Biodiversity of Milk and Dairy Products All Over the World – Some Examples Frederic Gaucheron

Biodiversity of milk and dairy products all over the world – Some examples Frederic Gaucheron

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Frederic Gaucheron. Biodiversity of milk and dairy products all over the world – Some examples. IV SIMLEITE, Oct 2013, Vicosa, Brazil. 2013. hal-01209512

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Biodiversidade de leites e de produtos lácteos no mundo - Alguns exemplos Biodiversity of milk and dairy products all over the world – Some examples

GAUCHERON Frédéric

INRA, Agrocampus Ouest, UMR Science and Technology of Milk and Egg 65 rue de Saint Brieuc, 35042 Rennes, (France) Email : [email protected]

Milk and dairy products are present in countries all over the world. They exist under several forms depending on type of milk, climate, level of milk production, type of transformation, social and cultural developments, local economy and food habit of people. The objective of this presentation is to show some examples describing the diversity in biochemical compositions of milks from different species, milk management and technological practices which ultimately lead to a huge diversity in dairy products.

1. Diversity in biochemical composition of milks Milk is generally described as a white liquid with a pH close to the neutrality, with a neutral to sweet flavor containing water, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins. Among all the milks, cow milk is well known for its biochemical composition and technological transformation. For these reasons, it is always taken as reference. In this presentation, we will focus on the composition of seven most described milk species and compare them with cow's milk. As described in Table 1, the milk compositions are not the same and depend on the specie. Milks from buffalo, sheep, reindeer and yak have high dry matter because the milk from them has high lipids and protein contents. Thus, reindeer milk is described as dense and "thick" in relation to its high contents in proteins and lipids. By contrary, mare milk is considered poor for dry matter so it is not suitable for transformation into cheeses or other some products succesfully.

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Table 1 - Global composition of milks from different species. Concentrations are expressed in g/l These compositions corresponding to average compositions, can vary depending on the race, stage of lactation, nutrition, herd management, nutrition and health. More details on the composition of different milks are described especially in handbook dedicated to milk of non-bovine mammals (Handbook of milk of non- bovine mammals, Ed YW Park, GFW Haenlein, Blackwell Publishing Oowa, USA, 2006). Milk specie Lipids Proteins Lactose Minerals Dry Matter Cow 35-40 30-35 45-50 7-9 110-130 Buffalo 60-80 45-60 45-50 9-11 180-200 Goat 35-45 35-40 45-50 7-9 110-130 Sheep 50-80 45-60 45-50 8-10 160-200 Mare 10-15 20-22 60-65 3-5 90-100 Camel 35-40 30-35 45-50 7-9 110-130 Reindeer 120-200 90-120 25-50 15-20 330 Yak 50-90 40-65 40-60 4-9 150-190

The “structural organisations” of these milks are very similar; all are solution containing dissolved molecules (minerals, whey proteins, lactose, etc ), suspension with casein micelles, and emulsion with fat globules. However, quantitative and/or qualitative differences between each milk exist. To illustrate these differences in term of milk composition between species, we will discuss few examples like: - All milks contain whey proteins but in different amounts. Moreover, their amino-acid compositions and tridimensionnal structures are different; - The casein/whey protein ratios (w/w) are different e.g. 80/20 for cow milk against 60/40 for mare milk; - The amino acid compositions of casein molecules are not the same; thus, there is only 60% of homology between caseins from cow and camel milks; - All milk contains minerals like calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chloride, inorganic phosphate, citrate and trace elements (iron, copper, zinc). However, their amounts are not the same as a function of the considered specie. In each milk, calcium is partly associated to casein molecules to form micellar calcium phosphate but the amount of calcium associated to casein depends on the specie; for example, casein micelles from buffalo milk are more mineralised than casein micelles from cow milk; - β-lactoglobulin is not present in camel milk; - Lactose is always present as main sugar but its concentration is variable (mare > cow > reindeer); - The size of casein micelles from camel milk is bigger than those from cow milk;

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- The size of fat globules is smaller in camel milk compared to cow milk and they have low creaming properties; - The goat milk contains more fatty acids with short chains than cow milk. Due to qualitative and quantitative differences in milk composition, the transformations of these milks in dairy products are not the same. Sometimes, it is necessary to adapt the technological treatment to the specific type of milk. In other cases, it is impossible to do the treatment. For example, due to low content of dry matter, it is impossible to make cheese with mare milk. In case of camel milk, it is very difficulty to make UHT milk and cheese. The rennet coagulation of this milk is not easy except when camel rennet is used. The gel is fragile and soft leading to a difficulty in mechanical treatment. The possible causes are the low level of κ-casein. With buffalo milk, the curds have strong firmness after acid and rennet coagulations. Due to its richnesss in proteins and minerals, its resistance to acidification (buffering capacity) is more important than cow milk. Due to its richness in lipids, the yield in the manufacture of butter are better for buffalo than cow milks; thus the production of one kg of butter requires 14 kg of cow milk against only 10 kg for buffalo milk. It is different examples illustrating some qualitative differences between milk from different species; in the reality the number of differences existing are more important.

2. Diversity in the “management” of milk: breeding conditions, milking and transportation The milk “management” vary and depending on the countries. In industralised/developed countries, milk is considered as a very precious liquid and a lot of attentions are brought to preserve its quality. These precautions are taken at different time between the milking in the farm and the transformation into different products and their commercialisation. Special attentions are paid to maintain the cold chain to avoid proliferation of micro-organisms which can be dangerous for the health of consumers and can also alter the transformation and the final quality of the dairy products. In developing countries, for mutiple reasons, these precautions concerning the milking conditions, storage of milk before transformation, quality of water, cleaning of equipments, transportation are not always taken into account. In these cases, the risks of alteration of milk and dairy products increase. The oral presentation will show different cases.

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3. Diversity in technological practices: traditional methods to industrial methods Milk is considered as "ideal medium" for the proliferation of micro-organisms because of its richness in nutrients. To limit the negative effects of microbiological development, human consumes milk immediately after milking, or after different technological operations. These technologies, used at different scales (i.e. few liters to several thousands liters per day), preserve microbiological quality of milk but alter biochemically the dairy constituents. Thanks to these technological treatments, the dairy products can be consumed during periods of time ranging from few days (pasteurized milk), months (UHT milk), or years (some cheeses or dairy powders). In addition to the improvement of the conservation and sanitary guarantees, the dairy technologies are also used to produce or isolate different compounds with specific biological potential. Figure 1 sumarizes some technological operations used to make different dairy products.

Creams for consumption 1/2 hard (pasteurised, UHT, sterilised) Blue-veined cheeses cheeses Renneted milks Heat Hard Treatments cheeses Churning Soft Butter cheeses Cream Deshydra tion Rennet Buttermilk Powder

Acid/rennet Fresh Skimming cheeses coagulations ± Su gar Cheeses Whole milk Skim milk Concentrated Concentration milk Homog en isation Heat treatments Powder of Deshydra tion skim milk ± ar oma ± minerals Wheys ± vitamins (acid to sweet) Microfiltration

Deshydra tion Milks for consumption (pasteurised, UHT, sterilised, microfiltred, flavoured, enriched) Deshydra tion Powder Membrane fractionation Microfiltration, Ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, reverse osmosis

Chemical Biological acidification acidification Dairy constituants concentrated/purified Possible mixing Acid casein ± ar oma, sugar , fruits, etc Lactose Minerals Dif fferent alkalis

Caseinate Yogurts Whey Total Fermented milk Proteins Micellar proteins Deshydrat ion casein Powder Deshydra tion

Powders Figure 1 – Examples of technological operations used in dairy transformation. In this simplified figure, the operations indicated in italic are “in cascade” to have a best valorisation of the generated co- products. For the part “cheese technologies” (top left of this figure), see Figure 2 for details.

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As indicated in figure 1, multiple technological operations are used to prepare different dairy products. We find: - technology of preservation like heat treatments to obtain pasteurised and sterilised milks - method of supplementation for enrichment of milk in interesting compounds such as fibers, minerals, natural or artificial aromas - technology of fractionation to separate, concentrate, purify or remove dairy constituents present in milk or dairy liquids (wheys or filtrates) - methods of partial (concentration by evaporation) or total water removal by spray-drying (evaporation of water contained in droplet submitted to a stream of hot air) or lyophilization (sublimation of water) - use of coagulant enzymes like rennet (chymosin), protease from Endothia parasitica , vegetable proteases - methods of chemical or biological acidifications - mechanical methods to cut, press, drain, wash, brush for cheese - salting methods in brine or with dry salts during several minutes to several days for cheese - specific ripening conditions in terms of temperature, hygrometry, time, etc . The important number of these different types and levels of transformation contribute to the diversity of dairy products. This presentation will show different cases observed in several countries in the world.

4. Diversity of micro-organisms used in dairy technology Micro-organisms can participate in positive way to the elaboration of dairy products. In general, the microbiological flora is complex and contributes to the quality and typicity of some products especially cheeses. These micro-organisms play roles in acidification, texture, flavor, gas production, color, appearance, nutritional properties, etc . These micro-organisms can be bacteria, yeasts, or molds depending on the dairy products. They produce different enzyms which have specific actions modifying biochemically proteins, lipids and lactose. In this sense, they are considered as "biological tools" used in the manufacture of specific dairy products (Table 2) and contribute to the diversity.

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Table 2 – Some examples of micro-organisms used in different fermented dairy products (In : Dairy Starter Cultures. Ed Cogan TM & Cogan JP, VCH Publishers Inc., New York, USA, 1996). Types of micro-organisms Products Production of compounds St Lh Ll Lb La Lca Lc Ln Other Cottage, Quarg, Lactic acid, diacetyl + ± Cream Camembert, Brie Lactic acid, lipolysis, Geotrichum candidum, proteolysis + + Penicillium camemberti Saint Paulin Lactic acid, proteolysis +

Penicillium Roquefort, Lactic acid, CO 2, roqueforti Stilton lipolysis, proteolysis +

Gouda Lactic acid, CO 2, Diacetyl, proteolysis + + Cheddar Lactic acid, proteolysis + Emmental Lactic acid, propionic Propionibacterium shermanii acid, CO 2, proteolysis + + + Mozzarella Lactic acid, acetone, + + diacetyl Yoghurt Lactic acid, acetaldehyde, + + acetone, diacetyl Kefir Lactic acid, ethanol, + + + Yeasts, other lactobacilli acetaldehyde Other fermented Lactic acid + Bifidobacterium bifidum products Lactic acid, acetaldehyde, + + + B. longum acetone, diacetyl St: Streptococcus thermophilus - Lh: Lactobacillus helveticus - Ll: Lb.delbtueckki lactis ssp.lactis (Lb lactis) - Lb: Lb.delbrueckkii ssp. Bulgaricus - La: Lb.acidophilus - Lca: Lb.casei - Lc: lactococci - Ln: Leuconostoc mesenteroides ssp.cremoris

In dairy products, the concentrations of micro-organisms are ranged from 10 7 to 10 9 cells per g. In general, these micro-organisms are together in the dairy products. Thus, the species Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus bulgaricus live together in yoghurt. In Camembert cheese, there are 8-10 different species including Penicillium camemberti. Penicillium roqueforti is present in the blue-veined cheese Roquefort whereas Brevibacterium linens is responsible for the orange colored rind in Livarot or Munster.

5. Diversity of dairy products Thanks to the knowledge acquired on the composition of milk and development of different dairy technologies, the Human can manufacture a large variety of dairy products with different properties, tastes and forms. Today, in some parts of the world,

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the consumer has at his disposal, thousands of different dairy products. The majority of dairy products in the world are made from cow's milk but there are also products from other milk depending on the considered region in the world. These products are milk which are heated, microfiltered, enriched in proteins, vitamins, minerals or fiber, flavoured, reduced in fat and lactose. They are also cheeses with different compositions, textures and original taste (fresh, soft, pressed, cooked or melted ...), creams more or less rich in fat, type of butter (hard, soft, more or less salty, ...), fermented milk with different micro-organisms, dairy specialities, infant formula, functional ingredients, powders, etc (Figure 1 and Table 3).

Table 3 - Examples of dairy products manufactured from milk of differents species Cow - Several thousands of dairy products (see following paragraph) Buffalo - The dairy products manufactured are those found for cow milk but with a lesser variety and diversity - Butter, butter oil (named ghee), milks more or less heated (pasteurised to sterilised), concentrated and spray-dried milks, ice creams, acidified milks (Paneer) and fermented (Lassi and Dahi) and some classical cheeses type Cheddar, Domiati, Ricotta, Ras, Gouda and Mozzarella - Use of buffalo milk as ingredient in the manufacture of sweet desserts (Khoa, Kheer, Chhana,...) Goat - Consumed as raw milk or after different technological treatments commonly used for cow milk - Whole, skimmed, fortified, flavoured milks, fermented products like yoghurts, ice creams - Concentrated and spray dried products - Several cheeses having original and typical organoleptic properties (Rocamadour, Banon, Chabichou, Pélardon, Picodon, …) Sheep - Consumed as raw milk - Skimmed, heated, dried milks - Fermented milk - Several cheeses (Roquefort, Manchego and Feta,….) Mare - Consumed as raw milk by local population in Central Asia - Fermented especially with a complex flora composed of yeasts (Torula, Kluyveromyces, Candida, Brettanomyces), lactobacilli and streptococci in alcoholic drinks named Koumiss - Lyophilisate (Germany, France and Italia) to be used in dietary or food supplements - Used for hydrating properties in cosmetics Camel - Consumed as raw milk - Low level of transformation (even in countries where significant dairy production is significant) - Difficulties to be transformed in cheese or UHT milk - Pasteurized milks (Mauritania, Saudi Arabia), fermented milks (Zrik in Mauritania, Shubat in Kazakhstan, Airag in Mongolia, Oggtt in Saudi Arabia), different cheeses (fresh, soft cheese called “Camelbert” or “Caravan” in Mauritania, and pressed cheeses) and butter (Kenya, Sudan) Reindeer - Consumed fresh, diluted in water, tea or coffee - Low level of transformation - Frozen or fermented milks, few cheeses and butter - Used for the production of cosmetics by local population Yak - Mostly consumed boiled and mixed with tea - Low level of transformation - Yak butter used as a food ingredient, glossing agent and in religious ceremonies - Fermented and transformed into Gruyere and cheeses type Chhurpi and Chura made from heated whey in Tibet or Tarag produced in Mongolia.

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The best examples illustrating the diversity of dairy products are cheeses. If we consider the technological flow chart to manufacture cheese (Figure 2), human can made a wide range of products by playing with different variables concerning milk preparation, curd fabrication and ripening conditions (see the book Le Fromage , Ed Tec & Doc, Lavoisier, Paris, France, 1997). Thanks to the multiple practices, which are performed at artisanal or industrial scale, and which are often accompanied by a transfer of knowledge from generation to generation, there are thousands different types of cheeses all over the world. The cheese diversity concerns the biochemical and microbiological compositions, nutritional properties, tastes, odors, textures, forms, weights, conditions of storage, stories….

Milks of different species M i l k Thermisation, cold, storage Raw milk P r e p Pasteurisation Microfiltration a r a t Skimming CaCl 2, Type and i coagulant quantity o “Standardised milk” n agents Type and Value of pH Manufacture of curd Starters quantity C Cutting, h Pre-pressing e mixing, Washing of e draining curd s e Size of pores Moulding

M a Value of Pressing n pressure u f Brine or dry salt Salting a c t u Time, r Temperature, e Humidity Ripening Treatments of cheese : Composition of washing, pulverisation, … atmosphere

Figure 2 - Simplified technological diagram for cheese manufacture with some possible variations of parameters of manufacture. These variations are responsible for the cheese diversity.

Thanks to the fractionation techniques, it is also possible to isolate dairy constituents having specific functional properties acting on the dairy products (thickening properties, viscosity, water retention capacity, fat adsorption, gelifying, emulsifying and foaming

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properties). Thus, these fractions are used in different food formula more or less elaborated like sauces, soupes, cakes, etc . Beyond of these techno-functionnal properties, there are also intense researches to highlight positive activities of milk proteins and peptides on the biological functions and human health. Indeed, some of these constituents are benefical especially on digestion, blood coagulation, blood pressure and immunity. Some products, to improve health state of consumers, are developed thank to these recent results. Dairy constituents can also be integrated in non-food applications. For examples, caseins are used as ingredients in the composition of glue and paint, lactose in pharmaceutical products, milk minerals in toothpaste. Recent works describe the use of bovine milk proteins as components of biodegradable packaging and textiles. By their dermatological properties, milk of mare and donkey are used in the manufacture of soap.

6. Preserve the diversity: milk and dairy products for future From the recent knowledge, it is possible to produce variety of milk which can be consumed raw or transformed into other products more or less elaborated, with a more or less long time of preservation with various tastes (neutral to typical). It is essential to preserve, protect and increase this diversity by increasing our knowledge on the fine composition and organisation of milk and dairy products (bovine and non-bovine). On the other hand, a best knowledge of the milk transformation is also important to consider for the development of new products. The research projects and innovations depend on the considered country. We can classify the new projects in two main categories. For developing countries, it is essential to improve the quality, especially the microbiological quality to manufacture and diversify dairy products according to consumer expectations in terms of nutritional and sensorial properties. In the developed countries where the qualitative and quantitative production/transformation are optimised, attentions should be paid on the manufacture of sophisticated dairy products with typical organoleptical properties, given functionalities and in some cases with demonstrated biological properties.