consciousness in selecting foods, but does not affect weight (Janković, 2003). Legal provision of adequate, regular physical activity. Apparently, the knowledge healthy food in the school cafeteria, student dormi- that nursing students receive in medical schools with- tories could significantly reduce diseases associated out practical advice and motivation is not enough to with inadequate nutrition. change lifestyle. This is a long process that needs to start at a young age. In addition to families, schools CONCLUSION and teachers have a crucial role, promoting healthy Only a third of respondents are engaged daily lifestyles, the importance of regular activity and the physical activity. Differences in lifestyle among stu- possible consequences of obesity. dents of medical and technical schools, are reflected

REFERENCES

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prevention and treatment of obesity in children 15. Stanković, J., Mihajlović, K. (2011).Ishrana učeni- and adolescents. In Croatian]. Paediatria Croati- ka osmog razreda OŠ “Ljuba Nešić”. [Nutrition ca, 58(Supl.1), 238-242. of 8th grade primary schoolers “Ljuba Nešić” stu- 11. Markuš, D. (2012). Konstrukcija ljestvice za mjer- dents. In Serbian].Regional Center for talents in enje zdravog života srednješkolaca. [Construc- Bor, 1-12. tion of scale for measuring healthy lifestyle in high 16. Provincial Secretariat for Sports and Youth. school. In Croatian]. 21 Summer School of Kinesi- (2013). Strategija za razvoj sporta u AP Vojvodina ology, Croatian Republic. za period 2013-2017. [The strategy for the devel- 12. Nastavni plan. Područje rada: Zdravstvo i socijal- opment of sport in Vojvodina for the period 2013- na zaštita. [Teaching plan. Area of work: Health 2017. In Serbian]. Novi Sad. and social services. Education profile: nurse – 17. World Health Organization Europe (2005). Eu- technician, In Serbian]. ropean strategy for child and adolescent health 13. Neto, C.F., Neto, G.R., Araújo, A.T., Sousa, M.S.C., and development. Available from http://www. Sousa, J.B.C., Batista, G.R., & Reis, V.M.R. (2014). euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/79400/ Can programmed or self-selected physical activi- E87710.pdf (European) ty affect physical fitness of adolescents? Journal of 18. World Health Organization Europe (2004). Food Human Kinetics, 43, 125–130. and health in Europe: a new basis for action. Eu- 14. Provincial Secretariat for Sports and Youth. ropean series, No.96. Available from http:// (2007). Izveštaj o stanju sporta u AP Vojvodine. www.who.int/nutrition/publications/Food_and_ [The report on the status of sport in the AP Vo- health_Europe%20_newbasis_for_%20action.pdf jvodina. In Serbian]. Novi Sad. (European)

VERHÄLTNIS ZWISCHEN LEBENSSTIL UND ERHÄHRUNGSZUSTAND BEI ADOLESZENTEN

Zusammenfassung Der Lebensstil von Adoleszenten weckt immer größeres Interesse im Sektor der öffentlichen Gesundheit in Bezug auf die Verhinderung von Übergewicht. Das Ziel der Arbeit war es, den Lebensstil dieser Altersgruppe zu erfassen und die Unterschiede zwischen den Lebensstilen von Schülern der Medizinischen und der Technischen Schule festzulegen. Die Untersuchung wurde als Querschnittstudie während des Schuljahres 2015/2016 in der Medizinischen Schule in Novi Sad und der Technischen Schule in Subotica durchgeführt. Das Instrument der Untersuchung war ein Fragebogen, der anoynm und auf freiwilliger Basis von 209 Schülern im Alter von 14 bis 18 Jahren ausgefüllt wurde. Die Analyse der Daten wurde mit einem SPSS-Paket durchgeführt. Es wurde eine deskriptive Statistik angewendet, die statistische Bedeutung zwischen den beiden Schulen und nach den Geschlechtern wurde mit Hilfe des Pearson Chi-Quadrat-Tests geprüft. Die Schüler der Technischen Schule sind körperlich aktiver, denken aber in einem niedrigerem Prozentsatz bei der Auswahl der Lebensmittel an ihre Gesundheit; unter ihnen litten 18% an Übergewicht. Die Schüler der Medizinischen Schule denken bei der Auswahl der Lebensmittel in größerem Maße an ihre Gesundheit, sind aber körperlich weniger aktiv, was zu einem höheren Prozentsatz (10%) an unterernährten Schülern führte. 44% der Prüflinge sind mit ihrem Aussehen zufrieden. Ein Drittel der Schüler ist der Meinung, dass sie eine übermäßige Körpermasse haben und abnehmen müssen. Das Wissen von der Wichtigkeit eines gesunden Lebensstils beeinflusst bei Schülern der Medizinischen Schule das Bewusstsein bei der Auswahl von Lebensmitteln und den Wunsch, das eigene Gewicht zu kontrollieren, hat aber keinen Einfluss auf die Regelmäßigkeit von körperlichen Aktivitäten. Schlüsselwörter: KÖRPERLICHE AKTIVITÄT / DIÄT / GESUNDHEIT / LEBENSMITTEL

Received: 05.02. 2017 Accepted: 17.11.2017

153 Phys. Cult. (Belgr.) 2017; 71 (2): 154-165 PHYSICAL CULTURE

UDC: 050.486:796FIZIČKA KULTURA“1947/2016“ doi:10.5937/fizkul1702154B

THE JOURNAL “PHYSICAL CULTURE” – 70 YEARS OF DURATION

Božo Bokan

University of Belgrade, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Serbia

Abstract On the occasion of 70th anniversary since the foundation of the Journal Physical Culture and The State Institute for Physical Culture (today the Faculty of Sport and Physical Education), the analysis of the development of the journal by periods, publishers and editors in chief, as well as the analysis of the development of the Faculty of Sport and Physical Education have been completed. The motive coincided with the 2016 Shanghai ranking which included the University of Belgrade, as well as the Faculty of Sport and Physical Education. Based on the results of the analysis, mutual dependence in the development of the journal Physical culture and the Faculty of Sport and Physical Education as the institution of higher education and the publisher of the journal was observed. In the final part of the paper possible perspectives of development of the Journal and the Faculty in the 21st century were given.

Key words: THE JOURNAL “PHYSICAL CULTURE” / FACULTY OF SPORT AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION / 70 YEARS OF EXISTENCE / PERSPECTIVES OF DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION continuous existence, it has witnessed everything that has happened in the profession and science. The jour- There are two primary reasons for me to call to nal has followed and shared the fate since the time your attention. The first reason is the 70th anniversa- of our oldest educational institution “DIF” (the State ry of the journal PHYSICAL CULTURE in 2016. It institute of Physical Education) to the Faculty of sport is a date to be proud of and celebrate; to continue to and physical education of today. exist for as long as seven decades. Published regular- The date of “birth” of our oldest professional (and ly during tumultuous social changes and events, the later even scientific) journal is April 1947 in 27, De- journal has matured and developed. In this progress ligradska Street, at the place of “Old DIF”! Although it has received indirect world recognition together its first name was “Physiculture” (1947-1949) and the with its publisher, the Faculty of Sport and Physical imprint of the first issue showed that the publisher Education of the University of Belgrade by entering was the Committee of the Government of the Feder- the prestigious Shanghai list. This is the second rea- al People’s Republic of Yugoslavia (FPRY), and for a son why I call to your attention. But let us start from time it was the Association of Pedagogues of Physical the beginning. We should remind ourselves about Culture and the Republican Association of Physical the genesis of maturing of the journal PHYSICAL Culture, the journal PHYSICAL CULTURE has been CULTURE. edited mostly by teachers from the DIF and it was al- ways “located” at the Faculty (Table 1). GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT OF That is how the Journal changed its first name: THE JOURNAL PHYSICAL CULTURE “Physiculture – the journal for theory and practice of physical culture” (1947-1949) grew into “Physical Among many scientific and professional sources in Culture – the journal for theory and practice” (1950- physical culture, we may be proud of our oldest jour- 1960), then has had the name “Physical Culture – the nal PHYSICAL CULTURE. For as long as 70 years of journal that publishes papers from all domains of

154 Correspondence to: Bokan Božo, University of Belgrade, Faculty of sport and physical education, Blagoja Parovića 156, 11030 Belgrade, Serbia; e-mail:[email protected] Bokan B, The Journal “Physical Culture” – 70 years of Duration, PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 154-165 physical culture (physical education, sport and relat- Culture” – Scientific journal publishing papers from ed biological, humanistic, social and natural sciences) the field of physical education and sport and related - (1961-2005) for 45 years. Although the managing bio-medical, humanistic, social, and natural sciences editor in that time in the volume number 2 (1994) (2006-2010). In the period form 2010-2016, the Jour- in his introductory text advocated that the journal nal gets a new editorial board with the managing ed- should become the profession scientific herald (Jus- itor Saša Jakovljević and a new impressum: “Physical tification for the Journal PHYSICAL CULTURE as Culture” – Scientific journal publishing papers from the profession scientific herald”), the new editorial the field of sports sciences and physical education as board of the Journal with the editor in chief Irina Ju- well as from related bio-medical, humanistic, social, has boldly emphasized their SCIENTIFIC orientation and natural sciences (Table 1). in the impressum of the Journal in 2006: “Physical

Table 1 The overview of names, scientific field and publishers of the journal PHYSICAL CULTURE (1947 – 2016) “PHYSICAL CULTURE” – GENESIS OF MATURING

1 1947/1 “PHYSICULTURE” – the journal for theory and practice of physical culture (publication of the Committee for physical education of the government of FPRY) 2 1950/1-2 “PHYSICAL CULTURE” – the journal for theory and practice ( Committee for Physical Education of the Government of FPRY ) 3 1951/1-2 “PHYSICAL CULTURE” – the journal for theory and practice (State Institute for Physical Education) 4 1954/1-2 “PHYSICAL CULTURE” – the journal for theory and practice (The Institute for Physical Culture) 5 1957/1-2 “PHYSICAL CULTURE” – the journal for theory and practice (High school for Physical Education) 6 1960/1-2 “PHYSICAL CULTURE” – the journal for theory and practice (Association of Societies of Physical Education Teachers of Yugoslavia) 7 1961/1-2 “PHYSICAL CULTURE” (journal of the Association of Societies of Physical Education Teachers of Yugoslavia) 8 1967/1-2 “PHYSICAL CULTURE” (journal of the Association of Societies of Pedagogues of Physical Culture of Yugoslavia) 9 1974/1 “PHYSICAL CULTURE” (journal of the Association for Physical Culture of the Social Republic of Serbia) 10 1975/1 “PHYSICAL CULTURE” (publisher: the Republican Association of Physical Culture) “PHYSICAL CULTURE” – 11 1990/91/1-2 The journal publishes papers from all domains of physical culture (publisher: the Faculty of Physical Culture of the University in Belgrade) “PHYSICAL CULTURE” The journal publishes papers from the field of physical culture (physical education, sports recreation, 12 1992/2 sport and related biological, humanistic, social and natural sciences) (publisher: the Faculty of Physical Culture of the University in Belgrade)

“PHYSICAL CULTURE” 13 2006/1 Scientific journal publishes papers from the field of physical education and sport and related bio- medicine, humanistic, social and natural sciences (publisher The Faculty of Sport and Physical Education of the University in Belgrade) “PHYSICAL CULTURE” Scientific journal publishes papers from the field of sports sciences and physical education, as well as 14 2010/1 from related bio-medicine, humanistic, social and natural sciences (publisher: the Faculty of Sport and Physical Education of the University in Belgrade)

155 Bokan B, The Journal “Physical Culture” – 70 years of Duration, PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 154-165

The Journal Editors in chief were university pro- Niš – the Faculty of Sport and Physical Education (Ta- fessors: Branko Polič (1947-1953), Borivoje Jovanović ble 2). If we take into account that the largest number (1954-1956), Miloš Nišavić (1956-1973), Miladin Ilić of author’s texts in the Journal were written by teachers (1974-1989), Božo Bokan (1990-2005), Irina Juhas and associates whose work as pedagogues is connected (2006-2009) and Saša Jakovljević (2010-2016). All to this institution of higher education (from DIF to the professors were from the University of Belgrade – the Faculty of Sport and Physical Education), it is there- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, except the fore clear why the Faculty has been the publisher of our professor Miladin Ilić, who was from the University of oldest journal for a long period of time.

Table 2 Basic indicators of the journal PHYSICAL CULTURE by periods in 70 years of existence Period Span Number of Number of Number of Publisher Editor in chief volumes pages texts 1 1947/1950 20 2193 276 The Committee of the Branko Polič Government of FPRY 2 1951/1959 43 4222 699 DIF, Belgrade Branko Polič CoPE, Belgrade Bora Jovanović Miloš Nišavić 3 1960/1973 70 5593 1075 Association of societies Miloš Nišavić of PET / PCP 4 1974/1989 76 6565 1880 Republican Miladin Ilić Self-management Community for PC

5 1990/2005 30 3874 780 FPC, Belgrade Božo Bokan FSPE, Belgrade 6 2006/2009 6 815 47 FSPE, Belgrade Irina Juhas 7 2010/2016 14 3120 108 FSPE, Belgrade Saša Jakovljević T o t a l 1947-2016 259 26382 4865

Presented in numbers, seventy years of existence The most significant changes in editorial form of of the Journal would look like this: 76 members of the Journal occurred happened in 1974 (the Fourth editorial board, 7 managing editors, 8 different pub- period), when the format B was replaced by larger lishers (out of which the Faculty of sport and physical format A4, documentation elements (abstracts of pa- education of today was the publisher for 4 times un- pers in Serbian and English languages in a separate der different names), 70 volumes, 259 issues, 26,382 card) were integrated, and then other standards (ad- pages of text, about 1,600 authors and 4,865 different dresses of authors and other things) were applied. professional and scientific texts (Table 2). A new change, i.e. printing of the Journal on B In the overall period from 1947-2016, the Journal format happened in 1994, when the abstract of the with its topics was oriented towards the whole area paper is placed in the header of the article; the table of physical culture, slightly directed towards school of contents is given in Serbian, English and Russian, education in the first three periods, and significantly and some other details are harmonized with the cur- directed towards sport in the last two periods. rent – actual demands of the Ministry of Science and The journal PHYSICAL CULTURE had the Yu- Technology of the Republic of Serbia. goslav orientation in the first three periods of devel- The Journal published original articles and contri- opment, and according to the status of the publisher, butions, and occasionally even translations. The most it was the federal journal in the First and the Third remarkable changes during seventy years happened period, and in the following periods it started to gain in the category of articles. In the First, Second, Third features of a national journal concerning editors and and mostly in the Fourth period, articles were not authors of papers, which was the reflection of social categorized individually (division on scientific and and political developments on the territory of former professional ones). However, as early as in the Third common state. period, since 1970, the column “Scientific paper” was

156 Bokan B, The Journal “Physical Culture” – 70 years of Duration, PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 154-165 established (for which the member of the editorial the Editorial board in the Seventh period of the de- board, prof. Nikola Kurelić, PhD, was in charge) where velopment of the Journal, together with establishing such papers were published. The same form was kept the Publishing board comprised of a large number of in the Fourth period up to 1986. In 1987 the perma- respected professors of the University and research- nent individual categorization of articles started. At ers from various fields of physical culture from the the same time, review of articles by selected reviewers whole world. Without going into deeper analysis of outside the editorial board was introduced, and that texts published in the Sixth and the Seventh period good practice continued in the Fifth, Sixth, and Sev- of development, it can be concluded that the English enth period of the development of the Journal. version of the journal has made a significant role in The Journal uses blind peer review and the list of the development of the Journal from the angle of its reviewers is published every year in the last issue of Internet presentation and dissemination of texts all the Journal. The papers are categorized in the follow- over the world (Picture 1). ing categories: – original scientific article, – review article, – previous announcement, – lecture at a scientific / professional meeting, – call lecture and an announcement, – scientific criticism, argument, review, – professional article. The share of scientific articles per year ranged from 14.0% to 33.6% of texts from 1987 to 1996, Picture 1 Journal PHYSICAL CULTURE – “Two journals in one” and that trend, with a slight decline, lasted till 2005, which meant the Journal had scientific direction to- The good practice, of publishing papers in Serbi- gether with the professional one. Finally, from 1995 an language (Cyrillic), as well as their translaton into onwards, the Ministry of science and technology English, together with internet presentation, should of the Republic of Serbia co-funded publication of continue in the following period. Preservation of the PHYSICAL CULTURE as “A PUBLICATION OF A traditional Cyrillic letters in Serbian and the English SPECIAL INTEREST FOR SCIENCE” and thus it version of texts are the publishing enterprise of the was acknowledged that the journal belonged to the editorial board of the Journal which deserves a visual scientific category. presentation as a protective paradigm of the present There is the exchange between the Journal and and future editorial boards (Picture 1). two dozens of leading journals in the world. It is reg- The contribution to the development of the Journal ularly distributed to our major libraries (the National is given by the members of the library of the Faculty Library, the University Library), as well as to faculties of Sport and Physical Education, Sida Bogosavljević of physical culture in Serbia. as a proofreading editor and Saša Golub as a librar- The Academic Council of the Faculty of Sport and ian and a technical editor, who ensured that library Physical Education concluded in 2006 that the Jour- sources together with the texts from the Journal, via nal should be transformed into the Journal of inter- SCIindex – Serbian Citation Index, become available national importance, i.e. to become “A publication of to world university community of researchers. Since the special importance for world science in the field 1991 the journal PHYSICAL CULTURE has become of physical culture”. available in electronic form to the level of abstracts, In the Sixth period of the Journal development, key words and references, and since 2002 full texts of it was published in the А4 format again, the Editori- all volumes of the Journal have become available. al board got several new members from abroad and In mentioning significant persons for appearance for the first time, all texts were fully translated from and quality of the Journal, we should not forget per- (Cyrillic letters) into English. This manent translators Gordana Vekarić (for English lan- tendency of “two journals in one” was continued by guage) and Bojana Sabo (for Russian language).

157 Bokan B, The Journal “Physical Culture” – 70 years of Duration, PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 154-165

HOW THE FACULTY MATURED Faculty have grown and matured together! This is the AS THE PUBLISHER OF THE main reason why we discuss the Faculty while analys- JOURNAL AND AS A SCIENTIFIC ing the Journal and vice versa (Picture 2). INSTITUTION From the moment when abstracts and texts in the Journal were printed in English and especially when Another reason for discussion is the appearance the texts from the Journal became available to read- of the Faculty of Sport and Physical Education of ers all over the world via the Internet, it was not only the University of Belgrade in the prestigious Shang- that the authors became “visible”, but the University hai Ranking of faculties for PURPOSEFUL MOVE- and the Faculty became even more “visible”. Besides, MENT CULTURE OF A MAN. We deliberately used authors from the Faculty, in the process of election to the ontological expression (“purposeful movement titles, had to publish papers in international indexed culture of a man”) that should “cover” different names journals, which contributed to the rating of authors of faculties that are on the list of 300 best faculties of themselves, but also of the University and the Faculty. the world that deal with education of different pro- That was the symbiosis and the mutual influence that files of experts whose main activity is – body move- happened to the Journal and the Faculty. The increase ment – exercising. in number of papers and authors who worked at the At first glance, it may seem that there was a switch Belgrade Faculty of Sport and Physical Education re- of argument: the Journal – the Faculty, but, as previ- sulted in higher Faculty ranking in the world. ously mentioned, the Faculty of Sport and Physical he University of Belgrade is ranked in the Exercise was, during its history, the publisher of the prestigious Shanghai list (the basic criterion is the Journal in most occasions, and the largest number of number of published papers in international journals teachers from the Faculty were editors and wrote pro- and number of quotations) among 20,000 universities fessional and scientific texts for it. in 2012 – firstly between 400-500 top positions, and The forerunner of the Journal of today was “Physi- in 2016 it was rated between the positions 200-300 culture” (1947/1) – the journal for theory and practice (Table 3), while the Faculty of Sport and Physical Ed- of physical culture”, the publisher of which was the ucation reached the same position in 2016 (Table 4). Committee for Physical Education of the Govern- It should be said that the Faculty of Sport and Physical ment of the FPRY. As early as in 1951, the Journal Education from Niš found its place in the Shanghai got the name it has today „Physical culture“ (1951/1- list of best faculties in teaching staff for physical ed- 2) – the journal for theory and practice, the publisher ucation, sport and recreation. Although this ranking was the State Institute for Physical Education (DIF), is informal, it is a matter of prestige to be published the forerunner of the current name of the Faculty of in the list that presents only two percent of the world Sport and Physical Education (1). The Journal and the universities each year.

Picture 2 Publisher of the Journal PHYSICAL CULTURE – from DIF to FSPE

158 Bokan B, The Journal “Physical Culture” – 70 years of Duration, PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 154-165

Table 3 Academic ranking of prestigious world universities – Shanghai list 2016

Score on Year of National Total Rank The name of the university Country special establishment rank score criterion 1 Harvard University USA 1636 1 100.0 100.0 4 University of Cambridge Great Britain 1318 1 69.6 78.3 19 Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich Switzerland 1855 1 43.8 29.5 20 University of Tokyo Japan 1977 1 42.2 36.3 27 University of Toronto Canada 1827 1 39.4 19.9 30 University of Copenhagen Denmark 1479 1 37.7 21.8 39 Pierre and Marie Curie University – Paris France 1971 1 34.5 33.6 40 The University of Melbourne Australia 1853 1 33.9 17.0 44 Karolinsa Institute Sweden 1810 1 32.7 25.6 47 Heidelberg University Germany 1386 1 32.3 19.9 56 University of Helsinki Finland 1640 1 29.9 12.6 58 Tsinghua University China 1911 1 29.6 10.3 201- University of Belgrade Serbia 1808 1 0.0 300 401-500 University of Ljubljana Slovenia 1595 1 0.0 401-500 University of Zagreb Croatia 1669 1 0.0

Comment on the Table 3 Ranking of Universities in 5. The University of Belgrade appeared in the the Shanghai list in 2016 by countries Shanghai list in 2012 for the first time, it was po- sitioned between 401-500 and since then it has 1. The most quality universities have been from constantly made progress. Since 2016, the Uni- the United States of America for a long time. versity of Belgrade has been ranked between Out of the first 20 universities from the Shang- 201-300 top positions, and it is the only univer- hai list, 17 are from the USA, and one is from sity from Serbia ranked according to criteria of Great Britain, Switzerland and Japan each. the Shanghai list - (the Shanghai list published 2. The most quality universities are from 20 most every year by the Shanghai Jiao Tong University developed countries of the world: USA, Great and it is one of the most influential in the world. Britain, Switzerland, Japan, Canada, Denmark, The key criteria for ranking a university are: the France, Australia, Sweden, Germany, Finland, number of published scientific papers in inter- and China. national journals, number of quotes, number of 3. “Age” of the university influences the quality of Nobel Prize winners and Fields medals of those rank, so that the oldest universities are the most who used to attend the University or work there. quality ones at the same time. It specially per- Although the “Shanghai list” is informal, it is the tains to universities from the USA and Europe- matter of prestige to be include, because it encom- an states. passes only two percent of the world universities). 4. The number of universities from medium de- 6. If compared to the Universities from the re- veloped and undeveloped countries is smaller, gion (Ljubljana and Zagreb), it is much better so that their appearance in the Shanghai list is ranked, although in the beginning these univer- considered exceptionally significant. sities were ranked better.

159 Bokan B, The Journal “Physical Culture” – 70 years of Duration, PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 154-165

Table 4 Global rank of faculties of physical culture – Shanghai list 2016 (Selection of prestigious faculties presented by country)

Score on World The name of the faculty Country Total Score special Rank criterion

1 Deakin University – School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences Australia 100 98.9

Loughborough University – School of Sport, Exercise and 2 Great Britain Health Sciences 95.7 100 University of South Carolina – Columbia Department of Exercise Science / Department of Hospitality, 3 Retail and Sport Management / Department of Physical Education and Athletic Training USA 89.5 88.6 Norwegian School of Sport Sciences – 4 Norwegian School of Sport Sciences Norway 84.4 73 University of Southern Denmark – 7 Department of Sports Science and Clinical Biomechanics Denmark 78.4 68.5 University of Leuven – Faculty of Kinesiology and 8 Belgium 75.4 66.9 Rehabilitation Sciences University of Cologne – 10 German Sport University Cologne Germany 73 87.1 Vrije University of Amsterdam – The 11 Department of Human Movement Sciences Netherlands 72.2 79.9 University of British Columbia – 16 Allan Mcgavin Sports Medical Center, School of Health and Exercise Science, School of Kinesiology Canada 64.1 64.8 Verona University– 19 Faculty of Exercise and Sport Science, Sport, Mountains, and Health Research Center Italy 58.6 63.3 University of Ljubljana – 101-150 Slovenia 17.2 Faculty of Sport University of Zagreb – 101-150 Croatia 19.8 Faculty of Kinesiology University of Belgrade – 201-300 Faculty of Sport and Physical Education Serbia 9.9 University of Niš – 201-300 Faculty of Sport and Physical Education Serbia 7.9

Comment on Table 4 Ranking of faculties of physi- nant any more. Although among the first 20 cal culture according to Shanghai list 2016 faculties there are the ones from the USA, now the dominant faculties are from Australia, Great 1. Among the best faculties in the field of physical Britain, Norway, Denmark, Belgium, Germany, culture, faculties from the USA are not domi- the Netherlands, Canada, Italy.

160 Bokan B, The Journal “Physical Culture” – 70 years of Duration, PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 154-165

2. The best faculties for physical culture are again By reviewing and analysing different names of fac- those from the 20 most developed countries of ulties from the Shanghai list in 2016, different names the world. as a consequence of cultural, traditional, economic 3. Faculties from the region (Ljubljana, Zagreb) and other qualities of countries are noticed: “Univer- with their placement between 101-150 position sities of physical education”– Poland (Table 5), “Uni- are ranked better than their universities (401- versities of sport” – Germany, China, Lithuania, Japan 500), while the Faculty of Sport and Physical (Table 6), “Faculties of physical education“ – the Czech Education from Belgrade follows its University Republic, Poland (Table 7). The most frequent names (201-300). of faculties are presented in Table 8. Here we should 4. The Faculty of Sport and Physical Education ap- emphasize once more that faculties of physical cul- peared in the Shanghai list for the first time in ture from are not in the Shanghai list, and they 2016 which is considered to be a great achieve- have the name “Faculty of Physical Culture” in most ment of the Faculty. cases. 5. The Faculty of Sport and Physical Education from Niš appeared in the Shanghai list in 2016, although the University of Niš is not in the Shanghai list.

Table 5. Universities of PHYSICAL EDUCATION – Shanghai list 2016

Number The name of the university Country 1 Gdansk University of PE and Sport Poland 2 Jozef Pilsudski University of PE in Warsaw Poland 3 The Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of PE in Katovice Poland

Table 6 Universities of Sport – Shanghai list 2016

Number The name of the university Country 1 German Sport University Cologne Germany 2 National Taiwan Sport University Taiwan / China 3 Shanghai University of Sport China 4 Tianjin University of Sport China 5 Beijing Sport University China 6 Lithuanian Sports University Lithuania 7 Nippon Sport Science University Japan 8 Osaka University of Health and Sport Sciences Japan

Table 7 Faculties of PHYSICAL CULTURE – Shanghai list 2016 Number The name of the faculty Country 1 Faculty of Physical Culture Czech Republic 2 Department of Physical Culture and Health Promotion Poland

161 Bokan B, The Journal “Physical Culture” – 70 years of Duration, PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 154-165

\sAs a final consideration, the distribution of tion” and various combinations of mentioned names, physical culture faculties by continents should also with a large number of these faculties focusing on bi- be mentioned (Table 9). This table clearly shows that omedical sciences. Faculties from Europe and North Europe is dominant with its faculties for the move- America have about 80% of the faculties of physical ment culture of a man (about 50%), with names: culture in the world and they are the most developed, “physical culture”, “ physical education”, “ sport” and with a long tradition and the best results achieved in “sports sciences” and various combinations of men- the field of physical culture. If one needs to take the tioned names. Faculties from North America are on name of the faculty of physical culture as an example, the second place (29%), with the dominant names: then it is definitely Europe, with its long tradition and “kinesiology”, “ sport”, “ sports science”, “ physical educa- results in the field of the movement culture of a man.

Table 8. Most frequent names of faculties for movement culture of a man on the Shanghai list in 2016

Rank The name of the faculty (department, school, institute) Frequency 1 Department of Kinesiology 26 2 Department of Sport and Exercise Science 8 3 Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Science 7 4-5 Department of Physical Education 6 4-5 Faculty of Sport Science 6 6-8 School of Physical Education 4 6-8 School of Kinesiology 4 6-8 Institute of Sport Science 4 T o t a l 65 (30.52%)

Conclusions for the Shanghai list of faculties for the 4. Most frequently used name for faculties in Eu- movement culture of a man rope are: School / Department of Physical Edu- cation, Faculty of Sport Science and combina- 1. Out of 300 faculties for the movement culture of tion of these two names Faculty of Physical Ed- a man that are in the Shanghai list of 2016, there ucation and Sport Science, or Faculty of Sport are 213 faculties under different names. and Physical Education. 2. The most often used name is the Department of 5. Most frequently used prefixes for the denota- Kinesiology, but these are mostly faculties from tion of the faculty for the movement culture of the USA. Only three faculties from Europe (two a man according to the frequency of appearance from Croatia and one from Belgium) have that of the name are as follows: sport (88), kinesiolo- name. gy (54), and physical education (38). 3. Departments of Kinesiology in the USA have majors in biomedical sciences.

162 Bokan B, The Journal “Physical Culture” – 70 years of Duration, PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 154-165

Table 9 Faculties of Physical Education per continents – Shanghai list 2016 Rank Continent Frequency (f) Percentage (%) 1 Europe 142 47.33 2 North America 87 29.00 3 Australia 30 10.00 4 Asia 23 7.67 5 South America 16 5.33 6 Africa 2 0.67 Total 300 100.00

the knowledge and belief that to reach the new level PERSPECTIVES OF DEVELOPMENT means to invest new efforts and values that have not OF THE JOURNAL AND THE been exhibited yet, the whole scientific community FACULTY IN THE 21ST CENTURY in PHYSICAL CULTURE stands before a significant challenge – to conquer what is inscrutable and un- On the basis of presented data on the development known. of the Journal and the Faculty, it can be concluded One of the prerequisites for further development that these are two different concepts that make ONE. of both the Journal and the Faculty is their materi- That ONE should be developed TOGETHER (AS al basis, without which there is no spiritual upgrade. ONE), as a unique process for the benefit of BOTH The material basis of the Journal are human resourc- – as the UNITY “of one and all” according to the es that have to be adequately valued for their work, model of philosophical argument by M. Cekić (1989). both the Editorial board that edits the Journal, and Transferred from the area of philosophy to the field associates who write contributions. It would be ideal of physical culture, it was the Promethean attitude if the Journal were edited by the professional Editorial brought by M. Matić when speaking about the Jour- board, and texts of associates and the work of review- nal and the Faculty (1995:181), that highlighted: “We ers were adequately rewarded. Another possibility is are creating the Journal – but nonetheless it is creating that the work of all members of the Editorial board, us, both in social and in expert and professional, even authors of texts and reviewers from the Faculty of personal sense”. Sport and Physical Education are adequately valued From the facts about the genesis of the journal and stimulated. That would create healthy competi- “Physical culture”, it can be concluded that in the last tion and motivation for quality texts. Otherwise, we 70 years the Journal has advanced from the practice, shall remain in the field of voluntary work as it is now, via theory to science. That was the development of which is fading in the world of explicit material val- the Faculty as well – as an educational and a scien- ues, the basis on which liberal capitalism is created. tific institution, we can assume that both entities are The Faculty assets, although constantly upgraded open for further upgrade, because it is the only way and modernised, have to be invested in even more, for practice, theory and science to be developed fur- especially with the help of the Ministry of Education, ther – otherwise it would be the end of development Science and Technological Development of the Re- of both the Journal and the Faculty. If the associates public of Serbia, for the teaching process to be raised and teachers of the Faculty, by publishing their papers on a higher level, and to enable new and modern in prestigious journals in the world managed to bring equipment for the study of movement culture in the the Faculty of sport and physical education among research process. 300 best faculties in the world with their work, could In the methodological sense, all phenomena in they do the same with their Journal? both social and natural sciences (and phenomena in Do all members of scientific community who the process of body movement – exercises as well) publish texts in the journal Physical Culture and should be studied by applying different research ap- who work at higher education and other institutions proaches: quantitative, qualitative and mixed (Ristić, have strength and quality to raise towards a bench- 2016). In particular, there is an urgent need to change mark - which has not been reached yet? Respecting the current method of research because of the fact

163 Bokan B, The Journal “Physical Culture” – 70 years of Duration, PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 154-165 that the previous research approaches in physical search methods are predominately applied, and “the culture were predominantly based on quantitative re- man who exercises” is first and foremost a human and search work and inductive conclusion, and biological a social being, and his gender essence is his ontologi- field of man in the exercise process was predominant- cal feature that has been rarely explored so far. ly investigated, as shown in the analysis of works in Regarding basic field of study and the scientific journals published in the Republic of Serbia (Bokan, field both in the Journal and in the Faculty, if we, as 2013). The recent study has only confirmed the previ- a Slavic nation, increasingly flee and shy away from ous finding on the sample of 80 relevant world jour- “physical culture” as the most comprehensive expres- nals “of the science of exercise”, pointing out that in sion for the BEING of a man’s moving culture, we theoretical and philosophical sense, positivism is the return to its constituent entities: physical education, dominant research paradigm (Petrovic, Koprivica & sport and recreation (as we defined thescientific field Bokan, 2017). in the Statute of the Faculty of Sport and Physical In methodological and philosophical sense, phys- Education of the University of Belgrade: PHYSICAL ical culture needs structural revolution and a new EDUCATION AND SPORT, or as a narrow scien- research paradigm, modelled on ideas and works of tific field: SCIENCE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION, T. Kuhn (1974), K. Popper (1973), I. Lakatos and A. SPORT AND RECREATION). Instead of one, we Musgrave (2003). In studying of physical activity of a use several names, instead of simpler, we use more man, negative practice of deranged understanding of complex, but the one which is the being of our pro- collective research has prevailed, as evidenced by the fession and science and the ontology of our existence, famous British philosopher Mike McNamee (2005:2): no matter how we are defined – it is PHYSICAL “The idea of a lonely scientist who performs exper- (human) ACTIVITY and GOODS created as pur- iments can sound romantic in Galileo’s Tower, but it poseful categories. In the same relationship, the ap- is barely near the modern reality of scientific research pointment of an institution that educates staff to work in the field of exercise, health and sports, as elsewhere. in all domains of a man’s moving culture appears in Researchers usually “hunt” in packs.” the same way, which has undoubtedly been shown The message to be understood from this British in the analysis of 300 prestigious faculties for phys- philosopher’s critical attitude is that knowledge in the ical culture according to the Shanghai list for 2016. logical sense is the process of concluding primarily We, as an institution, should retain the Slavic name carried out in minds of individual researchers and of the FACULTY OF PHYSICAL CULTURE, or to not in ones of collective investigators where “no trees understand it as its integral entity the FACULTY OF can be seen from the forest.” In philosophical sense, PHYSICAL EDUCATION, SPORTS AND RECREA- facts that come with investigative procedures are dead TION. The history of our Faculty’s development has material, and human interpretation is giving meaning already been confirmed, and examples of faculties and value to them. Therefore, phenomena in physical around the world show DIFFERENT VARIATIONS culture should be extended to the area of qualitative​​ OF THE SAME. It is important that others do not and mixed research approaches, which has been less take our basic field of study, and that we do not flee common in previous works in the journal Physical from educating experts in various fields of specialty, culture. Similar phenomenon is manifested in works from teachers of physical education in schools, sports of university associates and teachers in meeting crite- coaches in clubs and organizers of physical recreation ria for their promotions. It has become normal that in in voluntarily organized associations of citizens. the study of “the man who exercises” quantitative re-

164 Bokan B, The Journal “Physical Culture” – 70 years of Duration, PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 154-165

REFERENCES

1. Bokan, B. (2013). Physical anthropology and in- 8. Bokan, B. (1997). New supplements to the biogra- ductive reasoning in domestic scientific literature: phy of physical culture. Facta Universitatis, Univer- The basic paradigm for research and argumenta- sity of Niš, 4:15-21. tion on human physical activity. Serbian Journal of 9. Kun, T. (1974). Struktura naučnih revolucija [Struc- Sports Sciences, 7(1-4), 85-128. ture of scientific revolutions, In Serbian]. Beograd, 2. Bokan, B. (2009). Ka objektivnom saznanju u Nolit. fizičkoj kulturi [To objective knowledge in physical 10. Lakatoš, I., Macgrejb, A. (2003). Kritika i rast culture, In Serbian]. U: B. Bokan (ur.), Zbornik ra- saznanja [Criticism and growth of knowledge, In dova sa međunarodne naučne konferencije (str 97- Serbian]. Beograd, Plato. 103). Beograd, Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja. 11. Matić, M. (1995). Opšta teorija fizičke kulture – 3. Bokan, B. (2006). 60 godina Fakulteta = [Sixtieth] Praktikum [General Theory of Physical Culture – 60th Anniversary [of Faculty]. Beograd, Faculty of Practicum, In Serbian]. Beograd, Fakultet fizičke Sports and Physical Education. kulture. 4. Bokan, B. (2004). Towards constitution of philoso- 12. McNamee, M. (2005). Philosophy and the Sciences of Exercise, Health and Sport – Critical perspectives phy of sport. U: B. Jošt, (ed.), M. Hosta, (ed.). Phi- on research methods. London and New York: Rou- losophy of sport and other essays:proceedings book tledge (Taylor & Francis Group). (pp. 45-52). Ljubljana: Faculty of Sport. 13. Petrovic, A., Koprivica, V. & Bokan, B. (2017). 5. Bokan, B. (2005). Nauke o fizičkoj kulturi – interdis- Quantitative, qualitative and mixed research in ciplinarni pristup – kao “nova” (“stara”) paradigma sport science: A methodological report. South Af- [Science of physical culture - interdisciplinary ap- rican Journal for Research in Sport, Physical Edu- proach - as a “new” (“old”) paradigm, In Serbian]. cation and Recreation, 39 (2): 181-197.  Fizička kultura, 57/58(1-4),1-18. 14. Poper, K. (1973). Logika naučnog otkrića [The 6. Bokan, B. (1994). Pledoaje za časopis “Fizička logic of scientific discovery, In Serbian]. Beograd, kultura” kao naučno glasilo u struci [Pledoja for Nolit. the journal “Physical Culture” as a scientific jour- 15. Ristić, Ž. (2016). Objedinjavanje kvantitativnih i nal in the vocation, In Serbian]. Fizička kultura, kvalitativnih istraživanja [Integration of quanti- 48(2),121-123. tative and qualitative research, In Serbian]. Be- 7. Bokan, B. (1990/1991). Na tragu rađanja, trajanja ograd. Evropski centar za mir i razvoj (ECPD), i budućnosti časopisa “Fizička kultura” [On the Univerzitet za mir Ujedinjenih nacija. wake of the birth, duration and future of the jour- 16. Cekić, M. (1989). Jedno i sve – Filozofski fragmenti nal “Physical Culture”, In Serbian]. Fizička kultura, [One and All - Philosophical fragments, In Serbi- 44/45(3), 109. an]. Beograd, Hegelovo društvo. 

ZEITSCHRIFT KÖRPERKULTUR - 70 JAHRE BESTAND

Zusammenfassung Anlässlich des 70-jährigen Jubiläums seit der Gründung der Zeitschrift „Körperkultur“ und des Staatlichen Instituts für Körperkultur (heutige Fakultät für Sport und Körperkultur) wurde eine Analyse der Entwicklung der Zeitschrift nach Zeitabschnitten, Verlegern und Hauptredakteuren, sowie eine Analyse der Entwicklung der Fakultät für Sport und Körperkultur durchgeführt. Anlass zu dieser Koinzi- denz ist die Shanghai-Ranking-Liste für das Jahr 2016, auf der sich die Universität Belgrad sowie die Fakultät für Sport und Körperkultur befinden. Auf Grund der Analyseergebnisse wurde eine gegenseitige Bedingtheit in der Entwicklung der Zeitschrift „Körperkultur“ und der Fakultät für Sport und Körperkultur als hochschulischer Institution und Verleger der Zeitschrift festgestellt. Im Abschlussteil der Arbeit wurden mögliche Perspektiven der Entwicklung der Zeitschrift und der Fakultät im 21. Jahrhundert angegeben.

Schlüsselwörter: ZEITSCHRIFT „KÖRPERKULTUR“ / FAKULTÄT FÜR SPORT UND KÖRPERKULTUR / 70 JAHRE BESTAND / ENTWICKLUNGSPERSPEKTIVEN Received: 01.11.2017 Accepted: 20.11.2017

165 Phys. Cult. (Belgr.) 2017; 71 (2): 166-171 PHYSICAL CULTURE

UDC:796.01:316.77 doi:10.5937/fizkul1702166Z

PHYSICAL CULTURE – A FRAMEWORK FOR THE MEDIA CLARIFICATION OF MAN’S CULTURAL BEING

Nenad Živanović

University of Nis, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Serbia

Abstract Culture, and its related syntagm of physical culture, especially in its most narrow of meanings which refers to spiritual creation, is the foundation of every nation. As a result the term physical culture, which we have for a long time now wanted to unburden ourselves of and leave it in our past, should be rehabilitated, like our colleagues from the Scandina- vian countries have done, and it should be given back its (necessary) cultural dimension. Since, as we ourselves know, in the very focus of our profession, physical culture, we find man who is his own biggest mystery. And this man accepts physical movement – exercise, like nourishing food, necessary not only for his body but for his soul. Precisely in that, in this emergence of physical exercise from man’s body do we find the entire phenomenology of physical culture. Man experiences “thirst” for various types of satisfaction of his own cultural needs. And just like he has the need to read a good book, hear a good piece of music, look at a beautiful picture, … he also has the need to add to physical exercise, in a dietary or agonistic sense, everything that has already been mentioned. These expectations of a man desiring spiritual and physical food must be satisfied. The printed and electronic media are a good opportunity to meet this need. After all, these media are at every moment available to man who has increasingly less free time. This is the opportunity to “ad hoc” inform man and encourage him to turn to this aspect of his cultural needs – physical culture.

Key words: MAN’S CULTURAL BEING/ PHYSICAL CULTURE / MEDIA

INTRODUCTION told everyone who looked around more and admired everyone else’s home than their own: Culture – as our mirror, in which we can see, if we “If you take another’s word, know that you have want to, all that we have endured and all of our ups not won it, you have subjugated yourself. It is better to and downs, just like our conscience has been imprint- lose the biggest and most fortified city in your coun- ed into our being by the seal of our elders like our first try than even the smallest and least known word of gospel – it is the foundation of our existence. It is the your language. Know that the extent to which your foundation into which the written word has been em- enemy has won and conquered you is the number of bedded, like the cornerstone of our civilization. words of your language he has destroyed and intro- It is true, in the beginning there was the Word, duced his own in their stead.” Logos. And that Word was God’s which he spread Like in the past, today as well, in the second dec- everywhere and built into everything visible and ade of the 21st century, we should listen for the echo invisible. Thanks to that, we have grown from that of these words and remind ourselves what the Word Word, become a people with our own words and al- means, and what our words mean. phabet, this civilizational watershed in the history Culture as a word and its syntagmatic derivation of human kind. They, this Word and our words, are physical culture, especially in its more narrow sense (also) the foundation of our people. which refers to spiritual creation, is the foundation If we were to look at it from an Orthodox point of every nation. This is why the term physical culture of view, the forefather of the Nemanjić dynasty of which we have tried for so long to rid ourselves of and Serbia, Stefan Nemanja, who was later St. Simeon, leave behind us in the past should be rehabilitated, as

166 Correspondence to: Nenad Živanović, University of Niš, Faculty of sport and physical education, Čarnojevića 10a, 18000 Niš, Serbia; e-mail: [email protected] Živanović N., Physical culture..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 166-171 our colleagues in Scandinavian countries have done, The media, both printed and electronic, hold an in- and once again be reinstated (as a much needed) cul- creasingly significant place in the altered awareness of tural dimension. Since, as we know, at the heart of individuals, groups of individuals, as well as nations as our profession of physical culture we find man – his a whole. They, using academic patterns of writing,1 are own biggest mystery. And this man accepts physical an important lever in the formation of a new perspec- movement – exercise as nourishment, not only for tive on the position of an individual in society. his body, but for his soul. And precisely there, in this This opportunity should be taken advantage of emergence of physical exercise from the body of man, even through the media, primarily through the writ- lies all the phenomenology of physical culture. ten word, since it becomes permanently available Let us, after all, remember the words of Milivoje to everyone and anyone, to fight for a change in our Matić, spoken and recorded a long time ago: physical and intellectual inactivity. This is both our “In the beginning there was movement and it re- duty and our commitment. mained… primarily... as exercise” (Matić, М. 1978). And truly, the ever-increasing technological devel- opment, through an excellently designed marketing PHYSICAL CULTURE AND MEDIA of hedonism, caters to man’s weakness which emerges from a sedentary culture, confirms these words. This Irrespective of how we define physical culture, it al- conclusion is not just a mere pun, an afterthought, it ways emerges from culture and returns to its fold. At is in fact our reality permeated with man’s physical in- the same time, it removes from the framework of cul- activity. And the increasingly more pronounced (not ture what it needs to perform its mission in the time and only?) physical inactivity must lead to: either man’s space which have been assigned to it, but on its return to transformation when he will no longer be able to even the fold of culture it always brings with it a pebble which walk, or to his “awakening” and gaining insight into it builds into the mosaic of its being.2 This seemingly the necessity of physical movement – exercise. metaphysical conclusion is actually a normal course of And that is how we come to the phenomenolog- physical culture in the given social circumstances. ical breadth of physical culture. Since, as a phenom- Just like culture is the mirror of a nation, with enon, uniting phenomenologically relevant terms: many different stamps of a particular time, so is phys- physical education, sport and physical recreation, it ical culture. It too is a mirror and stamp of a time offers answers to many important questions. And to and a people. The forms of physical exercise, dietary one of these questions, in short: what is the goal of and agonistic in character, viewed in various periods all this physical exercise?, it offers a brief response of time and the social circumstances characteristic – that we could remain humans even in our duality, of them, indicate that they have changed over time. which through the act of baptism is expanded into a Their goals changed and were in accordance with the trinity, that we equally care both for our body and for requirements of individual epochs, so that we today our soul. Which is why physical exercise which stems can recognize five theories of the development of from man, and returns to him, is that deciding fac- physical culture, that is, physical education and sport tor which enables us to speak of physical culture as a (Živanović, N. 2015). phenomenon. The general image of man’s inactivity, not only 1 The media use academic patterns of writing to promote an idea: physical but also intellectual, even though projected the introduction, body and conclusion. These simple rules, by those who manage this world order still can and whose values we have gotten know through the 1990s when must change. Which is why we single out physical the preparations to break up the Serbian state were well un- der way, and the bombing of the country as well, in addition culture and its phenomenological breadth. Using all to these guidelines, refer to each individua text as well. Quite these phenomenological possibilities, man can sig- often, photography is a powerful tool which through its visual nificantly change his inactive reality. Tethered by the nature promotes an idea – general and/or individual. Due to inertia of the social reality programmed to offer man its value, photography has gradually taken on a leading role in the media. a sense of satisfaction in his intellectual and physical 2 Recently, the Anthology of contemporary Serbian prose on sport inactivity, it is difficult for man to recognize what is by the authors Saša Hadži Tančić and Jugoslav Hadži Tančić useful. And without outside help it is very difficult for has been published. In it we find some of the most beautiful stories of our fiction writers, starting from Ivo Andrić, who him to change the state he finds himself in. found sport to be an inspiration for their writing.

167 Živanović N., Physical culture..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 166-171

These five theories are actually five of its mirrors as well. And the volatile and turbulent social changes, and five stamps of the time which we received as a gift on the global and local level, only confirm the con- from these epochs. These are the values of our profes- clusion that man in each attempt at the creation of sion which encourage the constant work of those who social reality is an important and irreplaceable factor. believe that man is important, as a personality and Even the upcoming heralded cyberization of man, we not an individual, and physical movement –exercise. hope, will not succeed. And just like man experiences a “thirst” for var- The desire that man displays to reduce and com- ious types of culture and has a need to read a good pletely sever all ties with his physical and intellectual book, hear a nice piece of music, see a beautiful paint- inactivity is a good signal for those who are ready to ing, … he also has the need to add physical exercise, help. Even this “thirst” which his being feels for cultur- in a dietary and agonistic sense, to everything previ- al values, like the values of physical culture, should be ously mentioned. And if all of this moves him to help reduced by the spreading of a wealthy cultural feast. himself to the splendor of the rich cultural feast and And man will, based on all his fine cultural feelings, create his own involvement in physical culture, then it select from that feast what suits and benefits him. is a sign that all of this was done for the benefit of the The media today are an important leverage which human being himself. And that he, this man – per- can move a man to action so that he could complete- sonality, unique and singular, will select nourishment ly forget about his physical and intellectual inactivity which his body needs, as does his soul. This is an im- and return to his own being. They are an opportuni- portant step towards the dissolution of the inert state ty to use fine texts, as well as beautiful photographs, of inactivity of man’s body and his intellect. to begin with the changes to man’s awareness and his And it is precisely this awakening and the sever- turn towards cultural values which are needed both ing of this thread of that hedonistic trap which is the by his soul, and by his body. And that should be used, cause of his physical and intellectual inactivity that for the benefit of all of us. is the challenge facing every physical education pro- fessional. These experts also need to be personalities A framework for media clarification of which have not only knowledge but the means to physical culture transfer that knowledge. And precisely in that knowl- The media, not without reason, carry the epithet edge of how to pass knowledge on, personality gets of a force the seventh force to be exact. And we can its own value since, unlike the individual, that small see this force all around us. With the power to direct- atomized individual, he sees further and sees more; ly, but also indirectly, influence the changes in the sees that longing of man and his desire to break the awareness of individuals, but also of nations, it creates chains which his physical and intellectual inactivity is social reality. It was not by accident that the conclu- bound by, sees that he cannot succeed in this intent sion what was not in the media actually never even alone – and jumps to his aid. happened emerged. This help from the experts is not only equal to a Of course, this literary device which has been lighthouse – which lights the way to those who need known for quite some time, and which at the begin- it – but also shows that without personality there is ning was merely a joke, today represents a harsh real- no progress, even though many have tried during the ity. And this reality indicates that even information of course of history (and not just history) to expel per- the greatest importance in the media only “lives” for sonalities who have left a mark in time and space and a few days. This is, quite certainly, a consequence of through its objectivization show that there are objec- several reasons, which might be boiled down to two tive processes which people adapt to, and that some of the most important ones: (а) the ever more rapid of them have even proclaimed the very end of history, internet enables the quicker transfer of information marking the idea of the fossilization of existing rela- and (b) it is necessary for the users of this informa- tions in the world. tion (the readers) not to think about this information. Fortunately for all of us, this world, and in it cul- This is perhaps the most important part of the story of ture and our physical culture, still cannot do with- the strategist who is in possession of this information out man – a personality. This is pointed out by the – in small doses, as if it were a cure, it should perform times and the people living in these times. They are previously set tasks. the décor of every culture, and our physical culture

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This rapid succession of information is charac- The reward is the feeling that we have done some- teristic for these areas of social life which the media thing good, within our profession, for the well-being follow. From politics and economy, to entertainment of the people around us. That this is the case has been and sport they abide by the same rules. Academic proven by the epochs which are behind us and the patterns: introduction, body, conclusion, especially people, experts, which adorned them. when something needs to start living: an idea, a pro- A reward, truly great and worthy! gram, a decision. Certainly, this type of approach to the media creating social reality also has positive as- Media rules pects – when they fight for the values which are in A text prepared for the media (printed and elec- favor of the well-being of man, as well as the nation tronic) must respect its rules. The most important as a whole. And this should be used, this positive side among them, certainly, are the rules which refer to of the media. the extent of the text and it current status. The media which promote shorter (or longer) an- The extent of the text, depending on the media alytical texts are very suitable for professionals in the and the column for which it is being written is deter- field of physical culture. And they should be used to mined beforehand. This is especially relevant for the represent physical culture in all its cultural breadth. printed media and is measured usually by the num- By means of texts which are based on its philosophy ber of “characters”, and less frequently by the number at whose center is man, a secret even unto himself and of words or the number of rows. Modern technology, physical exercise, as the nourishing food for his body with the constant pressure and insistence on the speed and to his soul it is possible to gradually spread the and rationalization of the employed, turns editors of idea of the benefits of physical exercise and physical certain columns into technical advisors. They have at movement. That is the basic and most important idea. their disposal several broken (modified) models of But along with it, texts should be focused on the fields their pages, and their task is also to adapt the texts of physical culture: physical education, sport and phys- they select into previously formatted windows (spac- ical recreation. Relying on their philosophy it is pos- es). In the given space we must include each text. And sible to represent the cultural wealth of these fields, that is why we must bear this in mind while writing. with all their advantages and shortcomings. And in The current nature of the text is one of the more all of that one should see man. important assumptions for publication in the media. Man, of course, feels and has a need for the satis- The more dense sequence of current events today, faction of that aspect of his personality which he re- both in the country and in the world at large, must fers to as his being spiritual. Beautiful texts, often at be followed by the media. What depends on this is the level of short essays, can satisfy even that frail side the size of their readership, the number of visits to of his personality and to lift him to the level when he their websites, and all this leads to the number and begins to think, not only about who he is and what he quality (expressed financially) of advertisements and is but to also think about how and which road to take. advertisement messages which are being published. In that line of thinking, which is actually a privilege Even in this game with time and the current status of in this fast-paced world in which sedentary culture information we must find texts from within the do- is increasingly more dominant, man should be mo- main our profession. They must be up-to-date to fit tivated to think about physical culture as something into the sequence of events which these media follow. that he needs and lacks. And a fine word, written or In addition to these two of the most important spoken, which brings back beautiful memories, just media rules, a few other things need to be taken into like a photograph, helps to refresh man’s knowledge consideration: about something interesting and current, and all this A text based on correct facts, which are made pub- together might encourage to satisfy both his physical lic, since there remains a historical trace available in and spiritual need for physical movement – exercise. the media archives, but also in the archives of public In that attempt to help man in his search for him- samples of these media.3 As a result it is necessary to self lies the beauty of our physical culture and of each individual effort. The reward for effort and for each 3 We are witnesses of half-truths and falsehoods which are of its followers is the smile on the face of the people being promoted not only in the world media, but the local media as well. With their publication, at the expense of some- around them, healthy and happy adults and children. one or of some idea (material in most cases), the formation of

169 Živanović N., Physical culture..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 166-171 check every piece of data which is being used, espe- proach the reader. It is important to encourage the cially if a person writes for a particular media type desire among the readers to turn to the values of over longer periods of time, because of the confidence physical culture and their physical movement – ex- the readers have in the published texts of a single ercise - like a nourishing food for their physical, but author. This confidence is difficult to achieve, as we also their spiritual being. Everything else will come in know, and is very easy to lose. As a result, but also for its own time – the fine texts, and the beautiful photo- the benefit of our profession, the texts must be based graphs, and the fine walks, and the basketball shots, on verified data. maybe made in the company of one’s own grandson. The language and style of writing, of course depend This is truly useful and nice. on the author himself. But, it is necessary to bear in mind the overwhelming number of those following this medium (or media). And depending on the pop- CONCLUSION ulation group the author is addressing, it is necessary for him to use the language (terminology) and the Rapid technological development, urbanization style of writing suited to that particular group. And with the tendency towards megalopolises and new if it is impossible to omit any sample of professional smart cities, limited living and working space, are jargon, understandable to the professionals involved only some of the characteristics of the world and time in that particular field, then it is desirable to use an we live in. And it is quite understandable that even explanation of this term in brackets. After all, the the cultural needs of man would be adapted to the purpose of the texts in the media is not to “impress” given conditions. the reader with the language they do not understand, But even in addition to this cruel reality, man in but to inform them of something. his being has, and attempts to maintain, his roots pre- The educational aspect, or the opportunity to ex- served in his memory. This memory, which is written pand the reader’s knowledge should be nurtured in in the genetic code which he was handed down from each text. The fast pace of our time and of ourselves his ancestors, helps him to survive (even) in this day in that time leads not only to the expansion of fast and age. And this memory is actually hope that, as the food but also of information in the form of quick re- poet would say, not everything is lost when everything minders and knowledge. That is why in short texts, is (R. P. Nogo). That is why there is hope that culture, of approximately 60 lines, finely molded, the reader and physical culture that has emerged from it, will should find out something new or to remind himself help man to remain a personality – unique and sin- of what he has forgotten.4 And when he comes across gular, which will enable him to preserve the duality of something interesting in the text, if he also writes this body and soul, through baptism brought to the level information down so as not to forget it or to use it of the trinity, even in the given social circumstances. in his own writing, then that is a sign of a very good The media, both the printed and electronic, can be text. And of course, efforts should be made to have as of great use in this respect. And that should be used in many of these texts as possible which the readers will the careful approach to each of them. Through differ- read with a pencil in their hands. ent forms of texts we can satisfy the needs of all their These few rules that we have mentioned are mere- readers for the fine word, photograph, information, ly reference points which should be used when one piece of advice. And all with the aim of creating in writes for the media. And each author and each me- their minds the thought of beauty and the necessity dium in particular will find the best formula to ap- of physical movement – exercise. This is the exalted mission of every professional in the field of physical opinion and a change in awareness is being influenced. In the culture which also leaves (even) our seal in the time 1990s, and even today, we are exposed to such efforts, all in and space we live in. the desire to present us as the bad guys or the bad nation. 4 Milan Vujaklija, at the end of his Preface to the second edi- tion of his Lexicon included a quote in Latin: Indocti discant et ament meminisse periti (Let the unlearned learn and the learned take pleasure in refreshing their memories.). These words were not written in vain, and are especially current at a time when we are struggling for education during the course of our entire lives.

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REFERENCES

1. Vujaklija, M. (1966). Leksikon stranih reči i iz- 3. Matić, M. (1978). Čas telesnog vežbanja. [A class raza. [Lexicon of foreign words and expressions, of physical exercise, In Serbian]. NIPU Savez za In Serbian]. Prosveta, Beograd. fizičku kulturu Jugoslavije, Beograd. 2. Živanović, N. (2015). On Physical Education 4. Hadži Tančić, S., Hadži Tančić, J. (2017). An- and Sport, in: History of Physical Education in tologija savremene srpske proze o sportu. [An- Europe, book I. Faculty of Sport and Physical thology of Contemporary Serbian Prose about Education and FIEP Europe – History of Phys- Sport, In Serbian]. Fakultet za sport i fizičko ical Education and Sport Section, Leposavić. vaspitanje, Leposavić; FIEP Srbija – Sekcija za pp. 8 – 23. istoriju fizičkog vaspitanja i sporta FIEP Evrope; Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Niš.

KÖRPERKULTUR - RAHMEN FÜR DIE MEDIENBEGRÜNDUNG DES MENSCHLICHEN KULTURWESENS

Zusammenfassung Kultur und das aus ihr abgeleitete Sintagma Körperkultur ist, ganz besonders in ihrer engeren Bedeutung, die sich auf geistliches Schöp- fertum bezieht, die Grundlage jedes Volkes. Aus diesem Grunde sollten wir den Termin Körperkultur, von dem wir uns so intensiv und lange befreien und ihn der Vergangenheit überlassen möchten, rehabilitieren, so wie es unsere Kollegen in Skandinavien tun, und ihm seine (für uns unabkämmliche) kulturelle Dimension zurückgeben. Wie wir wissen, befindet sich im Mittelpunkt unseres Fachs, der Körper- kultur, der Mensch, das höchste Geheimnis, dem der Mensch selbst entgegentritt. Dieser Mensch nimmt körperliche Bewegung – Übung als wohltätige Nahrung, unumgänglich nicht nur für seinen Körper, sondern auch für seine Seele. Gerade darin, in diesem Entspringen der körperlichen Übung aus dem menschlichen Wesen liegt die Phänomenologie der Körperkultur. Der Mensch verspürt „Durst“ nach unterschiedlichen Formen der Befriedigung seiner kultureller Bedürfnisse. Sowie er das Bedürfnis nach einem guten Buch, nach lieblicher Musik, nach einem schönen Bild verspürt ... hat er auch das Bedürfnis, der körperlichen Übung im diätätischen und agonistischen Sinne all das hinzu zu fügen, was wir aufgezählt haben. Diese Erwartungen des Menschen, der nach geistlicher und körperlicher Nahrung dürstet, müssen befriedigt werden. Gedruckte und elektronische Medien sind eine gute Gelegenheit, um auf diese Bedürfnisse zu antworten. Diese Medien sind in jedem Moment zugänglich für alle Menschen, die immer weniger Freizeit haben. Dies ist eine Gelegenheit, sie „im Gehen“ zu informieren und sie dazu zu inspirieren, sich auch dieser Seite ihrer kultureller Bedürfnisse zuzuwenden – der Körperkultur.

Schlüsselwörter: DER MENSCH ALS KULTURWESEN / KÖRPERKULTUR / MEDIEN

Received: 01.11.2017 Accepted: 15.11.2017

171 Phys. Cult. (Belgr.) 2017; 71 (2): 172-181 PHYSICAL CULTURE

UDC:796.015.1 doi:10.5937/fizkul1702172P

A DIALOGUE ON THE SPORTS TRAINING THEORIES IN PROFESSIONAL AND SCIENTIFIC PERIODICALS

Adam Petrović

Sports Academy Belgrade, Serbia

Abstract The purpose of a scientific dialogue is to overcome existing problems, participate responsibly, and find out the real nature of an issue, rather than to „be enclosed within a room” with one theory - studying one theory until its ultimate purpose is revealed. The dialogue preceded by a problem presented in a sincere and „risky” way and followed by a re- sponsible attempt to solve the presented problem can be considered the true scientific dialogue. Establishing the criteria for conducting a dialogue may be relevant for discovering the reality in a scientific discipline. The dialogue on the sports training theories has been ongoing and the main aim of this paper was to overcome the problems related to the „rival theories” - the traditional theory of sports training versus the theory of the sports training block periodization. A weak- ness of the current dialogue on the sports training theories is a small number of the criteria on which the discussion on the „rival theories” is based. The dialogue should be conducted repeatedly in order to find a more tolerant attitude towards the other/different or in order to strengthen the already existing opinion.

Key words: SPORTS TRAINING THEORY / DIALOGUE / TRADITIONAL THEORY / BLOCK PERIODIZATION / SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS

INTRODUCTION studying one theory until its ultimate purpose is revealed. Any dialogue can be considered fruitful if The importance of a scientific dialogue the hierarchy of the values of the dialogue subject The basic motive for conducting a scientific di- matter is not violated, and if the answers to relevant alogue can be knowledge expansion, scientific ad- questions are searched for in a variety of different vancement, the maturing of science and dialogue ways. In a dialogue, the „little things” should not re- participants as well as overcoming the problems that place the „big ones.” A dialogue participant should have such a determination and be ready to defend have been observed so far. The dialogue can define his attitudes, but also to correct them if the require- the value and significance of a particular problem, ments for doing so are met. This suggests that the which indicates that not all of the scientific prob- purpose of a dialogue is not „a mental spectacle”, lems are significant and not all of the dialogues are but a sincere intention to improve oneself through relevant either. It is not easy to participate in a scien- knowledge, the maturing of science (although sci- tific dialogue, but it is worth to be tormented by this ence never matures completely!), the designing of „exalted torment”. This has been confirmed by the science or a scientific discipline. so-far history of conducting dialogues, not only on The dialogue preceded by a problem presented in the sports training theories, but also on the theories a sincere and “risky” way and followed by a respon- in other scientific disciplines. sible attempt to solve the presented problem can be The purpose of a scientific dialogue is to over- considered the true scientific dialogue. It is hard to come existing problems, participate responsibly, imagine that something can be found out without and find out the real nature of an issue, rather than internal struggle, without the dialogue which in- to „be enclosed within a room” with one theory - cludes opposing opinions as well as without the di-

172 Correspondence to: Adam Petrović, e – mail: [email protected] Petrović A., A dialogue on the sports training theories..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 172-181 alogue which contains the opposite within itself. No used in regard to it. On the other hand, there is a scientific dialogue is truly set up if it is not done in a new approach, i.e. the theory that has been accepted „risky” manner, i.e. if it does not include the creativ- and titled the “theory of the sports training block ity in its interpretation or the uncertainty in its find- periodization (TSTBP)” or shorter the “block sys- ings. The dialogue may result in new knowledge, i.e. tem” or “block periodization” of sports training. new interpretation of the existing postulates within The supporters of the theory of the sports train- scientific theories. The results of a scientific dialogue ing block periodization have confronted the tra- can be a larger amount of knowledge which may ditional theory of sports training enthusiastically. direct the course of the scientific discipline devel- However, we should bear in mind that in the overall opment in further research. Additionally, it should theoretical discussion there are some authors who be understood that new research directions are es- wrote about the issues of the sports training theo- tablished only after a good dialogue. This suggests ry but without entering into the said dialogue. On that not all of new scientific findings are significant, the basis of their works it may be observed to which therefore not all of the previous knowledge should side their theory with all its particularities belongs, be rejected and vice versa. A good dialogue is distin- i.e. on which theoretical assumptions their scientific guished by accepting „new” and „old” findings and thought has be based upon. This suggests the un- a theory is more valuable if it is „more permanent” derstanding of two “research programmes” as the rather than „more modern”. The permanence, un- foundations of scientific knowledge in the field of derstanding and interpretation of a theory represent sports training science as well as many other (not the main values ​​and novelties of scientific knowl- less important!) sports training theories which have edge. a sort of unifying character. According to Jerotić (Јеротић, 2013) a dialogue Matveyev (Матвеев, 1964) first presented the is “A conversation conducted with a man of the op- theory of sports training as an organized scientific posing opinion in relation to ours (it does not matter and logical whole, which was later recognized as the if this opposing opinion is of religious, philosophi- „traditional theory of sports training” in the litera- cal, scientific or political nature); the conversation ture. The aforementioned theory represented a need should be repeated several times and, importantly, it to regulate a large amount of practical knowledge should be devoid of the presence of affections. The that existed during that period. In 1950s, it was result of the dialogue conducted in this manner is possible to predict how the sports training theory also known: the enrichment of the personalities of would develop and to define its problems (Озолин, both conversation participants, either in terms of a 1951, 1959). In his later studies, Matveyev (Матвеев, partial or a complete change of the previous opinion 1977) attempted to complete his previous work (our thought often becomes our faith, either positive based on the theory of sports training. In a simpli- or negative, tolerant or intolerant) or in respect of fied sense, all the works were aimed at answering the fruitful strengthening and consolidation of the the question of how the best sports results should be previous opinion “. achieved in the important competitions, such as the Olympic Games, World Cup or European Champi- onship. Later, Matveyev (Матвеев, 1998b) gradually THE BASICS OF THE DIALOGUE ON switched from the theory of sports training to the THE SPORTS TRAINING THEORIES general theory of sports. In his latest studies, Mat- – TRADITIONAL THEORY VS BLOCK veyev (Матвеев, 2010) supplemented and formulat- PERIODIZATION ed his own general theory of sports, which was pub- lished as a book in several editions. By attempting to Two “rival” sports training meta-theories will be solve the problem of the general theory of sports, the presented herein as well as a brief introduction to sports training theory has practically started to gain the overall discussion and dialogue and the issues of its significance. the sports training theory. In the literature, the first From the aspect of the development of the sci- theory is recognized and known as “the traditional ence of sports and sports training, a paradoxical fact theory of sports training (TTST)”, but other terms, has emerged. Namely, as Matveyev was designing such as “anecdotal” or “Matveyev’s theory”, are also his general theory of sports, as well as the theory of

173 Petrović A., A dialogue on the sports training theories..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 172-181 sports training therein, the criticism of such con- cal findings which, according to the critics, play a siderations was strengthened, particularly by Ver- key role in understanding the process of controlling khoshansky - one of the greatest critics of the tra- sports form. This fact has been confirmed by many ditional theory of sports training. The criticism has experts around the world in the field of sports train- been expanded by Issurin and Shklyr (Issurin, 2010; ing. Furthermore, Verkhoshansky has not denied Иссурин, 2010; Иссурин & Шкляр, 2002) who the importance of the philosophy of science, meth- have supported the theory of sports training block odology or pedagogy, but he has given priority to periodization and elaborated the initiated idea of ​​ the objective knowledge that is acquired through the sports training block system. experiments and practice. This primarily implies the On the other hand, Platonov (Платонов, 1998), findings in the field of philosophy, biochemistry or Kiely (Kiely, 2010) and Koprivica (Koprivica, 2012) biomechanics. On the basis of these findings, he has have opposed the sports training block system developed his own theoretical system with its ter- pointing out numerous problems and failures that minology and regulation methods. Verkhoshansky the supporters of the block system failed to pres- has criticized the traditional approach to the sports ent. Generally speaking, in physical culture, there is training theory on several occasions, but it seems practically none or a small number of areas where a that he presented it in the most comprehensive man- dialogue has been started on a theoretical level be- ner in his work “On the way of the scientific theory tween the authors of different opinions. However, in and methodology of sports training” (rus. На пути the field of the sports training theory, the dialogue к научной теории и методологии спортивной has been conducted and but also avoided between тренировки containing seven items, where he stat- the authorities who have made a major contribution ed the following) (Верхошанский, 1998b): to the development of the above mentioned sci- – the cardinal error of the CSTP (the concept of ence. In this sense, if the science is observed from sports training periodization) which deprives the viewpoint of the “criticism” by Popper (1973), it of both theoretical and practical relevance is it may be easily noticed that in physical culture the the disregard of biological findings and scien- discussion about the sports training theory is a rath- tific achievements in the field of sports; er developed part of the science. Although physical – the consequence of the methodological and culture “craves” theoretical discussions and criti- scientific inadequateness of the CSTP is an cism in any of its fields of study, the great theoretical obvious conceptual mess of „laws”, „princi- discussions have been started and are ongoing in the ples”, „basic starting points”, „principle start- field of the sports training theory. In this respect, all ing point”, „ characteristics / features of laws”, the participants in the dialogue - now on a global and this mess has been caused by a strange and scale - should be acknowledged. Such dialogues, in hopeless attempt to find regularities in the ex- fact, lead to scientific independence as well as to the perience of sports training development; formation of scientific disciplines and the transition – the speculative and logical basis of the CSTP to a higher level of understanding and interpretation was derived from the so-called phases of the of a certain scientific discipline. sports form; The aforementioned critic Verkhoshansky (Верхошанский, 1998a, 1998b) boldly started a di- – “the general pedagogical approach” has not alogue in the field of the sports training theory. In been based on: a serious natural scientific basis, his articles, Verkhoshansky has launched a very se- objective and quantitative criteria of its subject vere criticism of Matveyev’s theory. Verkhoshansky matter or a strict scientific method, therefore (Верхошанский, 2005) has elaborated the original there is no theoretical and methodological ba- hypothesis of the new sports training theory, which sis of the sports training theory; has been given its full name of the sports training – serious criticism by the experts-practitioners is block system. related to the very essence of the CSTP - a for- What has Verkhoshansky actually criticized Mat- mal and mechanical classification of the train- veyev for? The criticism has started with stating that ing process into subjectively formed parts (cy- the traditional approach “lost its battle” with time cles, phases, periods), which represented the since it has not been based on the recent biologi- main idea as well as the purpose of the CSTP;

174 Petrović A., A dialogue on the sports training theories..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 172-181

– the technology of the training process devel- and outcomes, and he considers it inadmissible to opment is a part of the CSTP which is least de- partially examine only one of numerous issues of the veloped and based on the principle „it can be now general theory of sports. This attitude may be done either way”; best observed in his statement: „To initiate a severe – one of the most important shortcomings of standardization means to enter into irreconcilable the CSTP is that it allows only two regulation contradictions of the live training process variation.” methods / ways (volume and load intensity) of In addition to Matveyev, other authors also re- the impacts of training on an athlete. marked on the block system of the sports training, among which Platonov (Платонов, 1998) can be The criticism started by Verkhoshansky was ex- singled out by expressing his disagreement with panded by Issurin (Иссурин, 2010, p. 101-106), Verkhoshansky’s theory in the following way: who stated the following TTST contradictions: – the criticism has been reduced to the analysis – traditional planning is suitable for the athletes of only one of the numerous components of the of low and middle qualifications. However, it sports training system - the concept of perio- does not function well with top-level athletes; dization published by Matveyev in 1964 and – parallel application of different loads contrib- 1977. Thus, the crisis of not only domestic but utes to the adequate provision of energy, also the Eastern European sports training the- – due to the heterochrony of physiological sys- ory has been introduced; tems’ recovery, athletes are not recovered ad- – Verkhoshansky criticized Matveyev for dis- equately; regarding biological findings and Matveyev’s – the exercises used in the application of different thesis where sport pedagogical and biological training methods often have adverse reciprocal knowledge interweave has been widely known. effects due to energy deficits, technical com- This is confirmed in the literature referred to by plexity and/or nervous and muscle fatigue; Matveyev – more than a half of the references – the application of high loads during a training belong to the fields of physiology, biochemistry session requires a high degree of psychological and sports medicine; concentration which cannot be directed to- – bibliographical indicators about the most im- wards multiple objectives at the same time; portant articles have been excluded; – the specific progression of top-level athletes re- – criticizing Matveyev, Verkhoshansky has re- quires the application of large-scale training ef- ferred to the fact that Matveyev’s theory cannot fects which cannot be organized during a train- be understood in the West. This statement has ing session due to a large number of objectives. been questioned since the experience gained On the other hand, Matveyev (Матвеев, 1998a) in the dialogue with the experts from Japan, has reminded Verkhoshansky of his neglect of the China, America and Canada has confirmed recent research on the sports training theory and a the opposite - the theory of sports preparation comprehensive approach to the study of sports train- periodization as well as different variants of its ing as well. In fact, these recent studies have been practical implementation were developed by practically tested and confirmed by many scientific the experts of the USSR and the GDR during and sports professionals worldwide. Matveyev has 1970s and 1980s, representing one of the few reminded that therefore it remained unclear why fields of study where experts from all around Verkhoshansky did not appreciate the opinions of the world have given unconditional priority to other authors and experts who made a great con- the Eastern European scientific school. Like it tribution to the dynamics of the traditional sports or not, they have been treating this contribu- training theory development. However, according tion with respect and it is known that Matveyev to Matveyev, it seems that the key problem in the has contributed most to the development of the overall discussion is the understanding of the unity aforementioned Eastern European school; of competition dynamics and training process and – Platonov believes that Verkhoshansky’s the- athletes as its participants. Matveyev is a supporter ory does not differ substantially from Mat- of a holistic approach including creative processes veyev’s theory regarding the principles, stating

175 Petrović A., A dialogue on the sports training theories..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 172-181

that the difference can only be noticed in that – unidirectional concentration of loads with a Verkhoshansky has introduced some new high volume of work, which is characteristic terms, previously unknown to both the ex- of modern sports, also includes other risks: 1) perts from the Russian speaking countries (rus. a possibility of functional uptake (pre-adapta- отечественных) as well as to the foreign ones tion), 2) a reduction in structural and function- - this has resulted in nothing but confusion; al reserves of other systems (de-adaptation), – the issues discussed cannot be reduced to only which are not engaged to the extent necessary one problem consistently emphasized by Verk- when performing the work. hoshansky; Kiely (Kiely, 2010, p. 803) has also joined the ex- isting criticism of the theory of block periodization, – at this point, it should be added here that Pla- reminding that Issurin prematurely and unsustaina- tonov has also fiercely confronted the views bly talked about the „new horizons” of the training expressed in Verkhoshansky ‘s work titled periodization. There are two main reasons for this: “Horizons of the studied theory and method- a) anecdotal – it includes the selected cases/exam- ology of sports training” (Russian: Горизонты ples of the athletes and coaches who have achieved научной теории и методологии спортивной high levels of success using a block-training design; тренировки). 2) „two modern scientific concepts” related to the Platonov (Платонов, 2008, p. 17-20) has severely cumulative and residual effect of training, in fact, opposed Verkhoshansky’s theory in his recent works do not represent anything new. Indeed, Matveyev as well: is the most famous author of the traditional perio- – many elements of the criticism are „absurd”, dization model and he has also taken into account ambitious and based on a tendentious and the cumulative effect of training and the concepts sometimes rough presentation of the basic pos- that correspond with the residual training effect in tulates of the periodization theory. All of this is his influential work “The Basics of Sports Training”. aimed at creating an own, alternative theory of Eventually, Kiely (Kiely, 2010, p. 804) has conclud- the training process programming and organ- ed that a more appropriate description of the block ization; periodization should be a „new variant” rather than – Verkhoshansky has expressed his emotional a „new horizon” in the sports training planning. criticism, but not the scientific and practical The criticism put forth by Kiely was followed by one; Issurin’s reply. Given that Issurin’s criticism of the – if this issue is approached objectively, it is very traditional theory of sports training has been al- difficult to notice what new concepts have been ready presented in this paper, his response to Kiely introduced by Verkhoshansky to the knowl- will be omitted. edge system, relating to the development of the Recently, the discussion has been taking place in elite athletes’ preparatory process throughout a a way of outvoting character which is, it may be said, year and macrocycles. His claim to the discov- insufficiently justified in scientific terms. Namely, in ery of a unique and previously unknown phe- the study of García-Pallarés et al. (García-Pallarés, nomenon is vague and unclear; García-Fernández, Sánchez-Medina, and Izquierdo, 2010) the effects of two training models (tradition- – the proposed principle, regarding goal-oriented al periodization and block periodization) on the loads (the loads that develop only one ability) change in competitive abilities in top-level kayakers and including a great intensity-recovery-de- have been compared. “The design of the study” is layed adaptation effect had been thoroughly shown in the Figure 1 and it briefly summarizes the considered by many authors, such as Consil- training plan, the main training objectives and the man, Ozoline, Harre, Matveyev and others, testing calendar for both cycles. much before Verkhoshansky wrote about it;

176 Petrović A., A dialogue on the sports training theories..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 172-181

Figure 1. Design of the study; Summary of the training plan, main training objectives and testing calendar for both cycles. Adapted from García-Pallarés et al. (2010).

Based on such a “design of the study”, it may be The research problem discussed and presented concluded that the block periodization is a better above is primarily of a scientific significance, the pur- means of planning compared to the traditional peri- pose of which has emerged in the dialogue. However, odization and it greatly improves the skills that are it is not about any kind of dialogue, but the dialogue important for kayakers (García-Pallarés et al., 2010). that will have clear postulates as well as its beginning However, if the proposed “design of the study” is and its ending. The scientific dialogue with its begin- closely observed, it may be also concluded that these ning and ending should also deal with a wider sense authors have differentiated the block periodization of human existence and understanding. Although this and the traditional periodization only by the volume is not usually associated with the scientific necessity, of the loads, disregarding that the model of a volume suggesting that it is also possible to conduct research and intensity ratio is analogous - almost the same in in other ways, without taking into account a broader TTST and TSTBP. Additionally, the criticism of the context of understanding certain issues – the holis- traditional periodization has been expressed with- tic understanding versus the particularistic one. In out any reference to the traditional periodization addition, the understanding of man through science should be developed in two directions: in breadth and of sports training included in the references. Such a in depth. Otherwise, the man whom the science has dialogue is not simply methodologically justified be- been trying to define and understand could be easily cause it does not show the maturity required for the simplified without such a consideration. Therefore, it highest level of discussion about the theory of sports is necessary to examine the way in which the problem training. García-Pallarés et al. (2010) have not con- of the overall theory of sports training has been pre- sidered the classical concepts of the traditional and sented as well as how the conclusions regarding the block periodization in detail, but interpreted them theory of sports training have been drawn. In other freely in a speculative way. words, can the purpose and aim of the sports training A similar principle has been presented in other theory be beyond the purpose of man? studies (Carazo-Vargas, González-Ravé, Newton, It should be added here that the dialogue con- and Moncada-Jiménez, 2015; Rønnestad, Ellefsen, ducted within the sports training theory is of a “pure- et al, 2014; Rønnestad, Hansen, and Ellefsen, 2014), ly scientific character” which includes a shortcom- which have also criticized the traditional model of ing. Namely, if we consider how these two theories sports training periodization out of context and in a / concepts are constituted, and how the dialogue has completely loose and, in some cases, even chimeric been conducted, then it can be easily noticed that the way. The aforementioned authors have entered into dialogue is based on factual knowledge. However, the criticism of the partial elements of the traditional such factual knowledge in the sports training theory theory reducing it to what it is not, without referring imposes an important question: according to which to a single quote of the authors who have designed the norms / criteria are the facts attributed to one theo- traditional model. ry more valuable in content than the facts attributed

177 Petrović A., A dialogue on the sports training theories..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 172-181 to another theory? The authors have often referred to 2) research method used in elite sports, where spe- their own studies, but also to the ones which have fac- cial attention is paid to understanding the application tually proven the basic postulates of one theory or the of scientific methodology in sports training sciences other. The dialogue based on such tendencies seemed – the criteria based on methodological beliefs and justified in the previous discussions; however, after 3) comparison of scientific theories, i.e. provid- a lot of criticism expressed repeatedly by both sides, ing the justification of a theory within the system of the circumstances that have occurred within this sci- a scientific discipline – the criteria based on a multi- entific community have started to resemble “outvot- disciplinary approach of assessing and comparing sci- ing” rather than a valid scientific dialogue within the entific theories, which include, e.g. logic, probability, sports training theory. Simply, the leading scholars boldness and / or simplicity of a theory. have not reached the consensus on the most impor- It should be pointed out that the previous discus- tant issues of the sports training theory yet. sion within the theory of sports training was mostly A possible solution to the problems relating to the based on the criteria of narrow professional orienta- sports practice, i.e. the practical problems of “lower tion. These criteria and their knowledge outcomes are class” but of equal importance, arises out of the afore- largely characterized by practical knowledge. Namely, mentioned. In fact, these are the problems of select- the justification of a sports training theory by different ing and approaching one of the proposed systems and authors was directed mainly towards the understand- its application in practice. ing of the training practice as one of the major crite- ria of theoretical justification. Certainly, the practical outcomes of a theory, regarded as a phenomenon, are THE CRITERIA FOR CONDUCTING significant for sports and sports training. However, is A DIALOGUE ON THE THEORIES OF it justifiable to assess a theory only on the basis of the SPORTS TRAINING practical outcomes? By all odds, no! Why? Such an approach of declaring „for” and „against” a theory on the basis of only one criterion (in this case the prac- A scientific dialogue in the function of assessing tice is considered the outcome) can greatly refer to and comparing theories opens up a whole series of a particularistic understanding of the problem. Prac- problems related to the logic and philosophy of sci- tice is just one segment, part, grain of the understand- ence, methodology, and the phenomenon examined ing of an issue that strives to become or is scientific. in a scientific field as well as to solving practical and In this paper, the thesis that the dialogue with- other problems. Since science is based on criteria, it is in the theory of sports training should be extended reasonable to ask according to which criteria the sci- from predominantly practical criteria to predomi- entific theories that deal with solving problems of the nantly scientific ones according to which the theories same reality in a field of study are assessed and com- (hypotheses) of sports training can be assessed and pared and what the term criterion actually means. compared has been advocated for. This does not mean Criterion, criteria (Greek: kritērion, according to that practice is not a scientific criterion, but it does not krínein) means: 1. the basis on which something is mean either that practice is the only scientific criterion assessed, classified or differentiated from something when it comes to the theory of sports training. else, a standard. 2. sp. elimination competition (Клајн & Шипка, 2008, p. 681). Recently, the three sets of criteria for assessing and CONCLUSION comparing the theories of sports training have been 1 identified : The expansion of scientific knowledge is a long 1) nature and origin of knowledge in the sports and painstaking work. A dialogue is one of the basic training theories – the criteria based on epistemolog- ways / methods of the science improvement. When ical beliefs; selecting a problem, the problems that are relevant for the dialogue and those that are not should be differ- 1 More details about the criteria are included in the doctoral dis- entiated. The relevant problems are characterized by sertation : Petrovic, A. Sports training theories: possibilities of evaluating and comparing. Doctoral dissertation defense un- boldness to expand the knowledge by presenting the der preparation. problems in a „more risky” way. To present a problem

178 Petrović A., A dialogue on the sports training theories..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 172-181 which does not include uncertainty actually means to for entering into the dialogue with the supporters hinder the knowledge, improvement, progress, and of the traditional theory of sports training boldly hence the scientific discipline. and “risky”, thus improving the scientific knowledge In the theory of sports training, the dialogue be- about sports training, but we should regret that their tween the supporters of two meta-theories: the tradi- „scope of knowledge” has been reduced only to the tional theory of sports training and the theory of the „hard core”, i.e. empirical knowledge. Thus priority sports training block periodization has been ongoing. has been given to the particularistic understanding of The basic motive of the ongoing dialogue is to deny or the basic postulates of the sports training theory, dis- to reject the traditional theory of sports training. The regarding the holistic understanding which has been mentioned dialogue should not be interrupted, but it reminded of by the TTST supporters. should be conducted repeatedly, taking into account Continuous enrichment through the dialogue will the „new” and „old” findings, and not only in order result in tolerance towards the different and the oth- to reject one of the theories, but to acquire more ob- er, however, this does not mean that science should jective knowledge. Sometimes, something that the be relativized through the attitude suggesting that theories have in common may be more valuable than „everything is allowed,” but it implies an attempt that what separates them. The dialogue means a new to improve individuals, scientific community and opportunity given to the supporters of both sports knowledge within a certain science more objectively. training concepts for the future elaboration of the sci- The doubt should not be cast on the fact that a dia- entific thought on sports training. logue is a reliable way / manner / method of the ma- As for a fruitful dialogue, we should add the cri- turing and expanding scientific knowledge. teria according to which it is conducted, i.e. on the In 1999, soon after the severe discussion between basis of which the sports training theories are as- the supporters of TTST and TSTBP, Jevtic suggested sessed and compared. A small number of the crite- the basic problems that arise in the theory of sports ria that have been insisted on by the supporters of training on the pages of the Physical Culture journal, TSTBP has been undermining the dialogue. In the which represents an attempt to enhance the spirit of a theory of sports training, the training practice has scientific dialogue in the Serbian periodicals as well. been imposed as the basic criterion. Of course, prac- tice is one of the important criteria, but other crite- NOTE ria should not be discarded, such as those relating to The excerpts and supplements taken from the epistemological and methodological beliefs, as well as unpublished doctoral dissertation (defense under the logic, boldness, probability, simplicity of the theo- preparation): Petrović, A. Sports training theories: ry, etc. – a multidisciplinary approach to assessing and possibilities of evaluating and comparing. Doctoral comparing the sports training theories. In this sense, Dissertation, Serbia, Faculty of Sport and Physical we should thank Verkhoshansky and his followers Education.

REFERENCES

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6. Koprivica, V. (2012). Block periodization–a break- нов высокого класса. Теория и практика физи- through or a misconception. Sport Logica, 8(2), ческой культуры(5), 2-5. 93-99. 15. Јеротић, В. (2013). Нема сазревања без ступа- 7. Poper, K. R. (1973). Logika naučnog otkrića (S. No- ња у дијалог са људима супротног мишљења. vaković, превео). Beograd: Nolit. Култура, 140, 18-23. 8. Rønnestad, B. R., Ellefsen, S., Nygaard, H., Zacha- 16. Клајн, И., и Шипка, М. (2008). Велики речник roff, E. E., Vikmoen, O., Hansen, J., и сар. (2014). страних речи и израза. Нови Сад: Прометеј. Effects of 12 weeks of block periodization on per- 17. Матвеев, Л. (1964). Проблема периодизации formance and performance indices in well‐trained спортивной тренировки. Москва: Физкульту- cyclists. Scandinavian journal of medicine & science ра и спорт. in sports, 24(2), 327-335. 18. Матвеев, Л. (1977). Основы спортивной тре- 9. Rønnestad, B. R., Hansen, J., и Ellefsen, S. (2014). нировки. Москва: Физкультура и спорт. Block periodization of high‐intensity aerobic in- 19. Матвеев, Л. (1998a). К дискуссии о теории tervals provides superior training effects in trained спортивной тренировки. Теория и практика cyclists. Scandinavian journal of medicine & science физической культуры(7), 55-61. in sports, 24(1), 34-42. 20. Матвеев, Л. (1998b). От теории спортивной 10. Верхошанский, Ю. (1998a). Горизонты науч- тренировки–к общей теории спорта. Теория и ной теории и методологии спортивной трени- практика физической культуры(5), 5-8. ровки. Теория и практика физической культу- 21. Матвеев, Л. (2010). Общая тория спорта и ры(7), 41-54. Retrieved from http://lib.sportedu. ее прикладные аспекты. Москва: Советский ru/Press/TPFK/1998N7/p41-54.htm спорт. 11. Верхошанский, Ю. (1998b). На пути к научной 22. Озолин, Н. Г. (1951). О планировании спор- теории и методологии спортивной трениров- тивной тренировки. Теория и практика физи- ки. Теория и практика физической культу- ческой культуры(11), 848-855. ры(2), 21-41. Retrieved from http://lib.sportedu. 23. Озолин, Н. Г. (1959). Советская система спор- ru/Press/TPFK/1998N2/p21-26,39-42.htm тивной тренировки. Теория и практика физи- 12. Верхошанский, Ю. (2005). Теория и методоло- ческой культуры(1), 7-11. гия спортивной подготовки: блоковая систе- 24. Платонов, В. (1998). О «Концепции периодиза- ма тренировки спортсменов высокого класса. ции спортивной тренировки» и развитии об- Теория и практика физической культуры(4), щей теории подготовки спортсменов. Теория и 2-14. Retrieved from http://lib.sportedu.ru/Press/ практика физической культуры(8), 23-26. TPFK/2005N4/p2-14.htm 25. Платонов, В. (2008). Теория периодизации 13. Иссурин, В. (2010). Блоковая периодизация подготовки спортсменов высокой квалифика- спортивной тренировки: монография. Мо- ции в течение года: предпосылки, формирова- сква: Советский спорт. ние, критика. Наука в олимпийском спорте(1), 14. Иссурин, В., и Шкляр, В. (2002). Концепция 3-23. блоковой композиции в подготовке спортсме-

180 Petrović A., A dialogue on the sports training theories..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 172-181

DIALOG ÜBER THEORIEN DES SPORTTRAININGS IN FACHLICHER UND WISSENSCHAFTLICHER PERIODIK

Zusammenfassung: Der Zweck eines wissenschaftlichen Dialogs ist die Überwindung existierender Probleme, verantwortungsvolle Teilnahme, Kenntnis der Realität einer natürlichen Wirklichkeit im Gegenteil zu dem „Sich einschließen im Zimmer“ mit einer Theorie, der Erforschung einer The- orie, bis wir ihrem endgültigen Sinn auf den Grund kommen. Als eigentlicher wissenschaftlicher Dialog kann ein Dialog angesehen wer- den, dem ein ehrlich und „gefährlich“ gestelltes Problem vorangeht. Danach folgt ein verantwortungsvoller Versuch, das gestellte Problem zu lösen. Die Stellung der Kriterien, nach denen ein Dialog geführt wird, kann für die Kenntnis der Realität in einer wissenschaftlichen Disziplin wertvoll sein. Der Dialog über Theorien des Sporttrainings wurde vor langer Zeit begonnen; das Grundziel dieser Arbeit ist die Überwindung der Probleme, die sich auf „Theorien der Gegnerinnen“ beziehen – traditionelle Theorien des Sporttrainings gegenüber der Theorie der Blockperiodisierung von Sporttrainings. Das Problem des bisherigen Dialogs über Theorien für Sporttrainings war eine ge- ringe Anzahl an Kriterien, auf Grund denen über „Theorien der Gegnerinnen“ diskutiert wurde. Der Dialog sollte widerholt werden, um zu einer toleranteren Einstellung gegenüber Anderem/Andersartigem zu gelangen oder um eine Meinung zu verstärken, die schon exixtierte.

Schlüsselwörter: THEORIE DES SPORTTRAININGS / DIALOG / TRADITIONELLE THEORIE / BLOCKPERIODISIERUNG / WIS- SENSCHAFTLICHE ZEITSCHRIFTEN

Received: 04. 11. 2017. Accepted: 05. 12. 2017.

181 Phys. Cult. (Belgr.) 2017; 71 (2): 182-194 PHYSICAL CULTURE

UDC:796.011:050 Physical Culture doi:10.5937/fizkul1702182J

SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL “PHYSICAL CULTURE” ON THE MISSION TO DEVELOP SCIENTIFIC AND SOCIAL COMMUNITY

Branislav Jevtić

University of Belgrade, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Serbia

Abstract Modern universities have become the backbone of an economy based on knowledge and innovative policy. They deal with problems of society, primarily the needs for general development, as well as with the problems neglected or „un- fulfilled” by public authorities. In Serbia, a project is being realized, which, in addition to the existing two missions (teaching and research), should also develop and implement the universities’ third mission which consists of the fol- lowing three pillars of development: knowledge transfer - technology and innovations, continuous learning, and the acquisition and application of socially responsible behaviour by the universities in Serbia. The changes leading to a modern entrepreneurial university should be followed and accompanied by the changes in scientific journals’ missions, since the common denominator of knowledge creators and disseminators is the prosperity of science and society based on innovations. Accordingly, the subject matter of this paper refers to the university’s assumed role in the community development or to the capacity of the “Physical Culture” scientific journal to become an intermediary between the teach- ing, scientific and social mission of the „Physical Education and Sport” science.

Key words: UNIVERSITIES’ THIRD MISSION / ENTREPRENEURSHIP / PHYSICAL ACTIVITY / SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL / SERBIA

INTRODUCTION mission”, which is aimed at the community and so- ciety development. At the beginning of the 1930s, Higher education has been depicted and deter- the universities in the United States expressed their mined by teaching and research activities, which, aspiration towards a „university triad”, i.e. the need depending on the period of the universities’ develop- to become the institutions which include the unity ment, were in favour of the founders (church, rulers, of teaching, research as well as public influence and governments ...) and the owners. History teaches us social significance (Clancy and Dill, 2009). Thus, in that the university’s mission is dynamic and variable, regard to 930 years of university education, two inter- that it is the result of philosophical ideas, educational dependent processes can be observed, out of which policies, culture of the society, and the development the first one is associated with national aspiration (a of the university itself as an institution (Sccot, 2009). mission to protect national culture and social well-be- The university’s mission is also established in relation ing), while the second one relates to international as- to goals, such as the development of democracy, pro- piration (global influence and international ranking) gress, war and peace, humanity.... However, it is al- (Kurbatov , 2015). Accordingly, the subject matter of ways in the function of social welfare (Figure 1). this paper relates to the university’s assumed role in Observing the development of higher education the community development, i.e. to the capacity of through the dimension of time, we may notice a the “Physical Culture” scientific journal to become „competition” over dominance between teaching and an intermediary between the teaching, scientific and scientific activity. In the past ninety years there has social mission of the science of “Physical Education been a tendency towards the affirmation of its „third a n d S p o r t ”.

182 Correspondence to: Branislav Jevtić, e –mail: [email protected] Jevtić B., Scientific journal “Physical Culture”..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 182-194

3th PERIOD

4th PERIOD 1st PERIOD

2nd PERIOD

Figure 1. Periods of development and dynamics of the university’s mission (presentation based on Clancy and Dill 2009)

INNOVATION AND UNIVERSITIES’ technology transfer centres, business technology in- THIRD MISSION cubator, science and technology incubator, science and technology park and other organizations for A characteristic of modern society is general de- performing innovation activities and providing in- velopment based on initiatives, creativity and inno- frastructural support for the innovation development vations. Thus, the capacity of a society is measured and the commercialization of research results. Social by its economic development, within which a level justification and the utilization of scientific research of innovation is dominant. According to the Euro- results has not been recognized thereby, and the pean Innovation Scoreboard 2017 Serbia belongs to specification of the purpose and meaning of the term the „Moderate Innovators” group of countries. This innovation has not been performed either. Neverthe- group is preceded by the groups „Innovation Lead- less, we should believe and hope that the legislator im- ers” (Switzerland ...) and „Strong Innovators” (Slove- plied not only the innovations that will stimulate the nia ...). With an innovation index of 64.2, Serbia is commercialization of results, economic development ranked 28th, followed by eight countries, six of which and enhanced financial independence of the faculties are the EU members (EU index 2017). themselves, but that he primarily assumed that inno- Pursuant to the Law on Higher Education of Ser- vations also apply to social development as well as to bia from 2017, the Article 59, paragraph 3, taken the development of entrepreneurial capacity and stu- from the 2005 Law, it is defined that in order to com- dents’ competences. The Figure 2 shows the „Mission mercialize the results of scientific research or artistic of Modern Innovation University”, which was modi- work, the university-faculties can establish scientific fied by the author bearing in mind the „third mission” institutes, innovation centres, centres of excellence, of the universities.

183 Jevtić B., Scientific journal “Physical Culture”..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 182-194

Figure 2. Mission of modern innovation university (Clancy and Dill, 2009)

Even by a cursory glance at the laws that deter- lence, and in agreement to abandon the emancipation mined higher education in Serbia until 2005, the of all three missions, the adoption of special docu- presence of a great number of the articles which reg- ments (statutes) will take place, both at universities, ulated the teaching activity and the core affiliation of faculties and scientific institutes. Thus, at the end of faculties regarding certain scientific fields may be no- the second decade of the 21st century, the Serbian ac- ticed. The Laws adopted after 2005 have terminated ademic community will voluntarily vote for the stat- the regulation of the organization of teaching activ- utes by which it will renounce not only its autonomy, ity of universities and faculties (the universities’ first but also the integration and decentralization of higher mission). Instead of developing the universities’ „first mission”, the legislator introduced the articles which education. The state, as the university owner, has once define and describe the functioning of bodies respon- again become the holder of higher education, just like sible for quality assurance, accreditation, manage- the rulers used to be in the past. It has been given ment of higher education courses ... Today, after the a key role, not only in the area of establishment,​​ or- adoption of the Law on Higher Education (2017), all ganization and funding, but primarily in a part of the of these bodies have been made “state-ruled”, which process of accreditation and issuing working licenses has directly jeopardized the autonomous develop- of each individual higher education institution. This ment of higher education. A new dispute between the circulus vitiosus between the lawmakers and the ben- state and the academic community has been entered eficiaries of the law reflects the reality in Serbia of the into, the Law has been challenged by universities, 21st century whereby the entity of its higher education National Council of Higher Education, Commission has been returned to the second stage of university for Accreditation and Quality Assurance, Serbian development (Figure1)! How to establish a free and Academy of Sciences and numerous professors and autonomous university, how to reach the next devel- researchers. „The Law decreases the level of the au- tonomy of educational institutions, which is why the opmental stages dominated by the university that en- Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts especially de- sures progress to the community- society by which it mands the amendments to the newly adopted law or is funded and when, all of this will remain unknown the adoption of a new one.” There is no reply by the to the author as well as to the generations of teach- other party – the state, it is expected to act according ers, associates and researchers at the universities in to the adopted law. In the following six months, in si- Serbia.

184 Jevtić B., Scientific journal “Physical Culture”..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 182-194

Entrepreneurial intentions and universities’ ten, 2011a). The path to reaching these goals of the na- „third mission” tional and supranational university education implies „The analysis of the curriculums taught at the uni- (Clancy and Dill, 2009): (i) progress in teaching and versities in Serbia has indicated that they are outdated, its organization, (i) increasing the quality of research lagging behind the modern needs and challenges of so- and its relationship with teaching, industry and society ciety, that the profiles that are being educated are great- (business aspect) , (i) emphasis on quality evaluation ly inconsistent with the needs of society. Studies are (normative and objective aspect of teaching outcomes managed by the curiosity and interests of researchers and research results), (i) knowledge transfer organiza- and professors, and, to a lesser extent, by the needs of tion, (i) knowledge application and social activity plan society. Scientific publication is the basic criterion for (sociological and applicable aspect of knowledge) ... selecting teachers, which is the main incentive factor The strategy of the „entrepreneurial university” ap- for the research for libraries and career development proach evaluates the output criteria, unlike the input instead of the research to address the needs of society” ones which are assessed in Serbia (budget, number of (Domazet, 2014). On the other hand, Pupavac (2014), students, number of teachers, size of buildings, library who considers higher education the greatest success fund, etc.). The output criteria, such as number of inno- of a social state, has stated that in Croatia 36,000 stu- vations, number of employed graduates, social justifi- dents graduate annually, in Serbia 45,000 students, and cation of curriculum, teaching and research, economic in Bosnia and Herzegovina there are 18,000 students justification and benefits, transfer of knowledge into who graduate on annual basis. He has also added that the business environment, patents, graduates’ awards, the teaching and scientific industry of this region has organizational effectiveness, number of newly estab- changed a little in relation to the time when Aristotle lished business units, etc. are only some of the criteria was teaching at the Lyceum in Athens, and that these of successful universities and the basis for their rank- systems have been educating students preparing them ing. Today, it is hard to imagine a university that man- for traditional and non-innovative careers, but not for ages to survive by the transfer of tacit (unstructured) the economics and social progress based on innova- knowledge. In this regard, especially in developing a tions and knowledge (Bubble Education). strategy for a new research and social paradigm of the While the time in the geographical areas included faculties in the field of sports and physical education, in the analyses of Domazet (2014) and Pupovac (2014) a search for the meaning of social progress and the seems to be standing or going back, the contemporary methodology of the „community engaged research”, universities have been adapting to their corporate mis- which has been pursued, should be added to the con- sion and are increasingly recognized as entrepreneuri- tinuum of scientific research, which extends from ba- al institutions within which the research results signifi- sic to applied research; non-experts should be involved cant for progress - a new economic theory and practice as partners in the implementation of innovations and (through economic entrepreneurship) and social real- research findings. This is a type of research and a way ity (through social entrepreneurship) have been inten- in which science communicates with the community tionally publicated and published (Brooks, 2007). The (McDonald, 2011). innovative and entrepreneurial mission, both in eco- The changes from the traditional Hubolt’s approach nomic as well as in social entrepreneurship, has been to the modern - entrepreneurial university must also accompanied by a change in research funding from be followed and accompanied by a change in the mis- the traditional - linear model to the national - inno- sion of scientific journals, since the common denom- vative model that was first developed in Scandinavian inator of knowledge creators and disseminators must countries, and which includes the concept of applying be a duality, which is the prosperity of science and so- science in the function of the sustainable social devel- ciety based on innovations. In this direction and for opment (Clancy and Dill, 2009). this purpose, the changes in the outcomes of doctoral Modern universities are becoming a backbone of studies have been taking place, which, in addition to the economy based on knowledge and innovation pol- qualifying scientific youth for carrying out university icy (Hagen, 2008). They deal with the problems of so- tasks (teaching and science), are also aimed at pro- ciety, primarily the needs of its general development, viding doctoral candidates as research leaders for the as well as with the problems that are „neglected or un- development programs regarding industry as well as fulfilled” by public authorities and private sector (Rat- society itself (Figure 2) (Sccot, 2009). The universities

185 Jevtić B., Scientific journal “Physical Culture”..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 182-194 and faculties that comprehensively perceive their so- the activity and awareness in regard to the health issues cial mission as the first step in the realization of their of each community member. The following are the fac- third mission, as its most critical part, have been estab- tors of physical activity which stimulate: (i) the „ com- lishing offices for knowledge transfer, with the aim of munity interaction „ both in functional sense and in linking creators and users of knowledge. On this path, its democratization, a tendency towards peace, social the capacity of scientific journals should be recognized cohesion, joy ..., (i) „awareness of sustainability” and as one of the means of innovation transfer. In Serbia, zero tolerance for environmental degradation; (i) „cul- in the field of sports and physical education, there is tural identification and integration”; (i) „immediate the leading national scientific journal titled „Physical well-being resulting from satisfaction”, which, as such, C u l t u r e”. inspires the community members to practice, support At this point and in support of the discussion on and highly appreciate physical activity. Similar conclu- the university’s third mission, Serbian participation in sions have been drawn by the authors in the case of the international consortium in the implementation of responsible behaviour of professional sports clubs in the project „Institutional framework for the develop- the United States (Bieganek, Huber, 2015). Regarding ment of the third mission of the universities in Serbia” the relationship between physical education, sports should also be mentioned. The implementation of this and physical recreation in relation to the benefits of the project started on October 15th 2015 and should be British society, a unique practice, it may be said, has completed in October 2018. The project is co-financed been developed by Margaret Talbot (2002) through her under the ERASMUS PLUS program of the European scientific arguments and examples of good practice. An Union, and it is realized by a consortium of 18 partners extensive study on the benefits of physical activity on including five European universities and six Serbian the children’s proper growth and integral development universities. The main aim of the project is to devel- has been developed in the scientific monograph „Chil- op and implement the third mission (Development dren’s Sports from Practice to the Academic Field”, by a of society and community) which consists of three group of authors from the Faculty of Sport and Physi- pillars of development, namely: knowledge transfer cal Education in Belgrade (Jevtic et al, 2011). - technology and innovation, continuous learning as The current understanding of higher education well as the acquisition and application of socially re- in Serbia, and therefore of the academic activities of sponsible behaviour by the Serbian universities, in ad- university units (faculties) in the field of the science of dition to the existing two missions related to education Sport and Physical Education (SSPE), is mainly related and research at the universities in Serbia. to teaching and science. The analysis of the missions of some faculties in the field of SSPE has indicated a lack of orientation towards the realization of the third mis- THE SCIENCE OF “PHYSICAL sion of the university, which has made the universities EDUCATION AND SPORT” AND across the world successful and which is responsible UNIVERSITIES’ THIRD MISSION for the social, economic and cultural development of the community to which the university belongs (Vor- Physical education, sports and physical recreation ley, Nellies, 2009). Thus, the Faculty of Sport and Phys- have a significant social role and great responsibility. ical Education takes over its mission from the mission The analysis conducted in Australia has shown the of the University of Belgrade, whereby, intentionally or great capacity of sports and physical education in the not, it has been giving up its identity and specificity, area of ​​socially responsible behaviour, but it has also which has been built for eighty years, during which determined the factors that could affect the area of​​ the „achieved values” and the accomplished results community prosperity. Smith and Westerbeck (2007) have been bringing honour to higher education, Ser- have determined „strong communication power” of bian society and even to the University of Belgrade physical activity through which it is possible to reach itself. On the official web site it has been stated that each member of the community. As a consequence, the mission of this faculty is „ensuring the highest ac- physical activity is the first tool in the „Appeal to ademic standards and acquiring knowledge and skills the Young” regarding their growing up in the family, in accordance with the needs of society and envisaged sports, education, culture, community (participants, national development, as well as a permanent commit- fans). „Positive health impact” is an ideal platform for ment to improving the quality of higher education and

186 Jevtić B., Scientific journal “Physical Culture”..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 182-194 its inclusion in a single European framework of Higher to elite sports, since, as the analyses have shown, there Education”. Obviously, this statement lacks the internal are much greater commercial opportunities in the area perception of the profession to which it belongs, the of children’s,​​ youth and mass sports as well as of the purpose of existence, i.e., the contribution to students, sports of persons with disabilities or special needs. profession, the community, the next generations ... (its Public - private partnership is a strategy that has led to external mission) cannot be observed. The faculties the expanding of knowledge, greater employment and in Niš and Priština (relocated in Leposavić) perceive commercialization of human physical exercise. their missions identically, i.e. as „Securing one of the Within the European framework, the key compe- leading positions in education of the staff involved in tences are defined as the educational outcomes, which sports, physical education and recreation ...”. It is diffi- include knowledge, skills and entrepreneurial atti- cult to determine a position and a role of the faculties tudes. Knowledge is described as the ability to iden- in a society when their mission has been set up as a tify business opportunities. Skills proactively function national competition regarding who will be better in within a project task (planning, organization, manage- qualifying the staff. It is hard to (determine) claim that ment, leadership, communication) both in individual the mentioned faculties are aware of their „multi-di- and team work. Entrepreneurial attitudes are included mensional functions” in the area of ​​culture, art, science in initiative, proactivity, independence and innovation, and economy of the society to which they belong, and motivation and firm orientation in order to achieve which pays for their operations. The specified mission goals. Knowledge and skills, expert competencies ac- statements raise the question of whether these facul- quired through an interdisciplinary and multidiscipli- ty units are obsolete or contemporary in regard to the nary academic network and education (formal, infor- outcomes and purpose of their existence, or whether mal) all the way to postdoctoral studies are required they envisage their development through the creation in order to participate in the creation of exercise as a of a new product (for which there is a significant and product that will change the natural, social and eco- growing attention), or through maintaining the exist- nomic environment of man. ing technology by which they have been, selfishly, con- Entrepreneurship has been imposed as a means trolling their sustainability. Of course, the issue of these of comprehensive education, which is why the terms institutions’ willingness to accept that their mission, in such as „business university”, „entrepreneurial uni- addition to the traditional one (teaching and science), versity” or „academic capitalism” have become wide- also involves the active participation in supporting the ly known today. Universities have become centres of development of the society (third mission). socio-economic development of the community. They are the ones that, through the affirmation of their third The entrepreneurial being of sports – mission, meet the expectations of a narrower or wider stepping towards the universities’ third community both in cultural and artistic sense, as well mission as in economic and socio-political development. The The physical activity of a modern man is a person- of entrepreneurial university has been ori- al incentive also filled with social values ​​and which ented towards a new strategy, management and busi- has been increasingly functioning within a commer- ness culture that will change the community and socie- cial environment. It has been given the outlines of an ty (social entrepreneurship) (Vorley and Nelles, 2009). industry including a large number of interdependent Entrepreneurial capacity and intended competencies factors, such as process, services, goods, space, people, are those that determine students as business individu- information ... Physical exercise is an area of self-em- als willing to undertake the initiatives that will lead to ployment and a market in which the annual turno- the changes in both business and living environment. ver realized in the United States amounts to about The graduates’ entrepreneurial activity should result in 215 billion dollars (according to the data from 2015), personal and social success, since an entrepreneur is about 160 billion euros in the EU, or about 15 billion someone who is willing and able to convert new ideas pounds in the UK. According to the United Nations’ into a successful innovative value (Marburger, 2011). data, more than three percent of the world’s annual An entrepreneur is characterized by a need for wealth has been generated through this and the relat- achievement, proactivity, innovation, creativity, lead- ed industries. It is important to point out that the eco- ership, as well as the skills of problem solving, plan- nomic capacity of physical activity is not related only ning, negotiating, persuasion, oral and written com-

187 Jevtić B., Scientific journal “Physical Culture”..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 182-194 munication, listening ... (Paunović et al., 2012). Since and strategies that change the community members, his innovative and creative activities are realized in their environment and society itself (Kessene, 2005). both economic and social environment (including It is placed between business and charity activities, and sports) an entrepreneur is also characterized by social it stimulates problem solving through the affirmation competence, broad interdisciplinary and multidiscipli- of physical activity that leads to social inclusion, fight nary knowledge from the core and other scientific and against social problems, environment preservation, practical fields of activity. health awareness, and the like. It starts with the iden- A significant part of the skills that characterize an tification of an existing problem, differentiating the entrepreneur have been acquired by his growing up methods of its solution, followed by a concept or draft through sports. Thus it has been confirmed that sports solution, defining and ensuring resources, initiating encourage: functioning in accordance with the rules; entrepreneurial activity, completion and affirmation of co-operation; solidarity; achievement, but also the tasks (Brooks, 2007). development of one’s character through determina- The network that is envisaged in entrepreneurship, tion, initiative, self-determination; creating, tolerating and which connects the actors of business initiative is and functioning under stress and with a high degree the basis of the horizontal and vertical connection that of risk; setting up and solving problems; searching for already exists in the entity of sports. Consequently, this the best solution; acting through a team and an or- network can be the basis for social capital made up of ganized network ... Today, in relation to the late 19th individuals, associations, societies that, among other and the early 20th century, “Coubertin’s athletes” are things, also aim at developing and utilizing the social much more responsible towards themselves, perfec- aspect of physical exercise (Jevtić, 2014). tion, virtuosity, or what the ancient Greeks called the Sports for entrepreneurship is an interesting term arete, when the sport was reserved for the best (ariston) and a concept that within the scope of its activity also and well-raised ones (eleutherion), who were awarded has some „hidden networks” that are the result of the physical and moral virtues (the nobility was expected friendships developed through sports and which are to be kalos and agathos, handsome and kind). It may additionally fostered through business and private be concluded that an athlete and an entrepreneur have life. Networks represent the existing social and sports much in common, so that the intention of the business capital that can be planned and used to develop the world to convert good athletes into entrepreneurs has community and improve the lives of its members. In been justified, i.e. the society’s endeavour to acquire under- developed countries, it is obvious that the so- the values ​​that will be affirmative for the work in the cial capital of sports has not been used for the purpose entrepreneurial environment through sports, starting of the society development, i.e. in developed countries, from the earliest school age (Jevtić, 2014). physical activity has been used for the development of Education within entrepreneurship and sports have social capital. The network, which is provided within been considered today as a means of comprehensive sports, is connected to the networks of other profes- education. In this sense, it is necessary and to clearly sions and thus, they together strengthen social ex- define a social entrepreneur who is a diligent, socially change. Universities and students’ sports activity rep- and ethically guided individual who searches for new resent a perfect space for establishing the relationships opportunities and additional values for the communi- that will be nurtured for private and business reasons. ty through the innovations that lead to effective public service practices and which promote the values ​​of so- ciety (Brooks, 2007). In the literature, social entrepre- UNIVERSITIES’ THIRD MISSION neurship has been viewed as a multidimensional con- AND THE “PHYSICAL CULTURE” struct of entrepreneurial behaviour, which is realized SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL with the goal of achieving a social mission. The real- ization of a social mission, and not the acquisition of In internationally recognized „sports sciences”, personal wealth, is a criterion of social entrepreneur- there is a gap of 17 years between the completion of ship that promotes environmental sustainability, social research studies and their transfer into practice, and progress, non-profit organizations (Ratten, 2011b). even then it has been noticed that this is only a par- Social entrepreneurship is realized within non-prof- tial transfer of the acquired knowledge and practice it sector, and it is the result of engaging human capital (Thoma et al, 2016). In the process of transferring

188 Jevtić B., Scientific journal “Physical Culture”..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 182-194 new knowledge and practice, there are several steps en by the editorial (editorial board ...), editor-in-chief that are necessary to be fulfilled, and in each of them, (editors of fields and areas, reviewers ...), authors’ the- the scientific journal „Physical Culture” has the space matic frames. The issues of design, social networking and role for a new strategy and action in the direction strategy, connections with conferences, national and towards the „natural knowledge” improvement and international professional, scientific and sports organ- the enhancement of social values through culture, art ization are of equal importance.... Of course, all of this and science included in physical exercise. is also determined by the budget! However, these and The discussion on the universities’ third mission in other goals are not achieved by stating that it is an of- the Serbian legislation, but primarily due to the affir- ficial scientific journal of the University of Belgrade, mation of the value-based attributes of physical activity but primarily by the need to engage the „whole” of the influencing the development of individuals and socie- ty, the issue of the „Physical Culture” journal, which, as scientific and professional community in Serbia and in the leading national journal in Serbia, covers the scien- the region that gravitate toward this Journal. tific field of sports and physical education, has been put forth. In the Impressum it has been stated that it is the The “Physical Culture” journal for official journal of the University of Belgrade, Faculty of professions and occupations involved in Sport and Physical Education, which publishes papers physical exercise in the field of sports, physical education and recreation, By directing the course of this discussion from the as well as in related biomedical, humanistic, social and point of understanding the relationship between the natural sciences. The manifestations of physical culture science of Sport and Physical Education and the third (sports, physical education and recreation) included mission of the university, we can observe a number of in the previous expression are, vulgarly, equated with doubts, out of which, for the purpose of this discus- (related) sciences. In regard to the confusedly specified sion on the mission of the scientific journal „Physical goal and scope of activity, and as the response to the Culture” and a new editorial paradigm, the following process of pre-evaluation for classifying into the sci- should be considered: 1. the reality of higher educa- entific databases by Scopus it has been stated that the tion in the field of SSPE is the existence of state and „Physical Culture” must have a clear and concise goal and scope of activity ... and not to accept the papers privately-owned faculties, and many of the latter, that are beyond the framework - scope of the Journal within their program orientations, have opted for the ..., as well as that the international visibility of the pub- study of the managerial, but not the leadership and lications is low. As this visibility is valued on the basis of scientific aspects of physical activity-exercise; 2. the the references to the published works, and, according „sensitivity” of the institutions founded by the state to Scopus, the measurement is performed in the area decree from the period of socialism to the issues of the of sports​​ science, it is necessary to re-examine the goal continuum of human physical activity is questionable and mission of the Journal in order to clearly define as well as its capacity to equally determine the cul- its scope of activity. Therefore, in order to introduce tural and economic values ​​in the 21st century; 3. the the „Physical Culture” into international databases, the question is whether the employed, and even the grad- term „Physical Education and Sport” science which uates themselves of both groups of the institutions has been administratively given is questionable. The really understand entrepreneurship, the affirmation title of the journal “Physical Culture” is not problem- of initiatives, innovations and business skills in the atic, in addition, in the Thomson-Reuters’ response, area of sports, physical education and recreation; 4. and on request to include the Journal in their database, it is difficult to determine whether and to what extent it has been indicated that „physical culture is a very competitive field of research”. Therefore, the search for it is a step forward that would affirm the ontological the Journal’s paradigm, based on national and interna- and axiological continuum of the scientific field, and tional recognition and evaluation, should be initiated which has been developed today, as it was the case in by the changes which are in the first step introduced the past, from its cultural to its economic reality, from by the publisher (issues of affiliation, publisher itself, subjective to objective values, from sports to com- defining a clear mission, goal and scientific scope of mercial and business function of sports organizations activity ...). This should be followed by the steps tak- (Figure 3, presented through an example of sports).

189 Jevtić B., Scientific journal “Physical Culture”..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 182-194

Figure 3. Ontological (а) and axiological continuum (b) of sports, from sport to business function of sports organizations (c) (Jevtic, 2014) The analysis of accreditation applications would tions are being put forward, such as: what is the ratio suggest the presence of the statements by both groups of educational outcomes and the labour market; has of the faculties regarding the similarity in planning the education for living and working within capitalist and program documents in relation to at least two social order been developed in Serbia; do the domes- foreign - European higher education institutions. The tic faculties educate the professionals who are capable program similarity raises the issue of educational out- of becoming the leaders in their expertise and society comes and especially whether the national faculties’ or are the professional hopes of the graduate students curriculums lead to the professional staff and their directed towards the market dominated by clearly de- competences to develop Serbian society, industry and fined and profiled professions or is it just a utopia that technology of sports - physical education - physical restrains them within the previous and outdated con- recreation ... It should be emphasized that educa- ditions? The answers to these or to any of the above tional outcomes are precisely measured statements mentioned concerns and questions require consid- included in the mission by which the leading univer- eration on what extent the staff, profession and its sities in the world ensure the external assessment and scientific field have been developed and emancipated evaluation of curriculums and institutions and direct for the tasks and missions of higher education in the the prosperity of the profession, science, society and 21st century! The answers to the previous and many graduate students. Outcomes result in the profession- other questions may be drawn from the vector analy- als who are educated, trained and skilled and charac- sis of the value-based changes of society according to terized by the competences required for demanding which the paradigm of the study of human physical and dispersed labour market. Accordingly, new ques- activity (sports) has been changing (Figure 4).

a) b)

Figure 4. Periods of social development (a) and the values of sport according to the periods of its development (b) (modified according to: Jarvie, 2006, Brevik, G.- unpublished conference presentation )

190 Jevtić B., Scientific journal “Physical Culture”..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 182-194

Basic search of the indexed databases has shown it should tend, explain, study ... in which direction it that a small number of domestic authors deal with should be changed-emancipated itself... By analysing physical activity, entrepreneurship in sports, entre- the Figure 5, it is easy to determine that the system preneurial university and – or the universities’ third of physical activity (physical education, sport, physi- mission (Jevtić, 2014). The implications may be fore- cal recreation, employees, volunteers, audience ...) in seen, suggesting a small number of those academics Serbia is located in the first or „bureaucratic quad- who will, upon acquiring their university degrees, rant” - with a strong influence of the state (A) so that pursue a business initiative or a job position in an the path to the entrepreneurial configuration of both environment that „escapes” the state as an employer. the system of sports and the university itself (Figure The subject matter of the national journal „Physical 1) should also lead through the scientific journal Culture” and its services (blog) must include what the „Physical Culture”. profession should discuss and deal with, toward what

Figure 5. Configuration and evaluation of the national systems of physical activity – sports in the EU (Vocasport (2005).

CONCLUSION vidual and society. The contemporary product of these manifestations of physical culture leads I Modern sport, physical education and physi- to higher quality of life, stimulates life (social cal recreation have been also observed through and natural) environment, influences the crea- an additional value, which is achieved through tion of new job positions, creates new products the application of knowledge and technology in and working profiles .... (business environment). the planning, designing and affirmation of the II The knowledge necessary to develop physical effects of physical exercise directed towards the exercise further, thus influencing individuals contemporary way of life, the needs of an indi- and society, constitutes an intertwined network

191 Jevtić B., Scientific journal “Physical Culture”..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 182-194

of theoretical and empirical facts, including sity’s departments to the community and so- those related to education, health, communi- ciety. Technology transfer offices are faculty cation, art, culture, ecology, axiology of nature structures through which teachers, associates, – culture of physical exercise, ecology-related researchers and students communicate with technologies, business, and international rela- the „actors” outside the university. The Law tions and policies as well. The research subject on Higher Education in Serbia recognizes matter also includes economic issues (econom- technological parks, incubators, departments ics, marketing, management, planning). The re- for professional development and continuous search issues within sports sciences themselves education ... These or similar business solu- have been intensely elaborated (sports, health, tions and their orientation in the field of the doping, biomechanics, training technology ...), science of Sport and Physical Education will sociological issues of physical activity (social as- be possible only by accepting the culture of pects, job positions, social reform, democrati- changes, organizational and productive values zation, politics, parliamentarism, volunteers ...) ... leading to the emancipation of the respec- as well as historical and political, socio-cultural, tive faculty communities and their transfer philosophical and educational fields. The cor- into a higher level of university development. pus of interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary V In the process of transferring new knowledge knowledge and current practice may form a and practice, there are several steps that are framework for defining the area of the „Phys- ical Culture” scientific journal within the sci- necessary to be fulfilled, and in each of them, ence, culture and art of physical activity! the „Physical Culture” scientific journal has its position and role in a new strategy and activity III Universities have become centres of socio-eco- towards the improvement of „natural knowl- nomic development of the community. They edge” and value-based enhancement of socie- are the ones that, through the affirmation of ty through culture, art and science included in their third mission, meet the expectations of physical exercise. a narrower and wider community both in cul- tural and artistic sense as well as in economic VI The „Physical Culture” journal, in the context and socio-political development. The architec- of the affirmation of the universities’ third mis- ture of „entrepreneurial” university is orient- sion and the transfer of innovations towards ed towards a new strategy, management and society and practice, can reach heterogeneous business culture that changes the community users of knowledge in the field of human phys- and society (social entrepreneurship). At the ical exercise. The journal, in addition to the universities in Serbia, the being, knowledge, results of basic and applied research, should values, practices, etc. of physical education, promote the knowledge of importance for sports and physical recreation have been stud- society, community, entrepreneurs in phys- ied for eighty years, and now it is only neces- ical exercise.... Cognitive and motor skills sary to organize the transfer towards individ- make the users’ expectations, and therefore uals, community and prosperity of the society. the transfer process, more complex. For this IV Full affirmation of „entrepreneurial” univer- purpose, social media are one of the means of sity has been also enabled by the realization knowledge dissemination, but also of starting of the universities’ third mission. In order to a creative dialogue between the actors of the develop and direct innovations towards so- profession and practice of the sciences relat- ciety efficiently and effectively, it is necessary ed to physical education, sports and physical to establish a technology transfer office. Pub- recreation. Creating the „Physical Culture” lishing activity, and therefore scientific jour- journal blog on social networks would enable nals, conference proceedings, technical and the broadcast of video recordings as well as technological solutions, etc. are just some of the establishing of a two-way communication the means that can improve the transfer of channel between publishers, editors, authors, knowledge and technology from the univer- reviewers and users of knowledge.

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1. Brevik, G. Core values in athletics. Unpublished 13. Marburger III, H.J. (2011). Science, technology conference presentation. in pp. and innovation in a 21st century context. Policy 2. Biegank, K.A., Huberty, L.L. (2015). Analyzing the Sci,44: 209. organizational structure of the community engage- 14. McDonald, M. A. (2009). Practicing community ment activities of professional sport teams in the engaged research. Retrieved November 26, 2011, United States. Int. J. of Humanities and Social Sci- from https://www.dtmi.duke.edu/about-us/or- ence Invention 4:8:26-40. ganization/duke-center-forcommunity-research/ 3. Brooks, C.A. (2007). Social Entrepreneurship: A Resources/comm-engaged-research.pdf/ modern approach to social value creation. Prentice 15. Paunović, B., Nikolić, M., Stosković, M. (2012). Hall. Importance of entrepreneurship education 4. Bruyant, J.A.P. (2000). Defining the fields of re- for economic development of Serbia. In Ra- search in entrepreneurship. J of Business Venturing, dović-Marković, M, Grozdanić, R., Krumov, K 16:165-180. Ed: Employment, education and enterpreneurship. 5. Clancy, P., Dill, D.D. (2008). The Research Mission The first international conference Vol. 3. Beograd: ot the University. Policy reforms and institutional re- Faculty of Business Economics and Entrepreneur- sponse. Rotterdam, Boston, Taipei: Sense Publisher. ship. 6. Domazet, D., Adižes, A. (2014). Primen koncepta 16. Pupovac, D. (2014). Obrazovanje – laka industri- preduzetničkog – inovativnog univerziteta – put ja ili kovčeg panaceje država jugoistočne evrope ka stvaranju nove idustrije znanja i razvoja savre- [Education – Light industry or Panacea coffin menog otvorenog univerziteta. [Applying the con- of South-East European State, In Croatian]. Teh- cept of enterpreneurial and innovative university nologija, kultura, razvoj, Zbornik radova 21:79- - A pathway in creating a new knowledge – Based 90. Beograd: Udruženje Tehnologija i razvoj. indystry in Serbia and development of modern 17. Ratten, V. (2011a). Social entrepreneurship and and open university, In Serbian]. Tehnologija, kul- innovation in sports. Int. Jour. for Social Entrepre- tura i razvoj, Zbornik radova 21: 23-38. Beograd: neurship and Innovation 1(1)42-54. Udruženje Tehnologija i razvoj. 18. Ratten, V. (2011b). Sport-based entrepreneurship: 7. Hagen S. (2008). From tech transfer to knowledge toward a new theory of entrepreneurship and exchange: European universities in the marketplace. sport management. In. Entrep. Manag. J, 7: 57-69. In The University in the Market, Edited by: Eng- 19. Scott, C.J. (2006 ). The mission of the Universi- wall, L and Weaire, D. London: Portland Press. ty: Medieval to postmodern transformations. J. of 8. Jarvie, G. (2006). Sport, Culture and Society. Lon- Higher Education 77:1-39. don, New York: Routledge. 20. Smith, C.T.A.,Westerbeek, M.H. (2007). Sport as a 9. Jevtić, B. (2014) Sport i preduzetništvo. [Sport and vehicle for deploying corporate social responsibil- Enterpreneurship, In Serbian] Tehnologija, kultu- ity. The J. of Corporate Citizenship 25: 5-12. ra i razvoj, Zbornik radova 21: 122-135. Beograd: 21. Talbot, M., Stringer, C., Neal, L et l (2005). Com- Udruženje Tehnologija i razvoj. munity sport – Oral and written evidence. London: 10. Jevtić,B., Radojević,J., Juhas, I., Ropret, R. (Ur) House of Commons. Dečiji sport od prakse do akademske oblasti. 22. Thoma, J., Walker, TW, Miler.S, Cobb,A., Thomas, [Children’s sport from practice to academic area, S.J.(2016). The Olympic legacy: Journal metric in In Serbian] . Beograd: Fakultet sporta i fizičkog sports medicine and dentistry. J. Int.Soc. Prevent vaspitanja. Communit Dent 6:501-508. 11. Kesenne, S. (2005). Do we need an Economic im- 23. Vocaport (2004). Vocational education and train- pact study or a Coast-Benefit-Analysis of a Sport ing in the field of sport in the European Union: sit- Event? Europ. Sport Manag. Quarterly, 5:2: 133-142. uation, trends and outlook. EOSA, Lio 12. Kurbatov, V.S. (2015). The mission of contem- 24. Vorley, T., Nelles, J. (2009). Building Entrepre- porary university through the lense of time and neurial : a conceptual interpretation space. Науковии вiсник. Серiᴙ Фiлософiᴙ, 44: of the Third Mission. Policy Futures in Education 176-184. 7 – 3- 284-96.

193 Jevtić B., Scientific journal “Physical Culture”..., PHYSICAL CULTURE 2017; 71 (2): 182-194

WISSENSCHAFTLICHE ZEITSCHRIFT „KÖRPERKULTUR“ IN DER MISSION ZUR ENTWICKLUNG DER WISSENSCHAFTLICHEN UND GESELLSCHAFTLICHEN GEMEINDE

Zusammenfassung Moderne Universitäten übernehmen die Rolle der Achse der Wirtschaft, die auf Wissen und innovativer Politik basiert. Sie beschäftigen sich mit gesellschaftlichen Problemen, vor allem mit dem Bedürfnis nach allgemeiner Entwicklung, sowie mit Problemen, die vernachlässi- gt oder von seiten der Verwaltungsdistanzen nicht gelöst werden. In Serbien wird ein Projekt realisiert, das außer zwei schon existierenden Missionen (Unterricht und Forschung) eine dritte Mission der Universitäten entwickeln und implementieren soll, die aus drei Säulen besteht: Wissenstransfer – Technologien und Innovationen; kontinuierliches Lernen; sowie Aneignung und Anwendung gesellschaftlich verantwortlichen Verhaltens von seiten der serbischen Universitäten. Die Veränderung zu einer modernen, unternehmerischen Univer- sität sollen auch Veränderungen der Mission der wissenschaftlichen Zeitschriften begleiten, weil der gemeinsame Nenner von Schöpfern und Disseminatoren des Wissens die Prosperität der Wissenschaft und der Gesellschaft ist, die auf Innovationen gründet. Gemäß all dem Angeführten bezieht sich der Gegenstand dieser Arbeit auf die vorausgesetzte Rolle der Universität in der Entwicklung der Gemeinde bzw. auf die Kapazität der wissenschaftlichen Zeitschrift „Körperkultur“, ein Intermedium zwischen Unterricht, wissenschaftlicher und gesell- schaftlicher Mission der Wissenschaft „Körperkultur und Sport“ darzustellen.

Schlüsselwörter: DRITTE MISSION DER UNIVERSITÄT / UNTERNEHMERTUM / KÖRPERLICHE AKTIVITÄT / WISSENSCHAFTLICHE ZEITSCHRIFT / SERBIEN

Received: 01. 11. 2017. Accepted: 02.12. 2017.

194 doi:10.5937/fizkul1702195H

ERRATUM

Branislav Jevtić editor-in-chief

Erratum of the article: Association of anthropometric, physiologycal and physical traits to success of elite male mountain climbers Hamid Arazi, Saedi Tahmineh, Izadi Mani Department of Exercise Physiology, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran doi:10.5937/fizkul1701012A published in Phys. Cult. (Belgr.) 2017; 71(1):12-20

The title of this article should read Association of anthropometric, physiological and physical traits to success of elite male mountain climbers. The word „physiologycal“ should read „physiological“. The authors sent paper to the journal with this error. Authors and editorial regret this omission.

The list of authors and affiliations of the same article should read as follows:

Hamid Arazi1, Fatemeh Jafarzadeh2, Mani Izadi1 1. Department of Exercise Physiology, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran 2. Department of Physical Education & Sport Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Guilan Branch of Science & Research, Rasht, Iran

The authors sent paper to the journal with wrong list of authors. They deeply regret this omission.

195 doi:10.5937/fizkul1702196K

ERRATUM

Branislav Jevtić editor-in-chief

Erratum of the article: The self-perception of athletes with disability Goran Kasum1, Mladenović Marija2 1University of Belgrade, Faculty of Sports and Physical Education 2University Singidunum doi:10.5937/fizkul1701043K published in Phys. Cult. (Belgr.) 2017; 71 (1): 43-54

Name of the author should read Marijana Mladenović instead Marija Mladenović. The authors sent article to the journal with wrong speling of the name of the second author. They regret this omission.

196 LIST OF AUTHORS

Anida Milena R. Fazlagić Krista J Munroe-Chandler State University in Novi Pazar, University of Windsor, Department of Philosophical Sciences, Department of Human Kinetics, Psychology Study Program, Serbia Windsor, Ontario, Canada

Milena Belić Adam Petrovic State University in Novi Pazar, Sports Academy Belgrade, Serbia Department of Philosophical Sciences, Psychology Study Program, Serbia Hajnalka F Požar Preschool Teacher and Sport Trainer High school in Božo Bokan Subotica, Serbia University of Belgrade, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Serbia Čaba F Požar Technical School “Ivan Saric” Subotica, Serbia Đorđe Jakovljević Cardiovascular Research Centre, Bojan Leontijević Institute of Cellular Medicine, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Serbia Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Aleksandar Janković United Kingdom University of Belgrade, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Serbia Filip Kukić Strategic management and performance improvement Lazar Tomić Department, University of Belgrade, Abu Dhabi Police, United Arab Emirates Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Serbia

Aleksandar Stanković Ana V. Vesković Profex, Academy of Healthy Living, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Serbia

Miloš Ubović Nikola M. Petrović Profex, Academy of Healthy Living, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia Faculty of Philosophy, Department of Psychology, Serbia

Vladimir Mrdaković Vladan Vukašinović University of Belgrade, The University of Belgrade, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Serbia Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Serbia

Dusko Ilić Nenad Živanović University of Belgrade, University of Nis, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Serbia Faculty of sport and physical education, Serbia

Alyson J Crozier Branislav Jevtić University of South Australia, University of Belgrade, School of Health Science, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Serbia Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

Todd M Loughead University of Windsor, Department of Human Kinetics, Windsor, Ontario, Canada

197 REVIEWER LIST

Vladimir Mrdaković, PhD Ljubica Bačanac, PhD University of Belgrade, Faculty of Sport and Physical Serbian Institute of Sport and Sports Medicine, Belgrade, Education, Serbia. Serbia.

Blaž Lešnik, PhD Tatjana Tubić, PhD University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Sport, Slovenia. University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Serbia. Ana Orlić, PhD University of Belgrade, Faculty of Sport and Physical Vladimir Koprivica, PhD Education, Serbia. University of Belgrade, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Serbia. Radivoj Mandić, PhD University of Belgrade, Faculty of Sport and Physical Jovan Filipović, PhD Education, Serbia. University of Belgrade, Faculty of Organisational Sciences, Serbia. Zoran Pajić, PhD University of Belgrade, Faculty of Sport and Physical Nenad Janković, PhD Education, Serbia. University of Belgrade, Faculty of Sport and Physical Educatio, Serbia. Vladimir Ilić, PhD University of Belgrade, Faculty of Sport and Physical Nemanja Pažin, PhD Education, Serbia. Science Advisor

Branka Marković, PhD Sandra Radenović, PhD University of Belgrade, Faculty of Sport and Physical University of Belgrade, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Serbia. Education, Serbia.

Marija Macura, PhD Dejan Suzović, PhD University of Belgrade, Faculty of Sport and Physical University of Belgrade, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Serbia. Education, Serbia.

Goran Ćirović, PhD Ana Vesković, PhD Construction - Geodetic High school, Belgrade University of Belgrade, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Serbia. Zorica Petrović, PhD University of Belgrade, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Serbia.

Branislav Jevtić, PhD University of Belgrade, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Serbia.

198 INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS

Journal „Physical Culture” publishes papers from the field of physical education and sport and related biomed- ical, humanistic, social and natural sciences with non published results of scientific researches and new empiric experiences. Authors are strongly encouraged to submit manuscripts through the journal website (www.fizickakultura.com). The author is entirely liable for the content and wording of the paper. All the papers are critically reviewed. The editors provide proofreading, translation into Serbian and translation of the titles into Russian. The Author shall be notified on whether the paper has been accepted for publishing within 12 weeks. No honorarium shall be paid for the published papers. The Author(s) are required to submit, together with the article, a properly completed and signed statement on as- signing copyright to Journal Physical Culture once the article is accepted for publication as well as the declaration on manuscript originality and compliance with the Declaration of Helsinki of 1975, as revised in 1983. Copyright assignment form is available in the first step of application process (1. Start). The submitted manuscript that was not prepared in conformity with the Instructions for Authors shall be imme- diately returned to the author to be amended.

CATEGORIZATION OF THE PAPERS The Journal publishes articles, polemics, reviews, surveys, thematic bibliographies, patents, reports and news on scientific and professionals meetings as well as similar documents vital for the field of physical education and sport. The category of the papers is to be determined by the reviewer and the editors. The reviewed papers are classified into the following categories: • original scientific article, • review article, • short or previous announcement, • scientific critical review, polemics and reviews, • professional paper, • informative contribution (editorial, comment etc.), • review (book, computer program, case study, scientific event etc.).

MANUSCRIPT OF THE PAPER Manuscripts should be in English language, typed in Times New Roman, 11 points in size, in single spacing. The manuscript of the paper includes: abstract with keywords, text of the manuscript, acknowledgements and notes, footnotes, references, tables and figures. Do not enter information about the authors in the manuscript of the paper, but in the third step of appli- cation process (3. Enter metadata).

ABSTRACT a) Article title b) Article abstract must not exceed 250 words in a single paragraph. The abstract should concisely outline the aims, applied methods and the main results. v) Keywords (three to eight), written in capital letters, separated by a slash (the words contained in the article title must not be stated).

199 TEXT The text length is limited to 10 printed pages, A4 paper size, with 2cm margins. The text should contain the following sections, the headings of which are in capital case lettering:

A. INTRODUCTION This part should introduce the problem, hypotheses and aim(s) of the work.

B. METHOD This section should describe the methodology of the research – the equipment /instruments and proce- dures should be explained so to enable the repeating of the research. Clearly indicate the details of the applied sta- tistical procedures of data processing. Measuring units should be expressed in compliance with the international standards.

V. RESULTS State the results clearly, drawing attention to important details in tables and figures.

G. DISCUSSION Should contain objective and unbiased comments of the results. The comments should be in accordance with the experimental or other data of the research. Additionally, this part must be placed in the context of com- parison to the similar results and reference data.

D. CONCLUSION This part summarizes the findings commented tin the discussion. Extensive explanations should be avoid- ed. It is advisable to highlight the practical applicability of the work results. Note: For reference citations, use APA style (see: Publication Manual of the American Psychological Asso- ciation, www.apastyle.org) and state the author name(s) and year of publication. Example: “Supplementation was found to achieve positive outcomes (Burke, Clooney, Pitt, & Riewoldt, 2009).“

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND NOTES If present, the acknowledgements should appear after the conclusion. a) If the manuscript is an extract from a diploma (master), master thesis or doctoral dissertation, the bibli- ographical description of the source should be referenced as follows: Full title of the diploma/MA/PhD dissertation. Type of paper, city, country, name of University, year. b) If the manuscript results from a research project/study the full bibliographical description of the entry should be referenced as follows: Full title and project/study number, name of the institution that supported it or where it was conducted, country c) If the manuscript was presented on a scientific/professional conference, the conference details should be referenced as follows: Type of meeting, full name of the meeting, city, country, date of the event

FOOTNOTES These should be avoided unless absolutely necessary. In case they are unavoidable, they should be collected on a separate sheet at the end of the manuscript entitled Footnotes, numbered with Arabic numerals in the order of their citation in the text.

200 REFERENCES References of the works cited in the text should be listed on a separate page at the end of the text. The papers are quoted according to APA system (see: Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association; www. apastyle.org). The list should begin on a separate page (after the text) under the title: Bibliography, with continu- ous pagination in Arabic numerals. The list should be in alphabetical order of the authors’ surnames, i.e. titles of the works (if the authors are not stated).

Example of a bibliographic description for a book: Author, А. А. (year of publishing). Title of the book. City: Publisher. Djordjevic-Nikic, М. (2004). Doping in sport. Belgrade: Studio Plus.

Example of a bibliographic description for a journal article: Author, А. А. (year of publishing). Title of the article. Title of Periodical, Volume (issue number), pages. Babic, М., & Babid, С. (2001). Factor analysis for estimation of anthropometric dimensions of pupils. Phys- ical culture, 55(1), 7 – 23.

Example of a bibliographic description for book chapters: Author, А.А. (year of publishing). Title of the chapter. In Name of editor. Title of the book (pages of the chapter). City: Publisher. Sale, D. (1986). Neural adaptation in strength and power training. In L. Jones, N. McCartney & A. McCo- mas (Eds.). Human Muscle Power (pp. 289-304). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Example of a bibliographic description for anthologies from congresses, conferences etc: Author, А. А. (year of publishing). Title of the paper. In Name of editor. Proceedings from Title of the con- gress, conference etc. (pages). City: Publisher. Skof, B., Cecic Erpic, S., Zabukovec, V., Boben, D., & Tomazin, K. (2001). Comparation of attitudes toward endurance running between adolescents of different ages. In A. Papaioannou, M. Goudas & Y. Theodorakis (Eds.). Proceedings from 10th World Congress of Sport Phychology: In the dawn of the millennium (pp. 65-67). Skiatos: Christodoulidi Publications.

Example of a bibliographic description for diploma, master, doctoral degree thesis: Author, А. А. (year of publishing). Title of the paper (Type of paper), Institution, City. Petrovic, P. (1992). Influence of inertia loading to maximum running speed (Unpublished doctoral disserta- tion), Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Belgrade.

Example of a bibliographic description for article from internet-only journal: Author, А. А. (date of publishing). Title of the paper. Title of the journal, Volume (number), pages. Retrieved day.month,year, from URL address. Mrdakovic, V.,, Ilic, D.B., Jankovic, N., Rajkovic, Z, & Stefanovic, Dj. (01.06.2008). Pre-activity modulation of lower extremity muscles within different types and heights of deep jump. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 7, 269-278. Retrieved 01.02.2011, from http://www.jssm.org/vol7/n2/12/v7n2-12pdf.pdf

Example of a bibliographic description for internet page: Title of the page. (Date). City: Publisher. Published. Retrieved day. month. year from Web site http. About the Library. (12.06.2009). Belgrade: Faculty of Sport and PE. Retrieved 01.02.2012. from http://www. dif.bg.ac.rs/en/library.

201 TABLES Tables should be printed on a separate page numbered with ordinal numbers (for example table 1, table 2). Tables should be comprehensible without reference to the text.

FIGURES (including graphs, schemes, photographs etc.) Figures must be placed on a separate sheet, marked with Arabic numerals and should be comprehensible without reference to the text. The locations of each figure should be indicated in the text. The figures should be giv- en in such a format that would enable possible changes of dimensions and content (text in graphs, schemes etc.).

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