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DIRECTIVES FOR THE APPLICATION OF SOCIAL MEDIA AS COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION IN SOUTH AFRICAN HIGHER EDUCATION by EMMERENZIA JOHANNA SUSANNA COETZEE Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Philosophiae Doctor (Ph.D) in the DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNICATION SCIENCE FACULTY OF THE HUMANITIES UNIVERSITY OF THE FREE STATE BLOEMFONTEIN 2014 PROMOTER: Prof A.C. Wilkinson CO-PROMOTER: Dr D. Krige 1 DECLARATION I hereby declare that the work submitted here is the result of my own independent investigation. Where help was sought, it has been acknowledged. I further declare that this work is submitted for the first time at this university and the Department of Communication Science towards a Ph.D. degree and that it has never been submitted to any other university/faculty/department for the purpose of obtaining a degree. ___________________ E.J.S. COETZEE ___________________ Date I hereby cede copyright of this product in favour of the University of the Free State. ___________________ E.J.S. COETZEE ___________________ Date i For Kyle “IT ALWAYS SEEMS IMPOSSIBLE UNTIL IT’S DONE.” Nelson Mandela ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The researcher appreciatively acknowledges the support of everybody who contributed to the execution of this study. In particular, special acknowledgement is extended to the following people for support, love or encouragement through the many years it took to finish this dissertation: • My children, Carel and Jeanne, for years of patience with me and my never-ending studies. Now, at last, I am done. I love you more than you will ever know. • My best friend, Wijnand Swart, for being there for me, encouraging me to keep on through the most difficult of times. • My parents, Peet and Janet Coetzee for teaching me to learn and never to give up. • My wonderful promoter, Prof Annettte Wilkinson, for constant support, patience, encouragement, guidance, understanding and motivation. Prof, without you this Ph.D. would have stayed only a dream. • My co-promoter, Dr D. Krige, for the way in which guidance was given and for support and encouragement when I was ready to give up. A special word of thanks to the following people: • Mrs Sinovia Welman, information officer of the SASOL Library, UFS, for hours of searches and endless lists of documents. • Dr Melody Mentz, for assistance with the processing and analysis of the data. • Dr Charles Barker, Department of Geography, UFS, for help in creating the map. • Grammar Guardians for the excellent way in which the linguistic revision and the layout of the thesis were done. • The University of the Free State for financial assistance. • Jeanne and Rudi, for advice, assistance and support. • Martha Chefa, for 21 years of support in much more than studies. Dedicated to the memory of Prof Terry. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: ORIENTATION TO THE STUDY 1.1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.2 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH PROBLEM 2 1.3 RESEARCH PROBLEM 3 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTION 6 1.5 RESEARCH AIMS AND OBJECTIVES 6 1.6 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES AND CONTEXTS INFORMING 7 THIS STUDY 1.7 CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS 10 1.7.1 Computer-mediated communication (CMC) 10 1.7.2 Web 2.0 10 1.7.3 Social media 11 1.7.4 Millennials 12 1.7.5 Higher education 12 1.8 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 12 1.8.1 Research design 13 1.8.2 Data collection 13 1.8.3 Sampling 14 1.8.4 Data analysis 15 1.8.5 Ethical considerations 18 1.8.6 Quality assurance of the study 19 1.9 CHAPTER LAYOUT 20 1.10 CONCLUSION 24 iv CHAPTER 2: HISTORICAL-THEORETICAL CONTEXT OF THE STUDY: THE COMMUNICATION SCIENCE FOUNDATION 2.1 INTRODUCTION 25 2.2 TRADITIONS OF COMMUNICATION THEORIES 28 2.2.1 The Sociocultural Tradition 29 2.2.2 The Sociopsychological Tradition 30 2.2.3 The Semiotic Tradition 32 2.2.4 The Cybernetic Tradition 34 2.2.5 Summary of the Traditions of Communication Theories 36 2.3 COMMUNICATION THEORIES 39 2.3.1 The Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication 39 2.3.2 The Cybernetic Theory 42 2.3.3 The Systems Theory 44 2.3.4 The Network Theory 46 2.4 COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION (CMC) 51 2.4.1 Characteristics of CMC 52 2.4.2 Theories of CMC 55 2.4.2.1 Cues-Filtered-Out Theories (Cuelessness Theories) 56 a Social Presence Theory 56 b Lack of Social Context Cues Theory 57 c Media Richness Theory 58 d Social Identity of De-individuation Effects Model (SIDE) 58 e Signalling Theory 59 2.4.2.2 Experiential and Perceptual Theories of CMC 60 a Electronic Propinquity Theory 60 b Social Influence Theory 61 c Channel Expansion Theory 61 v 2.4.2.3 Theories of Interpersonal Adaptation and Exploitation of Media 62 a Social Information Processing (SIP) Theory 63 b Hyperpersonal Model of CMC 63 c Warranting Construct Model 64 d Efficiency Framework 64 e ICT Succession Framework 65 2.4.2.4 The Uses and Gratifications Theory (UGT) 66 2.4.2.5 Theory of CMC Competence 67 2.5 COMMUNICATION FEATURES MOST RELEVANT TO THE 71 STUDY 2.6 CONCLUSION 75 CHAPTER 3: SOCIAL MEDIA CONTEXT: SOCIAL MEDIA AS TOOL OF COMPUTER- MEDIATED COMMUNICATION (CMC) 3.1 INTRODUCTION 76 3.2 FROM COMPUTERS TO WEB 2.0: A HISTORIC OVERVIEW 78 3.2.1 The Internet 78 3.2.2 World Wide Web (WWW) 79 3.2.2.1 Web 1.0 (The Basic Web) 80 3.2.2.2 Web 2.0 (The Social Web) 80 3.3 SOCIAL MEDIA 81 3.3.1 Defining social media 82 3.3.2 The social media landscape 83 3.3.2.1 Blogs 84 3.3.2.2 Bulletin boards and Message boards 85 3.3.2.3 Conferencing services 85 3.3.2.4 E-mail 86 vi 3.3.2.5 Forums and Discussion forums 87 3.3.2.6 Media manipulating tools and Mashups 87 3.3.2.7 Microblogging 88 3.3.2.8 Multi-media and File sharing 89 3.3.2.9 Online chat 90 3.3.2.10 Online games 91 3.3.2.11 Podcasting and vodcasting 91 3.3.2.12 Social bookmarking 92 3.3.2.13 Social Networking Services (SNSs) 93 3.3.2.14 Virtual worlds 93 3.3.2.15 Wikis 94 3.4 SOCIAL MEDIA TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS: THE FUTURE 97 3.4.1 Web 3.0, Web 4.0 and Web 5.0 98 3.4.2 Trends and predicted short-term developments in social 99 media 3.4.3 Trends in Africa and South Africa supporting social media use 102 3.5 PROFILE OF SOCIAL MEDIA AS TOOL OF CMC 103 3.6 CONCLUSION 105 CHAPTER 4: THE EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATION: EFFECTIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING USING SOCIAL MEDIA IN HIGHER EDUCATION 4.1 INTRODUCTION 106 4.2 FOUNDATION OF LEARNING: THE MAJOR LEARNING 109 THEORIES 4.2.1 Epistemological Frameworks 109 4.2.2 Major Learning Theories 110 4.2.2.1 Behaviourism 111 vii 4.2.2.2 Humanism 112 4.2.2.3 Cognitivism 113 4.2.2.4 Constructivism 113 4.2.2.5 Social Constructivism 115 4.2.2.6 Connectivism 116 4.2.3 Summary of key aspects of the Learning Theories 119 4.2.4 Commonalities between Learning Theories and 121 Communication Theory 4.3 THE SEVEN PRINCIPLES OF GOOD PRACTICE IN TEACHING 124 AND LEARNING 4.3.1 Principle 1: Promote contact between student and educator 124 4.3.2 Principle 2: Develop reciprocity and cooperation between 125 students 4.3.3 Principle 3: Encourage active learning 127 4.3.4 Principle 4: Provide prompt feedback 129 4.3.5 Principle 5: Spend time on task 130 4.3.6 Principle 6: Create high expectations 131 4.3.7 Principle 7: Respect diverse talents and ways of learning 132 4.3.8 Overview of the seven principles as applicable to this study 133 4.4 A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE STUDY 139 4.5 CONCLUSION 142 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 5.1 INTRODUCTION 143 5.2 TYPE OF RESEARCH 144 5.3 FRAMEWORK FOR RESEARCH DESIGN 145 5.3.1 Philosophical underpinnings 147 viii 5.3.2 Research design: Explorative qualitative research method of 149 inquiry 5.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: SYSTEMATIC REVIEW 150 5.5 RESEARCH STEPS AND METHODS 150 5.5.1 Search strategy 151 5.5.1.1 Search for relevant literature 152 5.5.1.2 Sampling 156 5.5.1.3 Selection criteria 157 a Inclusion and exclusion criteria 157 b Bias in selected studies 159 5.5.2 Data analysis procedure 163 5.5.2.1 Data extraction 163 5.5.2.2 Coding process 163 a Data set 1: General and demographic information 165 b Data set 2: Features of included documents 165 c Data set 3: Findings of included documents 167 d Data set 4: Recommendations made in included documents 170 5.5.3 Quality assurance 172 5.5.3.1 Trustworthiness 172 5.5.3.2 Validity 173 a Internal validity (Credibility) 173 b External validity (Transferability) 174 5.5.3.3 Reliability (Dependability) 175 5.5.3.4 Objectivity (Confirmability) 175 5.5.4 Ethical considerations 177 5.6 SUMMARY 178 ix CHAPTER 6: KEY FINDINGS AND PERSPECTIVES GAINED IN THE SYSTEMATIC ANALYSIS 6.1 INTRODUCTION 179 6.2 BACKGROUND INFORMATION OF INCLUDED STUDIES 181 6.2.1 General and demographic information 181 6.2.2 Features of the research undertaken in the study sample 184 6.3 RESULTS OF THE SYSTEMATIC ANALYSIS ON THE 190 EFFECTIVE USE OF SOCIAL MEDIA IN HIGHER EDUCATION 6.3.1 Factors impacting on effective use of social media in 191 educational context 6.3.1.1 Access to or use of computers or technology 192 6.3.1.2 Familiarity with, skills in, and prior experience with technology 193 6.3.1.3 Attitudes towards the use of social technology in learning 196 6.3.1.4 Time associated with the use of social media 198 6.3.1.5 Social media and communication in an educational context 200 6.3.2 The student and active learning with social media 204 6.3.2.1 Active learning 204 6.3.2.2 Collaboration 207 6.3.2.3 Participation 209 6.3.2.4 Student engagement 210 6.3.2.5 Interaction 211 6.3.3 The educator and effective use of social media 215 6.3.3.1 Feedback 215 6.3.3.2 Motivation 216 6.3.3.3 Diverse teaching methods 217 6.3.4 Choice of media: Popular social media technologies 220 6.3.4.1 Web 2.0 and social media tools 221 6.3.4.2 Facebook 223 x 6.3.4.3 Blogs 225 6.3.4.4