Creation Research Society Quarterly Volume 43 December 2006 Number 3 Articles Departments The Crab Nebula ...... 140 Editorial ...... 137 Don B. DeYoung Notes from the Panorama of Science Mammals, Mammal-like Reptiles, The Current Status of Baraminology ...... 149 Shared Features, and Origins ...... 187 Todd Charles Wood When Time Runs Out for Evolution Did Death Occur Before the Fall? A Further Critique from a Fish (Tiktaalik) to Tetrapods ...... 188 of the Progressive Creationism of Hugh Ross ...... 160 Letters to the Editor ...... 189 Jonathan Henry Book Reviews Charles Darwin’s Faulty Scholarship—A Review ...... 170 Dinosaurs: Where Did They Come from…Where Jerry Bergman Did They Go? by Elaine Graham Kennedy ...... 139 The Politically Incorrect Guide to Science A Large Cliff Scarp Exposure of Beach-Nourished by Tom Bethell ...... 147 Sands Along the St. Andrew Bay Channel, Florida: Buried Alive, The Startling Truth about Evidence for the Rapid Formation Neanderthal Man by Jack Cuozzo ...... 158 of Siliciclastic Stratigraphy ...... 180 Godless: The Church of Liberalism Carl R. Froede Jr. by Ann Coulter ...... 168, 169 Secrets of the Ica Stones and Nazca Lines by Dennis Swift ...... 178 The Coming Wrath by John Reed ...... 186 Cover design by Michael Erkel: Minutes of 2006 CRS Board of Directors Meeting ..... 195 Michael Erkel and Associates, 1171 Carter Street, Instructions to Authors ...... 197 Crozet, Virginia 22932 Membership/Subscription Application ...... 199 The Creation Research Society Quarterly is published by the Creation Research Society, 6801 N. Highway 89, Editorial Staff Chino Valley, AZ 86323, and it is indexed in the Chris- Kevin L. Anderson, Editor tian Periodical Index and the Zoological Record. George F. Howe, Biology Editor John K. Reed, Geology Editor Send papers on all subjects to the Editor: Eugene F. Chaffin, Physics Editor Kevin L. Anderson, Van Andel Creation Research Cen- Ronald G. Samec, Astronomy Editor ter, 6801 N. Highway 89, Chino Valley, AZ 86323. Don B. DeYoung, Book Review Editor Send book reviews to the Book Review Editor: Don B. Jarl Waggoner, Managing Editor DeYoung, 200 Seminary Dr., Winona Lake, IN 46590. Robert Mullin, Assistant Managing Editor

Authors’ opinions expressed in the Quarterly are not nec- Board of Directors essarily those of anyone else associated with the Creation Don B. DeYoung, President Research Society. Eugene F. Chaffin,Vice-President Copyright © 2006 by Creation Research Society. All David A. Kaufmann, Secretary rights to the articles published in the Creation Research Theodore Aufdemberge, Financial Secretary Society Quarterly are reserved to the Creation Research Gary Locklair, Treasurer Society. Permission to reprint material in any form, in- Glen W. Wolfrom, Membership Secretary cluding the Internet, must be obtained from the Editor. Danny Faulkner George F. Howe D. Russell Humphreys Michael J. Oard ISSN 0092-9166 John K. Reed David Rodabaugh Printed in the United States of America Ron G. Samec

Haec Credimus For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is, and rested on the seventh.—Exodus 20:11 ResourcesCREATION RESEARCH SOCIETY The Geologic Column: Perspectives within Diluvial Geology

John K. Reed and Michael J. Oard, Editors 2006. Creation Research Society, 157 pages. Regular price: $15.00; Member price: $11.00. Many wonder how the evolutionary/uniformitarian geologic column fits into diluvial geology. At present, there is a remarkable diversity of original thought on this subject. Recent exchanges in the creationist literature show a tendency for various participants to talk past one another. This book has brought these different perspectives together with two goals: 1) to better define the real differences within diluvial geology, and 2) to identify the concrete issues that will provide a basis for continued research and, hope- fully, future resolution. The editors went one step further by providing, at the end of most chapters, a forum with comments and responses. In addition to ththee editors, the other authors are: Terry Mortenson, Peter Klevberg, Carl Froede Jr., David J. Tyler, Harold G. Coffin, and Emil Silvestru. Though it may be difficult to visualize now, diluvial geology represents a major paradigm shift that holds the potential to stimulate a revolution within the earth sciences.

Creation vs. Evolution Debate

2006. Creation Research Society, approx. 45 minutes. Audio CD. Regular price: $10.00; Member price: $8.00. Dr. Kevin Anderson (director of the Society’s Van Andel Creation Research Center) squares off against local Arizona anti-creationist, Nigel Reynolds. The debate features initial arguments by both presenters followed by lively rebuttals, cross-examinations, and audience questions. This debate provides the listener an excellent opportunity to weigh the arguments of each side and seriously consider where the scientific evidence best fits.

Orders can by placed through Creation Research Society, 6801 N. Highway 89, Chino Valley, AZ 86323-9186 Phone: 1-877-CRS-BOOK (1-877-277-2665); Fax: (928) 636-9921 www.creationresearch.org

For U.S. orders, add 20% for S/H (min $5, max $15) A free catalog of books and videos is available. For Canadian orders, add 20% for S/H (min. $5, no max.) Send your e-mail request to CRSBooks@starband. For foreign orders, add 25% for S/H (min. $10, no max.) net or call 1-877-CRS-BOOK. Orders must be pre-paid.

For credit card payments, (Visa, MasterCard, Discover, and American Express), please include the card number, expiration date (month/year), and your phone number. Volume 43, December 2006 137

Blogging with Zimmer

ast summer an Institute for defect than sickle-cell anemia). I invited I further argued that sickle-cell trait Creation Research (ICR; San- him to enlighten us poor creationists in is still degenerative, even if subclinical. Ltee, CA) weekly radio program an “editor’s forum” in CRSQ or any oth- Hence, regardless of any benefit against focused on evolutionists’ claims that er format of his choosing. He declined, malaria, it is useless as an example of humans are still evolving. As one of the saying he was satisfied with what he had a genetic mechanism for “common scientists interviewed for this program, I written in his blog. He later stated that descent.” Degeneration of the hemo- discussed the genetics of human evolu- he thought I had made an odd request. globin molecule does not provide an tion and argued that mutations, such as Why would an invitation to participate example of a genetic mechanism for the that leading to sickle-cell trait/anemia, in such a forum be an “odd request”? evolutionary origin of hemoglobin or cannot be offered as examples of con- Apparently it is an “odd request” if you any other biological system or molecule. tinuing human evolution. are only interested in being contemptu- Rather, it is just the opposite. One of the listeners to that particular ous of those who have a differing view To his credit, Mr. Zimmer im- program was the writer (and evolution- and have no real interest in scientific mediately provided a rather lengthy ist activist), Carl Zimmer, author of discourse and enlightenment. response, although it still had a conde- several books, including Smithsonian In light of Mr. Zimmer’s declin- scending flavor. He first introduced the Intimate Guide to Human Origins and ing my invitation, I went directly to Evolution: The Triumph of an Idea. Not the comment section of his blog and surprisingly, Mr. Zimmer took strong posted a peppery response. Part of my exception to the content of the program, response was to challenge Mr. Zimmer’s particularly my comments. He expressed assumption “that any positively selected his disagreement on his web blog site.1 mutation is beneficial, and all beneficial Among his various claims, he argued mutations serve evolution. This is true that I had totally misunderstood what only if you refuse to acknowledge that sickle-cell trait/anemia was and how it evolution is actually common descent, applied to evolution. In a sarcastic and and not just merely any change. Unlike condescending manner (all too common ‘any change,’ common descent has very Zimmer challenged for vocal evolutionists these days), he specific genetic requirements, and it challenged my scientific competency, must account for the origin of biological as well as that of anyone associated with systems and functions, not their demise. my scientific ICR. Specifically addressing sickle-cell, There are many examples of mutations he argued that “people only get sickle- that have a positively selected transient competency, cell anemia when they inherit two copies benefit, but they are at the expense of of this gene. One copy gives protection pre-existing biological systems (many as well as that to malaria. On balance, natural selection antibiotic resistances fit into this cat- thus favors the gene in regions with high egory). The sickle cell trait (only one of anyone rates of malaria.” gene) can still cause a deformity of the I e-mailed Mr. Zimmer, stating red blood cell, and often causes mi- that he had both misrepresented my croscopic tissue damage and reduced associated with ICR. arguments and misunderstood the true ability of kidneys to fully concentrate nature of sickle-cell trait (a less-severe urine.” 138 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Creation Research Society, mostly with ever, such cempensation rarely happens Mr. Zimmer responded that sickle- the attempt to denegrate it as a strictly as Mr. Zimmer envisions, especially cell trait illustrates how gene duplica- religious organization. He accused me regarding sickle-cell. It is like saying the tion provides a genetic mechanism for of merely using “catchphrases” and not ship is sinking, but the engine is working evolution (i.e., during DNA replication providing any evidence that sickle-cell better than ever. There is not much way occasionally an event occurs so that a trait “causes harmful effects.” He cited for an organism to compensate for the gene is inadvertently duplicated, and the a sickle-cell information web site that degeneration of its hemoglobin. chromosome now contains an additional states that people with sickle-cell trait I responded that “common descent copy of that gene). He also claimed that I may be able to live completely normal has very specific genetic requirements, believe “that if sickle-cell anemia cannot lives. Interestingly, I subsequently point- and not just ‘any mutation’ or ‘any provide a mechanism for the evolution ed out that the very web site he cited change’ will suffice. The mutations of a system like hemoglobin, then evo- contained a link to another web site that must be the types that provide a basis lution must be wrong. But the evidence listed numerous potential complications for a genetic mechanism that accounts I’ve just described shows that his argu- of sickle-cell trait, an early indication for the origin of contemporary biological ment is nothing but a red herring.” that Mr. Zimmer was not fully doing systems and functions. Not their loss. A I neither said nor impled this. I his homework. mutation in Escherichia coli will re- was merely addressing his criticism of Primarily though, Mr. Zimmer took duce or eliminate synthesis of its OppA my comments on the radio program, exception to my claim that evolution transport protein. This phenotype can and explaining why sickle-cell trait is (i.e., common descent) was obligated provide the bacterium some resistance to not a useful example for evolutionists. to offer a genetic mechanism that can the antibiotic, kanamycin. Thus, in the The trait fails to provide an adequate account for the origin of various biologi- presence of kanamycin, this mutation illustration of a genetic mechanism for cal systems and functions. I certainly can can be positively selected. However, is common descent (even if it is positively understand that an evolutionist’s life positive selection of a mutation the sole selected in certain regions of the world). would be far easier if he or she did not criteria of a genetic mechanism for evo- My arguments were strictly focused on not have to deal with such “trivialities.” lution (i.e., common descent)? Does loss the genetics of the sickle-cell mutation, However, for evolution to truly be a valid of OppA constitute a genetic example of not any and every known and unknown scientific concept, it must offer a viable the mechanism evolution used to evolve mutation. The red herring was on Mr. genetic explanation for where all life’s transport proteins? The same can also be Zimmer’s part, a definite sign that diversity orginated. This mechanism asked of the sickle cell trait.” he sensed he was playing the weaker must show how genetic events, such I continued by asking how “mutat- hand. as mutations, generated the types of ing from hemoglobin A to hemoglobin What is more, I pointed out that biological transformation necessary for S [provides] any kind of genetic basis sickle-cell trait is not even an example common descent. As part of this trans- for the mechanism required by com- of a gene duplication. Sickle cell results formation, this genetic mechanism must mon descent? Like the loss of OppA from a point mutation—a change in a be capable of developing all the specific in E. coli described above, how does single nucleotide of the DNA sequence. types of biological function and activity a mutation causing reduced function I’m not sure if Mr. Zimmer momentarily ever known to have existed (e.g. flight, of hemoglobin A give a basis for the forgot this or knew that he was strug- photosynthesis, neurological activity, mechanism of its origin? Such mutations gling to address my challenge and was vision, locomotion, etc.). Why would (even those being positively selected) attempting to redirect the discussion. evolutionists think their theory does not account only for the loss, not the origin Either way, I pointed out that he still had have to provide such a mechanism? And, of a system, and my original contention not addressed my initial challenge—how my challenge to Mr. Zimmer thoughout still stands…. How does mutating a does the sickle-cell mutation provide the entire exhange was to explain how preexisting system (hemoglobin A) to a an example of a genetic mechanism for the mutation leading to sickle-cell trait less functional form (hemoglobin S) pro- common descent? is an illustration of this genetic mecha- vide any underlying genetic basis for a Interestingly, Mr. Zimmer did not nism. mechanism that common descent could respond to my final posting, even though Mr. Zimmer attempted to argue that have used to originally evolve hemoglo- I had stated that it was my final posting certain mutations, such as sickle-cell bin? It does not. It is an example of the and that he would get the last word. I’m trait, may have both good and bad af- opposite—deterioration of a preexisting sure he will likely say he was just too fects, but other mutations can compen- system, and that fits very nicely within a busy or that he did not want to continue sate, diminishing the bad effects. How- creation model.” the discussion endlessly. Neither did I, Volume 43, December 2006 139

which was the reason that I said he could that meant. They also seemed to reason make some very scientifi cally ignorant have the last word. I cannot help but that I was misrepresenting the idea of and silly claims. suspect that he realized he was losing the positively selected mutations. Many For the most part, I view such Inter- discussion, and simply dropped it rather apparently thought that if the mutation net exchanges as rarely productive. But than risk further embarrassment. is positively selected, that makes it an when given the opportunity to publi- Another interesting aspect of our appropriate example of evolutionary cally expose the erroneous thinking of exchange was the various comments that change. Understanding the genetic basis a popular promoter of evolution, some Carl’s “blog groupies” began to post in and implication of a given “evolutionary useful results can be achieved. It is also response to my comments. With only change” not only seemed beyond their a lot of fun. a few exceptions, these comments re- conceptual grasp but also appeared to be vealed an extraordinary lack of scientifi c generally irrelevant. Their responses, as a 1http://scienceblogs.com/loom/2006/08/07/ understanding of even some of the most whole, revealed a poor understanding of cystic_fi brosis_blame_eve.php#more basic of facts. Many of them seemed science and a very confused concept of confused by my argument that evolution their own theory. Evolution consistently Kevin Anderson, Ph.D. must account for the origin of biological reveals itself as poor science by the way Editor systems. Do they think otherwise? They it causes otherwise intelligent people to Creation Research Society Quarterly seemed to not even understand what

Book Review Dinosaurs: Where Did They Come from… Where Did They Go? by Elaine Graham Kennedy Pacifi c Press Publishing Association, Nampa, Idaho. 2006, 80 pages, �������� $12.00. �������� ������������

This is a well-illustrated children’s book often incomplete, and because of this, large. Also, behemoth lies underneath with many interesting details on dino- the author is conservative, seemingly the lotus plant, hidden among the reeds saur bones, tracks, and eggs. Dr. Elaine overcautious, in her interpretations of of the marsh (Job 40:21 NIV). Could a Graham-Kennedy recently retired from the data on dinosaurs. sauropod dinosaur lie beneath a lotus the Geoscience Research Institute (GRI) Based on fi eld experience, Graham- plant? She likes to make the reader at Loma Linda University. She has trav- Kennedy considers that most dinosaur think, emphasizing that we must in- eled worldwide in her study of dinosaurs, eggs have been transported by water, corporate all the data of Scripture and and has considerable expertise for writ- which fi ts in well with the Flood model. paleontology. ing a book on dinosaurs. Some readers will fi nd some of the ideas This book is available from Creation The author describes the two cat- controversial such as the possibility that Research Society Books. You can either egories of dinosaurs based on their hip behemoth as described in Job 40 is not a order by phone from the Van Andel bones, the sizes of dinosaurs (many are dinosaur. Although not dogmatic about Creation Research Society lab at 1-877- small), the difference in the ends of the it, the reasoning is because behemoth’s 277-2665 or order online under www. bones between young and adult dino- tail “sways like a cedar.” The text does creationresearch.org. saurs, dinosaur brains, characteristics of not say the tail was the size of a cedar, the teeth, and the worldwide discoveries although I would envision the tail as Michael Oard of tracks and eggs. The dinosaur data is 140 Creation Research Society Quarterly

The Crab Nebula

Don B. DeYoung*

Abstract he Crab Nebula is a vast cloud of gas and dust located about 6,000 light Tyears from Earth. This nebula results from a supernova star explosion that was observed and documented in AD 1054. The supernova remnant continues to expand outward today, more than nine centuries later. At the center is a neutron star, or pulsar, with a rapid rotation of 30 cycles per second. The Crab Nebula is an intense emitter of radio waves, x-rays, and gamma rays. Thousands of research papers, books, and symposiums have appeared on this well-known object. The history of the Crab Nebula and current research findings provide several insights and research opportunities for creationist astronomy.

A Brief History that of an entire galaxy of one hundred across the sky. In fact, the crescent moon of the Crab Nebula billion stars. would have passed within 2 degrees of In the year AD 1054, over nine centu- The 1054 event was recorded by ob- the bright star. Several petroglyphs ap- ries ago, stargazers noticed an unusual servers in many lands, particularly across pear to picture an unusual light source in event in the night sky. A bright new Asia. Chinese, Japanese, and Korean the vicinity of a crescent moon (Figure star suddenly appeared in the constel- observers described the “guest star” in 1). This interpretation is subjective be- lation Taurus. The light brightened existing records. Reckoning from the cause of uncertainties in the dates and rapidly over a three-week period, and Julian calendar places the initial appear- meanings of the Indian art. However, then slowly faded away over the follow- ance of the celestial fireworks around one can be certain that early Americans ing two years. This temporary light show July 4 of that year. There are intriguing closely watched the skies by night. (The was a deep mystery to early astronomers, clues that this supernova event also was fascinating search for astronomy con- but we now recognize the 1054 obser- noted by Native Americans, probably the nections with ancient records is called vation as a supernova star explosion. Anasazi (a Navajo word for the “ancient archaeoastronomy.) Certain massive stars become violently ones”) (Mitton, 1978). Throughout At the site of the 1054 supernova unstable during the latter stage of their the southwest United States are many explosion is a resultant expanding nuclear energy production. The star petroglyphs, also called pictographs nebula (Latin for “cloud”) of star debris. disintegrates and its outer layers are or rock paintings. Some of them may The nebula was first reported by Brit- blasted into surrounding space. For a commemorate the unusual bright light ish amateur astronomer John Bevis in period of several months, the resulting in the heavens. The location of the star 1731. Decades later, the famous comet light and energy output may exceed explosion lies close to the moon’s path hunter Charles Messier prepared a catalog of about 100 nebula and star clusters to avoid their misidentifica- tion with comets. The Crab Nebula * Don B. DeYoung, Ph.D., Grace College, 200 Seminary Drive, Winona Lake, IN 46590. prompted the catalog and is the first [email protected] item in the list, today known as M-1, or Accepted for publication: October 2, 2006 Messier object number one. The New Volume 43, December 2006 141

General Catalog system identifies the Crab Nebula as NGC 1952. In 1844, Irish nobleman and stargazer Lord Rosse noticed clawlike gas filaments around the object’s border and first called it the Crab Nebula. Moving forward two centuries, a neutron star or pulsar was detected within the Crab Nebula in 1968. This extremely compact, rapidly spinning type of star results from the implosion or collapse of the inner regions of the origi- nal disintegrating star. Pulsars had been discovered a year earlier by Cambridge graduate student Jocelyn Bell-Burnell. Her advisor, astronomer Antony Hewish, won the Nobel Prize in Physics for work- ing out the model for pulsar behavior. The emitted pulses of radiation from such stars are so regular that they were initially thought to be signals from other civilizations. Hundreds of pulsars are Figure 1. Drawing of a petroglyph painting on a sandstone overhang. The star, now known to exist in the Milky Way. moon, and hand figures are each about six inches in size. This drawing is in The Crab Nebula continues to receive Chaco Canyon, New Mexico. Chaco was a major center of Indian culture from active study by many astronomers. Some AD 850–1250. of the related historical dates are sum- marized in Table 1.

Table 1. Some historical dates related to the AD 1054 supernova event. Supernova Mechanism The theoretical details of a supernova event have been explored in recent Date Event decades with supercomputers (Clayton, 1984). The following description is a 1054 The supernova is observed worldwide. model that may be near or far from real- ity: A star such as the sun produces its The gaseous nebula of star debris is discovered by John 1731 energy by the nuclear fusion of hydrogen Bevis. to helium. As the internal hydrogen is Charles Messier lists the Crab Nebula in his published 1780 exhausted, additional fusion reactions catalog of sky objects. occur in the star’s core as helium fuses to carbon, then oxygen and heavier ele- 1844 Lord Rosse refers to the crablike appearance of the nebula. ments. Finally the element iron builds up in the core. However, nuclear fu- 1892 The first photograph is taken of the Crab Nebula. sion reactions of elements beyond iron absorb rather than produce energy. Iron Initial spectroscopic studies of the nebula are carried out by 1913–15 is the “end of the nuclear road” and the Vesto Slipher. production of energy by nuclear fusion A pulsar is detected in the Crab Nebula using the Aricebo 1968 thus ceases. As a result, such a star may Radio Telescope, located in Puerto Rico. slowly contract to become a small, hot, An optical or visible flash from the Crab Nebula pulsar is stable star called a white dwarf. If the 1969 observed. initial star is larger, however, at least 142 Creation Research Society Quarterly

1.4 times more massive than the sun, Table 2. Six historical supernovae in the Milky Way galaxy. The distances are its eventual collapse is far from tranquil. averages from many sources and are uncertain by at least ten percent. The last As the nuclear fusion fire is extinguished supernova was not recorded by observers and its exact date is uncertain. by the formation of atomic iron in the core, the inward gravity force on the Distance Esti- outer portions of the star is too great Date mate (light years) Constellation Location to be supported by its interior. In mere Lupus (Also the Wolf), near Libra. seconds the outer layers of the star Documented in Oriental Arabic collapse inward catastrophically. This AD 1006 6500 records. extreme dynamical motion results in This is thought to be the brightest internal temperatures reaching billions supernova in historic times. of degrees. The collapsing star then rapidly rebounds with an outward shock 1054 6000 Taurus wave, and star wreckage bursts outward Cassiopeia. Observed by Chinese in a cataclysmic supernova explosion. 1181 10,000 and Japanese observers. The Crab This dramatic description is for Type Nebula. II supernovae, which mark the death Cassiopeia. 1572 10,000 of heavyweight stars. Massive stars need Called Tycho Brahe’s star. not necessarily reach the iron core stage In Ophiuchus. before exploding. A supernova observed 1604 13,000 in the Large Magellanic Cloud in 1987, Called Johann Kepler’s star. called SN 1987A, was found to be defi- Cassiopeia A. cient in heavy elements such as iron. It 1680(?) 10,000 This supernova remnant was appears that the star simply exhausted discovered in 1947. its internal fuel supply, collapsed, and then disintegrated. Most astronomers consider the AD 1054 event to have been star. This star matter resembles a giant tion reveal the star’s rotation rate, as great a Type II supernova (Hester et al., 2005). atomic nucleus with all of its compo- as one thousand rotations per second. There is also a Type I category of super- nent protons and electrons combining Neutron stars may emit visible light or nova, somewhat rarer and less energetic, to form neutrons. The detailed internal other components of the electromag- which results either from mass transfer structure of neutron stars is not known. netic spectrum. in binary star systems or else variations Models variously predict the presence of For supernovae involving the largest of the Type II process. There are further elementary particles, a solid crystal lat- stars, those with a mass greater than about supernova subcategories based on their tice of neutrons, and superfluid neutron 4 solar masses, current theory predicts an atomic spectra, including types Ia, 1b, layers. Neutron stars are only about 6 even stranger destiny. During the super- 1c, II-P, and II-L. miles (10 km) in diameter, more than nova process, the interior portion of the Heavy atomic elements beyond iron 100,000 times smaller than the sun. star collapses inward without limit, and will form by nuclear fusion in the outer Neutron stars have an extreme density becomes a black hole. This ultimate con- regions of the star during its final death of 1014 grams/cm3 and a surface gravity centration of mass is called a singularity, throes. These elements are then flung 200 million times that of the earth. One with infinite density and gravity. outward across space. In the evolution- teaspoon of this extraordinary “stardust” Supernovae are relatively rare within ary model of the universe, the iron atoms weighs as much as Mount Everest. Most, a galaxy. There are six known supernova in our blood, the gold in jewelry, and the if not all, neutron stars are also pulsars. events in the Milky Way from the last uranium within Earth rocks originated The star is spun up to an extremely millennium (Table 2). No supernovae in the destruction of ancient stars. This high rotation rate during its collapse. have been observed in the Milky Way is a poetic, but unbiblical, idea that we As nearby material falls onto the star, in- Galaxy since the invention of the as- are made of stardust, and to stardust we tense and continuous beams of radiation tronomical telescope, popularized by will eventually return. are emitted from the pulsar’s magnetic Galileo in 1609–1610. Dozens of earlier During a supernova event the poles. These beams shine outward from supernovae remnants also are observed center portion of the original star may the turning star like searchlight beacons in our galaxy such as the Veil Nebula be crushed inward to form a neutron in space. The resulting pulses of radia- in Cygnus. Of all the known supernova Volume 43, December 2006 143

gradually faded out of sight over the fol- lowing two-year period. The Crab Nebula today is about 10 light years across (Figure 3). This is 7,000 times the size of the entire solar system. The nebula has an angular spread of 4-6 minutes of arc, about 10 times less than the moon’s diameter. The stellar cloud is roughly spherical in nature, but it appears from our perspec- tive as two dimensional and somewhat circular. Extrapolating back 950 years gives an average outward speed for the nebular gas of 50 million miles per day, or nearly 600 miles per second (1000 km/sec). This is one of the highest rates of expansion measured for any supernova Figure 2. The Taurus constellation, which is visible in the northern hemisphere in remnant. The angular spreading of the winter. The location of the supernova of AD 1054 and its resulting Crab Nebula nebula is 0.2 seconds of arc (0.000055°) are indicated just inside the open top of the V shape. This drawing is adapted per year, noticeable on photographs that from the website of the Jodrell Bank Observatory in England. are compared over several decades. A clear comparison of Crab Nebula pho- tographs taken 28 years apart is available. remnants, the Crab Nebula remains the stellation has a V-shape arrangement of See the Astronomy Picture of the Day brightest and best known. bright stars with Aldebaran, the bright- (APOD) reference. On a smaller scale, the term nova est, as the eye of the bull. The open star A neutron star or pulsar is located (Latin for “new”) is given to the tem- cluster Hyades is part of Taurus, posi- at the center of the Crab supernova porary brightening of certain stars. This tioned at the bottom of the V, and the remnant where it illuminates the sur- may occur in binary systems when mat- Pleiades cluster is also nearby (Figure rounding gas cloud. Its rotation rate is ter from the larger member, perhaps a 2). The 1054 supernova occurred just measured at 30 rotations per second; red giant star, falls on its white dwarf inside the open top of the V as indicated the precise period is 0.033089 seconds. companion. The flare-up typically lasts in the figure. The right ascension and The assigned name of the pulsar is several months and is probably recur- declination coordinates are 05 hr 35 min PSR0531+21. Distinct radiation pulses ring. Nova events are observed 30 to 40 and +22°. In the northern hemisphere are detected across the entire electro- times each year within the Milky Way. A the Crab Nebula is faintly visible during magnetic spectrum including radio, vis- nova explosion increases a star’s bright- winter months under good conditions ible, x-ray, and gamma ray wavelengths. ness about 10,000 times. In contrast, the using a small telescope. Its apparent The Crab Nebula pulsar is among the increase in supernova light or luminosity magnitude is 8.4 and its absolute mag- brightest objects in the sky at nonvisible is at least 10,000 times greater still. The nitude is about -3. light wavelengths. Optical or visible light chief nova-supernova distinction is the The maximum brightness of the pulses were first observed in 1969. If we scale of the energy output. A nova does supernova is estimated to have been -16 could see the pulsar with its rapid rate of not result in a restructuring of the entire to -17 on the absolute magnitude scale. blinking, it would appear to our eyes as star, as is the case for a supernova. This means the explosion was nearly a a steady light. A slight slowdown in the billion times brighter than the sun. At pulsar rotation has been measured in its great distance from Earth, however, recent years due to a gradual loss of its Description of the explosion would have appeared as a energy and angular momentum. the 1054 Event bright star with an apparent magnitude Taurus the Bull is one of the twelve of -5, outshining the planet Venus. As zodiac constellations. This means that with Venus, the supernova would have Crab Nebula Mysteries Taurus is positioned close to the ecliptic, been visible during the daylight hours The Crab Nebula is one of the most the plane of the solar system. The con- for several weeks. The bright light then studied objects in the heavens. Neverthe- 144 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Figure 3. A Hubble Space Telescope photograph of the Crab Nebula. The cloud of gas and dust results from the supernova of AD 1054. The nebula is about 10 light years in size and is 6000 light years from Earth.

less there are several unsolved mysteries, no known mention of the supernova by records of the supernova. The theory is and three will be mentioned here. The European observers at its time of occur- that church authorities had proclaimed first concerns historical observations rence. Surely the bright supernova was the bright light as a sign of the end of the 1054 supernova. As described noticeable to Western observers as it was times, and then they were embarrassed earlier, stargazers worldwide recorded elsewhere. Some have suggested that when the light faded away. There is no the unusual event. However, there is the Catholic Church later expunged all evidence to back up this typical “religion Volume 43, December 2006 145 bashing” theory. Furthermore, there subject to supernova events. The pos- at the very moment of its origin on day also are no known Arabic records of the sibility of rapid nuclear decay is a topic four of Creation week when the heavens 1054 supernova event. The unanswered for future theoretical creation research were supernaturally filled with galaxies, question is “Why not?” in astronomy. stars, planets, and moons. In this case A second mystery involves data that distant, created starlight from deep space shows that the overall Crab Nebula would arrive at earth instantaneously. expansion is not gradually slowing, as Observing Supernovae Then, light speed may have been set expected, but is instead accelerating in a Young Universe immediately to its present constant value outward (Burnham, 1978). This finding Spectroscopic studies of the Crab of 186,000 miles per second, or 300,000 is similar to the much grander observa- Nebula give a distance of about 6000 km/sec. Where do supernova explosions tion that the entire universe appears to light years, or 33 thousand trillion miles. fit into such a picture? Consider some be accelerating in its outward expansion. The precise distance is not known, and alternatives. God may have greatly These unexplained motions show how published estimates vary between 5500- accelerated the aging process of stars little is understood about the dynamics 6500 light years. Using uniformitarian during their creation. Thus the starlight of the cosmos. reasoning, the supernova light thus reaching Earth on the fourth day would A third mystery relates to the total traveled about 6000 years before its have a built-in appearance of age or ma- number of known supernovae. Table 2 detection on Earth in AD 1054. These turity. This is entirely consistent with the lists six historical supernovae that have numbers imply that the supernova ac- creation of our first parents Adam and occurred in the Milky Way. Because of tually occurred about 7000 years ago, Eve, the Garden of Eden, and the entire the “bunching” of these events in past in conflict with the 6000-year model earth. The idea is also consistent with centuries, supernova frequency within of creation. Many other supernovae the conclusion from recent research a particular galaxy is usually stated as remnants give a much greater time con- that radioisotope decay was accelerated once every 25 to 50 years. However, the flict. For example, consider supernova a billionfold during Creation and also Milky Way has not experienced a known SN 1987A, which was observed two during the Flood (DeYoung, 2005). In supernova for over three centuries, 6 to decades ago. It is located in the Large addition, this mature creation of space 12 times as long. It would appear that Magellanic Cloud, one of our nearest objects matches observations that show we are long overdue for a new supernova galaxies at a distance of 180,000 light fully formed galaxies at remote dis- event in our galaxy. One might suggest years. Several additional supernova tances (Cowen, 2005). These remote, a possible theological connection. The events are observed each year in more “adult” galaxies are in conflict with the supernovae listed in Table 2 actually distant galaxies. The question is how assumption of their gradual formation occurred sometime before their signals such supernovae can be seen in a young long after the big bang event. In con- arrived on Earth. Depending on distance universe? How does their light reach trast, the mature galaxies are consistent uncertainties, several may actually have us on a short timescale? This topic of with a fully functioning creation. It is occurred nearly simultaneously. Is it pos- seeing distant starlight has been much recognized that the mature creation sible that an era of frequent supernova discussed in the creation literature. model expressed here, also called the activity coincided with events such as The vast distances in space are real and “light-in-transit” model, faces theologi- the Creation, the Fall, or the Flood? As cannot be reduced to just thousands of cal challenges (Humphreys, 1994). The an analogy, recent research has found light years. Also, evidence is lacking multiple physical connections between tentative evidence for a universal accel- for a gradual, historical decrease of accelerated decay, light speed, and stel- eration of radioactive decay at multiple light speed. Russell Humphreys has lar decay need further exploration. times during history (DeYoung, 2005). suggested the existence of different If the preceding discussion of a Further exploration is needed of the clocks on the earth and in deep space mature creation does not appeal to possible theological reasons for the (Humphreys, 1994). This theoretical the reader, there is a second option. temporary acceleration of various rates model is called white hole cosmology. The entire cosmos may have been re- on a cosmic scale. The details of this model have not yet programmed at the time of the Fall of If accelerated nuclear decay did been worked out for objects in our Genesis 3 with a resulting appearance of indeed occur in the realm of the stars, relatively near vicinity of space such as age. I would suggest that in some ways large-scale changes in stellar energy the AD 1054 event. we read too many physical changes into models would result. Many implications Let us consider further possibilities the Curse, but in other ways we read would then follow. For example, smaller for seeing distant starlight. First, the far too few. Romans 1:20 states that the mass stars could become unstable and speed of light may have been infinite whole creation, including the heavens, 146 Creation Research Society Quarterly feels the impact of the Fall. Also, all of far beyond our capabilities on Earth, ula provides ongoing mysteries for both creation, including deep space, eagerly extremely close to light speed. As a result creationist and evolutionary interpreta- awaits an eventual renewal. their relativistic mass is increased by tions. Perhaps the most fundamental les- 100 million times. A light gray haze is son to be learned from the Crab Nebula noticed in the core of the Crab Nebula, is that the universe is temporary. Stars Other Creation Implications due to synchrotron radiation given off by do not originate by themselves but were Our location in the Milky Way Gal- these ultra high-speed electrons (Figure created on day 4. Likewise, stars do not axy appears to be providential for our 3). The electrons follow a cycloid path live forever, as illustrated by supernova survival. The solar system is positioned around lines of magnetic field existing explosions. Sooner or later, the heavens two-thirds of the distance outward from within the nebula. The radii of their cir- will need refurbishing as described in 2 the center of the galaxy. In this outer cular paths are several billions of miles. Peter 3:13. region the stars are relatively sparse or The Crab Nebula therefore is a natural widely spread. If the earth were instead particle accelerator on a scale billions of positioned at the center of the galaxy, times larger than any man-made device. References among the densely populated stars, we The extraction of data from the moving APOD, The incredible expanding crab. would probably experience a greater electrons remains a challenge because Astronomy Picture of the Day ar- number of nearby supernovae events. of their remote location. Nevertheless, it chive, December 21, 2001. http://apod. This situation would be dangerous appears that physicists are provided with gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/apod/apod_ since a supernova occurring within a no-cost cosmic laboratory to explore search?crab+nebula. several light years of Earth would spray creation details. Burnham, R. 1978. Burnham’s Celestial us with lethal radiation and destroy the Creationists have pointed out the Handbook. Dover Pubications, Inc., New ozone shield, if not life itself (Ward and rarity of observed Milky Way supernova York, NY. Brownlee, 2000). remnants (SNRs), which contrasts with Clayton, D. 1984. Principles of Stellar Evolu- Some of the largest and most complex predictions assuming a long age for the tion and Nucleosynthesis. University of experiments in physics involve particle universe (Davies, 1994). Some statistical Chicago Press, Chicago, IL. accelerators. These machines typically estimates predict thousands of SNRs on Cowen, R. 2005. Crisis in the cosmos? Sci- constrain charged particles—protons, a long timescale. However, only about ence News 168(15): 235–236. electrons, and their antiparticles—to 200 SNRs are known in the Milky Way, Davies, K. 1994. Distribution of supernova move in a circle while they are accel- in apparent agreement with a young remnants in the galaxy. In Walsh, R.E. erated to near light speed. Collisions universe. Rebuttals to this young- (editor), Proceedings of the Third Inter- and interactions with these ultra-fast universe evidence are not convincing national Conference on Creationism, pp. particles then provide information on (Isaak, 2005). Although this argument 178–184. Creation Science Fellowship, the fundamental building blocks of is on the side of the young-earth view, Pittsburgh, PA. matter. The large particle ring at Fermi it remains tentative. Table 2 shows that DeYoung, D. 2005. Thousands…not Billions. Laboratory in Illinois, for example, has the observed supernova occurrence Master Books, Green Forest, AR. a radius of 1 km and a circumference of is nonuniform over time. Also, due to Hester, J., A. Loll, and D. De Martin. 2005. 6.28 km, or 3.9 miles. A large particle intervening matter, it may be that only Crab nebula and pulsar. www.solstation. accelerator also is nearing completion a small percentage of supernovae and com/x-objects/crab-neb.htm. in Geneva, Switzerland by the European resulting SNRs in our Milky Way galaxy Humphreys, R. 1994. Starlight and Time. Center for Nuclear Research (CERN). are actually observed. Master Books, Green Forest, AR. The larger the particle accelerator, the Isaak, M. 2005. The Counter-Creationism closer the atomic particles can approach Handbook. Greenwood Press, Westport, light speed. This high-energy physics Conclusion CT. research is limited by machine size and Photographs of the Crab Nebula reveal Mitton, S. 1978. The Crab Nebula. Charles budget constraints. Meanwhile, the a beautiful structure of glowing gas and Scribner’s Sons, New York, NY. Crab Nebula may provide the ultimate dust in outward motion. Its center is host Ward, P.D., and D. Brownlee. 2000. Rare particle accelerator. Electrons are de- to a spinning, blinking pulsar. The neb- Earth. Springer-Verlag, New York, NY. tected in the nebula moving at speeds Volume 43, December 2006 147

Book Review The Politically Incorrect Guide to Science by Tom Bethell Regnery Publishing, Inc., Washington, DC, 2005, 270 pages, $19.95.

Tom Bethell is a journalist who knows The Guide to Science covers a num- tion; small doses can be of benefi t. But a lot about science and how it works. ber of topics in fourteen chapters. Sum- public policy has always been based on His Guide to Science offers a fascinat- maries of a few examples of politically the “linear no-threshold assumption: ing glimpse into science and politics, correct science follow. there is no safe level of radiation” (p. a world in which opinion sometimes Global warming. The theory is that 43). Bethell asks, “how long will it be overrides the scientifi c evidence. Other a very gradual warming of the earth’s before low-level radiation ceases to be a books in Regnery’s Politically Incorrect surface has occurred due to human villain and is used therapeutically?” (p. Guide series cover the topics American activity, “primarily the burning of fossil 53). In another chapter Bethell describes history, feminism, and Islam. fuels” (p. 2). The proposed solution is to how hormesis applies to many “toxic” The public likes to think of science cut global emissions of carbon dioxide chemicals as well. as an objective, truthful, unbiased fi eld and other greenhouse gases, mostly in DDT ban. The pesticide DDT was of endeavor. In actual practice, accord- the U.S. and other industrial countries. used very successfully in the 1940s and ing to Bethell, “often there is a great deal The truth, however, is that the global 1950s in malaria eradication programs of uncertainty as to what the facts are. warming theory is very speculative. around the world. After Rachel Carson’s Preferences can then be substituted for Bethell concludes that the “data itself book Silent Spring was published in facts, and that can happen inconspicu- suggests that man-made carbon dioxide 1962, however, public acceptance of ously” (p. vii). has not been suffi cient to increase global DDT faded. Environmental activists Most non-technical people naively temperatures” (p. 3). claimed that DDT was carcinogenic think that a scientifi c theory “can be Nuclear power. Nuclear power and harmed wildlife, and in 1972 the regarded as true if it enjoys enough plants have long been discouraged by EPA banned the pesticide. As a result, support [from the science commu- environmentalists, called the Greens. “malaria now kills more than a million nity]” (p. xiii). Bethell says, however, The Greens instead have promoted people per year in Africa alone” (p. 73). that “consensus discourages dissent” renewable energy sources such as the It has never been proven that DDT has (p. xiii). Many theories once thought sun, wind, water, and biomass. Yet time any deleterious effects on wildlife or to be correct have given way to better has shown that while these sources can humans, and some public offi cials now theories. But the process of change is make a contribution, they will never call for an end to its ban. slow since the science establishment be enough to solve the world’s energy African AIDS. Most of us have the tends to support the prevailing theory needs. Nuclear power has proved to be perception that millions of Africans until the bitter end. “the safest of all energy sources” (p. 36), are dying from AIDS. In developed Science allows scrutiny, Bethell says, and some public fi gures are calling for its countries, a diagnosis for AIDS is well but only from within. And scientists in revival as an alternative to fossil fuels. defi ned using laboratory tests. In much one field tend to accept uncritically Nuclear radiation. Hormesis is a of Africa, however, adequate laboratory the fi ndings of scientists in a different word that most of us have never heard; facilities are lacking. Thus public health fi eld. “So challenge and disagreement it refers to “things that are toxic in large offi cials in 1985 developed a “surveil- rarely arise. The priesthood of science doses,” but “benefi cial in small doses” lance” or operational defi nition of AIDS is undisturbed, and that is the way they (p. 39). Several studies have shown that included physical symptoms, but like it” (p. v). that hormesis applies to nuclear radia- not HIV testing. The symptoms such as 148 Creation Research Society Quarterly weight loss, fever, diarrhea, and cough years of extensive research, Bethell says, high school—because it’s religion, not could be signs of numerous diseases, “the gene mutation theory hasn’t gone science” (p. 235). not just AIDS. As a result, “Overnight, anywhere” (p. 173). A newer theory (an- For most readers of CRSQ, the main millions of Africans now had AIDS, euploidy) being touted by some scientists concern is the evolution/design/creation by these criteria” (p. 108). Instead of is that cancer results when the chromo- debate. In a sense it is comforting to AIDS prevention programs, Bethell somes do not separate properly during know that biological origins is not the says, “clean water and rebuilt sanitation cell division. For every study in which only issue where science and politics systems will work wonders for the health chromosomes have been reported, “can- collide. Bethell’s Guide to Science shows of Africans” (p. 121). cer cells turned out to have an incorrect that a pattern exists in which the author- Stem cells. There is much con- complement of chromosomes – usually ity of the science establishment is used troversy these days over adult versus too many” (p. 174). Bethell concludes to protect dominant, politically-correct embryonic stem cell research. Adult that “the experts will never find a solu- theories and the careers of scientists who stem cells do not present an ethical tion to cancer if they continue working support them. problem since their use does not in- with the wrong theory” (p. 180). In summary, Bethell’s book is an volve the destruction of embryos. Some Evolution or design. Probably the informative, very readable journey into promising medical claims have been biggest debate today involving science the world of science and its politics. reported using adult stem cells, but “the and public policy is whether the diversity Bethell concludes, “Scientists like to evidence is anecdotal, and not reliable” of life developed via evolution, descent see themselves as motivated by idealism, (p. 136). Aside from ethics, embryonic from a common ancestry, or intelligent but self-interest is not far behind. Their stem cells are problematic because a design, purposeful creation by an intel- embrace of politics has undermined the “patient’s immune system is likely to ligent agent. Bethell covers familiar objectivity that is supposed to be central reject transplanted tissue” (p. 142), and territory as he debunks the claims of to science” (p. 242). In short, the science they also tend to cause cancer. Bethell naturalistic evolution. For example, establishment has learned to “game the says “it is beginning to look as though regarding the fossil record, “It’s not that system” in order to obtain government scientists have over-promised, a fault to one link is missing, but that none is grants for research funding. The prob- which government-funded science is all known for certain” (p. 204). Bethell talks lem is that this system has often “not too prone” (p. 133). about Haeckel’s embryos, homology, been producing the promised results (p. Cause of cancer. Since the early peppered moths, Darwin’s finches, and 243),” and billions of tax dollars have 1970s, the “overwhelmingly dominant irreducible complexity. He concludes been wasted in the process. theory is that cancer is caused by gene that scientists keep “telling themselves mutations. It may prove to have been that evolutionism is a fact, enjoying Robert Lattimer, Ph.D. one of the greatest medical errors of the their monopoly and telling everyone [email protected] twentieth century” (p. 167). After thirty that creationism shouldn’t be taught in Volume 43, December 2006 149

The Current Status of Baraminology

Todd Charles Wood*

Abstract he creationist biosystematic method of baraminology has grown signifi- Tcantly in the past decade. Its conceptual foundations were discussed in the evolution/creation debates of the nineteenth century, long before Frank Lewis Marsh coined the term baramin in 1941. Currently, baraminology has been applied to dozens of groups, and the results of 66 baraminology stud- ies are summarized and evaluated here. Though bias in group and character selection prevents firm conclusions, it appears at this time that Price’s sugges- tion that the family is an approximation of the “created kind” may be correct. Criticisms of baraminology from evolutionists and creationists alike can be resolved with further research. Whatever its future, baraminology is at present a useful tool for investigating God’s biological creation.

Introduction genera but that the genera were fixed. as a result of Darwin=s Origin, even today Beginning in the eighteenth century, Even the staunch Darwinian opponent creation science is often understood to naturalists began to express doubts about Richard Owen advocated a kind of evo- mean extreme species fixity (e.g. Fu- the strict species fixity advocated by Lin- lution by natural law called metagenesis tuyma, 2005). naeus early in his career. Some of these (see Desmond, 1982). Early in the twentieth century, models naturalists entertained the possibility In Origin, Darwin did not compare of limited evolution began to appear in that species could be naturally derived his evolution model with the rich variety creationist writings. These models were from other species. During the pre-Dar- of evolution and creation models avail- new formulations of old ideas, but the winian period, numerous versions of the able in his day. He instead critiqued a creationists proposing them seemed to be concept of evolution appeared, many of narrow view of species fixity. Darwin unaware of their predecessors. Seventh- which were derived from the emerging probably derived his view of species fixity day Adventist creationist George Mc- field of comparative anatomy. Linnaeus from Lyell=s (1832) Principles of Geology, Cready Price proposed as early as 1924 himself, by the sixth edition of Genera which he read during the Beagle voyage. that the Acreated unit@ was the family, not plantarum, argued that species were After returning to England from that the species. He repeated his proposal in derived from created organisms that voyage, Darwin formulated his theory of 1938 and 1942. Dudley Joseph Whitney were different from modern species (see evolution. It therefore should come as no (1928) and Harold W. Clark (1940) also Koerner, 1999). Robert Knox (1855), an surprise that Darwin=s (1859) concept of accepted wide variation, although neither anatomy lecturer from Edinburgh, pro- Acreationism@ closely resembles Lyell=s set specific limits on the variation. Even posed that species could evolve within concept of strict species fixity. Probably Byron C. Nelson (1927), who advocated a type of species fixity, allowed for wide genetic and phenotypic variation. The most enduring limited-evolu- * Todd Charles Wood, Ph.D., Center for Origins Research, 721 Bryan Drive, Box 7604, tion model came from Seventh-day Bryan College, Dayton, TN 37321 Adventist Frank Lewis Marsh. Marsh Accepted for publication: February 27, 2006 earned a Ph.D. in botany in 1940 and 150 Creation Research Society Quarterly soon thereafter proposed a new formula- Baraminology in characteristics. The baraminic distance tion of the created kind concept (Marsh, Theory and Practice is a modified simple matching coeffi- 1941; 1944). According to Marsh (1944), Marsh founded his baramin on the belief cient (Cox and Cox, 1994). Because the two species belonged to the same created that God created organisms to reproduce characters used to calculate baraminic kind, or baramin, if they could success- only Aafter their kind.@ This interpreta- distance depend on the selectivity of a fully hybridize. At the same time, Marsh tion did not originate with Marsh (e.g. researcher, and because different created (1944) also argued that discontinuity Morris, 1871; Keyser, 1926), but it was kinds seem to vary to different extents, (morphological and phylogenetic) was a not a common or generally accepted in- the raw baraminic distance is not a mea- prominent and obvious pattern through- terpretation. For example, Clark (1939) sure that can be used directly to infer out the living world. claimed that the Akind@ was a design baraminic membership. Recognizing In the 1980s, creationists revised pattern rather than a reproductively lim- this problem, Robinson and Cavanaugh the created kind yet again, but retained ited category. As Clark correctly noted, (1998a) proposed a correlation test to Marsh=s core ideas and terminology. In the phrase Aafter their kind@ in Gen- measure the relative similarities and Germany, Scherer (1993a) formalized esis 1 modifies the organisms= creation. differences between taxa. Marsh=s ideas and introduced basic type Marsh=s interpretation of Aafter their Cavanaugh also introduced a mul- biology. In the United States, ReMine kind@ as a reproductive command or tivariate method called Analysis of (1990) proposed discontinuity system- law is a mistaken interpretation that has Patterns (ANOPA) at the first BSG atics, which Wise (1990) adapted to a nevertheless had significant influence meeting in 1997. ANOPA treats each young-age creation model to produce on creationist thought and persists even characteristic as a separate Adimension@ baraminology. Since the mid-1990s, the today (e.g. Williams, 2005). in multidimensional character space Baraminology Study Group (now BSG: The revision of the baramin concept and reduces the dimensionality to three A Creation Biology Study Group) has in the 1980s began with the recognition dimensions. The taxa then appear as worked to develop new baraminology that Marsh never proposed a method points in three-dimensional space and methods and to apply baraminology to of differentiating baramins. Marsh=s can be displayed using any 3D viewing groups of organisms. These efforts led to hybridization criterion could classify software. The advantage of ANOPA is a further revision of the baramin concept two species in the same baramin, but that it is not distance-based, and thus that corrected methodological problems there was no proposed method to test provides a method of evaluating a set of earlier concepts (Wood et al., 2003). whether two species belonged to differ- of characters that is independent of Recently, a summary of baraminology ent baramins. ReMine (1990) and Wise baraminic distance correlation. and the refined baramin concept was (1990) attempted to remedy this prob- More recently, Wood (2005b) intro- published in textbook form by Wood lem by introducing a methodology and duced a standard multivariate technique and Murray (2003). associated terminology for identifying called multidimensional scaling (MDS; Since baraminology is rapidly ad- discontinuity that separates baramins. see Cox and Cox, 1994) to baraminol- vancing, Wood and Murray=s (2003) ReMine=s discontinuity systematics and ogy. With MDS, a researcher can con- textbook, though still a useful summary, Wise=s baraminology set the stage for the vert a matrix of baraminic distances into is already outdated in several areas. As a formation of the Baraminology Study k-dimensional coordinates, where k is result, a new summary of baraminology Group (BSG) in 1996 (see Frair, 2000). determined by the researcher. Typically, is necessary to bring some of the old One goal of the BSG was to develop k=3 is used to maximize the informa- ideas into step with current thinking in baraminological methods that could be tion displayed and still be perceptible the field. Additionally, new studies have applied to a wider variety of creatures, to human observers. Because MDS is appeared since 2003 (notably Wood, including asexual organisms and organ- distance-based and ANOPA is not, one 2005a) that allow us to evaluate some of isms known only from fossils. method can serve as a test of the results of the underlying assumptions of barami- The collaboration of BSG members the other. When Wood (2005b) applied nology. In this review, I will present a Robinson and Cavanaugh in the late MDS to the baraminic distance matrix brief explanation of baraminology theory 1990s introduced new statistical meth- calculated from the Equidae dataset and methods before critically reviewing ods to baraminology. Adapting phenetic used by Cavanaugh et al. (2003), the the present status of baraminology. I concepts of Sokal and Sneath (1963), 3D coordinates of ANOPA and MDS also intend to address some objections Robinson and Cavanaugh (1998a) were strikingly similar, showing the to baraminology. I will conclude with a defined the baraminic distance as a per- same linear ordering of the taxa with summary of some of the pressing issues centage of characteristics that differ be- both techniques. facing baraminologists today. tween two taxa, while ignoring unknown As we applied these new methods to Volume 43, December 2006 151 additional groups, it became apparent of old ideas. Second, it retains the best offspring is evidence of similarity at the that we were operating with a differ- of previous ideas and methodologies, genetic, biochemical, cellular, tissue, ent concept of the baramin than held including the terminology and the organ, and morphological levels, and of by Marsh, ReMine, or Wise. Earlier methods of successive approximation similarity between the two species= basic baramin concepts relied on reproduc- and hybridization. developmental pathways. As a result, hy- tive isolation or common ancestry as Successive approximation, a valu- bridization is a biological demonstration definitions of baramin. Since the Bible able contribution of ReMine=s (1990) of continuity and therefore membership does not teach that the min (Hebrew discontinuity systematics, is still the in the same monobaramin. Baramins for Akind@) are reproductive units, there standard practice in baraminology. previously identified by hybridization is no justification for a reproductively According to this method, different are therefore retained as monobaramins isolated baramin. There is also no way evidences are evaluated to determine under the refined baramin concept. to test objectively for common ancestry. continuity and discontinuity. If the Consequently, ancestry-based barami- evidence is entirely additive, that is, if nology becomes cumbersome: We first the evidence indicates continuity of Summary of evaluate data from which we try to infer species, the group is called a monobara- Baraminology Results common ancestry, from which we try min. A monobaramin can consist of any In Table 1, I list the 66 organismal to infer baraminic groups. It is meth- group of species for which continuity is groups that have been analyzed from odologically simpler to infer baraminic demonstrated. That group need not be the perspective of baraminology or basic groups directly from biological data. monophyletic, i.e. all descendants of a type biology. Included are all results These realizations led to the refined single ancestor. Alternatively, if a group published up to June 2005. I excluded baramin concept, as detailed in Wood of organisms is significantly different articles that lacked any specific baramin- et al. (2003). from other organisms, this constitutes ic classification. Although it is tempting Not basing baraminology on com- subtractive evidence, or evidence of dis- to draw conclusions from the studies in mon ancestry does not mean that com- continuity. A group of organisms defined Table 1, the sample is too biased to infer mon ancestry cannot be assumed from by discontinuity from other organisms is general principles. The vast majority of a baraminic assignment. For example, I called an apobaramin. Apobaramins can groups listed are animals (83.3% of all usually assume that the species of a holo- contain one holobaramin or more than groups), and the vast majority of animal baramin of terrestrial animals descended one holobaramin. groups consist of vertebrates (94.5% of from an ancestral pair that was on the A holobaramin can be identified animal groups). Conspicuous for its near ark. Because this is an assumption, it by subdividing an apobaramin until it absence is the most speciose phylum of can be challenged or rejected. On the cannot be subdivided further and by organisms—the Arthropoda. Though other hand, because plants survived the adding species or groups of species to some plant groups have been studied, Flood both on and off the ark, species of a monobaramin until no more species the selection has been biased toward a plant holobaramin need not be related can be added. Each smaller apobara- flowering plants (81.8% of plant groups), to a common ancestor. For example, min or larger monobaramin is a more and even those groups constitute a poor the grass holobaramin (Wood 2002a) refined approximation of a holobaramin. sampling of the flowering plants. might consist of many different lineages When a researcher works on a single Despite the sample bias, it might that survived the Flood separately or group of organisms, eventually a point be informative to examine the one might have been created as separate of agreement is reached at which the plant and twelve vertebrate groups that populations belonging to a single ho- membership of an apobaramin (defined researchers have classified as holo- lobaramin. by discontinuity from other organisms) baramins. Of these thirteen, eight are The refined baramin concept has coincides with the membership of a classified at the traditional rank of family, several advantages. First, it has historical monobaramin (defined by continuity two consist of multiple families, two are precedence in morphological arguments among its members). At that point, superfamilies, and one is a suborder. used by Price (1924) and Marsh (1950). the holobaramin has (hopefully) been These results are consistent with Price=s Both argued that morphological similar- identified. (1924; 1938) suggestion that the family ity and dissimilarity defined basic units The refined baramin concept also was approximately equivalent to the Acre- of living organisms that correspond to provides a novel justification for using ated kind,@ but it probably should not be God=s original creations. In this respect, hybridization to recognize continuity. considered a confirmation of his idea. the refined baramin concept is not a new The ability to combine two different The approximate equivalence of families innovation but rather a systematization genomes and still produce a viable and kinds has been suggested repeatedly 152 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Table 1. Basic Types and Baramins, arranged alphabetically by taxonomic name. Holobaramins are shown in bold.

Baramin Taxon Classification Rank or Basic Type1 Reference(s)2 Accipitrinae Animalia: Chordata: Aves subfamily basic type? Zimbelmann 1993 Aegypiinae Animalia: Chordata: Aves subfamily basic type? Zimbelmann 1993 Agkistrodon Animalia: Chordata: Reptilia genus monobaramin Hennigan 2005 Anatidae Animalia: Chordata: Aves family basic type Scherer 1993b Anhimidae Animalia: Chordata: Aves family basic type? Scherer 1993b Antaresia Animalia: Chordata: Reptilia genus monobaramin Hennigan 2005 Archaeoceti Animalia: Chordata: Mammalia suborder apobaramin Mace and Wood 2005 Aspleniaceae Plantae: Bryophyta family basic type Kutzelnigg 1993a Asteraceae Plantae: Anthophyta family apobaramin? Cavanaugh and Wood 2002 Astereae Plantae: Anthophyta tribe monobaramin Wood 2005a Australopithecinae Animalia: Chordata: Mammalia subfamily basic type? Hartwig-Scherer 1998 Bitis Animalia: Chordata: Reptilia genus monobaramin Hennigan 2005 Buteoninae Animalia: Chordata: Aves subfamily basic type? Zimbelmann 1993 Camelidae Animalia: Chordata: Mammalia family monobaramin Wood et al. 1999 monobaramin Siegler 1974; Scherer 1993a; Canidae Animalia: Chordata: Mammalia family basic type Crompton 1993 Carduelinae Animalia: Chordata: Aves family basic type Fehrer 1993 Cathartidae Animalia: Chordata: Aves family basic type Scherer 1993a Cercopithecidae Animalia: Chordata: Mammalia family basic type Hartwig-Scherer 1993 Chelidae Animalia: Chordata: Reptilia family holobaramin Wood 2005a Cheloniidae Animalia: Chordata: Reptilia family monobaramin Robinson 1997 Columbidae Animalia: Chordata: Aves family monobaramin? More 1998 Cracidae Animalia: Chordata: Aves family basic type? Klemm 1993 Crotalus/Sistrurus Animalia: Chordata: Reptilia multiple genera monobaramin Hennigan 2005 Diadophis Animalia: Chordata: Reptilia genus monobaramin Hennigan 2005 Cavanaugh et al. 2003; Stein-Ca- Equidae Animalia: Chordata: Mammalia family monobaramin denbach 1993 Estrildidae Animalia: Chordata: Aves family basic type Fehrer 1993 Falconidae Animalia: Chordata: Aves family basic type Zimbelmann 1993 Robinson and Cavanaugh Felidae Animalia: Chordata: Mammalia family holobaramin 1998b Flaveriinae Plantae: Anthophyta subtribe monobaramin Wood and Cavanaugh 2001 Funariaceae Plantae: Bryophyta family basic type Adler 1993 Geeae Plantae: Anthophyta family basic type Junker 1993a Geospizinae Animalia: Chordata: Aves subfamily monobaramin Lammerts 1966; Wood 2005a Gopherus Animalia: Chordata: Reptilia genus monobaramin Robinson 1997 Gorillinae Animalia: Chordata: Mammalia subfamily basic type? Hartwig-Scherer 1998 Heliantheae Plantae: Anthophyta tribe monobaramin Cavanaugh and Wood 2002 Volume 43, December 2006 153

Table 1, continued

Homininae Animalia: Chordata: Mammalia subfamily basic type? Hartwig-Scherer 1998 Iguanidae Animalia: Chordata: Reptilia family holobaramin Wood 2005a Maloideae Plantae: Anthophyta subfamily basic type Kutzelnigg 1993b Megapodiidae Animalia: Chordata: Aves family basic type? Klemm 1993 Morelia/Liasis Animalia: Chordata: Reptilia multiple genera monobaramin Hennigan 2005 Mysticeti Animalia: Chordata: Mammalia suborder holobaramin Mace and Wood 2005 Nerodia Animalia: Chordata: Reptilia genus monobaramin Hennigan 2005 multiple Other cryptodires Animalia: Chordata: Reptilia holobaramin Wood 2005a families multiple Other Odontocetes Animalia: Chordata: Mammalia holobaramin Mace and Wood 2005 families Pantherophis/Lam- Animalia: Chordata: Reptilia multiple genera monobaramin Hennigan 2005 propeltis/Pituophis Pelomedusidae Animalia: Chordata: Reptilia family holobaramin Wood 2005a Phasianidae Animalia: Chordata: Aves family basic type Klemm 1993 Physeteroidea Animalia: Chordata: Mammalia superfamily holobaramin Mace and Wood 2005 Pleurodira Animalia: Chordata: Reptilia suborder apobaramin Wise 1992; Wood 2005a Poaceae Plantae: Anthophyta family holobaramin Wood 2002a; Wood 2005b Ponginae Animalia: Chordata: Mammalia subfamily basic type? Hartwig-Scherer 1998 Proganochelidae Animalia: Chordata: Reptilia family holobaramin Wood 2005a Psittacidae Animalia: Chordata: Aves family monobaramin Jones and Mackey 1981 Python Animalia: Chordata: Reptilia genus monobaramin Hennigan 2005 Schistosomatidae Animalia: Nematoda family apobaramin Mace et al. 2003 Schistosome 1 Animalia: Nematoda multiple species monobaramin Mace et al. 2003 Schistosome 2 Animalia: Nematoda multiple species monobaramin Mace et al. 2003 Solanaceae Plantae: Anthophyta family monobaramin Wise 2005 Spheniscidae Animalia: Chordata: Aves family holobaramin Wood 2005a Wise 1992; Robinson 1997; Testudines Animalia: Chordata: Reptilia order apobaramin Wood 2005a Thamnophis Animalia: Chordata: Reptilia genus monobaramin Hennigan 2005 Trionychoidea Animalia: Chordata: Reptilia superfamily holobaramin Wood 2005a Triticeae Plantae: Anthophyta tribe basic type Junker 1993b Tropidurinae Animalia: Chordata: Reptilia subfamily monobaramin Wood 2005a Ursidae Animalia: Chordata: Mammalia family monobaramin Tyler 1997 Ziphiidae Animalia: Chordata: Mammalia family holobaramin Mace and Wood 2005

1I have separately designated basic types, but the reader should be aware that a basic type is defined on hybridization and is therefore equivalent to a monobaramin. Question marks (?) indicate uncertainty of the baraminic assignment on the part of the original author of the study. 2It is anachronistic to refer to studies published prior to 1990 as “baraminology,” but since most of these studies utilize hybridization (or morphological similarity as in the case of Lammerts 1966), they can be updated to the modern nomenclature without altering their methods or basic conclusions. 154 Creation Research Society Quarterly by creationists (Woodmorappe, 1996; taxa only from the taxonomic rank of crocoracidae, and Curculionidae. The Jones, 2002), and Wood and Murray tribe (or multiple tribes). Six datasets Sulidae (boobies and gannets) and (2003) recommend using the family as include taxa from the rank of family and Phalacrocoracidae (cormorants and a starting point for baraminology. These at least one extra-familial outgroup. One shags) exhibited signs of a peculiarly ideas and suggestions may have biased dataset (Equidae) is a single family with regular geometry when the 3D MDS the search for baramins. no outgroup. Two datasets include more coordinates were viewed (Wood 2005a). Using a more restricted sample of than one family. Of the four datasets The sulids formed a nearly perfect tet- 11 groups, Wood (2005a) examined the that include no extra-familial outgroup, rahedron, with each of the four genera utility of baraminic distance correlation none were interpreted to show evidence at one of the vertices, and the phalacro- and MDS. Here, I expand the sample by of discontinuity. Of the remaining eight coracids also formed a tetrahedral shape adding the results of Mace and Wood=s datasets, five were interpreted as showing with the outgroup taxon in the center (2005) analysis of extant cetaceans. discontinuities, and three were inconclu- of the tetrahedron. Clouds of taxa are These twelve datasets (Table 2) have sive. Even though this is a very limited commonly seen in MDS and ANOPA, been studied using both baraminic dis- sample, the results of the survey suggest but regular shapes are not. Lines of taxa tance and MDS. The sample is at least that Price (1924; 1938) may have been have been interpreted as evidence of as biased as the full set of studies (Table correct, in that discontinuity is not found continuity (e.g. Wood and Cavanaugh, 1), but it has the advantage of the same below the rank of family. 2003), but the correct interpretation of baraminological methods used in each The three datasets considered in- more complex structures is not apparent. case. Three of the datasets included conclusive were the Sulidae, Phala- The last inconclusive dataset was the

Table 2. Summary of Datasets Analyzed by Baraminic Distance Correlation and Multidimensional Scaling.

Characters after Relevance Relevance Nonfamilial Dataset Rank Taxa Cutoff Filtering Outgroup Discontinuity Reference Astereae tribe 25 0.95 23 no no Wood 2005a Tropidurus tribe 27 0.95 66 no no Wood 2005a Cavanaugh Heliantheae s.l. tribe 98 0.95 139 no no and Wood 2002 genus/ Phalacrocoracidae 35 0.95 136 yes ? Wood 2005a family Sulidae family 10 0.95 109 yes ? Wood 2005a Curculionidae family 103 0.95 106 yes ? Wood 2005a Cavanaugh Equidae family 19 0.95 33 no no et al. 2003; Wood 2005b Wood 2002a, Poaceae family 66 0.95 32 yes yes 2005b Spheniscidae family 30 0.95 33 yes yes Wood 2005a family/ Iguanidae 35 0.9 57 yes yes Wood 2005a order Testudines order 30 0.9 93 yes yes Wood 2005a Mace and Cetacea order 72 0.95 121 yes yes Wood 2005 Volume 43, December 2006 155 weevil family Curculionidae (Wood, relation and MDS (Table 2), which Related to accepting Atoo much 2005a). Wood (2005a) found surpris- seem to reveal a consistent pattern of evolution@ is the objection that there ingly low baraminic distances among the discontinuity around the rank of family. is no mechanism capable of producing curculionids (average of 0.1). Baraminic If discontinuity were arbitrarily assigned, intrabaraminic diversity in the short distance correlation showed that all taxa we might expect more examples of chronology (<6000 years) implied by the were connected by significant, positive inconclusive datasets, or datasets that Bible. I agree completely (Wood, 2002b; correlation, but there was no evidence reveal discontinuity within families. Wood and Murray, 2003), but I do not of significant, negative correlation defin- While it is possible that future research believe that this is a legitimate argument ing a group. will find that baraminological methods against baraminology. Demanding a are not consistent, the present evidence mechanism seems to be a prerequisite does not warrant that conclusion. for acceptance among scientists, but it Criticisms of Baraminology Evolutionists and fellow creationists is not always necessary or even prudent. As I discuss and present baraminol- have sometimes complained that the Consider the preformation/epigenesis ogy, a variety of questions, objections, terminology is confusing or unneces- debate. In the eighteenth century, when and criticisms arise, often repeatedly. sary. It is hard for me to appreciate this the formal study of embryonic develop- Some of these criticisms have not been objection when baraminologists use ment began, many scientists took the published, but some have. Some come only three special terms (apobaramin, position (called Apreformation@) that from evolutionists and some from fellow holobaramin, and monobaramin). Al- the embryo was merely a miniature creationists. Although it is not my habit though additional terminology has been adult that mechanically unfolded during to respond publicly to most critics, this proposed (e.g. archaebaramin, potenti- development. The epigeneticists argued review seems an appropriate opportunity ality region) (Wise, 1992; Wood et al., that development was too complex to to discuss a few of these critiques for the 2003), these terms have limited use and be merely the unfolding of preexisting sake of those who might be interested in are not common in the baraminology structures, but they had no mechanism my response. literature. Furthermore, apobaramin, to propose instead. The preformationists Often baraminology is dismissed as holobaramin, and monobaramin have argued on the basis of the well-known the anti-evolution argument Athis struc- meaning and utility only to creationists. mechanism of Newtonian mechanics, ture is too complex to evolve@ repack- Because evolutionists do not recognize but the epigeneticists held out for an aged in formal terminology. While I am discontinuity (or minimize it when they unknown mechanism. Now we know of the opinion that holobaramins had do), their terminology is not adaptable that those who limited themselves to separate origins by God=s direct creation, to baraminology. Ultimately, history will the known mechanisms of the day were I personally do not use baraminology to decide the value of the baraminological wrong, and even 250 years later, we still argue that an organism or group of or- terms, but in the meantime, the few do not fully understand how embryonic ganisms could not have evolved. Rather, special terms provide a convenient and development works. I take from this I interpret holobaramins as separate precise way to describe the results of history the lesson that mechanism is creations of God. It is possible that a baraminological research. perhaps not as important as what the macroevolutionary theory could be Some creationists have tried to evidence actually indicates. devised to account for the discontinuity reprove me for accepting too much Williams (2004) claimed that statisti- between holobaramins. It is also possible evolution. To this I can only respond cal baraminological methods were taken that baraminology could become a Atoo- with the results of my research. I have from Aevolutionary biology@ without complex-to-evolve@ argument if used as no preconceived notion of how much reference. While it is true that Under- an apologetic rather than as a technique evolution could or could not occur. standing the Pattern of Life does not cite to understand organisms. In fact, when I began baraminology secular literature for certain statistical Another argument repeatedly made research, I expected to find very narrow measures, Robinson and Cavanaugh against baraminology is that it limits baramins, at most a few genera in each. (1998a, 1998b), who are repeatedly evolution with arbitrary criteria and at I could not find evidence to support that referenced in Understanding the Pattern arbitrary classification ranks. Statistical view, so I changed my position. If future of Life, do reference the sources of their methods developed for baraminology work showed discontinuity at the level of phenetic methods where appropriate. would render this objection invalid. genus or even species, I would accept that Other statistical baraminology methods The success of statistical methods is result also. On the other hand, if I found were not taken from existing literature. especially apparent when examining continuity between different mammalian For example, ANOPA is a novel method the results of baraminic distance cor- orders, I would accept that result. developed by David Cavanaugh. His 156 Creation Research Society Quarterly procedure is phenetic, but it is a new by baraminological techniques. Other niently analyze groups of organisms. In method developed by a baraminologist projects must focus on analyzing ad- the meantime, those interested in the for baraminology. ditional datasets to expand the pool of work of baraminology can attend the Williams (2004) stated that increas- baraminological studies that can be annual conference of the BSG: A Cre- ing the number of characters in a sample evaluated. Projects on fossil and extant ation Biology Study Group (http://www. will not improve the estimate of the true cetaceans, Hyracotherium, snakes, and bryancore.org/bsg). This is a fine op- taxonomic distance. I agree in principle chickens have already been initiated. portunity to meet with others interested that merely adding additional charac- Since there are so few baraminological in baraminology and to hear about the ters will not necessarily improve the studies published (Table 1), the field is latest research results. estimated distances. I believe that this wide open for future contributions. We have come far since Frank Marsh is not an intrinsic problem with barami- As we expand the number of groups first coined the term baramin from the nology methods, but rather a problem studied by baraminology, we should Hebrew for Acreate@ and Akind.@ Much of of character selection. Williams (2004) also get a better idea of what baramins what Marsh proposed has been modified also claimed that not all characters carry are and how many species they contain. now, but the current form of baraminol- the same information, but applying this Currently, it seems as if Price (1924; ogy provides many new opportunities principle could easily introduce bias 1938) was right that baramins can be for growth and development. As we into the baraminology analysis. When approximated by the rank of family, but continue to work in this field, hopefully we consider the strange results of the this needs far more examples before we we will come to know the Creator better Sulidae and Phalacrocoracidae (Wood, can be sure. As more studies become as we discover His creation. 2005a), we should be even more cau- available, we can validate or invalidate tious about accepting character sets Price=s idea, and we should get a better of Ainformative@ characters. Character perception of the capacity for variation References selection should be a high priority in within baramins. CRSQ: Creation Research Society Quar- future baraminology research. Most lay creationists are interested terly Woetzel (2005) insisted that the ob- not in baramins of grasses or ducks but Adler M. 1993. Merkmalsausbildung jective of baraminology was to identify in the more well-known Atransitional und Hybridisierung bei Funariaceen the descendants of the created kinds. forms.@ Whereas I do not believe we (Bryophyta, Musci). In Scherer, S. As I have argued here, his position is should orient our research priorities ac- (editor), Typen des Lebens, pp. 67–70. technically untenable. The Bible does cording to the demands of laypersons or Pascal-Verlag, Berlin, Germany. not teach the reproductive isolation of perceived political needs, intermediate Cavanaugh, D.P., and R.V. Sternberg. 2005. min, and there is no objective test for forms are of considerable scientific inter- An ANOPA study of cetacean sister- common ancestry. As a result, baramins est. While some appear to be legitimate group relationships. Occasional Papers cannot be identified by common an- intrabaraminic intermediates, others of the BSG 5:13. cestry, because we cannot know which do not. Cavanaugh et al. (2003) found Cavanaugh, D.P., and T.C. Wood. 2002. A species share a common ancestor. The evidence that the fossil horse series is a baraminological analysis of the tribe He- refined baramin concept overcomes this monobaramin, which they interpreted liantheae sensu lato (Asteraceae) using methodological problem by removing as post-Flood intrabaraminic diversifica- Analysis of Pattern (ANOPA). Occasional the inference of ancestry from the iden- tion. Initial results with the archaeocetes Papers of the BSG 1:1–11. tification of baramins. (Cavanaugh and Sternberg, 2005; Mace Cavanaugh, D.P., T.C. Wood, and K.P. Wise. and Wood, 2005), which are thought 2003. Fossil Equidae: a monobaraminic, to be intermediate between modern stratomorphic series. In Ivey, R.L. The Future of Baraminology cetaceans and land mammals, suggest (editor), Proceedings of the Fifth Inter- As Williams (2004) noted, character instead that they are discontinuous national Conference on Creationism, pp. selection was a serious problem for with both groups. More studies of mor- 143–153. Creation Science Fellowship, phenetics. I have already found this phological intermediate groups such as Pittsburgh, PA. problem in baraminology in the analysis these will help us to interpret them in a Clark, H.W. 1939. Genesis and science 5. of sulids, phalacrocoracids, and curcu- creationist context. Each Aafter his kind.@ Signs of the Times lionids (Wood, 2005a). Future research Most important to the future of 66 (45):6–7. projects need to address this issue. Some baraminology is training, which will Clark, H.W. 1940. Genes and Genesis. Pacific of these future projects will involve require the development of software Press, Mountain View, CA. studying the datasets already analyzed that enable baraminologists to conve- Cox, T.F., and M.A.A. Cox. 1994. Multidi- Volume 43, December 2006 157

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Freeman and Company, San Francisco, Wise, K.P. 1992. Practical baraminology. Flaveriinae (Asteraceae) and the origin of CA. Creation Ex Nihilo Technical Journal biological complexity. Origins 52:7–27. Stein-Cadenbach, H. 1993. Hybriden, Chro- 6:122-137. Wood, T.C., and D.P. Cavanaugh. 2003. An mosomen und Artbildung bei Pferden Wise, K.P. 2005. Interspecifi c hybrids in the evaluation of lineages and trajectories as (Equidae). In Scherer, S. (editor), Typen Solanaceae. Occasional Papers of the baraminological membership criteria. des Lebens, pp. 225–244. Pascal-Verlag, BSG 5:17–18. Occasional Papers of the BSG 2:1–6. Berlin, Germany. Woetzel, D. 2005. Book review: Under- Wood, T.C., and M.J. Murray. 2003. Under- Tyler, D.J. 1997. Adaptations within the standing the Pattern of Life. CRSQ standing the Pattern of Life. Broadman bear family: a contribution to the debate 42(1):28–30. & Holman, Nashville, TN. about the limits of variation. Creation Wood, T.C. 2002a. A baraminology tutorial Wood, T.C., P.J. Williams, K.P. Wise, and Matters 2:1-4. with examples from the grasses (Poa- D.A. Robinson. 1999. Summaries on Whitney, D.J. February, 1928. Errors of fun- ceae). TJ 16(1):15–25. camel baraminology. In Robinson, D.A. damentalist science. The King’s Business, Wood, T.C. 2002b. The AGEing process: and P.J. Williams (editors), Baraminology pp. 82–83. rapid post-Flood, intrabaraminic diver- ‘99: Creation Biology for the 21st Century, Williams, A. 2004. Baraminology, biology sifi cation caused by Altruistic Genetic pp. 9–18. Baraminology Study Group. and the Bible. TJ 18(2):53–54. Elements (AGEs). Origins 54:5–34. Wood, T.C., K.P. Wise, R. Sanders, and N. Williams, A. 2005. Alex Williams replies. Wood, T.C. 2005a. A creationist review of the Doran. 2003. A refi ned baramin concept. TJ 19(3):65. history, geology, climate, and biology of Occasional Papers of the BSG 3:1–14. Wise, K.P. 1990. Baraminology: A young-earth the Galápagos Islands. CORE Issues in Woodmorappe, J. 1996. Noah’s Ark: A creation biosystematic method. In Creation 1:1–241. Feasibility Study. Institute for Creation Walsh, R.E., and C.L. Brooks (editors), Wood, T.C. 2005b. Visualizing baraminic Research, Santee, CA. Proceedings of the Second International distances using classical multidimen- Zimbelmann, F. 1993. Grundtypen bei Grei- Conference on Creationism, Vol. II, pp. sional scaling. Origins 57:9–29. fvögeln (Falconiformes). In Scherer, S. 345–360. Creation Science Fellowship, Wood, T.C., and D.P. Cavanaugh. 2001. (editor), Typen des Lebens, pp. 185–195. Pittsburgh, PA. A baraminological analysis of subtribe Pascal-Verlag, Berlin, Germany.

Book Review Buried Alive, The Startling Truth about Neanderthal Man by Jack Cuozzo Master Books, Green Forest, AR, 1998, 349 pp., $12.00. �������� �������� ������������

Jack Cuozzo is an orthodontist who study of ancient man, and was amazed him was the inaccuracy of the textbook made a comparative study of ancient at what he discovered.Using a portable descriptions and museum displays of and modern child orthodontic develop- x-ray machine the author was able to these fossils. Most were inaccurate and ment. He was encouraged by a colleague make precise measurements of several some were downright fraudulent. He to examine the original fossils, not just Neanderthal skulls which are housed concludes that they had all been manip- the descriptions in textbooks for the in the museums of Europe. What struck ulated to appear ape-like and relatively Volume 43, December 2006 159 young at the time of death. The com- Evidence for slower growth rates in Neanderthals were buried alive. Cuozzo mon description of Neanderthal men is the past is presented. Johann S. Bach believes that Neanderthals lived during that they were a primitive form of man, had a boys’ choir back in the mid 1700s the period immediately following the heavily built, and living a fairly short life with 16-year-olds who had not experi- Flood and that humans have degener- span, 40–130 thousand years ago. enced a voice change. Cuozzo has a ated genetically since then. The Bible Cuozzo’s experience in orthodontics reference that claims the average age of gives a record of long life spans before told him that over time a human skull voice change in Bach’s generation was the flood and progressively decreasing will change in measurable ways, even 17 years. He goes on to say that the aver- ages after. Noah, the last generation after reaching adulthood. Throughout age age today is 13.5 years. Girls today before the Flood, lived 950 years, 600 a person’s lifetime the skull gets larger, are also maturing at a faster rate than in of them before the Flood. His son Shem mostly in length, some in width, and the past based on the age of their first was 100 at the time of the Flood and little in height. The nose and face get menstrual period. One other piece of lived to be 600. Joseph, son of Jacob, larger, and the teeth and jaws move. information indicating slower rates of died at the age of 110. The jaw rotates counter-clockwise when growth in the past is skull measurements Cuozzo also touches on the subject viewing the head from the right side. All of bodies in old graves. The markings of dinosaurs and men living together. of these changes are measurable and reveal older ages than the measurements The book includes a photograph of what studies have been done to determine the indicate, assuming modern growth appears to be a confrontation between rate and extent to which they occur. The rates. a mammoth and a dinosaur carved on rate of change is greatest while a child Evidence is given that Neanderthals the wall of a cave. The author concludes is growing into an adult, with growth lived more recently than is generally that the evidence shows Neanderthals spurts at particular times. The changes believed. Their remains are often found were humans who lived several thousand continue for the lifetime of a person, intentionally buried in graves, usually years B.C., who matured slowly, and although at a slower rate in adulthood. in caves. Artifacts are buried with them lived to great ages. He believes that this The growth rates for apes are about twice indicating that Neanderthals were hu- confirms the record of pre- and post- those of humans. man. Some Neanderthal bones have Flood life spans. What Cuozzo found was that the Ne- been found covered with red ochre and The book is well written and is tech- anderthal child skulls appeared in many with jasper stones placed nearby. This is nical, especially with regard to tooth and ways to be less developed than modern similar to an ancient Sumerian practice skull measurement. It is very relevant to children’s skulls. Also, the sizes of the of the period 2000 B.C. Neanderthals the debate between creation and evolu- skulls of the Neanderthals were larger. are typically assumed by modern archae- tion and shows just how far evolutionists The Neanderthal adult skulls appeared ologists to have lived 40-130 thousand will go to bury the truth when it does to be more developed than modern adult years B.C. not fit personal prejudices. I highly skulls. They were larger and appeared The revealing of the new evidence recommend it to anyone interested in to have gone through more growth and by Dr. Cuozzo caused him some per- the subject. the teeth had more wear. The question secution. The title of the book Buried is, did the Neanderthal people grow Alive refers to the evidence, formerly Eric Bermingham faster than modern people, or did they buried in the museums of Europe which Cincinatti, OH live longer? he uncovered. It does not suggest that 160 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Did Death Occur Before the Fall? A Further Critique of the Progressive Creationism of Hugh Ross

Jonathan Henry*

Abstract r. Hugh Ross is presently a key advocate of what is called “progressive Dcreationism.” In a previous paper (Henry, 2006) I challenged nine claims of the progressive creationists (PCists) by which they have attempted to estab- lish (1) that cosmic and biological development have occurred by means of evolution, with or without Divine intervention, and (2) that the universe and earth are very old. PCists make additional claims that further imply evolution occurring over vast ages. I focus here on their belief that Genesis chapter 1 is poetic, not historical. They also maintain that death occurred before the Fall of man (Gen. 3). PCists try to buttress their claim of pre-Fall death with several corollary claims that will also be discussed.

Introduction pre-Fall world would quickly overpopu- thing of the past” (Gibson, 1981, pp. 2, If Genesis 1 is not actual history, then late, a scenario requiring death for its 10). Gibson (1981) expressed the belief perhaps the real history of origins is prevention. that the controversy is waning because evolutionary. An evolutionary history There must be very few who would requires eons of death and extinction. today seriously contend that the An absence of pre-Fall death disallows PCists Relegate Genesis 1 world came into being in six days this possibility, so progressive creation- to Figurative, Allegorical, ... We are admitting that science ists (PCists) must have death occurring and Poetic Status is the proper source to turn to for before the Fall in order to defend their Liberal Bible scholars have long main- factual knowledge about the physi- long age theory of origins. tained that “Genesis is essentially a folk cal origin and nature of the universe The “death before the Fall” position literature” and that Genesis 1–11 con- ... Genesis 1–11 (and a number of of PCists implies a number of corollar- sists of “imaginative stories” that must be other passages dealing with the same ies, which include the following: (1) understood as “parables” (Gibson, 1981, subject of creation) [are not] based that the pre-Fall world was harsh and pp. 2, 11). Though “these chapters have on things that actually happened” cruel; (2) that digestion of plants and always been in the centre of controversy (pp. 9, 11, 13). bacterial decay are processes involving about the Bible ... [t]he old bitter con- Aware that the controversy is not “death”; (3) that carnivorism occurred troversy between science and religion is in fact waning, Dr. Ross has fueled it before the Fall; and (4) that a death-free ... hopefully on the way to becoming a by using loaded words describing the debate as a “hurricane” that is “cur- rently raging,” causing “division and * Jonathan Henry, Ph.D., Clearwater Christian College, 3400 Gulf-to-Bay Blvd., hostility” (Ross, 2004, pp. 15, 67, 71). Clearwater, FL 33759, (727) 446-0141, [email protected] He acknowledged Gallup polls that Accepted for publication: August 7, 2006 since 1982 have consistently revealed Volume 43, December 2006 161 that about half the American public 1 did not “actually” happen as it was writ- ing” and “God saw that it was good” believed in “a 10,000-year-old creation ten (Gibson, 1981, p. 13). Ross (1994) each appear five times, “but repetition date” (Ross, 2004, pp. 34–35). Ross as- claimed that he is not taking Genesis 1 is not a necessary component of Hebrew serted that “for six days (the fossil record to be “figurative” (p. 60), but this claim poetry. Repetition is actually more of a eras) God created new life forms” and is obviously hollow. He presented God characteristic of Biblical Hebrew prose” that “the theological underpinnings of a as speaking in the language of appear- (Shackleford et al., p. 303), but is some- young-earth creation scenario are unten- ances, “anthropomorphically,” to an times confused with parallelism. Instead, able” (Ross, 2004, pp. 82, 119). He has ancient people ignorant of the teach- “if Genesis were truly poetic, it would expressed regret that there are churches ings of modern science (Ross, 2004, p. use parallelisms throughout,” but it does and schools that allow “only one position 159). But genuine anthropomorphisms not (Sarfati, 2004, p. 95). Thus Genesis on the creation-day controversy” (Ross, involve a body motion or body part 1 is written in a prose or narrative style 2004, p. 68). Ross describes himself as picturing God’s senses or actions, and that presents “a positive record of things being in the “conservative evangelical” “never take the form of anything like a as they actually transpired” (Leupold, camp and has expressed the desire to weekday” (Kulikovsky, 2002, p. 40; see 1949, p. 25; see also Kulikovsky, 2001, see the controversy “graciously quelled” also Young, 1964, p. 58). p. 242). Other Scriptures, including the with a “peaceful resolution” (Ross, 2004, Even if Genesis 1 were poetry, “in the words of Jesus Himself, cite Genesis 1 as pp. 135, 239, 247). He stated, however, ancient world, devoid of printing, with- history (e.g., Exod. 20:9–11; 31:17; Ps. that such resolution would involve an out paper for note-taking or on which to 8; 104; Matt. 19:4–6, Luke 3:38, Heb. acceptance of evolutionary interpreta- type lectures, the trained memory was of 4:4; 2 Peter 3:5). tions of scientific data (Ross, 2004, pp. vital importance” (Yates, 1966, p. 4). A If the only purpose of Genesis 1 had 49, 213) as enunciated by “evangelical poetic syntax was an aid to memorizing been to teach who created, then the theologians” who are “esteemed” and concrete content. Archeologist W. F. first verse would be sufficient (Davis, “distinguished” scholars (Ross, 2004, Albright (1957) emphasized that “the 1975, pp. 74–75). Summing up, Kaiser pp. 242, 243, 244). Such a “resolution” verse form is much better adapted for (1980) said, “It is often wrongly stated would position the Bible in a place of oral transmission than is any kind of that Genesis 1 tells us who created the non-authority (Ross, 2004, pp. 57, 62, prose. The ease with which children universe but not how it was done—an 88). Ross’s publisher, NavPress (Nav- learn poetry is well known; lists and obvious slighting of the phrase repeated Press 1995, p. 2), has called for a similar recipes were formerly put into verse for ten times, ‘and God said’ “ (p. 147). “resolution” by appealing to Christians mnemotechnic purposes” (p. 66). A po- Genesis 1 is historical and is not an- to heed the “many evangelicals on the etic syntax in Genesis 1 would still mean thropomorphic, allegorical, figurative, faculties of institutions in the Christian that it conveyed the factual information or poetic. It tells us the time period God College Coalition and among the mem- intended by the context of its words. used to create. bership of the American Scientific Affili- But Genesis 1 is not actually poetry ation.” The difficulty with this appeal is at all. The first poetic passage in Scrip- not with the character or qualifications ture is Genesis 4:23, sometimes called PCists Claim That There of any of the men and women in these “The Song of the Sword” (Pfeiffer, 1958, Was Death Before the Fall organizations, but with the total absence p. 27; and Sarfati, 2004, p. 95). Echo- Ross (2004) expressed the belief that the of any reference to what the Bible has ing Aalders, an early opponent of the “3.8 billion years of plant and animal to say. framework hypothesis, Surburg (1959) death and extinction that preceded hu- By failing to acknowledge the Bible’s asks, “Would the account of Gen. 1 lead manity” require that death preceded the authority over human interpretations of the ordinary reader to suspect that the Fall (p. 103). He recognized that “God scientific data, Ross arrived at the liber- order of created events recorded were could have done things differently” als’ position of forcing Genesis 1 into [sic] not historical?” (p. 64). Also echo- by creating a death-free pre-Fall world a straitjacket of human reasoning. He ing Aalders, Young (1964), answered (Ross, 1994, pp. 63–64), but concludes has allegorized the Creation days and that in Genesis 1, “there is not a single that the fossil record negates this possibil- rendered Genesis 1 as little more than allusion to suggest that the days are to ity. Among creationists, Anderson (1992) poetry that deals “most strongly [with] be regarded as a form or mere manner also noted the linkage between the long the who of creation” (Ross, 2004, p. 18). of representation” (p. 47). Neither does ages of evolution and the requirement Ross has echoed the position of frame- the inclusion of repetitive phrases in of pre-Fall death. Nevertheless, Ross’s work theorist B.K. Waltke (1988), and Genesis 1 make it poetry. In the KJV, publisher, NavPress, has insisted that the liberal position that Genesis chapter the phrases “the evening and the morn- Ross’s views do not “support ... the theory 162 Creation Research Society Quarterly of evolution” (NavPress, 1995, p. 1). But death entered the world with the curse nonabsolute meaning elsewhere in the Davidheiser (1993) has observed that pronounced in Genesis 3:17–19. When Bible, is irrelevant to the meaning of tov “progressive creationists accept the time “Jesus wept” at the death of Lazarus and tov me’od in Genesis 1. [scale] of the evolutionists,” (p. 14) and (John 11:35), He responded to death as The curse itself (Gen. 3:19) brought it has long been observed that a long an evil, not as a good thing. physical consequences (“sweat,” imply- time scale is the crucial requirement for Since Ross faced a need for billions ing arduous physical labor) and physi- evolution (e.g., Oparin, 1938). In sum, of years of death and extinction to ac- cal death (“to dust you shall return”), even if the PCist position is described as commodate the conventional interpre- not just spiritual death. After Adam’s non-evolutionary, the fact remains that tation of the fossil record, he claimed sin, access to the Tree of Life, which the requirement of pre-Fall death is an that the words “good” (Hebrew tov) and prevented physical death, was banned evolutionary requirement. “very good” (tov me’od) in Genesis 1 do (Gen. 3:22). The ghastly aspect of slaughter- not signify a death-free pre-Fall world Ross argues that New Testament houses and the somber atmosphere of unlike the present one (Ross, 2004, p. verses linking death and the Fall refer funerals have demonstrated through the 104). In passages after Genesis 1 (e.g., only to human spiritual death, thereby ages the terror of the sin that brought Gen. 24:16; Num. 14:7; Judg. 18:9; 2 allowing billions of years of physical death into the physical creation. Martyn Sam. 11:2; 1 Kings 1:6; Jer. 24:2–3), death and extinction in the putative Lloyd-Jones (1966) once observed, me’od tov signifies superlative beauty pre-Adamic world. This would have in- Many people seem to think that the or wonder, but not absolute perfection. cluded the death of “pre-human primate sole theme of the Bible is that of It is an “unwarranted expansion of an species” such as Neanderthal man (Ross, man’s personal relationship to God. expanded semantic field” (Carson, 1996, 2004, p. 225). According to Ross (1994), Of course that is one of the central p. 60), however, to insist on this meaning “‘Death through sin’ is not equivalent to themes [but not] the only theme. ... of nonabsolute perfection for me’od tov physical death” (p. 60). Echoing Ross, Ultimately the main message of the in Genesis 1. The fivefold description of Fischer (2003) claimed that “the Bible Bible concerns the condition of the God’s creation as “good,” and after the tells us ... who or what is affected by entire world and its destiny; you and sixth day as “very good,” shows that there Adam’s sin—humans, not animals” (p. I as individuals are part of that larger was yet no evil in the world. “By the ap- 225). To strengthen this case, Ross links whole. (p. 9.) plication of the term ‘good’ to everything Romans 5:12 with 1 Corinthians 15:21, Ross (2004) ignored this logic by that God made, and the repetition of the maintaining that these verses “also must insisting that the entrance of physical word with the emphasis ‘very’ at the close refer to spiritual death rather than to death into the creation at the Fall is un- of the whole creation, the existence of physical death” (Ross, 1994, p. 61). Sar- related to the need for redemption. The anything evil in the creation of God is fati (2004) comments, “This is amazing, physical suffering of Christ on the cross, absolutely denied” (Keil and Delitzsch, since the whole of 1 Corinthians 15 is however, shows that there is a relation. 1949, p. 67). Physical death did not exist about the bodily (physical) resurrection The shedding of His blood was necessary before the Fall. of Christ, who was physically dead” (p. for the remission of sins (Heb. 9:22), but PCists try to justify the nonperfection 202). He also allowed Himself to be abused interpretation of me’od tov in Genesis 1 Ross also argues that the phrase “the and tortured, thus showing that the Fall by pointing to uses of the Hebrew word whole creation” (Greek pasahe ktisis) was physical as well as spiritual. tamim elsewhere in the Bible. Tamim, in Romans 8:22 means only humans translated “perfect” or “without blem- (Ross, 1994, p. 65); thus only mankind ish,” is used in Genesis 6:9 to describe was affected by the Curse. Arndt and Death Is Evil and Did Not the “completeness and moral integrity, Gingrich (1957), however, state that Exist Before the Fall not sinless perfection,” of Noah, a fallen ktisis also signifies “the whole creation Paul calls death “the last enemy” in 1 man. The related Hebrew word tam is below the human level ... animate and Corinthians 15:26. Death before the used of Job, also a fallen man (Sarfati, inanimate,” (p. 457) with which Hodge Fall would mean that “the ‘last enemy’ 2004, p. 196). Thus in Genesis 1 me’od (1864, pp. 269–270), who believed in a was part of God’s ‘very good’ creation,” tov must not imply absolute perfection vast earth age, concurred. To Foerster which would be a logical absurdity either, according to PCists. But neither (1965), ktisis is “the whole of creation” (Sarfati, 2004, p. 201). Revelation 21:4 ta’am nor tam is suitable in Genesis (p. 1031). Thus all the creation was says that the new creation will have no 1, which describes a world into which cursed, along with man who was cursed more death, because there is “no more evil had not yet entered. Thus the lack spiritually and physically. There was no curse” (Rev. 22:3). This shows that of these words in Genesis 1, and their evil in the world until Eve and Adam’s Volume 43, December 2006 163 sin, so physical death, which is evil, did fact introduce a harshness to labor not and 2:15 do not imply a harsh, cruel not exist before the Fall, and entered the existing before the Fall, but Ross also pre-Fall world with physical death. The world because of the Fall. erroneously references Genesis 2:15 as Fall and Curse “introduced ... the inevi- indicating man would work harder after tability of disease and death” (Schragin, the Fall. This verse is about pre-Fall life 2004, p. 186). PCists Claim That and says nothing at all about the intensity the Pre-Fall World of his work—hard or easy: Was Harsh and Cruel And the Lord God took the man, and PCists Equate Digestion Ross (2004) states, “In Genesis 3:16, put him into the garden of Eden to of Plants and Bacterial God says to Eve, ‘I will greatly increase dress it and keep it. Decay with Death ... your pains in childbearing.’ He does Finally, Genesis 1:28 also has been Ross (2004) claims that before the Fall, not say ‘introduce’; He says ‘increase’ or used as supposed evidence that the “plants or plant parts” and plankton died ‘multiply,’ implying that pain already pre-Fall world was physically harsh and as other creatures ate them, and that existed” (p. 108). Thus, he argues that cruel, leaving the Curse without effect insects and other small invertebrates as since physical pain existed in the pre-Fall except spiritually in mankind. This ar- well as various one-cell organisms died world, the Curse did not introduce pain, gument centers on the words “subdue” as they were “stepped on and crushed” and by implication, physical death was (Hebrew kabash) and “dominion” (ra- by larger creatures or killed by “Snow, not introduced then either. According to dah). Whether kabash signifies construc- hail, rain, heat, wind, and waves” (pp. Ross, the only change the Curse brought tive or destructive control depends on 98–99). According to Ross (1994), “the about was human spiritual death. context. In Micah 7:19, God “subdues” mere digestion of food by animals re- Even in the initial sinless state of the our sins, a compassionate control. This quires death of at least plants or plant creation, some pain would have been meaning is consistent with the use of parts” (p. 61). good. Pain prevents a person’s losing kabash in Genesis 1:28, even though evil Ross echoed earlier attempts to insert fingers by fire or by handling searing had not entered the world as yet: physical death, and therefore geological hot objects. Lepers lose body parts be- And God blessed them, and God said ages, into Genesis 1. Gap theorist Arthur cause they lack the normal sense of pain unto them, Be fruitful, and multiply, Custance (1971) wrote: (Brand and Yancey, 1980). A sense of and replenish the earth, and sub- One might ask ... whether herbivo- pain can save a person from death. After due it; and have dominion over rous animals ate anything during the President McKinley was shot in 1901, the fish of the sea, and over the days or hours of Adam’s innocence: he developed internal gangrene, but fowl of the air, and over every and if they did, whether they were the absence of pain deluded physicians living thing that moveth upon careful not to eat any microbes ... into believing he was healing almost up the earth. that happened to be on the leaves. Or to the day of his death (Olcott, 1916, pp. Likewise, radah can have a positive or did they not perhaps tread on some 322–323). Thus the existence of some negative connotation. Leviticus 25:43–46 and kill them—ants for instance? ... protective pain in the pre-Fall world is condemns harsh, cruel dominion, but Is it possible indeed for vegetable consistent with the absence of physical 1 Kings 4:24–25 says that Solomon’s matter to be sought and eaten at death at that same time. The presence of dominion brought peace and safety, a all without the death of some life? pre-Fall pain was like the presence of the positive connotation consistent with the Does not the digested leaf die? (pp. Tree of Life (Gen. 2:9; 3:22), “needed sinless context of Genesis 1:28. Ironically, 135–136.) even before men fell” (Akers, 1993, p. those who use Genesis 1:28 to minimize Biblical Hebrew classifies plants 62) to prevent ageing. Furthermore, it the effects of the Curse by saying that apart from animals and humans. Each is entirely possible that pain sensation Adam’s dominion over nature before the human and each animal is a nephesh may not have been as unpleasant before Fall was cruel and harsh, have uninten- chayyah, a “living creature” (Gen. 1:20, the Fall as after. tionally joined ideological forces with 24; 2:7). These were the only creatures Ross (2004) asserts that there was radical environmentalists who blame the God brought to Noah for protection on hard physical labor before the Fall, “Christian” West for the earth’s environ- the Ark (Gen. 6:18–20; 7:7–9, 14–15). again implying that the Fall introduced mental woes (Lewis, 1992, p. 244). Other creatures experience merely a per- only human spiritual death: “Likewise, Evidently some pain existed in the manent cessation of activity, not death in to Adam, God explains that henceforth pre-Fall world, but there was no evil, the sense of animals and humans, and he will work harder (Genesis 2:15; and so we cannot infer the presence of are not said to have died in the Flood 3:17–19)” (p. 108). Genesis 3:19 did in physical death back then. Genesis 1:28 (Gen. 7:21–23). 164 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Similarly, individual cells and mi- natural selection and information loss, are totally carnivorous and are actually croorganisms are not “living creatures.” neither of which is an evolutionary omnivores. Predatory behavior appears Thus neither programmed “cell death” process. to have been superimposed on a more (apoptosis) nor cell destruction by fundamental appetite for herbivorous pathology or decay (necrosis) signifies foods. Wonderly (1977) observes, “Many pre-Fall physical death of animals or hu- PCists Claim That carnivores even now eat large amounts mans. Today’s pathogens have harmless Carnivores Existed of such foods. For example, cats eat variants. The cholera microbe, Vibrio Before the Fall grasshoppers; bears often eat fruit and cholerae, has a variant causing no illness Pre-Fall carnivorous predation would honey; and raccoons eat corn, nuts, and (Merrell et al., 2002), and harmless flu mean that physical death was inflicted other fruits, and even leaves and grasses” variants exist (Freemantle, 2005). Vi- on vertebrates and humans before the (pp. 239–240). Likewise, Rendle-Short ruses, possibly benign initially, become Curse of Genesis 3. Accordingly, Ross (1984) notes, “Many so-called carnivores more virulent as they lose information (2004) has claimed that carnivores can easily live on a purely vegetarian (Wood, 2001). Virulent microbes appear existed from “creation day six” because diet—the domestic dog or cat for ex- to have resulted from natural selection “carnivorous behavior results from the ample. Teeth apparently designed to or by loss of information as conditions laws of thermodynamics, not from sin” tear prey can also be used to tear tough on earth changed after the Curse and (pp. 100, 101). Although thermodynam- vegetable fibre” (p. 147). after the Flood. These processes are not ic laws probably existed in their present Genesis 1:29–30 states that the pre- evolutionary because neither generates form when the creation was “finished” Fall diet included “every green plant,” new information. (Gen. 2:1), there is no thermodynamic but no meat was mentioned. This Ross (2004) presents examples of requirement even today that certain vegetarian diet was supplied by plants biblical passages saying in English that animals be carnivores. The “laws of “upon the face of all the earth,” so the animals are dead or have died (Exod. nature” are nothing more than the pat- pre-Fall absence of carnivorous behavior 17:18–21; 8:13; 10:17; Ps. 105:29; Isa. tern by which the Creator ordains the was worldwide, not just in Eden. These 50:2), but the Hebrew words for “die,” universe normally to operate; before points are so obvious that even Ross “died” and “death” in these verses are the Fall these patterns may have been (2004) admits to a “prohibition on meat mut and mawet, signifying a cessation of somewhat different than afterward. It consumption” for humans until after activity, not death of a nephesh chayyah. is possible “that God withdrew some the Flood (p. 101). Old-earther Dan Furthermore, these passages refer to the of His sustaining power at the Fall. He Wonderly (1977) states, post-Fall world and thus do not signify a still sustains the universe (Col. 1:17) The seemingly ruthless capturing pre-Fall presence of physical death. [but most] of the time He doesn’t of other mammals, and even of hu- Ross (2004) claims that plants when sustain it in the way that ... prevented man beings by carnivores appears harvested or eaten “experience bleeding, the Israelites’ shoes and clothes from to be—and perhaps is—contrary to bruising, scarring, and death” (p. 102). wearing out during the 40 years in the what we believe concerning God’s The implication is that plants also must wilderness (Deut. 29:5). But this special original creation. So we are quite have experienced physical death before case may have been the rule rather than willing to say that the carnivorous the Fall. But this claim is baseless, for the exception” before the Fall (Sarfati, mammals may have begun their plants “have [no] brain to interpret 2004, pp. 213–214). The burning bush ruthless hunting of other animals tissue damage as pain” (Sarfati, 2004, (Exod. 3:2) may have been an additional only after the fall of man. (p. 239.) p. 210). window into the workings of the pre-Fall Even after the Fall, the permitted Plants and other organisms outside world in which fire burned but did not diet for man continued to be vegetarian, the biblical “living creatures” group do consume. as in the “bread” that Adam would eat not die in the sense that animals and God created certain animals with the (Gen. 3:17–19). After the Flood meat people do (Klotz, 1980, p. 203; Van potential for predation on days 5 and 6, eating was permitted: “Every moving Bebber and Taylor, 1994, pp. 44–45; but not predation itself (Vorpahl, 1997; thing that liveth [nephesh chayyah] Berndt, 2003, pp. 85–89). Thus pre- Schragin, 2005). The physiological and shall be meat for you” (Genesis 9:3). Fall digestion or decay of such does anatomical changes, if any, involved in This verse would be meaningless if man not restrict the Fall to effecting spiritual the appearance of carnivorous appetites had been allowed to eat meat before the human death only. Some microbes ben- are unclear (Peterson, 1998; Klevberg, Flood. Before the Flood, however, the eficial in the pre-Fall world evidently 1998). Nevertheless, many animals earth was “filled with violence” (Gen. became virulent as a result of post-Fall remain truly herbivorous today, but few 6:13), perhaps signifying that between Volume 43, December 2006 165 the Fall and Flood some animals had the reasoning runs, in a world without has happened in all countries benefiting become carnivores, and that rebellious death? But the earth is far from being from modern nutritional, hygienic, and humans may have been meat-eaters. overpopulated. It could support up to medical advances. Simon (1996) has In the present, God allows preda- some 50 billion people: “A diet based summarized this trend: tion as His provision for some animals on 4,000 to 4,500 kilocalories of ed- Constant geometric growth does and man. Verses such as Psalm 104:21; ible plant material [per day] could be not characterize human popula- Job 38:39–41; and Job 39:27–30 reflect provided for between 38 and 48 billion tion history. Rather, at each stage only this present provision and yield no people” (Revelle, 1974, p. 168), which a major improvement of economic insight on pre-Fall conditions. Allegori- is about 7 times the current population and health conditions has produced cally, predation is portrayed negatively (Easterbrook, 1999). Most people need a sudden increase in population, in Scripture, for example, as judgment far less than 4,500 kilocalories per day, so which gradually moderated as the on Israel (Hos. 13:8) or as rapacious the earth’s ability to support human life major productive advances and world powers in Belshazzar’s dream in has not been pushed near the limit. concomitant health improvements Daniel 7:1–7 (Whitcomb, 1985, pp. There is no population explosion were assimilated. Then, after the ini- 91–93). either: “44 percent of the world’s people tial surge, the rate of growth slowed In the future the creation will be live in countries where the fertility rate down. (p. 315.) restored in many ways to its pre-Fall has already fallen below the replacement Nevertheless, in a death-free, pre- state. If the pre-Fall state were one of rate, and fertility is falling fast almost Fall world, animal and human popu- predation and death, how would such everywhere else” (Singer, 1999, p. 24). lation would eventually mount. John a “restoration” differ from the present Population growth rates are falling so fast Calvin (1847) suggested that in such a world? But the restored creation will be that the U.N. predicts global population world people would be translated much very different from the present, with no to peak at some 8 to 9 billion in 2050. like Enoch (Gen. 5:24) was in the post- bloodshed in the animal kingdom (Isa. After that, a precipitous decline will oc- Fall world: 11:6–9; 65:25), reflecting the lack of pre- cur, with the result that “unless people’s Truly the first man would have dation and carnivorous behavior before values change greatly, several centuries passed to a better life, had he re- the Fall. This is obvious enough that from now there could be fewer people mained upright; but there would old-earther Norman Geisler stated: living in the entire world than live in have been no separation of the soul God originally created animals and the United States today” (Singer, 1999, from the body, no corruption, no human beings to be herbivorous. p. 22). kind of destruction, and, in short, no ... God did not appoint animals to In the present post-Fall world, animal violent change. (p. 180.) be eaten in paradise, and animals populations are controlled by phenom- Had the world remained sinless, weren’t eating each other. ... What ena commonly involving death, such as God would have foreknown the needs changed things was the Fall. When predation, infant mortality, cannibalism, involved in growing population, as God was told, in effect, to shove off, and self-destructive mass migrations surely as He foreknew life’s needs in he partially did. ... Ultimately [the (Williams et al., 1992). Thus the tenden- the sinful world. Genesis 3:16 records damage to paradise] will be remedied cy is to view human population control that after the Fall God told Eve, “I will (Strobel, 2000, pp. 125–126). as an impersonal phenomenon that may greatly multiply ... thy conception,” In short, carnivores and predation also be deadly eventually for increasing signifying that in a sinless world, God were nonexistent in the Pre-Fall world, numbers of people, especially if man is may have rendered impossible any over- and did not cause physical death back viewed as an animal in the evolutionary population scenario simply by control- then. sense. But, man is created in the image ling the conception rate. Even in our of God and so is able to respond to exter- post-Fall world, animal growth studies nal environmental changes by long-term with planaria indicate that nonlethal Would a Death-Free, planning in a way that animals cannot. adjustments in fertility rates occur in Pre-Fall World Become The Industrial Revolution resulted in the animal kingdom as needed because Hopelessly Overpopulated? plunging infant mortality. Early death of environmental conditions (Smith, The concerns reflected in this question from communicable diseases became 1985). Smith (1985) concludes that originate partly from the misconcep- rare in many parts of the world. This “animals were designed with the abil- tion that the earth today is in the throes meant that children had a greater chance ity to avoid over-exploitation of their of a population explosion. How much of living to adulthood, and humanity ac- habitat without the need for disease, more severe would this problem be, cordingly planned smaller families. This predation, or starvation” (p. 20.) 166 Creation Research Society Quarterly

PCists Believe Science addition to the words of the Bible that believers originated the big bang Trumps the Bible being ‘God-breathed’ ... useful for theory but atheists oppose it; that on Ross left no doubt about his high regard teaching, rebuking, correcting, and “day” 4 sun, moon, and stars “appeared” for science relative to the Bible. This training in righteousness’ (2 Timothy after having evolved earlier; that day 6 faulty priority is the core difficulty in all 3:16), so also are the words of God of creation had too much activity to be PCist claims made to rationalize evolu- spoken through the work of His a literal day; that the seven-day week is tionary processes. As mentioned earlier, hands. (p. 57.) not a pattern of a literal Creation week; he acknowledged that a recent-creation More recently Ross (2004) con- that the long life spans of Genesis are belief is common, noting, “Nearly half tinued this claim, citing Psalm 19 as to be reinterpreted as shorter; that the the adults in the United States believe showing that, in the context of the Flood was local; that the ark could not that God created the universe within the natural sciences, “the facts of nature have accommodated all the animals said last 10,000 years” (Ross, 1994, p. 7; Ross, constitute a reliable source of informa- to board it; that literal six-day Creation 2004, pp. 34–35). Without supporting tion,” so that we must look to “science” detracts from the power and glory of documentation, Ross (1994) then con- to know such details as “a particular God; that recent-Creation teaching is an tinued as follows: “What reason do they planet’s age” (Ross, 2004, p. 37). Ross offense to the gospel; and that teaching give? ‘The Bible says so.’” (p. 7). Before confuses general revelation through the an old-universe leads people to Christ. the modern era, this reason would have creation with inspiration of the Bible’s Future papers are planned to address been sufficient to settle the age issue in words (Taylor and Van Bebber, 1994, these and other PC claims. the minds of believers, but not according p. 2). Ross’ position is erroneous and It has been said that, “evangelicals to Ross. He asserted: not biblical. The scriptural position is will fight to the death for the inerrancy of The abundant and consistent evi- that general revelation is inferior to the the Scriptures ... until they get to Genesis dence [of earth’s great age] from revelation of Christ in Scripture (Strong, 1–11, and then a double standard takes astronomy, physics, geology, and pa- 1907; Thiessen, 1949). over, one in which criteria outside the leontology must be taken seriously. ... In his desire to buttress evolution- Bible are used to interpret, and worse, Hundreds of reliable scientific tools ary concepts under color of “creation,” to modify the Biblical data” (Niessen, demonstrate that the creation (all but Ross has taught the erroneous idea that 1984, cover). These words apply to modern man) is old. (Ross, 1994, pp. “science”—really evolutionary interpre- PCist claims that exploit extrabiblical 54, 91; italics in the original). tations of science—is “God-breathed” concepts, or authorities citing such Having concluded that “science” and is thereby empowered to overturn concepts, to harmonize biblical doctrine contradicts the obvious meaning of the biblical teaching on Creation that with secular origins theories. Scripture, Ross attempts to justify his was commonly accepted until the rise high opinion of “science” by designat- of modern rationalism. ing the “word of science” as equal to the References Word of God: “God’s revelation is not CRSQ: Creation Research Society Quar- limited exclusively to the Bible’s words. Summary terly The facts of nature may be likened to a Despite PCist claims, Genesis 1 is a his- Akers, H. 1993. Tree of life. CRSQ 30:62. sixty-seventh book of the Bible. ... One torical account of supernatural Creation. Albright, W.F. 1957. From the Stone Age to revelation of God’s truth cannot be held It is not poetic, allegorical, or figurative. Christianity. Doubleday Anchor, New as inferior or superior to another” (Ross, There was no death before the Fall. Con- York, NY. 1994, p. 57). tinuance of the PCist claim that God Anderson, A.S. 1992. Magnificent miracle: He even considers “science” to be used evolution, with its eons of death the virgin conception of Jesus Christ. another inspired or “God-breathed” and destruction, to bring the world into CRSQ 29:89–97. book of the Bible in the same sense that existence is therefore untenable. Arndt, W.F., and F.W. Gingrich. 1957. Mormons believe the Book of Mormon PCists also claim that Genesis 1 A Greek-English Lexicon of the New to be another inspired book equal to the and 2 are separate Creation accounts, Testament and Other Early Christian Bible (Ross, 1994): and PCists support a series of false Literature. University of Chicago, Chi- The Bible more than once says God arguments as follows: that Genesis 1 cago, IL. speaks through the creation [he cannot be dated; that radiometric dating Berndt, C. 2003. The pre-Fall mortality of cites Psalm 19:1–4; Psalm 85:11; is reliable; that the big bang was God’s aquatic autotrophs and other designated and Job 12:7–8] ... It would follow method of creation; that the big bang nephesh kinds. CRSQ. 40:85–89. from these and other verses that, in implies a beginning for the universe; Brand, P., and P. Yancey. 1980. Fearfully and Volume 43, December 2006 167

Wonderfully Made. Zondervan, Grand Kulikovsky, A.S. 2001. A critique of the morning? Creation Ex Nihilo Technical Rapids, MI. literary framework view of the days of Journal 11(3):301–306. Calvin, J. 1847. Genesis (J. King, transla- creation. CRSQ 17:237–244. Simon, J. 1996. The Ultimate Resource 2. tor). Banner of Truth Trust, Edinburgh, Kulikovsky, A.S. 2002. Disappointing dis- Princeton University, Princeton, NJ. Scotland. First published 1554. course. Creation Ex Nihilo Technical Singer, M. 1999. Demographics: the pop- Carson, D. 1996. Exegetical Fallacies. Baker, Journal 16(2):40–41. ulation surprise. Atlantic Monthly Grand Rapids, MI. Leupold, H.C. 1949. Exposition of Genesis. 284(2):22–25. Custance, A.C. 1971. A reply to book review. Baker, Grand Rapids, MI. Smith, E.N. 1985. Experimental results CRSQ 8:135–137. Lewis, M. 1992. Green Delusions: an of crowding on the rate of asexual re- Davidheiser, B. 1993. A Statement Concern- Environmental Critique of Radical production of the planarian Dugesia ing the Ministry of Dr. Hugh Ross. Logos Environmentalism. Duke University, dorotocephala. CRSQ 22:16–20. Publishers, Canoga Park, CA. Durham, NC. Strobel, L. 2000. The Case for Faith. Zonder- Davis, J.J. 1975. Paradise to Prison: Studies Lloyd-Jones, D.M. 1966. From Fear to Faith. van, Grand Rapids, MI. in Genesis. Baker Book House, Grand InterVarsity Press, Downer’s Grove, IL. Strong, A.H. 1907. Systematic Theology. Rapids, MI. Merrell, D.S., et al. 2002. Host-induced epi- Judson Press, Valley Forge, PA. Easterbrook, G. 1999. Reproductivity: over- demic spread of the cholera bacterium. Surburg, R.F. 1959. In the beginning God population is no problem—in the long Nature 417:642–644. created. In Zimmerman, P.A. (editor), run. New Republic. 221(15):22–28. NavPress. 1995. A Statement from Nav- Darwin, Evolution, and Creation, pp. Fischer, D. 2003. Young-earth creationism: Press in Response to Criticism of the 36–80. Concordia, St. Louis, MO. a literal mistake. Perspectives on Science Books The Creator and the Cosmos and Taylor, P.S., and M. van Bebber. 1994. Fact and Christian Faith. 55:222–231. Creation and Time, by Dr. Hugh Ross. Sheet: Hugh Norman Ross. Films for Foerster, W. 1965. Ktiso. In Kittel, Gerhard NavPress, Colorado Springs, CO. Christ, Mesa, AZ. (editor), Theological Dictionary of the Niessen, R. 1984. Endorsement. In Pilkey, Thiessen, H.C. 1949. Lectures in System- New Testament (G.W. Bromiley, trans- John. Origin of the Nations. Master atic Theology. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, lator), 3:1000–1035. Eerdmans, Grand Books, Green Forest, AR. MI. Rapids, MI. Olcott, C.S. 1916. William McKinley. Vol. 2. Thompson, B. 2000. Creation Compromises. Freemantle, M. 2005. Keeping one step Houghton Mifflin, Boston, MA. Apologetics Press, Montgomery, AL. ahead of the flu. Chemical and Engineer- Oparin, A.I. 1938. The Origin of Life. Dover Van Bebber, M., and P.S. Taylor. 1994. Cre- ing News. 83(9):49–56. Publications, New York, NY. ation and Time. Eden Communications, Gibson, J.C.L. 1981. Genesis. Westminster Peterson, E. 1998. Reply to P.V. Vorpahl’s Mesa, AZ. Press, Philadelphia, PA. article “Predators and paradise, one more Vorpahl, P.V. 1997. Predators and paradise, Henry, J. 2006. A critique of progressive time.” CRSQ 35:48–49. one more time. CRSQ 34:84–85. creationism in the writings of Hugh Ross. Pfeiffer, C.F. 1958. The Book of Genesis. Waltke, B.K. 1988. The first seven days. CRSQ 43:16–24. Baker, Grand Rapids, MI. Christianity Today 32(11):42–46. Hodge, C. 1864. Commentary on the Epistle Rendle-Short, J. 1984. Man: Ape or Image? Whitcomb, J. 1985. Daniel. Moody Press, to the Romans. Eerdmans, Grand Rap- Master Books, Green Forest, AR. Chicago, IL. ids, MI. Revelle, R. 1974. Food and population. Sci- Williams, E., G.F. Howe, and J.R. Meyer. Kaiser, W.C. 1980. Legitimate hermeneu- entific American 231(9):161–170. 1992. Population control without preda- tics. In Geisler, Norman L. (editor), Ross, H. 1994. Creation and Time. NavPress, tion. CRSQ 28:157–158. Inerrancy, pp. 115–147. Zondervan, Colorado Springs, CO. Wonderly, D. 1977. God’s Time Records in Grand Rapids, MI. Ross, H. 2004. A Matter of Days. NavPress, Ancient Sediments. Crystal Press, Flint, Keil, C.F., and F. Delitzsch. 1949. Biblical Colorado Springs, CO. MI. Commentary on the Old Testament. Vol. Sarfati, J. 2004. Refuting Compromise. Mas- Wood, T.C. 2001. Genome decay in the 1. (James Martin, translator). Eerdmans, ter Books, Green Forest, AR. mycoplasmas. Institute for Creation Grand Rapids, MI. Schragin, J.G. 2004. Epidemiology and Research Impact. No. 340:a–d. Klevberg, P. 1998. More comments on the creation health model. CRSQ Yates, F.A. 1966. The Art of Memory. Univer- “Predators and paradise: one more time.” 41:185–194. sity of Chicago, Chicago, IL. CRSQ 38:49–50. Schragin, J.G. 2005. The Bible, epidemiolo- Young, E.J. 1964. Studies in Genesis One. Klotz, J.W. 1980. Is the destruction of plants gy, and edenomics. CRSQ 42:115–125. Presbyterian and Reformed, Nutley, death in the biblical sense? CRSQ Shackleford, D.G., D.M. Fouts, and O.J. NJ. 16:202–203. Helwig. 1997. How short an evening and 168 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Book Review Godless: The Church of Liberalism by Ann Coulter Crown Forum, New York, 2006, 310 pages, $27.95.

Ann Coulter is a syndicated political an opening on the Supreme Court” (p. public school. The social consequences commentator who has gained notoriety 89). I found myself laughing out loud at of Darwinian thought do not escape for her sharp critiques of the intellec- her verbal audacity. her explosive prose as she elaborates tual and political liberal establishment. Coulter has the temerity to say and on the influence of evolution on Marx Coulter’s thesis is that contemporary write what many conservative Christians and Hitler: “As Darwinism gained cur- liberalism is not simply a political phi- might wish they could say. She devotes rency, humanity did sink into greater losophy but is more of a godless religion the last four chapters of the book to the degradation and brutalization than any that tolerates no dissent from its official conflict between the liberal scientific since-written records of human history materialist dogma. Coulter writes, “Lib- establishment aided by their judicial began. A generation later, the world eralism is a comprehensive belief system allies with the Intelligent Design (ID) would witness the rise of the eugenics denying the Christian belief in man’s movement. Coulter acknowledges the movement; Nazi Germany; Stalinist immortal soul. Their religion holds that help of Michael Behe, David Berlinski Gulags; and the slaughter of 70 million there is nothing sacred about human and William Dembski in preparing these Chinese at the hands of their exalted consciousness.... They deny what we chapters (p. 303). She contends that chairman” (p. 268). know about ourselves; that we are moral Darwinian evolutionism is the liberal’s The 1925 Scopes Monkey Trial is beings made in God’s image” (p. 3). sacrosanct “creation myth.” She adopts covered with clarity and accuracy. For The early chapters of this book Joseph Sobran’s derisive label “Dar- those familiar with ID and creationary examine topics including radical envi- winiacs” for evolution’s true believers. thought Coulter does not bring much ronmentalism, liberal court decisions She covers DNA evidence (p. 203), the that is new to the table, and we don’t that protect criminals to the detriment of probability arguments of Fred Hoyle and expect her to. Her strength is that she is the law-abiding majority, abortion, irre- Chandra Wickramasinghe against the perhaps reaching a new audience with sponsible and even treasonable dissent, origin of life by chance, the fossil record ID truth. Her audience is likely to be the ineffectiveness of public schools (p. 232), speciation, and the Cambrian non-scientific political conservatives, and teachers, the anti-science attitude Explosion. She also writes of the well curious liberals with a masochist bent of modern liberals, and other liberal known evolutionary frauds including and others who wonder what all the craziness. Coulter seemingly takes great Piltdown man, the peppered moth, and fuss is about. For those conservatives, pleasure in skewing liberal sacred cows Ernest Haeckel’s embryo drawings. She Christians, and advocates of ID and with sharp wit and biting sarcasm. For reports on the witch hunting of such creation science, this book is a welcome those who agree with her caustic lam- Darwin skeptics as William Dembski polemical weapon in the arsenal against pooning, the writing style is a delight and Richard Sternberg (himself a Dar- entrenched Darwinian evolutionism. to read: “Abortion is the sacrament and winist) by establishment Darwinians Roe v. Wade is Holy Writ. This is why and the judicial smothering of even the Donald Ensign we have World War III every time there’s mildest inclusion of ID thought into the [email protected] Volume 43, December 2006 169

Book Review Godless: The Church of Liberalism by Ann Coulter Crown Forum, New York, 2006, 310 pages, $27.95.

Ann Coulter is a New York Times best- science, persuasion, or the evidence. godlessness that is associated with and selling author and a frequent guest They won the way liberals always win: by is an integral part of Darwinism. Most on Fox News Television. Politically finding a court to hand them everything leading evolutionists are atheists and she is a strong conservative and is not they want on a silver platter. This isn’t evolution is taught in our schools as an hesitant to tell it like it really is. Why science, it’s treating doubts about evolu- atheistic theory. should we review her book in the CRS tion as religious heresy” (p 200). Ann Coulter’s book is much more Quarterly? It includes four chapters on Coulter’s treatment of the creation/ than a discussion of creation and evolu- the creation/evolution controversy and evolution controversy is very thorough. tion, and you will enjoy the rest of the the coverage of this subject is so superb She attacks such fallacies as “evolution book as well, but I especially recom- you would think Coulter’s background is no more than change over time”; the mend it to those who are interested in is in biology rather than journalism. She efficacy of random mutation and natu- this topic. Coulter concludes her book is knowledgeable concerning the argu- ral selection; the arguments of Richard with “God is not our secret Santa. His ments put forth by evolutionists, and her Dawkins; and the claims that such varia- commands are not whatever we want responses are accurate and well chosen. tions as those of peppered moths and them to be and the Bible is not a ‘living As one example, she writes, “The evolu- finches constitute examples of evolution. document’…The truth is truth whether tionists attack the idea of design in the Her coverage of the fossil record is excel- we like it or not. While secularists are universe claiming it is a theory based on lent, including the “Cambrian explo- constantly comparing Christians to what we don’t know. The truth is exactly sion” and the recent finds by Chinese Nazis, somehow it’s always the godless the reverse. The less you know about paleontologists. Coulter concludes that doing the genocides. By their fruits ye the physical world, the more plausible there is no evidence in the fossil record shall know them” (p. 281). Darwinian evolution seems…the more for evolution, “only ingenious excuses.” we know about molecules, cells, and Coulter describes the false assumptions Dr. Duane T. Gish, Ph.D. DNA, the less plausible Darwin’s theory involved in Stanley Miller’s origin of life Senior Vice-president Emeritus of natural selection becomes” (p 212). experiment (Miller now acknowledges Institute for Creation Research Referring to the decision in the Dover, these) which eliminate any plausibil- Pennsylvania case, she says, “After Do- ity for his experiment, although it is ver, no school district will dare breathe still described in most biology books a word about ‘intelligent design’, unless today. The final chapter of Coulter’s they want to risk being bankrupted by book, which begins with the quotation ACLU lawsuits. They didn’t win on of Romans 1:21–23, is a description of 170 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Charles Darwin’s Faulty Scholarship—A Review

Jerry Bergman*

Abstract any have suggested that Charles Darwin was one of the greatest scien- Mtists in history. However, in reviewing some of Darwin’s scholarship, I have identified numerous examples of fraudulent, unethical, and sloppy work. Many more examples of Darwin’s faulty research exist, but the few instances cited in this review indicate that the high level of trust still put in Darwin’s work is misplaced.

Introduction Tierra del Fuego tribes “when at war Darwin accepted these accounts Probably no other man in recent his- are cannibals.” Darwin also presumed as true without investigating them, tory has had such a profound effect on on the basis of concurrent “but quite concluding that the Fuegian way of life the world as Charles Darwin, the man independent evidence of the boy taken resulted in frequent famine, and “as a who produced a theory of evolution as by Mr. Low, and of Jemmy Button ... that consequence, cannibalism accompa- outlined in his The Origin of Species when pressed in winter by hunger, they nied by parricide” resulted (Darwin, (Darwin, 1859). Although Darwin was a kill and devour their old women before 1839, p. 236). He then used these prolific writer, a number of researchers they kill their dogs” (Darwin, 1896a, p. conclusions in developing his views have concluded that much of his research 214). Darwin related that his informants on race, which were used to support on Origins was superficial. As a result he killed their victims by holding them over the racism that developed later in areas arrived at many incorrect conclusions. smoke to choke them. He wrote that his such as Nazi Germany (Bergman, 1999; E. Lucas Bridges, an author and informant had mockingly imitated the Weikert, 2004). Darwin’s conclusions missionary to Tierra del Fuego, con- screams of their victims and then about the Fuegians supported the racism cluded from his firsthand experiences described the parts of their bodies already common in Europe: “In their and interviews with the Tierra del which are considered best to eat. native habitat, the Fuegians seemed to Fuego (or Yagan) natives that Darwin Horrid as such a death by the hands epitomize the Europeans’ image of the naively and uncritically accepted many of their friends and relatives must be, brutal and degraded savage” (Bowler, of their verbal statements (see Berg- the fears of the old women, when 1990, p. 58). man, in press). For example, Darwin hunger begins to press, are more uncritically accepted the statements by painful to think of; we were told that the Fuegians—without investigating they then often run away into the Darwin’s Questionable the claim—that they were cannibals, a mountains, but that they are pursued Claims about conclusion about which Darwin said he by the men and brought back to the Fuegian Cannibalism was “certain” (Bridges, 1948, p. 33). He slaughter-house at their own fire- Many scholars have repeated Darwin’s specifically concluded that the different sides. (Darwin, 1896a, p. 214.) account of Fuegian cannibalism, adding material from other sources, and even concluding that “frequent and inevitable questions on cannibalism” arose in con- * Jerry Bergman, Ph.D., Department of Biology, Northwest State College, nection with the Fuegians. An example Archbold, OH 43543, [email protected] of the “facts” that were used as support Accepted for publication: February 3, 2006 for the cannibalism claim includes: Volume 43, December 2006 171

Mr. Low, a sealer who came aboard plained that when Darwin first arrived subsequent attempt at denial would the Beagle in Tierra del Fuego, in Tierra del Fuego, the natives had a not have been believed, but would told them that when hunger set very limited knowledge of the English have been attributed to a growing un- in during the winter months, the language. As a result, they could not willingness to confess the horrors in Indians would kill the old women explain very much in English, and it was which they had formerly indulged. of their tribe and eat them. He had far easier for them to simply answer “yes” Accordingly, these young story-tellers interviewed a Fuegian boy who had to many questions. Consequently, “the allowed their imaginations full rein said that the women were suffocated statements with which these young men and vied with each other in the re- in the smoke of a campfire. When ... have been credited were, in fact, no counting of still more fantastic tales, asked why they did not eat their dogs, more than agreement with suggestions emboldened by the admiration of the the boy had replied, “Doggies catch made by their questioners” (Bridges, other two. (Bridges, 1948, p. 33.) otters, old women good for nothing: 1948, p. 33). While this fact alone does Bridges’ information casts consider- man very hungry.” As a joke the boy not disprove Darwin’s claim that the able doubt on the idea that Fuegians had imitated the sounds of a woman Fuegians were cannibals, it casts clear practiced cannibalism. However, the screaming. Jemmy had confirmed doubt on the idea. Bridges continued Fuegian cannibalism story is still pro- the truth of this story, and an ap- by noting that it is not hard to moted by Darwinists. For example, a palled Darwin ... [recorded it in his imagine their reactions when asked genetics professor at University College, notes]. (Hazlewood, 2001, p. 114.) what was, to them, a ridiculous London, recently related Darwin’s can- Hazlewood’s investigation of the question, such as: “Do you kill and nibalism statements as if they were valid relevant historical documents led him eat men?” They would at first be (Jones, 2000, p. 26). to conclude that there were serious puzzled, but when the inquiry was problems with Darwin’s account. He repeated and they grasped its mean- notes that the three Fuegians Darwin ing and realized the answer that was Accusations of Forgery interviewed were expected they would naturally agree. In the 1870s photographs were “under- uncomfortable talking about the The interrogator would follow this stood to be a standard of truth in a wide subject, and when they did there with: “What people do you eat?” No variety of applications, from the popular were inconsistencies in their stories: answer. “Do you eat bad people?” to the scientific and documentary” they would not eat vultures because “Yes.” “When there are no bad (Prodger, 1998a, p. 143). Illustrations the birds might have fed on a human; people, what then?” No answer. “Do were considered more objective than they would not dump their dead in you eat your old women?” “Yes.” drawings and paintings. Consequently, the sea because they might be eaten Once this game was started they were taken as very convincing sup- by fish, which might in turn be eaten and their knowledge of English port for a theory. In November of 1872, by them. When cannibalism was increased, these irresponsible young- Darwin published his book The Expres- talked about, Jemmy would refer sters, encouraged by having their sion of the Emotions in Man and Animals to his people with shame and deny evidence so readily accepted and to prove that human emotions, and thus that he had ever eaten a human. He noted down as fact, would naturally humans themselves, evolved from some would prefer, he claimed, to ‘eat his start inventing on their own. We lower animal type (Prodger, 1998a, p. own hands ....’ (Hazelwood, 2001, are told that they described, with 149). In this book, Darwin used photo- pp. 114–115.) much detail, how the Fuegians ate graphs that have now become famous According to Hazlewood, the Fue- their enemies killed in battle and, for several reasons. While Darwin’s gians were, in fact, averse to eating when there were no such victims, work was one of the first scientific books humans. Keynes (2003) noted that the devoured their old women. When to use photographs (giving it a unique practice of tobacana, a form of “kindly” asked if they ate dogs when hungry, type of authority for that time period), euthanasia, could have produced a they said they did not, as dogs were it is also now acknowledged “that some “misleading” conclusion that “gave rise useful for catching otter, whereas the of the photographs ... were doctored” to the mistaken notion that cannibalism old women were of no use at all. The (Judson, 2004, p. 49). This doctoring of was sometimes practiced in Tierra del unfortunates, they said, were held photographs is often ignored in modern Fuego” (p. 214). in the thick smoke till they choked accounts of Darwin’s work. One prob- Bridges was a missionary who lived to death. The meat, they stated, able reason for ignoring this problem among the Fuegian people for some was very good ... This delectable is that “strong is the compulsion to save time and knew them very well. He ex- fiction once firmly established, any the great men, to protect their reputation 172 Creation Research Society Quarterly and [the reputation] of science herself” Although Darwin admitted that artificially produced for Darwin in order (Judson, 2004, p. 49, bracketed words some of the photographs were posed to illustrate “a most convincing sneer” added). Had such activity been discov- and others were modified, Paul Ekman, (Judson, 2004, p. 63). ered in the research of Darwin’s critics, a social psychologist and Darwinist at Rejlander is most often identified however, they no doubt would not have the University of California at San Fran- with the “composite printing” technique been treated as gently. cisco, “found from the Darwin archives (today called “trick photography”) in Photographs in Darwin’s book were and correspondence that the alterations which several negatives are of people’s facial expression in showing were more extensive than had been combined to create a photographic what he considered genetically based known” (Judson, 2004, p. 62). Further- print with elements of several pic- “elemental and universal emotions,” more, instead of photographing natural tures. As a result Rejlander was found in both man and beast. These expressions elicited in normal human able to manipulate his images, and facial expressions included grief, joy, situations, many of the photographs, produce convincing photorealistic anger, disgust, surprise, contempt, fear, which it was implied or openly claimed images that were actually artificially horror, and shame (Prodger, 1998a, p. were typical humans responding to real assembled in the darkroom. (Prod- 62). To prove humans have a common situations, were actually posed. Thus, ger, 1998a, p. 170.) ancestry with animals, Darwin wanted Darwin went far beyond simply retouch- Rejlander put his skills in trick to demonstrate that the same emotional ing them (although concealing the act photography to use helping Darwin states were common, not only in human of retouching clearly crosses scientific prove his thesis. The first, and most groups worldwide, but also in animals ethical boundaries). celebrated, photograph in Darwin’s The as well. Judson related that Darwin used sev- Expression is of a weeping baby who This view contradicted the beliefs eral photographs by London photogra- actually turned out to be a drawing that of most Europeans at the time. Sir pher Oscar Rejlander because Rejlander Rejlander changed to make it look like a Charles Bell argued that there existed “proved especially skillful at securing photograph (Judson, 2004). This photo- muscles in the human face that were the expressions Darwin wanted” (2004, graph, titled “mental distress” (Darwin, without analog in the lower animals. p. 63). Rejlander also had, at times, 1979, p. 149), was a photographic copy He believed that these muscles were “posed for his own camera” (p. 63). of a drawing made from an original pho- designed to display unique human Trodger determined that one picture tograph (Prodger, 1998a). This allowed emotions and were both evidence of a of Rejlander’s wife (See Figure 1) was Rejlander to “highlight elements of the Creator and evidence against common image Darwin sought to express ... the descent. Darwin specifically attempted child’s hair, cheeks, and brow ... seem to disprove the conclusions of Bell and slightly more lively and energetic in the others that human expression reflects the drawn version” (Prodger, 1998a, p. 173). design of a divine being, and to prove A major change was that the child was that the origin of these expressions lies put into an unnaturally small chair by in evolution (Prodger, 1998a). Darwin means of trick photography (see Figure further tried to prove that the key to 2), making the child look “larger-than- understanding human emotions was to life” (Prodger, 1998a, p. 174). The goal understand these emotions as vestigial or was to create an “illustration that would residual habits inherited from our evolu- have seemed persuasive to Darwin’s tionary ancestors. He used photographs readers” (Prodger, 1998a, p. 174). of humans expressing emotions as proof Darwin nowhere mentioned in of his theory: his writings that this photograph was The photographs he selected for actually a drawn and altered copy of a inclusion in The Expression were photograph that was “changed substan- designed to interest and engage his tially from the photographic original” readers, even at the expense of sci- Figure 1. Photograph purporting to be (Prodger, 1998a, p. 175). Ironically, entific objectivity. Consideration of a “sneer,” but was intentionally posed. T.H. Huxley (called Darwin’s Bulldog the photographic illustrations in The The photograph was taken from the because of his major role as an apologist Expression demonstrates that Darwin 1872 edition of Darwin’s Expression of Darwin) was one of the main critics had the capacity to act as a shrewd of the Emotions of Man and Animals, of Darwin’s photograph manipulations strategist. (Prodger, 1998a, p. 146.) p. 251. (Prodger, 1998a, p. 177). Volume 43, December 2006 173

It was also discovered that Darwin pressions from lower animals (Prodger, used eight photographs by Professor 1998a, p. 141). Duchenne, a Paris physiologist who In one engraved plate, Darwin actually used electrodes to stimulate (1896a, p. 306) used extensive cropping groups of facial muscles in patients. that removed a “substantial portion of Duchenne published a book that con- the original image” (Prodger, 1998a, tained photographs of patients who p. 166). In this case Darwin instructed were forced to endure such barbaric the engraver to remove the hands of the treatments (see Figure 3 for example). experimenter and the electrodes that The patients included those diagnosed were used to stimulate the facial muscles with epilepsy, spastic disorders, palsy, of the subject (Prodger, 1998a). The paralysis, and multiple sclerosis (Prod- altered picture is reproduced in Figure ger, 1998a). From another set of more 4. Prodger (1998a) concluded that than 40 photographs of mental patients, Darwin’s changes in the pictures were Darwin selected a woman diagnosed as required because the original Figure 2. A “fake” photograph of an insane to use as an example of a normal photographs were too honest, in that infant girl in a chair. The child was expression (Prodger, 1998a). they recorded the actual situation of made to look much larger than life by There is a considerable difference the sitter in his laboratory environ- using trick photography to put her in between using electrodes to force facial ment. To engage his readers, Darwin an unnaturally small chair for her size. expressions and capturing the results cultivated an appearance of objec- See text for details. The photograph of genuine emotions in natural facial tivity that actually misrepresented was taken from the 1872 edition of expressions. Likewise, substantial dis- experimental events (p. 179). Darwin’s Expression of the Emotions similarity exists between artificial facial of Man and Animals, p. 148. contortions touched up by an artist and capturing people on film in the natural act of expressing joy, disgust, or the many other human emotions. The purpose of using photography was to study facial expressions “without relying on the ex- pertise of visual artists” (Prodger, 1998a, p. 141), and presumably their subjectiv- ity as well. From the start, the camera “emerged as an authoritative source of information” to demonstrate scientific theory and concepts. To obtain scientifically meaningful photographs, it should first be deter- mined that the person in the photograph actually manifested joy, and only then should photographs of his or her facial Figure 4. A drawing from the photo- expression be used to represent that graph in Figure 3. The caption in the emotion. To artificially produce what an 1872 edition of Darwin’s Expression of observer thinks is a sneer is quite differ- the Emotions of Man and Animals says, Figure 3. Photograph from the 1872 ent from evaluating the results of express- “Fig. 21 Horror and Agony. Copied edition of Darwin’s Expression of ing this genuine emotion as confirmed from a photograph by Dr. Duchenne.” the Emotions of Man and Animals by the subject. This is critical because Note that the electrodes shown on the (p. 300). A careful inspection of the “Darwin believed that the objectivity of subject in Figure 3 are not shown on photograph reveals that electrodes on photographic evidence could be used this etching. The etching is from the a mental patient were used to produce to challenge” existing ideas about the 1872 edition of Darwin’s Expression the “natural” expression of horror and expression of emotion, thus proving his of the Emotions of Man and Animals, agony. theory of inheritance of emotional ex- p. 306. 174 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Darwinists have actually tried to principles are in his notebooks written in all three regions of the face” (p. 163). justify what they call the compromises in 1838–1839 (Darwin, 1998). In contrast to Darwin’s conclusions, that Darwin made in preparing his il- though, their injection did not result in lustrations. As Prodger admitted, though, the widely open, ‘squarish’ mouth facial much of the criticism against Darwin Current Research expression that Darwin claimed were is justified by contemporary standards. on Human characteristic of the “cry face” (Craig et Some even argued, in an attempt to Emotional Expression al., 1997, p. 163). justify Darwin, that “the rules about Some of Darwin’s obvious observations Darwin was also guilty of anthropo- photographic objectivity did not exist about the expression of emotions have morphism, even claiming that monkeys then, partially because photographers proven correct. For example, he ac- express vexation, jealousy, grief, sadness, frequently manipulated their work to curately showed that, although culture disgust, anger, pleasure, and other clear enhance its visual appeal and clarity” was influential, many basic emotional human emotions. Although animals (Prodger, 1998a, p. 174). These argu- expressions were universal among hu- may experience certain emotions, it ments are an invalid defense, however, mans. Much of the research on facial is often difficult, if not impossible, for because what Darwin was not striving expressions, however, does not support humans to scientifically determine what for visual appeal or clarity, such as is Darwin’s basic conclusion that virtually specific emotions an animal is feeling done for an art show, but photographic all human facial expressions are inher- (Darwin, 1998). Pet owners and farmers evidence that purported to represent ited in a Lamarckian fashion and are know that dramatic differences exist in internal emotions accurately to support similar to many primates (for examples animal and human expressions. Except evolutionism. see Ekman, 1973). In addition, we now to frighten enemies, most animals The fact is, “far from scientifically know some of his other basic conclu- other than certain primates are largely factual, these photographs formed part sions “are completely wrong” (Darwin, expressionless. Furthermore, some of of a narrative strategy designed to ad- 1998; Rosenstein and Oster, 1997; Darwin’s examples appear open to many vance his theoretical concerns” (Judson, Lenoir, 1998). other interpretations (for example, see 2004, p. 141). In other words, Darwin In support of the evolutionary role of Ekman, 2003, p. 3). Darwin also relied used fraud to try to prove his evolution expressive behavior, Darwin concluded heavily on anecdotal accounts by others theory. And as Haeckel’s drawings, that the major expressions in animals, rather then gathering empirical data although “so widely known, [and] so including humans “are not learned himself. As a result, in his introduction influential, were faked” (Judson, 2004, but are present from the earliest days to Darwin’s Third Edition of Expression p. 83) so, too, were Darwin’s photo- and throughout life are quite beyond of the Emotions in Man and Animals, graphs; and Darwin’s forgeries were no our control” (1979, p. 352). Current Ekman concluded that Darwin “often less blatant than Haeckel’s. As is also researchers have found that the empiri- dealt with faulty data” (Darwin, 1998, true with Haeckel’s drawings, Darwin’s cal evidence does not support Darwin’s p. xxxii). In conclusion, as stated in the “photographic illustrations were care- general position; rather social factors introduction to the St. Martin’s edi- fully contrived to present evidence have a critical influence on the tion of Darwin’s Expression, “some of Darwin considered important to his non-verbal expression of emotional his conclusions are probably correct, work.... He knew that photography ... states both with and without pur- others almost certainly incorrect” (Rach- [was] powerfully persuasive” (Prodger, poseful or voluntary intent. There man, 1979, p. ii). 1998a, p. 144). appear to be cultural conventions Although the technology did not ex- concerning stereotypic displays of ist in 1896 to produce ideal photographs, pain that enable people to enact Claims about Ancon Sheep Darwin was clearly amiss in not provid- them with ease. Facial displays of The first person known to use the Ancon ing exact details how his photographs many subjective states are subject sheep as evidence for macroevolution were done. It is inexcusable to use pho- to the influence of “display rules” was Charles Darwin. He discussed them tographs that were “contrived” and then that are internalized in the course at least three times in his published offered as accurate representations of re- of socialization. (Craig, et al., 1997, books. In The Origin of Species (1859), search on emotions. It is also of note that pp. 162–163.) Darwin speculated that animal varia- Darwin claimed he arrived at his three Craig et al. (1997) also reported that tions could have “arisen suddenly, or principle conclusions only at the close his research found that the ingestion of by one step” in a single generation. An of his observations on facial expression sour, salty, and bitter solutions caused example that he used to support his rapid in 1896, yet Ekman found that all three “negative facial expression components “one step” macroevolution is known Volume 43, December 2006 175

“to have been the case with the Ancon best-known examples of “evolution by Weiss” (p. 40). His mistakes about who sheep” (1859, p. 30). This conclusion selection” (Huxley, 1915, p. 264). This made the dental cast and the true nature was left unchanged in all six editions of example of “rapid evolution” soon be- of Julia’s teeth are illustrative of Darwin’s Darwin’s famous book. came an icon of evolution, repeated for tendency for making many any such In another work, Darwin (1896b) decades in hundreds of textbooks and minor mistakes. If a creationist had made concluded that whole new breeds could references. This new sheep “breed,” these mistakes, evolutionists would have have originated suddenly by evolution, however, is now known to be nothing mercilessly condemned him. and he gave the example of “a ram- more than a mutation that causes a lamb” born in Massachusetts that had lethal disease known as achondroplasia “short crooked legs and a long back, like (Bergman, 2003). Research on a turnspit-dog” (p. 104). Darwin then Darwin’s Many Errors claimed that from this lamb “the otter Darwin himself, in his The Origin of Spe- or ancon semi-monstrous breed” was Julia Pastrana cies book, made thousands of changes to produced (Darwin, 1896b, p. 104). He A final example of Darwin’s faulty re- correct errors and improve the accuracy concluded that these search was the case of Julia Pastrana, a of this book in later editions. One study sheep are remarkable from trans- so-called ape woman who was offered found that the number of revisions mitting their character so truly that by many early Darwinists as evidence of Darwin carried out was so great in Colonel Humphreys never heard a living transitional form. In his discus- his six editions that it is impossible to of ‘but one questionable case’ of an sion of her, Darwin incorrectly claimed comprehend without a variorum text (a ancon ram and ewe not producing she had four rows of teeth. Gylseth and variorum text contains variant readings ancon offspring. When they are Toverud (2003) commented that what of different editions of a text so that they crossed with other breeds the off- Darwin had written about Julia’s char- can be compared to determine changes). spring, with rare exceptions, instead acter may have been correct. About her The study noted that of of being intermediate in character, anatomy, however, the 3,878 sentences in the first edi- perfectly resemble either parent. scientifically he was wrong because, tion, nearly 3,000, about 75 per cent, (Darwin, 1896b, p. 104.) if anyone had bothered to ask her, were rewritten from one to five times According to Hull (1999) after a she could have immediately re- each. Over 1,500 sentences were long discussion of artificial selection sponded that she certainly did not added, and of the original sentences and “sports” such as Ancon sheep, have any extra rows of teeth in her plus these, nearly 325 were dropped. Darwin reasoned that “if breeders mouth (though she did have gum Of the original and added sentences could do so much with so little, one problems) ... Real people don’t have there are nearly 7,500 variants of all can only imagine how powerful natural four rows of teeth. (Gylseth and kinds. In terms of net added sentenc- selection must be” (p. 1). This example Toverud, 2003, p. 39.) es, the sixth edition is nearly a third discussed by Darwin has been cited by An English dentist examined the again as long as the first. (Peckham, evolutionists ever since, partly because casts of Julia’s jaws described by Darwin 1959, p. 9.) it perfectly fit the expectations of many and concluded, in contrast to Darwin’s Most authors rewrite their materials evolutionists. Moody (1953, p. 306) claim, that she in fact had to improve clarity (handled more effec- called it “the appearance of a new, a few unusually large teeth projecting tively now with computers), but many of inheritable characteristic.” Schwartz from greatly thickened and irregular Darwin’s changes involved actual errors. and Vogel (1994) concluded that the alveolar processes ... [but] she did not Barrett et al. (1987, pp. 1136–1137), list- “Ancon sheep are important to the his- possess an excessive number of teeth ed 70 “errors” in the text of Darwin’s The tory of biology because Charles Darwin in double rows ... the overgrowth of Descent of Man, and Darwin himself used them to support his argument that her gum and alveolar process was listed 25 errors (p. 1135). An example animals inherit parental traits without responsible for her prognathism and is found on page 68 of The Origin of blending” (p. 764). what is described as simian appear- Species where Darwin claimed that no The Ancon sheep soon became a ance. (Gylseth and Toverud, 2003, rhinoceroses are destroyed by beasts of classic example of evolution by muta- p. 40, emphasis added.) prey. However, as Galton pointed out, tions and was important data relating to Gylseth and Toverud (2003) also not- “it is rare to find a Rhinoceros” that has the origin of species (Bayles and Burnett, ed that “Darwin was likewise wrong in not been attacked by “beasts of prey” (see 1946). Thomas Huxley proclaimed stating that Dr. Purland made the casts: Darwin, 1991, pp. 417, 427). that the Ancon sheep were one of the it was actually a dentist by the name of Some of his other major conclusions 176 Creation Research Society Quarterly also turned out to be wrong, such as his of making the many corrections needed most Victorians, even scientists, the only prediction that the “Negro races” would (Peckham, 1959, p. 15). By “June 21st possible explanation for ‘the origin of all go extinct and that men were more he had corrected only 130 pages, and by animal forms.’ This fantasy was precisely highly evolved than women (Bergman, the next day only 20 more” (Peckham, the last stronghold of British Natural 2002). Among the many other examples 1959, p. 15). The many corrections Theology” (Peckham, 1959, p. 14). Most of Darwin’s flawed research, probably were a “long and dreary struggle.” The likely Darwin knew that his evolution the most serious were his acceptance endless corrections, the despairing ef- theory would undermine this belief in of the inheritance of acquired charac- forts to achieve clarity, the knowledge God’s intervention during creation, the teristics theory (Lamarckian Genetics) of what was involved “the last minute last possible reason to believe in natural and his pangenesis idea, the view that changes of fact and interpretation—all theology—and in God. evolution occurs by cells sending infor- these had worn him out” (Peckham, Darwin also evidently became less mation to the gametes, which changes 1959, p. 15). confident about his theory as he aged, the next generation. Darwin’s many er- The problem of errors was so great and this was reflected in his books. Jones roneous conclusions need to be studied that the sixth edition of The Origin had stated that “in his old age, faced with a further to determine how generalized to be completely retypset and, as a re- wave of inconvenient discoveries, Dar- the examples cited here are. Simonton sult, “a good many typographical errors win began to complicate his ideas” to (1999) adds that were introduced which Darwin failed deal with the “inconvenient discoveries” Darwin himself illustrates what can to catch” (Peckham, 1959, p. 23). By that argued against his theory (Jones, be dug up with only a little effort. For 1878, six years after the sixth edition was 2000, p. xxv). Jones notes that “in 1859 many Darwinists, he appears to rep- completed, all the typographical errors Darwin was more confident” about his resent the model scientist, the bona were finally corrected and this edition theory. At that time, Darwin (1859) fide perfectionist ... But if we delve is now considered Darwin’s “final text” wrote “I can see no difficulty in a race carefully into his lifetime output, this (Peckham, 1959, p. 24). of bears being rendered, by natural se- idealized portrait begins to reveal Darwin admitted that he had “much lection, more and more aquatic in their many blemishes. He was capable of difficulty” in expressing himself “clearly structure and habits, with larger and publishing erroneous interpretations and concisely,” which caused him to larger mouths, till a creature was pro- and even silly conjectures. An early lose much time but forced him to “think duced as monstrous as a whale” (p. 184). paper provided such a completely long and intently about every sentence” In the sixth edition, Darwin’s “swim- mistaken explanation for a par- (Darwin, 1958, pp. 136–137). Further- ming bear ... conceals itself with irony” ticular geological formation that it more, Darwin admitted that his “power (Jones, 2000, p. xxv). Hedtke (1983) even came to cause Darwin considerable to follow a long and purely abstract train concludes from his study that Darwin embarrassment. Later, despite his of thought is very limited” and that his acknowledged the fatal weaknesses of his extremely detailed work on the cir- memory was so poor that he has “never theory in the sixth edition of The Origin, ripedes, he was forced to admit that been able to remember for more than a published in 1872. he had “blundered dreadfully about few days a single date or a line of poetry” the cement glands.” (p. 157.) (Darwin, 1958, p. 140). In and of them- When the The Origin of Species selves these admissions show a spirit of Conclusions manuscript was completed, it was sent to honesty and humility on Darwin’s part. Darwin is often regarded as one of the Dr. and Mrs. Hooker to proofread. Mrs. Nonetheless, as a result of these self-ad- most highly esteemed scientists who ever Hooker found parts of it so obscure that mitted shortcomings, there is a strong lived (Simonton, 1999). Yet, a balanced Darwin trembled, and “vowed to clarify likelihood that numerous errors may view of his work requires an evaluation his ideas in the proofs” (Peckham, 1959, have been introduced and continue to of his scholarly shortcomings. These few p. 15). Darwin was to continue these persist in his writings. examples of the many Darwinian errors clarification efforts through six more edi- Other changes he made include that exist illustrate the fact that many tions and for 12 more years (Peckham, excising “much theological language” of his conclusions were based on faulty 1959). Even Darwin, when he finally from later editions of the Origin (Peck- data, thus were incorrect. His research saw the first edition of The Origin of Spe- ham, 1959, p. 10). A few historians al- was often very superficial and strongly cies in print, found the style “incredibly lege that part of Darwin’s concern was biased toward his thesis. In the case of bad” and made so many corrections that that he was fully aware his work would the Fuego Indians he was also very gull- he wrote to his publisher, John Murray, cause controversy because the direct ible in relying on informants who were, and offered to pay a major part of the cost intervention of God in creation was “for for several reasons, not only inaccurate, Volume 43, December 2006 177

but wrong. It is quite true that much race holocaust. Creation ex Nihilo Tech- Darwin, C. 1958. The Autobiography of of what is presently known in the life nical Journal. 13:101–111. Charles Darwin. (Edited by Nora Bar- sciences was not known when Darwin Bergman, J. 2002. The history of the human low.) Norton Publishing, New York, wrote his major works. However, this female inferiority: ideas in evolutionary NY. does not excuse his incomplete, mislead- biology. Biology Forum 95:379–412. Darwin, C. 1979. The Expression of Emotions ing, and erroneous conclusions reviewed Bergman, J. 2003. The Ancon sheep: just in Man and Animals. Julian Friedmann in this paper. An excellent summation another loss mutation. Creation ex Nihilo Publishers, London, UK. Introduction of Darwin’s many mistakes by Simonton Technical Journal 17:18–19. by Professor S.J. Rachman. A reprint of (1999) concluded that his mistakes have Bergman, J. Was Charles Darwin a racist? the 1872 edition. been forgotten or forgiven. For example, Creation Research Society Quarterly Darwin, C. 1991. The Correspondence of Darwin’s erroneous (in press). Charles Darwin Volume 7 1858–1859. geological paper on Glen Roy is Bowler, P. 1990. Charles Darwin; the Man Supplement to the Correspondence politely ignored by geologists, and and His Influence. Blackwell, Cam- 1821–1857. Cambridge University Press, his work on the barnacles has been bridge, MA. New York, NY. superseded by more accurate mono- Bridges, E.L. 1948. Uttermost Parts of the Darwin, C. 1998. Expression of the Emo- graphs. Darwin’s theory of pangenesis Earth. Hodder and Stoughton, London, tions in Man and Animals (3rd Edition). has been reduced to a tiny footnote UK. Oxford University Press, New York, NY. in the history of evolutionary theory. Craig, K.D., S.A. Hyde, and C.J. Patrick. (Introduction by P. Ekam, and Appendix What remains in posterity’s eyes is a 1997. Genuine, suppressed, and faked by P. Prodger.) sanitized Darwin whose career seems facial behavior during exacerbation of Ekman, P. (editor). 1973. Darwin and facial quite un-Darwinian—no variation chronic low back pain. In Ekman, P., expression: a century of research in re- and selection, no trial and error, no and E. Rosenberg (editors), What the view. Academic Press, New York, NY. hits and misses. Yet I hope that this Face Reveals: Basic and Applied Studies Ekman, P. 2003. Introduction to emotions misperception will eventually enter of Spontaneous Expression Using the inside out:130 years after Darwin’s the the historical record as just another Facial Action Coding System (FACS), expression of the emotions in man and false idea that did not survive cultural pp. 161–177. Oxford University Press, animals. In Ekman, P., J.J. Campos, R.J. selection. This unjustified glorifica- New York, NY. Davidson, and F.B.M. de Waal (editors). tion of genius must be buried and Darwin, C. 1839. Journal of Researches into Annals of the New York Academy of Sci- fossilized along with the dinosaurs. the Natural History and Geology of the ences 1000:1–6. (p. 157.) Counties Visited during the Voyage of the Ekman, P., and E. Rosenberg. 1997. What H.M.S. Beagle. New Edition. D. Apple- the Face Reveals: Basic and Applied ton Publishing, New York, NY. Studies of Spontaneous Expression Us- Acknowledgments Darwin, C. 1859. The Origin of Species by ing the Facial Action Coding System I wish to thank Bert Thompson, Ph.D., Means of Natural Selection or the Preser- (FACS). Oxford University Press, New Clifford Lillo, MA, John Woodmorappe, vation of Favored Races in the Struggle for York, NY. MA, MS, George Howe, Ph.D., Jody Life. John Murray, London, UK. Gylseth, C.H., and L.O. Toverud. 2003. Allen and Emmett Williams, Ph.D., for Darwin, C. 1872a. The Origin of Species by Julia Pastrana: The Tragic Story of the their helpful comments on earlier drafts Means of Natural Selection or the Preser- Victorian Ape Woman. Sutton Press, of this manuscript. vation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Gloucestershire, UK. Life (6th edition). D. Appleton Publish- Hazlewood, N. 2001. Savage: the Life ing, New York, NY. and Times of Jemmy Button. Thomas References Darwin, C. 1872b. The Expression of Emo- Dunne Books/St. Martin’s Press, New Barrett, P.H., D.J. Weinshank, P. Ruhlen, and tions in Man and Animals. John Murray, York, NY. S.J. Ozminski (editors). 1987. A Concor- London, UK. Hedtke, R. 1983. The Secret of the Sixth Edi- dance to Darwin’s the Descent of Man, Darwin, C. 1896a. The Expression of Emo- tion. Vantage Press, New York, NY. and Selection in Relation to Sex. Cornell tions in Man and Animals: The Works Hull, D.L. 1999. Strategies in meme theory: University Press, Ithaca, NY. of Charles Darwin. Vol. 10. AMS Press, a commentary on Rose’s paper: con- Bayles, E.E., and R.W. Burnett. 1946. Biol- New York, NY. troversies in meme theory. Journal of ogy for Better Living. Silver Burdett, New Darwin, C. 1896b. The Variation of Animals Memetics: Evolutionary Models of Infor- York, NY. and Plants under Domestication. D. mation Transmission 3:1:1–23. Bergman, J. 1999. Darwinism and the Nazi Appleton Publishing, New York, NY. Huxley, T. 1915. Lay Sermons, Addresses, 178 Creation Research Society Quarterly

and Reviews. D. Appleton Publishing, Moody, P.A. 1953. Introduction to Evolution. E. (editors), What the Face Reveals: Basic New York, NY. Harper, New York, NY. and Applied Studies of Spontaneous Ex- Jones, S. 2000. Darwin’s Ghost: the Origin Peckham, M. (editor). 1959. The Origin of pression Using the Facial Action Coding of Species Updated. Random House, Species by Charles Darwin: A Variorum System (FACS), pp. 302–319. Oxford New York, NY. Text. University of Pennsylvania Press, University Press, New York, NY. Judson, H.F. 2004. The Great Betrayal: Fraud Philadelphia, PA. Schwartz, K., and J. Vogel. 1994. Unraveling in Science. Harcourt, Orlando, FL. Prodger, P. 1998. An Annotated Catalogue of the yarn of the Ancon sheep. Bioscience Keynes, R. 2003. Fossils, Finches and Fue- the Illustrations of Human and Animal 44:764–768. gians: Charles Darwin’s Adventures and Expression from the Collection of Charles Simonton, D.K. 1999. Origins of Genius: Discoveries on the Beagle, 1832–1836. Darwin: An Early Case of the Use of Pho- Darwinian Perspectives on Creativity. Harper Collins, London, UK. tography in Scientifi c Research. Edwin Oxford University Press, New York, NY. Lenoir, T. (editor). 1998. Inscribing Science: Mellen Press, Lewiston, NY. Weikart, R. 2004. From Darwin to Hitler: Scientifi c Texts and the Materiality of Rosenstein, D., and H. Oster. 1997. Differ- Evolutionary Ethics, Eugenics, and Rac- Communication. Stanford University ent facial responses to four basic tests in ism in Germany. Palgrave Macmillan, Press, Stanford, CA. newborns. In Ekman, P., and Rosenberg, New York, NY.

Book Review Secrets of the Ica Stones and Nazca Lines by Dennis Swift Self Published, 2006, 144 pages, $11.00.

[Book review editor’s note: The asser- that these artifacts go straight to the an adventure story. The primary focus tions in this book need further docu- jugular of the evolutionary, deep time is on the Ica Stones and secondarily on mentation. However, the Ica topic is of paradigm. Consequently evolutionists do the Nazca Lines. While the section on suffi cient interest to merit review.] everything they can to discredit this type the latter is interesting it serves primar- of evidence. Many creation apologists ily as collaborative evidence for the Recently I posed this question to a who have a diffi cult enough time getting Ica Stones.They are engraved highly leading creation science spokesman: a hearing would rather not be saddled carbonized andesites (p. 18) found in “Why do you think that some within the with defending this highly controversial pre-Columbian burial sites in central creation science community aren’t will- line of evidence. Peru ranging in size from four ounces ing or interested in using artifacts like Author Dennis Swift started out to 1000 pounds. Some 11,000 are the Paluxy tracks and the Ica Stones?” a skeptic (pp. 9, 10) and spent many housed in a museum in Ica, Peru. This His response was twofold. He mentioned years researching the Ica Stones and museum is part of a mansion owned by that this evidence seems almost “too other controversial artifacts. This book is the late Javier Cabrera Darrquera. The good” to be true. He also explained written in a laymen’s style and reads like engraved images on the stones include Volume 43, December 2006 179 truly amazing depictions. There are are “fossil memories” passed down the Swift also relates “a cluster of other humans peering through telescope- evolutionary lineage from our supposed independent discoveries [that] lends an like devices and magnifiers, ancient early mammalian ancestors, tens of mil- aura of legitimacy to the Ica Stones” (p. physicians performing brain surgery, lions of years ago, who were awe stricken 67). This cluster includes Ica-like dino- and other operations. The most amaz- by dinosaurs (pp. 11, 82). Cabrera put saur images on the Nazca Pampa (pp. ing stones are those that clearly show forth the notion that the stones were 98–99), recent excavated tombs with Ica ancient creatures including Triceratops, carved by high-tech protopeople who Stones (pp. 64–65), the Moche dragon/ Diplodocus, Stegosaurus, Apatosaurus, lived 70 million years ago with the di- dinosaur vases (pp. 77–80), Nazca burial Pterodactyls, and Tyranosaurids/Allo- nosaurs (p. 28). Filip Coppens theorizes mantles with dinosaur designs (pp. saurids. Some stones depict men riding that the stones are the work of native 117–120), the carved boulders (images dinosaurs and fighting them (see color shamans who picked up dinosaur bones of animals, humans and dinosaurs) of photo section). and entered a trance where they visited Toro Muerto (pp. 66–67) as well as The first historical reference to the the age of dinosaurs (p. 126). Others be- discoveries in other parts of the world stones is found in writings of a Jesuit lieve the stones were produced by those such as the human and dinosaur tracks priest named Father Simon in 1535 under the influence of hallucinogenic in Turkmenistan (pp 134–135). (p. 16). In 1562 Spanish explorers sent San Pedro Cactus drinks (pp. 58, 126). Swift’s conclusion, consistent with some of the stones back to Spain (pp. The most popular theory used by skep- creation science, is that the Ica Stone 17, 121). In more recent times several of tics of the stones is that they are modern engravers actually saw dinosaurs within the stones were unearthed by Cabrera’s forgeries produced by a poor Peruvian the last two to three millennia. Swift grandfather in 1906 (p. 122). In 1936 a peasant named Basilio Uchuya (p. 57). writes, “To say dinosaurs lived with man single stone was discovered by peasants Swift visited Basilio on four different is tantamount to shouting heresy in the near Ica. In 1955 the Soldi brothers, occasions. On one occasion, at Swift’s temple of Darwin” (p. 80). He con- Carlos and Pablo witnessed the excava- request, Basilio, using a broken hacksaw cludes, “evolutionism’s geologic column tion of stones buried with mummies blade produced a dinosaur engraving and fine tuned intellectual tower of time on their property near Ocucaje, Peru. on a stone (p. 62). Swift later took this with its yawning gap of sixty-five million These stones were tested and showed fake stone, an Ica Stone from Cabrera’s years between dinosaurs and man was “a thick layer of salt peter covering the collection and a newly discovered burial merely a myth. In fact, the only place main specimens which could not be stone from Rio Grande, Nazca and had this tower existed was in the mind of the explained except by the considerable them examined by Mason Optical Inc. evolutionist” (p. 137). passage of time” (p. 18). Pablo donated under a stereoscopic microscope (pp. This book lacks an index and has 114 of these stones to the Ica Regional 69–72). The analysis showed that the typographical errors. However, it de- Museum in 1967. In the late 1950s the fake stone was recent and the other two serves to be read within and without Callo Naval Museum acquired about were of “some age.” Swift details other the creation community. The Ica Stones 400 Ica stones (p. 123). Swift cites these scientific tests (pp. 18, 19, 129–32) that need reevaluation as hard evidence for and other examples of the stones from show the Ica stones are not recent forg- the creation worldview. the historical record (pp. 121–28). eries. Swift uses these tests and several Swift relates some of the theories on other lines of evidence to establish his Donald Ensign the history of the Ica Stones. Carl Sagan case that the stones are not recently [email protected] presented the idea that dragon legends concocted frauds. 180 Creation Research Society Quarterly

A Large Cliff Scarp Exposure of Beach-Nourished Sands Along the St. Andrew Bay Channel, Florida: Evidence for the Rapid Formation of Siliciclastic Stratigraphy

Carl R. Froede Jr.*

Abstract aturalists define Earth history from the stratigraphic record. Modern Nsettings and processes are used to construct the geologic column. Every sedimentary layer purports to convey the passage of time, usually immense periods, and the features within the sediments are used to explain their long depositional history. Conversely, the young-Earth creation/Flood framework proposes that the majority of the rock record is the result of the global Flood of Genesis. Support for this approach has come from highly energetic volcanic settings and laboratory studies of sedimentary deposition. Another setting offers additional supporting evidence for the Flood depositional framework. Beach nourishment activities along Florida’s coastline have been ongoing for many years. A nourished dune escarpment occurs along the western side of the St. Andrew Bay Channel at Panama City Beach, Florida. Along this side- wall, the siliciclastic sediments, bedding structures, and fossil content can be closely examined. This quartz-rich sand-particle-size material was naturally segregated and rapidly deposited into bed forms that correspond to siliciclastic strata observed in the rock record. This locale effectively demonstrates the rapid formation of siliciclastic strata within conditions likely analogous to the Flood.

Introduction only to be transported and recast to rock recognized within the uniformitarian Uniformitarian scientists contend that and eroded once again. We are told this stratigraphic record they are interpreted the rocks composing Earth’s crust convey rock cycle has been ongoing since this to have formed within a brief moment of the history of the planet. They believe planet began approximately 4.55 bil- time and are of a small scale. that the passage of eons of time is docu- lion years ago. While the deposition of Counter to this perspective is the mented by changes in life-forms within sediments can occur at varying rates, it is biblical understanding of Earth history the enclosing sediments. Sediments are usually inferred to have happen at a slow which suggests that the majority of the eroded from existing geologic materials and steady rate. While storm deposits are rock record formed during the global Flood of Genesis. During this large and convulsive event, sedimentary materials would have been naturally segregated * Carl R. Froede Jr., B.S., P.G., 2895 Emerson Lake Drive, and deposited by hydraulic forces dur- Snellville, GA 30078-6644 ing transport. Perhaps only short periods Accepted for publication: May 1, 2006 of time passed between the deposition Volume 43, December 2006 181 of successive strata and any changes in An eroded segment of a constructed larger-scale strata. What is required material composition is probably due to beach is exposed along the western side is an abundant supply of sedimentary differences in sediment source areas and of the St. Andrew Bay Channel (Panama materials transported in highly energetic associated materials. City Beach, Florida). The escarp- conditions that allow the separation and Any explanation of the rock record ment displays an unusual exposure of segregation of particulates and their is based in history and not empirical sci- manmade stratigraphy (Figure 1). This eventual deposition. ence. The formation of the rock record outcrop provides a cross-section through has already occurred and was not ob- siliciclastic sediments rapidly emplaced Rapid Formation of Strata served. Uniformitarian scientists invoke during high-energy beach nourishment within a Volcanic Setting modern settings and their sediments to activities. This setting corresponds to An active volcanic setting typically define and defend their construction of conditions expected during the Flood provides both the sediments and energy the global stratigraphic record. However, where abundant siliciclastic sediments (via eruptive conditions) necessary to young-Earth creationists point to the were eroded, transported, and deposited rapidly produce stratified sediments biblical record of catastrophism as a by highly energetic Floodwater. (Fisher and Schmincke, 1984). Deli- better way of understanding the develop- cate sedimentary structures, individual ment of the rock record. Further studies bed forms, and massive strata can all be of this approach can be enhanced by Examples of Rapid created almost instantaneously by wind contemporary examples of high-energy Stratification from the energy (e.g., pyroclastic surge deposits) processes yielding sedimentary products Field and Laboratory (Fisher and Schmincke, 1984; Cas and that directly correspond to the rock Studies indicate that sediments natu- Wright, 1988) or by mudflows (i.e., la- record. Only recently have examples rally segregate, forming layers based on hars) (Newhall and Punongbayan, 1996; come from volcanic settings and sedi- particle characteristics as wind, mud, Orton, 1996). mentological laboratory analyses. water, or even gravity transport them. Deposits derived from subaerial hy- Beach nourishment activities pro- Sedimentologists are learning that time droclastic to phreatomagmatic eruptions vide an additional setting that supports is not a critical factor in the production (i.e., combination of steam and magmat- the rapid formation of siliciclastic strata. of individual sediment layers or even ic powered eruptions) can exhibit planar bedding that can range from flat, parallel beds to steep cross-bedding. Structures developed in these types of volcanic deposits include penecontemporaneous soft sediment deformation, gas related vesicles, bedding sags, and mudcracks (Fisher and Schmincke, 1984). Pyroclas- tic flows and surges develop some of the best sedimentary bedding features associ- ated with volcanic eruptions (Nakada, 2000). These types of deposits were first recognized in rhyolitic strata in New Zealand (Marshall, 1935) and in pum- ice flows in Japan (Kuno, 1941). Later they were identified in association with underwater nuclear detonations at Bikini Atoll in 1947 (Fisher and Schmincke, 1984), and subsequently at numerous subaerial locations (Moore et al., 1966; Moore, 1967; Fisher and Waters, 1970; Schmincke et al., 1973; Crowe and Fisher, 1973). Bed forms derived from Figure 1. The area of beach nourishment is located on the western portion of the pyroclastic density currents include St. Andrew Bay Channel. This area is within St. Andrews State Park. Sand was sand waves, and massive and plane par- added to the beach in July/August, 2003. allel bedding (Fisher and Schmincke, 182 Creation Research Society Quarterly

1984). These types of deposits can also (Julien, 1995). This work tends to focus 1994). These findings are important exhibit fine-grained lamination and predominately on numerical modeling within the context of a biblical approach delicate bedding structures that are and less on actual field examples. As a to defining the rock record. Addition- produced almost instantaneously from result, the extrapolation of laboratory ally, this laboratory work has not been rapidly-moving volcanic ash and debris results to the field has not necessarily limited to the defense of the young-Earth clouds (Branney and Kokelaar, 2002). proceeded in a manner where immedi- creation/Flood framework, but has also In the past, these styles were thought ate application can be identified. How- been published in the secular geologic to be restricted to annual varves. The ever, some recent analytical modeling literature (Julien et al., 1993; Berthault, May 18, 1980 eruption of Mount St. was conducted that focused primarily on 2002a; 2002b). Helens produced variably-bedded and depositional results and its application to finely-laminated pyroclastic surge and the fluvial-deltaic setting is impressive flow deposits documented by both uni- (Berthault, 2004). Beach Nourishment formitarian (Hoblitt et al., 1981; Moore Several laboratory studies involving Activities along the and Sisson, 1981) and young-Earth sediment transport in water tanks have Western Side of the creation/Flood geologists (Austin, 1986; documented the natural segregation and St. Andrew Bay Channel 1991; Morris and Austin, 2003). These rapid deposition of sedimentary particles Much of Florida’s coastline is subject deposits demonstrate the natural segre- transported by moving water (Berthault, to ongoing erosion. Beach nourishment gation of particles in air under highly en- 1994). These studies demonstrate that activities occur in an effort to both pro- ergetic eruptive conditions and provide a vertical and lateral stratification occur at tect beach property and secure tourism. somewhat similar analogue to expected the same time and in a manner that ap- Typically, quartz sand is collected from sedimentary conditions associated with pears to contradict, if not violate several offshore source areas and is pumped the Flood of Genesis. (According to important key concepts in stratigraphy in a slurry onto the beach through Branney and Kokelaar (2002), stratified (e.g., stratigraphic correlation, law of large-diameter pipes (Figure 2). This materials formed under subaerial volca- superposition, and facies succession) process both elevates and extends the nic conditions do not exactly conform (Berthault, 1990; Julien and Berthault, beach shoreward in the nourished area. to deposits produced by water. Simple one-to-one comparisons between pyro- clastic flow and surge deposits to Flood deposited strata must be conducted with some caution.)

Laboratory Analysis of Rapid Particle Deposition and Strata Formation Sedimentology has largely developed from extensive field investigations. Numerous reference works contain summaries of these field-based studies (e.g., Reineck and Singh, 1980; Scholle and Spearing, 1982; Scholle et al., 1983; Allen, 1984; Reading, 1996; Friedman et al., 1992). More recently, there has been some effort to better link field studies to laboratory water tank and computerized models (e.g., Pye, 1994; McCaffrey et al., 2001). Much of the laboratory work in sedi- mentology is based on fluid mechanics Figure 2. Active beach nourishment along Panama City Beach, Florida. The im- specific to hydrodynamic forces related age is from January 2006, and shows the manner in which the sand-water slurry is to the transport of single particles, sus- pumped onto the beach. The water drains leaving sand deposited under energetic pensions, and hyperconcentrations aqueous conditions. The water-sand plume is approximately 8 ft in height. Volume 43, December 2006 183

The western side of the St. Andrew Bay Channel beach was nourished in 2003. The added quartz sand contained a minor fraction of mud clasts and inver- tebrate shell material. In many instances following sand emplacement, a small scarp is initiated at the shoreline due to disequilibrium. This scarp usually does not develop to any significant elevation (typically less than one yard) as the beach slope changes to maintain its stability to the shoreline. However, hurricanes and other large tropical storm systems can dramatically change conditions; large escarpments can rapidly form due to elevated storm surges and storm waves. This was first recognized and reported following scarp development associated with Hurricane Ivan (Froede, 2006). Figure 3. The cliff scarp exposed in January 2006. Three hurricanes did significant Two subsequent hurricanes passed damage to the new beach deposits by removing large volumes of sand from along to the west of this study site in 2005, the shoreline. This resulted in the formation of the lengthy cliff scarp that varies Hurricane Dennis (July 10, 2005), and in elevation up to 12.5 ft. Hurricane Katrina (August 29, 2005). These storms produced storm surges be- tween 3.0 and 5.5 ft that further eroded the nourished beach sand. The resulting escarpment is approximately 3,200 ft long and as high as 12.5 ft (Figure 3). One could envision a great variety of coastal depositional settings if this outcrop was examined through an un- informed perspective. Foremost would be the presumption that sea level was higher in this area in the past as these are aqueous deposits. Examining the strata along the escarpment sidewall, one would then note the work of chang- ing tides (Figure 4) and wave-derived features (Figure 5). Lag deposits of mud clasts (now rolled into mud balls) and shells would appear to indicate chan- nel deposits (Figure 6). However, this outcrop of siliciclastic sediments and fossils presents in dramatic form the natural segregation of materials in an energized fluid. Figure 4. These siliciclastic sediments could be interpreted as reflective of wave- The rapid manner in which these derived bedforms associated with tidal water movement. However, they were sediments were deposited forming rapidly emplaced in a sand and water slurry. Scale in inches and centimeters. bedding indicative of daily coastal This image was taken on January, 2006. processes, demonstrates the ease of 184 Creation Research Society Quarterly

understanding siliciclastic strata within both the perspectives of uniformitarian and young-Earth/Flood interpretations. Uniformitarian scientists look to modern settings and uniform processes to explain strata. However, these strata can also form quickly under highly energetic conditions analogous to the Flood.

Conclusions The reconstruction of Earth history is either derived from an interpretation of its sediments or from Scripture. Natural- ists invoke modern settings and processes and project them backward over billions of years to explain the stratigraphic re- cord. The biblical framework invokes a completely different interpretation re- Figure 5. The weakly cemented siliciclastic sediments exposed along the cliff scarp quiring high-energy processes operating reveal bedforms created from high-energy beach nourishment. Without knowing over very short periods of time, little of the history of these deposits, they could be interpreted as reflective of Pleistocene which can be demonstrated by modern deposits formed under uniformitarian processes. Scale in six-inch divisions. This settings. Young-Earth creationists look image was taken on January, 2006. for special conditions and settings that can be used to demonstrate the forma- tion of strata within the time-restricted requirements of our framework. Most of these studies have come from volcanic environs and water tank experiments. Along the western side of the ship channel leading into St. Andrew Bay, beach nourishment activities delivered sand, mud clasts, and invertebrate shells from a sand-water slurry in an aqueous manner similar to expected highly ener- getic conditions associated with the glob- al Flood (i.e., Flood Event Timeframe) (Froede, 1995; 1998). The sedimentary details and bedding structures exhibited at the escarpment are surprising consid- ering the energetic conditions in which these siliciclastic sediments were origi- nally deposited. The resulting bed forms and strata are similar to those found in a variety of modern day aqueous coastal settings ranging from subtidal offshore Figure 6. Mudballs and shells lie within a former drainage channel. They could to nearshore. be incorrectly interpreted as lag deposits within a pre-existing tidal channel. It is This outcrop demonstrates that not surprising that lag deposits like these can rapidly form and still convey two siliciclastic sedimentary bedding and competing worldviews, one purely naturalistic and the other based on Scripture. structures can form quickly as a result Scale in inches and centimeters. of highly energetic geologic forces. Volume 43, December 2006 185

The separation and segregation of the of the Third International Conference on Hoblitt, R.P., C.D. Miller, and J.W. Val- transported materials occurred natu- Creationism, pp. 103–110. Creation Sci- lance. 1981. Origin and stratigraphy rally, forming features ranging from the ence Fellowship, Pittsburgh, PA. of the deposit produced by the May 18 delicate to the massive. Time was not Berthault, G. 2002a. Geological dating directed blast. In Lipman, P.W. and D.R. important in the creation of these strati- principles questioned, paleohydraulics: Mullineaux (editors), The 1980 eruptions fied deposits, though it is essential in a new approach. Journal of Geodesy and of Mount St. Helens, Washington, pp. the uniformitarian framework. It is the Geodynamics 22:19–26. 401–419. Geological Survey Professional worldview used to interpret the strata Berthault, G. 2002b. Analysis of main prin- Paper 1250, Washington, D.C. that makes a difference—not the strata. ciples of stratigraphy on the basis of ex- Julien, P.Y. 1995. Erosion and Sedimenta- The rapid segregation of siliciclastic perimental data. Lithology and Mineral tion. Cambridge University Press, New sediments is not surprising, and is pre- Resources 37:442–446. York, NY. dicted within the Flood framework. An Berthault, G. 2004. Sedimentological inter- Julien, P.Y., Y. Lan, and G. Berthault. escarpment along the western side of the pretation of the Tonto Group stratigraphy 1993. Experiments on stratification St. Andrew Bay Channel allows exami- (Grand Canyon Colorado River). Lithol- of heterogeneous sand mixtures, Bul- nation of strata having an appearance of ogy and Mineral Resources 39:480–484. letin of the Geological Society of France age, but that were rapidly formed during Branney, M.J., and P. Kokelaar. 2002. Pyro- 164:649–660. recent beach nourishment activities. clastic density currents and the sedimen- Julien, P.Y., Y. Lan, and G. Berthault. 1994. tation of ignimbrites. Geological Society Experiments on stratification of hetero- Memoir No. 27, Geological Society of geneous sand mixtures. Creation Ex Acknowledgments London, Bath, UK. Nihilo Technical Journal 8:37–50. I am grateful for the constructive reviews Cas, R.A.F., and J.V. Wright. 1988. Volcanic Kuno, H. 1941. Characteristics of deposits provided by A. Jerry Akridge and the Successions: Modern and Ancient. Chap- formed by pumice flows and those anonymous reviewers. My wife Susan man & Hall. New York, NY. formed by ejected pumice. Tokyo Uni- kindly allowed me the opportunity to Crowe, B.M., and R.V. Fisher. 1973. Sedi- versity Earthquake Research Institute conduct fieldwork, research, and write mentary structures in base-surge deposits Bulletin 19:144–149. this article. Any mistakes that may re- with special reference to cross-bedding, Marshall, P. 1935. Acid rocks of the Taupo- main are my own. Glory to God in the Ubehebe Craters, Death Valley, Califor- Rotorua volcanic district. Transactions highest! (Prov. 3:5–6). nia. Geological Society of America Bul- of the Royal Society of New Zealand letin 84:663–682. 64:323–366. Fisher, R.V., and A.C. Waters. 1970. Base McCaffrey, W.D., B.C. Kneller, and J. Peak- References surge bed forms in maar volcanoes. Amer- all (editors). 2001. Particulate Gravity Allen, J.R.L. 1984. Sedimentary Structures: ican Journal of Science 268:157–180. Currents. Special Publication 31, Inter- Their Character and Physical Basis. Vol. Fisher, R.V., and H.U. Schmincke. 1984. national Association of Sedimentologists, 1 & 2 of Developments in Sedimentol- Pyroclastic Rocks. Springer-Verlag, New Blackwell Science, Malden, MA. ogy series. Elsevier, New York, NY. York, NY. Moore, J.G. 1967. Base surge in recent volca- Austin, S.A. 1986. Mount St. Helens and Friedman, G.M., J.E. Sanders, and D.C. nic eruptions. Bulletin of Volcanologique catastrophism. In Walsh, R.E. (editor), Kopaska-Merkel. 1992. Principles of 30:337–363. Proceedings of the First International Sedimentary Deposits: Stratigraphy Moore, J.G., K. Nakamura, and A. Alcaraz. Conference on Creationism (Vol. 1), and Sedimentology. Macmillan, New 1966. The 1965 eruption of Taal Vol- pp. 3–9. Creation Science Fellowship, York, NY. cano. Science 151:955–960. Pittsburgh, PA. Froede, C.R., Jr. 1995. A proposal for a cre- Moore, J.G., and T.W. Sisson. 1981. Deposits Austin, S.A. 1991. Mount St. Helens: A Slide ationist geological timescale. Creation and effects of the May 18 pyroclastic Collection for Educators. Geology Edu- Research Society Quarterly 32:90–94. surge. In Lipman, P.W. and D.R. Mul- cational Materials, El Cajon, CA. Froede, C.R., Jr. 1998. Field Studies in Cata- lineaux (editors). The 1980 Eruptions Berthault, G. 1990. Sedimentation of a strophic Geology. Technical Monograph of Mount St. Helens, Washington, pp. heterogranular mixture: experimental No. 7. Creation Research Society Books, 421–438. Geological Survey Professional lamination in still and running wa- Chino Valley, AZ. Paper 1250, Washington, D.C. ter. Creation ex Nihilo Tech Journal Froede, C.R., Jr. 2006. The rapid formation Morris, J., and S.A. Austin. 2003. Footprints 3:25–29. of siliciclastic stratigraphy: an example in the Ash: The Explosive Story of Mount Berthault, G. 1994. Experiments in stratifica- from Panama City Beach, Florida (USA). St. Helens. Master Books, Green For- tion. In Walsh, R.E. (editor), Proceedings Journal of Creation 20(2):61–64. est, AR. 186 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Nakada, S. 2000. Hazards from pyroclastic http://co-ops.nos.noaa.gov/data_retrieve. Boston, MA. flows and surges. In Sigurdsson, H. shtml?input_code=000111111vwl&st Reineck, H.E., and I.B. Singh. 1980. Depo- (editor). Encyclopedia of Volcanoes, pp. ation=8729210-PanamaCityBeach,FL sitional Sedimentary Environments (2nd 945–955. Academic Press, New York, (January 30, 2006). edition). Springer-Verlag, New York, NY. Orton, G.J. 1996. Volcanic environments. NY. Newhall, C.G., and R.S. Punongbayan In Reading, H.G. (editor). Sedimen- Scholle, P.A., D.G. Bebout, and C.H. (editors). 1996. Fire and Mud: Eruptions tary Environments: Processes, Facies, and Moore. 1983. Carbonate Depositional and Lahars of Mount Pinatubo, Philip- Stratigraphy, pp. 485–567. Blackwell Environments. Memoir 33. American pines. University of Washington Press, Science, Cambridge, MA. Association of Petroleum Geologists, Seattle, WA. Pye, K. 1994. Sediment Transport and Depo- Tulsa, OK. NOAA-NOS/CO-OPS. 2006. Station sitional Processes. Blackwell Scientifi c, Scholle, P.A., and D. Spearing. 1982. information for Panama City Florida, Boston, MA. Sandstone Depositional Environments. FL, National Ocean Service Center Reading, H.G. (editor). 1996. Sedimen- Memoir 31. American Association of for Operational Oceanographic Prod- tary Environments: Processes, Facies Petroleum Geologists, Tulsa, OK. ucts and Services, Accessed from: and Stratigraphy. Blackwell Science,

Book Review The Coming Wrath by John Reed Mabbul Publishing, Evans, GA, 2005, 380 pages, $10.00.

�������� �������� Geologist her when she woke from her frightening Creator. She expresses well the attitude of ������������ John Reed has an dreams. One day, much to her horror, the times: “He (Noah) is a good man, but unsuspected talent for writing. His her mother never returned from a swim. Father (Pomoralac) thinks that he expects novel stretches from about one hundred Madrazi buried her grief by focusing her too much of people. He and his grandfather years before Noah’s fl ood to the event itself energies on learning shipbuilding and speak much of doing good and loving the and beyond. The book has a very engaging navigation. Many years later the purpose Creator, but most men wish to pursue and believable plot, excellent character of Methuselah’s visit became apparent. He happiness, profi t, and peace without excess development, and a heart-rending climax. once again made the long journey from religious restraint.” Through the years the It is my hope that this will not be the last Lamech to the port but this time it was to rebellion against God grew into full bloom. of his books. offer an arranged marriage to her cousin, Jared the young General of Lamech, The book opens with Madrazi looking Shem. The love and trust Madrazi had for became convinced he needed to protect back over her adventure-fi lled life. She this kind man encouraged her to accept. the city. Against Noah and Methuselah’s was born to a shipping family and grew After her marriage, Noah told her of his wishes, he developed the military into a up in a lovely home by the sea. Her father meeting with God and the coming wrath. fighting machine instead of trusting in Pomorolac developed and ran a successful He invited her to participate with the fam- God’s protection. Wars brought unbridled maritime trade. Through experience he ily in building the ark. Although she loved ambition and a lust for violence among his learned how to design ships, discovered them all, she could not and would not men. Jared’s own love for power and rec- how to use ocean currents to his advan- accept the prophecy as true. She realized ognition led him into an unsuspected trap. tage, and learned to navigate using the all of her hopes for living in the city had to Madrazi’s once peaceful existence turned stars. Madrazi loved learning her father’s be put on hold until the prophecy proved into a time of great fear. This is a story of trade but feared the sea. From the time her false. Meanwhile, she lived in apparent love, betrayal, war, and the Wrath and, ulti- grandfather Methuselah visited, Madrazi obedience to Shem and his father as she mately, a time of decision for Madrazi. struggled with a frightening dream about struggled with God. a huge tsunami swallowing her along with Madrazi’s account traces the growing Beverly Oard the land. Her mother was able to comfort rebellion of mankind against worship of the [email protected] Volume 43, December 2006 187

Mammals, Mammal-like Reptiles, Shared Features, and Origins

Both the pouched mammals (marsupi- lutrasimilis. This fossil has a modern skin References als) and the egg-laying mammals (mono- structure and is therefore mammalian in CRSQ: Creation Research Society Quar- tremes) possess a number of reptile-like nature. But it also has some mammal- terly features. All marsupials are born with a like reptile features such as overlapping Brown, C. 1987. The law of symmetric varia- reptile-like articular-quadrate jaw joint. ribs (Hecht, 2006, p. 16). Overlapping tion and the gene-theme model. CRSQ Some marsupials are even born with ribs, however, are not found in the 24:75–80. a caruncle structure, which in mono- “advanced” mammal-like reptiles but Brown, C. 1998. Did certain members of tremes functions in breaking out of the are seen in the so-called “primitive” the order Marsupialia lay eggs? CRSQ eggshell. Marsupials and monotremes mammal-like reptiles. The condition 36:39. go through a shell-like embryonic stage of overlapping ribs creates a signifi cant Brown, C. 1999. The principle of symmetric persisting up to the last third of their gap between the primitive mammal- variation as it relates to silent mutations. development (Brown, 1998). Do these like reptiles and mammals themselves, CRSQ 36:100. traits indicate that in the past some which supports the idea that all features Hecht, I. 2006. Jurassic “beaver” is new fossil marsupials laid eggs? If certain ancient found in all mammals are mammalian record. New Scientist 189:16. marsupials did lay eggs, they still simply in origin—even features that have been Kermack, K.A., F. Mussett, and H. Rignacy. would have been mammals that laid eggs judged primitive or “reptilian.” 1981. The skull of Morganucodon. and had a reptile-like jaw joint. The brain cells of early mammals Zoological Journal of Linnaean Society Monotremes have an organ called shared certain features with “primitive” 71:1–14. the lagenar macula in the ear. It is found mammalian reptiles, features not pres- Rich. H.T., J.A. Hopson, A.M. Musser, T.F. in no other creatures except reptiles. ent in “advanced” mammal-like reptiles Flannery, and P. Vickers-Rich. 2005. The egg-laying spiny anteater is a mono- (Kermack, Mussett, and Rignacy, 1981, Independent origin of middle ear bones treme, having in its adrenal gland a type p. 3). This is another case showing that in monotremes and therians. Science of cell and a cell arrangement similar all reptile-like features in any mammal 307:910–914. to what is present in the monitor lizard. were either its property since Creation Examination of these features in both or may have been produced from its Colin Brown monotremes and marsupials, however, genetic potential since Creation. They 61 Derby Road shows that each is still mammalian in do not support or demand an evolution Golborne, Warrington that adrenal gland characteristic (Brown, of mammals from reptiles. WA3-3LE England, UK 1987). A possible monotreme jaw dated at This arrangement of cells in the 115 mya has been found and given the adrenal gland of the spiny anteater is name Teinophos trusleri. This jaw has not present in the duck-billed platypus, what is known as a “trough,” in which another monotreme. So, perhaps the a few reptile-like bones may have been Creator created this adrenal cell feature present (Rich, et al., 2005). Here again, in the anteater, but not in the platypus. mammals of the past and of the present Or perhaps the platypus has lost this can have reptile-like features of varying condition since the time of Creation. sorts and yet all are still quite mamma- Another possibility is that the cell feature lian in origin and nature—having no arose from the gene pool of the spiny evolutionary connection with reptiles. anteater since Creation. A newly discovered mammal dated Acknowledgments: I thank George at l64 million years ago (mya) by evolu- Howe for editorial assistance and com- tionists is given the name Castoroccauda puter typing. 188 Creation Research Society Quarterly

When Time Runs Out for Evolution from a Fish (Tiktaalik) to Tetrapods

A recently discovered fossil lobe-fi nned ent way of breathing. The fi ns, while Therefore, at 375 to 380 mya there fi sh called Tiktaalik has been given a big clearly being those of a fi sh, are said to already may have been tetrapods, leav- fanfare as being a missing link between have been able to push the fi sh up and ing no time for Tiktaalik to have served fi sh and tetrapods (Holmes, 2006). The down (Holmes, 2006). as any kind of “link” between fi sh and uniformitarian age given to this fossil is The mud-skipper is an extant fi sh tetrapods in Devonian rocks! Any shared 375 million years ago (mya), however, from the mangrove swamps of South- features between fi sh and tetrapods are which means Holmes’s claim that it east Asia. It has mobile eyes, which are not the result of evolution but are the was a missing link must be discarded. situated at the top of its head and give outcome of creation. All features in Current evolutionary claims for fossil it the look of being “amphibianlike.” It both fi sh and tetrapods were created tetrapods range from 365 to 380 mya and must not be forgotten, however, that the or else have come through the genetic may even extend farther back (Brown, mud-skipper has a different way of hold- potential resident in each life-form—or 2006). ing oxygen and also has a wristlike fi n on perhaps something of both (Brown, The head of Tiktaalik is said to have which it can move up and down in the 1996; 2002). been mobile, and it does not appear to water or climb upon nearby vegetation. have gill coverings normally seen in fi sh. This certainly must surpass anything Tik- Acknowledgments: I wish to thank Gill coverings help fi sh fan the water to taalik could have done. And yet we know George Howe for editorial assistance maximize available oxygen. This fi sh the particulars about the mud-skipper’s and computer typing. may have had, to some extent, a differ- family, showing that it has not evolved into any other kind of life-form. This References could likewise be the case with Tiktaalik, CRSQ: Creation Research Society Quar- negating the evolutionary conclusions of terly Holmes (2006). He has speculated that Brown, C. 1996. Devonian fi sh, amphib- Tiktaalik demonstrates that there were ians, and the gene-theme model. CRSQ not just one or two big leaps from fi sh to 33:13–15. tetrapods, but that the process required Brown, C. 2002. Genetics and the origin of There already may have a vast evolutionary time period. similar features. CRSQ 39:57–58. At 370 to 373 mya in the speculative Brown, C. 2006. Devonian fi sh and tetrapods been tetrapods, leaving evolutionary dating scheme, there were support creation—not evolution. CRSQ already two tetrapods (Brown, 2006). 43:55. no time for Tiktaalik One of them, Elginerpeton, showed signs Holmes, B. 2006. The fi sh that headed for of having lived in the water previously, land. New Scientist 190:14. to have served as any and then it appears to have come out on to land, following which it is supposed Colin Brown to have gone back into the water once 61 Derby Road kind of “link” between more. All of this would have required Golborne, Warrington millions of years of evolutionary time. England, UK, WA3-3LE fish and tetrapods Thus the tetrapods Elginerpeton and Obruchevichys would each reach back in Devonian rocks. to the 375 mya evolutionary date, if not farther. Volume 43, December 2006 189

The Age of the Universe

Editor’s comment. One of my commit- of both biblical and natural revelation, I provided, or brought forth, or put into ments for CRSQ is to allow creationists wanted to carefully study the Book itself execution, or set in order, or produced, to discuss various points of disagreement. (with linguistic helps), avoiding reliance or performed, or did two great lights Many readers of CRSQ will likely disagree on prior interpretations that could mis- and the stars for signs and seasons on with Mr. Gray’s position and reasoning. direct the search for meaning. day four. He created them before day However, a courteous and well-reasoned Second, Mr. Lillo makes brief refer- one (and that is so stated). If the transla- discourse on these areas of disagreement ence to Job 38, where God Himself de- tion “made” is preferred, then note that can be profi table for any creation model. clares that at the foundation and birth of God “made” the dry land on day three the earth, “I made the clouds its garment, by simply uncovering it (cf. Jonah 1:9). and thick darkness its swaddling band (or On day four God completed the thin- Clifford Lillo’s review of my book, diaper)” (v. 9 NKJV). Well, was there, or ning of the “cloud of thick darkness” to The Age of the Universe: What Are the was there not such an enveloping cloud? transparency. I agree that the six literal Biblical Limits? (CRSQ March, 2006, It is called the “waters that were above the days of Genesis, including day four, p. 227), while unapproving, was fair- raqia” in Genesis 1:7. A “fi rst day” is not occurred less than 8000 years ago, but minded and distortion free. However, possible while darkness prevails “on the they reveal the creation of the biosphere I don’t see his arguments against the surface of the ocean,” and this changes only. The definitions for shamayin, book’s thesis as convincing. everything. “The earth was barren, with eretz, and yam are supplied for us with First, he notes that the arguments no form of life; it was under a roaring utter clarity as air, land, and sea by God are not new. Actually, I am pleased ocean covered with darkness” (Gen. 1:2 Himself within the six-day context of that they are not, although my work CEV). Determine how long darkness Genesis 1 and therefore must be applied was not derived from earlier writers but continued over the ocean surface, and to Exodus 20:11. Verse 1 is outside the rather from direct biblical research. I this will determine how old the earth is. six-day context. deliberately avoided the commentators Biblically, it could have been two weeks Third, the reviewer acknowledges until after completion of the framework, or two billion years before God thinned that “how Adam and the people of although, of course, I knew many of the that thick cloud to translucence for day his time could see stars remains to be conventional views in a cursory sort of one. Like the heaven of stars in Genesis solved,” but he takes refuge in “the suc- way. Since then, readers have alerted me 1:1, the age of the planet is not defi ned. cess of the RATE project,” which he says to similarities with several earlier writers, Venus and Titan are clouded today and will bolster their faith. Well, I attended such as Jameison, Faussett and Brown, probably have never had a completely the RATE II debut, November, 2005, Halley, et al. I had not even heard of the clear “fi rst day.” In a limited way they without any sense of bolstered faith ex- McClintock and DeLuc position, refer- illustrate earth under perpetual darkness cept with radiocarbon 14, which, if veri- enced by Mr. Lillo, until I read his book before day one. fi ed, clearly does confi rm a recent global review. Evidently all these sources treat The reviewer assumes the traditional fl ood of Genesis 7 (without accelerated the young biosphere view incompletely young earth view that the sun was cre- decay). That report did support the Bible and with only brief references. The Age ated on day four as stated in Genesis. and recent fl ood geology, but, unless of the Universe: What Are the Biblical My book shows that it is not so stated in I missed something, they neglected Limits? advocates a much more coherent Genesis. It rather challenges and tests to mention at the conference that in model with every objection satisfactorily that assumption and interpretation. It explaining isotope ratios by accelerated addressed. Ignoring previous work might is true that God “did” the great lights decay, the heat generated in the time be wrong procedure if pursuing a re- and stars for signs, seasons, days, and frame suggested calculates to vaporize search paper on isotopes or geology, but years on day four. This very loose verb the plutons and batholiths! “Solving” in the quest for the model of origins that can be translated dozens of ways (74 in one problem appears to have generated would best refl ect the intended witness KJV). God arranged, or established, or a far more diffi cult problem. The RATE 190 Creation Research Society Quarterly

II book and Dr. DeYoung’s abridged decay nor gravitational time dilation has ationists that is a minority viewpoint; version makes brief references to these been verifi ed scientifi cally, certainly not however, truth is not determined by (and other equally diffi cult problems), biblically; but even if they would be, it a show of hands (witness Copernicus, but most auditors would have the same would not change the interpretation of Luther, Bretz, Jeremiah, and a multitude reaction that Mr. Lillo had, namely, Genesis. throughout history). bolstered faith in a 6000-year-old planet I thank the reviewer for a fair ap- For the quest of wisdom and effec- Earth and universe. praisal, but he concludes (bolstered by tiveness in apologetics, I ask readers to From the young biosphere perspec- his confi dence in RATE II): “It is this consider chapter 1 of my book on the tive, trusting in RATE II and gravita- writer’s opinion that Gray will continue web at ageoftheuniverse.com and pro- tional time dilation may be “trusting in to fi nd himself in the minority.” In the ceed from there to the whole picture. the staff of this broken reed, Egypt, on short term, he is probably correct. I hear This issue is worthy of a healthy, friendly, which if a man leans, it will go into his that at the Council on Biblical Iner- thorough debate. hand and pierce it” (Isaiah 36:6 NKJV). rancy, only one scholar was supportive RATE II and time stretching during of the young-earth model of origins. I am Gorman Gray the six days might fi nally become our a biblical literalist (as certainly as Ken 931 15th Street “Egypt,” crushed by the hard facts, and Ham or the late Henry Morris), except Washougal, WA 98671-1209 these theories may then prove to be red- from Scripture I cannot justify putting (360) 835-8361 herring distractions. Neither accelerated a date on Genesis 1:1. Yes, among cre- [email protected]

Observations on Creationist Literature

Originally I intended to write this letter model is a viable working model and “constants” are held at the values to TJ Journal (I certainly will miss read- is being abandoned far too quickly. where the surface temperature is ing the insightful and thought provoking The science may not support it as yet minimized simultaneously and the articles), but unfortunately it is no longer (the Vardiman model; see Batten et al., albedo effect at the top of the clouds in print. So I write to you that you might 2000), but I think the biblical support in the canopy be included to deter- be able to provide explanations/clarifi ca- is there. Of course, the assumptions mine the maximum amount of water tions. (Editor’s Note: The former journal of the Vardiman vapor canopy model vapor the canopy can hold. It is also TJ is now Journal of Creation, printed by are obviously a major starting point. In recommended that the complete Creation Ministries International, Eight his book Climates Before and After the relationship between cloud thick- Mile Plains, QLD, Australia.) Flood, Larry Vardiman (2001) discusses ness, cloud base height, and vertical I would like to express my concerns/ several options to explore. temperature profiles be explored observations of some of the creationist Although this result is disappoint- farther. Three dimensional global literature I have been reading. I have ing for advocates of a vapor canopy, circulation models (GCMs) should come across several points that have the story may not yet be complete. be used to simulate the affect of raised questions for me. I am not an It is possible that the high albedo varying the albedo and solar zenith expert on these things and may not produced at the top of a cloud layer angle under the canopy. GCMs have all the facts straight. I certainly do in the canopy may reduce the fl ux are designed to compute the global not have fi rsthand knowledge but only of radiation into the canopy and at- circulation caused by varying three what I have read (which means I have to mosphere greatly reducing heating. dimensional patterns of albedo and take the word of the authors and make This effect was not included in the solar geometry. a decision), so I will bring up the top- simulations by Vardiman and Bous- If these efforts fail to permit ics. These concerns are: (1) the vapor selot [formerly Spelman] (1998) ex- a sizable quantity of water to be canopy model, (2) the second law of cept possibly through the reduction maintained in the canopy, then thermodynamics, (3) plate tectonics, and in solar canopy. The albedo changes consideration should be given to ex- (4) the starlight–time problem. modeled were only due to those ef- ploring canopies in orbits above the fects at the surface of the earth. atmosphere where thermodynamic The Vapor Canopy Model It is recommended that a simu- considerations do not constrain the First of all, I think the vapor canopy lation be conducted where all fi ve quantity of water. (p. 21.) Volume 43, December 2006 191

I think there are at least three op- ment, and divided the waters which were model puts the water above the second tions that can be explored. The first under the fi rmament from the waters heaven (universe), and that will be ad- mentioned by Vardiman is placing which were above the fi rmament: and it dressed later. the vapor canopy above the present was so. And God called the fi rmament There are other indications that atmosphere, which certainly fi ts within Heaven…Thus the heavens and the earth support a vapor canopy idea. One is the what the Bible says in placing the waters were fi nished, and all the host of them.” longevity of people pre-Flood versus above the fi rmament (Gen.1:7). In the (Gen. 1:7–8; 2:1 KJV). The question is post-Flood. There are only three gen- Defender’s Study Bible in his notes on which heaven is the water around? From erations that can be compared—Noah verse 1:7 Morris (1995) says, my understanding, the word “Heaven” (lived 950 years), Shem (lived 600 years), The “waters which were above the in 1:8 and 2:1 is the same word, except and Arphachshad (lived 433years). Noah fi rmament” are clearly not the clouds in 2:1 it has the term “the” in front of it lived before and after the Flood and he or the vapor which now fl oat in the (shamayim vs. hashamayim). Since there lived 950 years, but most of his life was atmosphere. The Hebrew word is no difference between the word for before the Flood (600 years). Shem lived al, defi nitely requires the meaning heaven (singular) and heavens (plural), before and after the Flood and he lived “above.” then we have to make a choice as to 600 years, but most of his life was after The second option is somehow which “heaven” the Bible is referring the Flood (502 years). That is a con- combining the ecological system with to. That brings up another question as to siderable difference for one generation this model. If the earth’s surface before how many heavens there are. I think Paul considering the average pre-Flood age the fl ood had a higher percentage of answers that for us when he was taken up was over 900 years (excluding Enoch). land exposed at the surface (presently to the “third heaven” (II Cor. 12:2). What Also, Shem and his wife were born pre- it is approximately 1/3 land and 2/3 wa- are the three heavens? They are: (1) the Flood, so their children probably did not ter), there would be more plants, which atmosphere, (2) the universe, and (3) the face the bottleneck of the gene pool that would reduce carbon dioxide in the place of God’s throne and where Christ took place after the Flood. Their son, atmosphere which could possibly reduce dwells right now (Luke 23:43). Of course Arphachshad, lived 433 years, which is the excess heat. I would think that this this is one interpretation, but I think it less than half the pre-Flood life span. would be exceedingly complicated, but certainly fi ts. So which heaven is spoken The generations after this were affected it could certainly have an effect. of in Genesis 1:7–8? In Morris’s (1995) by the gene pool bottleneck of only 6 The third option involves looking study Bible his note on 1:7 says, people, but even then people were living at the phrase “windows of heaven” in The “waters which were above over 400 years for two more generations Genesis 7:11 and 8:2. Just what does the fi rmament” are clearly not the after Arphachshad. It is obvious that the Bible imply here? Could it be that clouds or the vapor which now fl oat there was something different between the windows of heaven were acting as in the atmosphere. The Hebrew the pre-Flood and post-Flood earth. Pe- vents, letting the heat out of the atmo- word al, definitely requires the ter says that “the world that then was, be- sphere in the days before the Flood and meaning “above.” Furthermore, the ing overfl owed with water, perished” (II this upward fl ow of air was keeping the absence of rain (Genesis 2:5) and the Pet. 3:6 KJV). One of the major changes “windows” closed? This may be more of rainbow (Genesis 9:13) is not only was the different environment in which a whim than fact, but is it possible? explained but required by a vapor they were living. The environment isn’t It seems to me that making an adjust- canopy, not by an atmosphere like the only factor of course, but it certainly ment with these ideas in mind could that of the present. Furthermore, is a major contributing one. make a significant difference in the these waters extending far out into Another indication that supports the outcome and that more water could be space eventually condensed and fell vapor canopy is the physical evidence of held above instead of the maximum of back to the earth at the time of the a more uniform, worldwide temperature. 6 or 7 feet currently quoted (Batten et Great Deluge, providing the source “The most signifi cant of these Biblical al., 2000, p.174). of the worldwide rainstorm that inferences is that of a universally warm Second, and more importantly, I contributed to the Flood. Although climate, with ample moisture for abun- think that there is good support from the the exact extent and structure of this dant plant and animal life. It is signifi - Bible and other areas of science indicat- canopy is still being researched by cant that fossil remains everywhere in ing that there was a vapor canopy. The computer simulations, there are no the world and throughout the geologic most obvious is the different conditions insuperable scientifi c problems with column testify to just such a condition” mentioned before and after the Flood. In the concept. (Whitcomb and Morris, 1961, p. 243). the creation week, “God made the fi rma- I am aware that the Humphreys Plate tectonics supposedly has an answer 192 Creation Research Society Quarterly to this uniform temperature, and it will really noticing. When the Israelites were My logic may not be perfect, and be discussed later. walking, evidently the friction between I am not trying to be dogmatic, but I In Batten et al. (2000) these ideas are the ground and shoe necessary to move certainly think it is legitimate to state disputed from the Bible, as the conten- was suspended; if not, the shoe would that the second law of thermodynamics tion is that there was rain and rainbows not have lasted the 40-year wanderings. did not start until after the Fall. before the Flood and that we should not Adam certainly could have been walk- be dogmatic about these things—which ing under the same principles that the Plate Tectonics certainly goes both ways. It certainly is Israelites were for that 40-year period. When I was in college in the mid-70s I plausible that there was no rain on the Are the other objections mentioned learned about plate tectonics. I wasn’t earth before the Flood, as the Bible any different? God sustains us and the convinced then and I am even less says, “But a mist used to rise from the universe now, and He could easily have convinced now. What was my initial earth and water the whole surface of the sustained us and the universe then by roadblock to plate tectonics? It was and ground.” (Gen. 2:6 NASB). It certainly completely different processes than the is the New Madrid fault. I live in Mem- would not be a special sign if rainbows ones we see today. That doesn’t mean phis, Tennessee, approximately 35 miles were on the earth prior to the Flood. it was miraculous; it means there were from the southern leg of this fault. It is I think that the vapor canopy model different laws of science. in the middle of the “North American is the best explanation I have read for the Furthermore, if the second law was Plate,” miles and miles from any subduc- pre-Flood conditions of the earth. not in effect, then everything worked tion zone or any plate boundary in any 100% efficiently. That may answer direction. Plate tectonics cannot explain The Second Law of some of the objections mentioned by this fault. An “Earthquakes” report writ- Thermodynamics Sarfati (2004, p. 213) as digestion of ten for the City of Memphis in 1988 by Was the second law of thermodynamics food or baking a cake, which certainly Hall Blake and Associates states, working before the Fall? I think that us- is not 100% effi cient now. My thought Plate techtonics (sic) provide what is ing the Bible we can make a legitimate is if a gas engine gets 30 mpg at 30% believed to be the most satisfactory, case for stating the second law of ther- effi ciency, then it would get 100 mpg at certainly the most recent, explana- modynamics started after the Fall. When 100% effi ciency. tion of earthquakes. The earth’s out- Adam and Eve sinned, God cursed the Also, death is the ultimate end of the ermost part, called the lithosphere, man, cursed the woman, cursed the second law (does anyone know what life consists of several large, fairly stable serpent, and cursed the ground, and the would be like without death?). Things slabs or plates. Geologists have iden- process of death started (Gen. 3:14–19). wear out and die, not only humans and tifi ed varying numbers of plates, but That affected the entire universe as Paul animals, but we even speak of stars and it is generally agreed that the surface states that the “whole creation groans and the universe dying a “heat death.” Cur- of the earth is essentially made up of suffers the pains of childbirth together rently stars are burning their fuel at such seven major plates. Most earthquakes until now” (Rom. 8:22 NASB; see also a rate that eventually they will die. How- occur along the boundary of these 19–23). We know that even now in God ever, the Bible says that the sun, the clos- plates, and are called interplate “all things hold together” (Col. 1:17) and est star, will endure forever (Ps. 72:5, 17, earthquakes. A few, however, occur that He “upholds all things by the word Ps. 89:36) and that the other stars will also within the plates, the most noticeable of His power” (Heb. 1:3 NASB). (Dan. 12:3). Obviously, their fuel supply being the New Madrid earthquakes. There is also biblical evidence that will be refueled or the second law will Plate techtonics (sic) do not readily God can sustain the earth by other be revoked. I make the assumption that explain intraplate earthquakes. processes, as Sarfati (2004) notes “that the latter will happen using the “burning Of course this report may be outdat- He prevented the Israelites’ shoes and bush,” i.e. “the bush burned with fi re, ed as there has been progress since then, clothes from wearing out during the 40 and the bush was not consumed” (Exod. although I still haven’t heard a viable years in the wilderness (Deut. 29:5)” (p. 3:2 KJV), as an example. explanation for the New Madrid fault. 214). Sarfati is not trying to defend this Here is my logic: Also, the number of plates has increased position, as he points out some indica- • The ultimate end of the second many times since then to over 100 tions that the second law was in process law is death; (Skobelin et al., 1990, p. 82). However, prior to the Flood. I think that the wilder- • There was no death before the three of the greatest known earthquakes ness wandering is a perfect example of Fall; in the USA occurred in 1811–1812 how easily God can suspend the laws of • Therefore, the second law was along the New Madrid fault, and it nature (or change them) without anyone not in effect before the Fall. was reported that the Mississippi River Volume 43, December 2006 193

fl owed backwards as it fi lled Reelfoot the Flood, “being overflowed with the fountains of the great deep bursting Lake. Plate tectonics cannot explain this, water, perished” (II Pet. 3:6 KJV), was open at the mid-Atlantic ridge in the At- but obviously something sank (vertical completely destroyed. The world was lantic and the “ring of fi re” in the Pacifi c tectonics) as Reelfoot Lake was formed destroyed and not rearranged, which is would have the same cooling affect on by this series of earthquakes. what catastrophic plate tectonics and the earth’s crust as in catastrophic plate After reading Reed (2000) I am even Pangaea teaches. I don’t think we can tectonics. more convinced that plate tectonics say what the earth before the Flood Finally, I think vertical plate tecton- causes more problems than it solves. looked like. Another objection would ics is a much better explanation for the All the evidence put forth as support be the location of the Garden of Eden evidence both from a scientific and in Batten et al. (2000, pp. 159–160) with its unique river as the Bible says “a biblical basis. has as good or better explanation using river fl owed out of Eden to water the vertical tectonics as discussed in Reed garden; and from there it divided and The Starlight-Time Problem (2000) except for one point—the fi t of became four rivers” (Gen. 2:10 NASB). The starlight-time problem (which I per- South America into Africa. All other If Pangaea were true, it seems that we sonally think is not as big a problem as “fi ts” are not nearly as good. Chapter could locate a place for the Garden, it is made out to be) can be answered in 4 in Reed (2000) points out other pos- even though the Flood destroyed the several ways. There have certainly been sible nontraditional fi ts as well. I also world, since plate tectonics teaches a re- a number of articles on this subject in think the scriptural support for vertical arrangement of the land. It seems that it recent years. I think Humphreys (1994) tectonics is greater than plate tectonics as would have to be on some sort of plateau has done an admirable job in coming up Psalm 104:5–9 says, “They go up by the or mountain. Where the water would with a viable model that answers the star- mountains; they go down by the valleys,” come from would have to be explained light problem. His model seems to have indicating that the mountain rose and and then somehow divide. That is not biblical support. The main problem I the valleys sank and even catastrophic happening anywhere on earth today, have with the model is it is too close to plate tectonics uses this as a corollary. As which supposedly resembles the earth the “big bang,” which I think has many, far as plate tectonics goes, the only verse prior to the Flood. many diffi culties (star formation, lumpy that even hints at this is Genesis 10:25 Also, my understanding of plate tec- universe, dark matter/energy, etc.). It “the name of the one was Peleg; for in tonics offers the explanation of more uni- also makes the assumption that the uni- his days the earth was divided” (KJV), form, worldwide temperatures resulting verse is bounded and fi nite and that the which most plate tectonics advocates in lush vegetation, because all the conti- water mentioned in Genesis 1:6 exists would not use since it happened after nents were located closer to the equator. outside this (the second heaven). the Flood and not during. But if the atmosphere is similar to today, Naturally I disagree with this as I think In Batten et al. (2000, pp.162–163) that would still not explain things. The the universe is infi nite and the water Genesis 1:9–10 is used to suggest that weather patterns necessary to produce canopy is around the earth’s atmosphere the continents were once together, refer- this lush vegetation would have to be (the fi rst heaven). I am still looking at this ring to Pangaea. This is very vague and vastly different from today as there are model, but am not convinced as of yet. doesn’t necessarily refer to Pangaea but many deserts on earth (the Sahara and The light “problem” can be explained could be any interconnected landmass as Saudi Arabia are at 20–30 degrees north in other manners, by a slowing speed of suggested in the notes of the Defender’s latitude), and if the continents were all light or, as Robert Newton (2001) does, by Study Bible for Genesis 1:10. together it would seem to produce even placing a 1 + cos(θ) in the denominator Some of these waters were trapped more deserts as rain could not readily so that light coming toward us is instanta- and stored in the “great deep” (Gen- get to the interior. I haven’t seen any neously (infi nite) while light going away esis 7:11), subterranean chambers studies of the pre-Flood weather pat- from us is one-half the speed of light so beneath the earth’s crust. Others terns modeling the Pangea landmass, that the average speed is the speed of accumulated in surface basins. so I don’t know if that is correct or not. I light. Light traveling 90 degrees from us However, all were evidently inter- think the vapor canopy model explains is the speed of light. The more and more connected through a network of the lush vegetation much better. I think about this, the more and more I subterranean channels. So that they One last comment: In Sarfati (2004; like it. But even if the solution is not cor- were both singular and plural-gath- pp. 337–338), I liked the explanation of rect, I think that God could have created ered together into”one place,” yet magnetic reversals given by Humphreys, the universe fully formed with the light called “Seas.” and this explanation certainly can be already in place, just as Adam and Eve Also, I think that the world before used in the vertical tectonics model, as (and all other plants and animals) were. 194 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Somewhere along the line we have Finally, I think that when we start mation of the universe and the historical to accept something by faith as Hebrews talking about the universe it does not geology of the earth—to the Bible. 11:3 states: “By faith we understand that mean that God has deceived us if He the worlds were prepared by the word of made it fully formed with light en route, References God, so that what is seen was not made along with the many marvels that go with Batten, D (editor), K. Ham, J. Sarfati, and out of things which are visible” (NASB). it. Did God deceive us when God spoke C. Wieland. 2000. The Answers Book I am not against science, but science has on the second day that He made the (revised edition). Master Books, Green its limitations. We can measure/observe heavens but really did not fi nish making Forest, AR. the electron/proton/neutron model and the heavens until the fourth day as the Humphreys, R.D. 1994. Starlight and Time. even smaller particles than that, but Humphreys model seems to imply? Did Master Books, Green Forest, AR. somewhere along the line something He deceive us when He made something Morris, Henry M. 1995. The Defenders came from nothing! Science cannot ex- from nothing? That certainly is outside Study Bible: King James Version. World plain that. In the same way, somewhere the laws of science. Somewhere along Publishing, Grand Rapids, MI. along the line God spoke, “Let there be the line we have to exercise faith. Does Newton, R. 2001. Distant starlight and Gen- lights in the expanse of the heavens,” and that mean we stop searching? No, but I esis: conventions of time measurement, it happened. Did He do it according to don’t think we should be disappointed or TJ 15 (1):80–85. known laws of science, or did He create frustrated if we never fi nd an answer. Newton, R. 2003. Light travel-time: a a new thing? To sum up, we all have certain biases problem for the big bang. Creation Also, there are certain limits placed and presuppositions. I agree with the 25(4):48–49. on man, as the following two verses philosophy that we cannot be dogmatic Reed, J.K. (editor). 2000. Plate Tectonics: a sum up. about how things were created and, as I Different View. Monograph Series No. Thus saith the Lord; if heaven above have heard Mike Oard say, that multiple 10. Creation Research Society Books, can be measured, and the founda- hypotheses are good (also Reed, 2000, p. St. Joseph, MO. tions of the earth searched out be- 78). I think that the vapor canopy model Sarfati, J. 2004. Refuting Compromise. Mas- neath, I will also cast off all the seed is a viable working hypothesis and is be- ter Books, Green Forest, AR. of Israel for all that they have done, ing abandoned far too quickly, probably Skobelin, E.A., I.P. Sharapov, and A.F. saith the Lord. (Jer. 31:37 KJV) due to the ascension of plate tectonics Bugayev. 1990. Deliberations of state The heaven, even the heavens, are and the Humphreys model for starlight and ways of perestroika in geology (has the Lord’s: but the earth hath he and time. I also think that the proposal plate tectonics resulted in a revolution given to the children of men. (Psalm that the second law of thermodynamics in geology?). In Beloussov, V., M.G. 115:16 KJV) did not start until after the Fall is valid Bevis, K.A.W. Crook, D. Monopolis, The fi rst verse implies limits to man’s and can be used as a legitimate creation- H.G. Owen, S.K. Runcorn, C. Scalera, science/observations, for the heaven can- ist argument. Furthermore, I think that W.F. Tanner, S.T. Tassos, H. Termier, not be measured nor the earth’s core; plate tectonics, whether uniformitarian U. Walzer, and S.S. Augustithis (editors), and the second states that the earth is or catastrophic, does not explain all the Critical Aspects of the Plate Tectonics to be for men and the heavens are for evidence, while vertical tectonics has Theory – Volume I (Criticism on the Plate the Lord. much better explanations. Finally, I Tectonics Theory), pp. 17–37. Theophras- I also think that the heavens are think that the starlight and time problem tus Publications, S. A., Athens, Greece. infi nite, as the following verses imply: has several possible solutions, including Vardiman, L. 2001. Climates Before and “For high as the heavens are above the God’s creating it fully formed en route. After the Flood. Institute for Creation earth, so great is His lovingkindness I think that all young-earth creationists Research, El Cajon , CA. toward those who fear Him. As far as would agree that Scripture is the key Whitcomb, J.C., and H.M. Morris, 1961. the east is from the west, so far has He and the Bible should be our guide to our The Genesis Flood. Presbyterian and removed our transgressions from us.” (Ps. science and not the other way around. Reformed Publishing Company, Phil- 103:11–12 NASB) To me the “big bang” and plate tecton- lipsburg, NJ. Also, it should be noted that even ics are not driven by Scripture but by “old-earthers” have a starlight prob- secular sources and as a result must be Mark E. McGuire lem—the horizon problem—as men- viewed extremely cautiously. Science is 867 S. Yates #3 tioned by Sarfati (2004) referring to constantly changing and it is dangerous Memphis, TN 38120 the article by Robert Newton (2003) in to match current science—especially in (901) 576-6921 (W) Creation magazine. areas that are so speculative, like the for- [email protected] Volume 43, December 2006 195

Minutes of the 2006 Creation Research Society Board of Directors Meeting

On Thursday, 8 June 2006, a meeting of sured in page views, continues to steadily ing the CRSnet “rules” along with the the Board of Directors (BOD) was held increase with an average visitor increase usage FAQ on the web site, and creating at the Jameson Inn, Lancaster, South of 24% year-over-year (April 2005-2006 a CRSnet FAQ (dealing with technical Carolina, from 1900 hours to 2100 versus April 2004-2005). In May 2006 creation issues). An initial budget of hours to plan for the committee meet- our site had 74,000 page views within $2000 was approved by the committee ings on Friday. On Friday, 9 June 2006 34,000 unique sessions and transferred (NB, this was later trimmed by full BOD between the hours of 0800 and 1500 7.5 gigabytes of information. There are action to $1700). the lab, Internet, research, publication, currently 450 CRS members registered The research committee reported fi nance, membership, periodicals, and and using the “members only” section that they had approved two new projects constitution/bylaws/advanced planning of our site. During and discussed funding for committees each met sepa- some possible new research rately for approximately one initiatives. hour to plan for the closed The publication commit- business meeting. At 1530 tee reported their plans to hours the closed business publish one book in June or meeting of the BOD was called July of 2006, titled The Geo- to order. Present: M. Armitage, logical Column: Perspectives T. Aufdemberge, E. Chaffi n, in Diluvial Geology. There D. DeYoung, D. Faulkner, are plans to publish three R. Humphreys, G. Howe, D. more books during the next Kaufmann, G. Locklair, M. fi scal year, including Rock Oard, D. Rodabaugh, R. Samec, Solid Answers: Responses and G. Wolfrom. Not able to at- to Popular Objections to tend: J. Reed. Employees K. and Biblical Geology in the fall D. Anderson were invited guests. this year new soft- of 2006 and a Grand Canyon creationist The minutes of the 2005 BOD meeting ware for our online store was purchased road guide in the spring of 2007. Several were accepted. Recording Secretary and confi gured. Total online sales for the projects are on the schedule for late Kaufmann reported that the following past year exceeded $50,000, an increase 2007 into 2009. There are plans to offer were elected to a three-year term to the of 50% over the previous year. Several ac- specials for selected books in the CRS BOD: M. Armitage, E. Chaffi n, J. Reed tion items were proposed, including: en- newsletters. The wholesale discount and G. Wolfrom. couraging other creationist web sites to policy has been fi ne-tuned. This winter The lab committee report stated that link to the CRS site, updating the organi- our royalty policy will be adjusted. Do- new shingles were put on the laboratory zations listed on our site, implementing nors will be encouraged to underwrite building in Arizona this spring and that a “latest update” link, and updating the the cost of publishing some of our books repainting is the next needed main- speakers bureau on our site. CRSnet, in the future. The Friday session was tenance project. Hank Giesecke has our discussion listserv, continues to serve adjourned at 1800 hours. resigned as head of development. Lab about 200 CRS members. When asked On Saturday, 10 June, the closed director Kevin Anderson will carry on if participants would like to switch to a meeting was resumed at 0800 hours promotional/development activity for threaded discussion web-based tool, a with devotion and prayer led by D. now. Diane Anderson is administrative majority of CRSnet members responded Kaufmann. assistant. “no.” CRSnet seems to be serving our A budget for the new fi scal year was The Internet committee report stated members well. Several action items approved with an income of $311,300 that our web site (creationresearch.org) were proposed, including: adding a “join and expenses of $329,870. continues to expand and improve thanks CRSnet” link to the members–only The finance committee report to able care by our volunteer webmaster section of the web site, promoting CRS resulted in the following actions. It Fred Williams. Web site access, mea- material/activities on CRSnet, includ- was passed that the fi nancial secretary 196 Creation Research Society Quarterly request Raymond James, Inc. to send a member. The status of duplicate monthly statements to the the “patron-types” will be CRS offi ce in Chino Valley, AZ. It was recognized and tracked by passed that the Membership Secretary the development staff. (6) send a monthly report to the CRS offi ces Our webmaster (Fred Wil- at the VACRC containing a statement of liams) has been invited to source and amount of income received appear quarterly on a Den- and a listing of checks written against ver radio station to discuss the CRS account in Missouri. A check creation-related issues. In for the amount received should be sent exchange for “free adver- with the report. It was passed that the tising” for the CRS, the earned income of the past fi scal year station would like to offer from our investments be sent to the CRS a free subscription to a CRS publication members headquarters and the interest would be for those who purchase something on right at public creation lectures, added to the loan. the station website. The offer would be the committee meeting was adjourned. The 2005/06 membership/subscrip- available for a limited time to those who The report of the constitution/by- tion report stated that the worldwide to- specifi cally request it. The station would laws/advanced planning committee tal number of members and subscribers be required to pay CRS $5 for each resulted in the following. It was passed was 1721 (1536 US, 185 foreign). This subscription. We have offered Creation to have Gary Locklair, a member of the represents a net increase of 34 compared Matters for this purpose. committee, visit the Concordia Histori- to the previous year, and the largest total The report of the periodicals com- cal Institute in St. Louis to review and number in the past 10 years. The num- mittee resulted in the following. The edi- organize our archival materials, allowing ber of voting and sustaining members tors of the CRSQ for the coming year are him to spend up to $500 for expenses. is approximately equal (708 and 697, Kevin Anderson (editor-in-chief), John It was passed to make this a “closed ar- respectively). The following resolu- Reed (geology), George Howe (biology), chives” with a required approval of the tions were passed by the BOD. (1) The Eugene Chaffi n (physics), Ronald Sa- CRS President for anyone to review the regular member rate will be raised from mec (astronomy), and Donald DeYoung collections in the archives. $32 to $35 (effective September 2006). (book reviews). A replacement for the ag- It was passed to nominate the fol- Student, senior and subscriber rates will ing biology editor is being sought. Glen lowing persons for the BOD election in be adjusted accordingly. (2) A group rate Wolfrom agreed to produce Creation 2007: D. DeYoung, R. Humphreys, D. for new members will be made available Matters for another year. Anderson de- Kaufmann, L. Lester, G. Locklair and (when 10 or more new memberships scribed the steps that are presently being R. Samec. are submitted together) -- $27 each. (3) taken, such as improving the quality of BOD member Ted Aufdemberge, The surcharge for foreign surface mail the paper in order to improve the qual- fi nancial secretary, was elected to Fellow will be raised from $7 to $8 (effective ity of the photographs in CRSQ. Howe of the Creation Research Society. September 2006). (4) The student cat- reaffi rmed the fact that Creation Matters The following offi cers were elected egory will be expanded to include those is a permanent part of the CRS program. for 2006/2007: President, D. DeYoung; enrolled full time in a postgraduate sci- Howe led discussion in creating a July Vice President, E. Chaffi n; Recording ence degree program (MS, PhD, MD, 2006-June 2007 budget proposal for the Secretary, D. Kaufmann; Treasurer, DVM; post-doctoral positions will be Quarterly/Creation Matters committee. G. Locklair; Membership Secretary, excluded). (5) “Patron” will be dropped The number of papers processed last year G. Wolfrom; Financial Secretary, T. as a special membership category, thus in the CRSQ were reported by editors as Aufdemberge. making the name available to the CRS follows: geology 22, biology 17, physics It was passed to hold the 2007 BOD development staff for use as a fund-rais- 7, astronomy 1, and book reviews 30. meeting at Prescott/Chino Valley, Ari- ing tool. Future “patrons” (or whatever The new CRSQ managing editor, Jarl zona, June 7 to 9, 2007. similar designations are developed) will Waggoner, was present at the meeting, The meeting was adjourned at 1200 not become life members unless an ap- as was Lane Lester, previous managing hours. plication is received by the membership editor. Lester was thanked for his nine secretary. If requested, they may receive years of faithful work producing CRSQ. Respectfully submitted, a “free” subscription to our periodicals After talking about various ways CRS David A. Kaufmann, without being officially enrolled as board members may sign up new CRS Recording Secretary Volume 43, December 2006 197

Instructions to Authors

Submission Appearance Submit an original plus two copies of each manuscript to Manuscripts shall be computer-printed or neatly typed. Lines the editor of the Creation Research Society Quarterly (see the should be double-spaced, including figure legends, table inside front cover for address). Concurrent submission of an footnotes, and references. All pages should be sequentially electronic version (Word, WordPerfect, or Rich Text Format) numbered. Upon acceptance of the manuscript for publica- of the manuscript text and graphics is also encouraged. The tion, an electronic version is requested (Word, WordPerfect, manuscript and graphics will not be returned to authors unless or Rich Text Format), with the graphics in separate electronic a stamped, self-addressed envelope accompanies submission. files. However, if submission of an electronic final version is Manuscripts containing more than 30 pages are discouraged. not possible for the author, then a cleanly printed or typed An author who determines that the topic cannot be adequately copy is acceptable. covered within this number of pages is encouraged to submit Submitted manuscripts should have the following organi- separate papers that can be serialized. zational format: All submitted manuscripts will be reviewed by two or 1. Title page. This page should contain the title of the manu- more technical referees. However, each section editor of the script, the author’s name, and all relevant contact information Quarterly has final authority regarding the acceptance of a (including mailing address, telephone number, fax number, manuscript for publication. While some manuscripts may be and e-mail address). 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If an author believes the rejection of a manuscript tions and references in the abstract should be avoided. This was not justified, an appeal may be made to the Quarterly page should also contain at least five key words appropriate editor (details of appeal process at the Society’s web site, www. for identifying this article via a computer search. creationresearch.org). 3. Introduction. The introduction should provide sufficient Authors who are unsure of proper English usage should background information to allow the reader to understand have their manuscripts checked by someone proficient in the the relevance and significance of the article for creation sci- English language. Also, authors should endeavor to make ence. certain the manuscript (particularly the references) conforms 4. Body of the text. Two types of headings are typically used to the style and format of the Quarterly. Manuscripts may be by the CRSQ. A major heading consists of a large font bold rejected on the basis of poor English or lack of conformity to print that is centered in column, and is used for each major the proper format. change of focus or topic. A minor heading consists of a regular The Quarterly is a journal of original writings, and only font bold print that is flush to the left margin, and is used fol- under unusual circumstances will previously published lowing a major heading and helps to organize points within material be reprinted. Questions regarding this should be each major topic. Do not split words with hyphens, or use all submitted to the Editor (CRSQ editor@creationresearch. capital letters for any words. Also, do not use bold type, except org) prior to submitting any previously published material. for headings (italics can be occasionally used to draw distinc- In addition, manuscripts submitted to the Quarterly should tion to specific words). Italics should not be used for foreign not be concurrently submitted to another journal. Violation words in common usage, e.g., “et al.”, “ibid.”, “ca.” and “ad of this will result in immediate rejection of the submitted infinitum.” Previously published literature should be cited manuscript. Also, if an author uses copyrighted photographs using the author’s last name(s) and the year of publication or other material, a release from the copyright holder should (ex. Smith, 2003; Smith and Jones, 2003). If the citation has be submitted. more than two authors, only the first author’s name should appear (ex. Smith et al., 2003). Contributing authors should 198 Creation Research Society Quarterly examine this issue of the CRSQ or consult the Society’s web 8. Figures. All figures cited in the text should be individually site for specific examples as well as a more detailed explanation placed in numerical order, and placed after the tables. Do of manuscript preparation. Frequently-used terms can be ab- not embed figures in the text. Each figure should contain breviated by placing abbreviations in parentheses following the a legend that provides sufficient description to enable the first usage of the term in the text, for example, polyacrylamide reader to understand the basic concepts of the figure without electrophoresis (PAGE) or catastrophic plate tectonics (CPT). needing to refer to the text. Legends should be on a separate Only the abbreviation need be used afterward. If numerous page from the figure. All figures and drawings should be of abbreviations are used, authors should consider providing a high quality (hand-drawn illustrations and lettering should be list of abbreviations. Also, because of the variable usage of professionally done). Images are to be a minimum resolution of the terms “microevolution” and “macroevolution,” authors 300 dpi at 100% size. Patterns, not shading, should be used to should clearly define how they are specifically using these distinguish areas within graphs or other figures. Unacceptable terms. Use of the term “creationism” should be avoided. All illustrations will result in rejection of the manuscript. Authors figures and tables should be cited in the body of the text, and are also strongly encouraged to submit an electronic version be numbered in the sequential order that they appear in the (.cdr, .cpt, .gif, .jpg, and .tif formats) of all figures in individual text (figures and tables are numbered separately with Arabic files that are separate from the electronic file containing the and Roman numerals, respectively). text and tables. 5. Summary. A summary paragraph(s) is often useful for readers. The summary should provide the reader an overview Special Sections of the material just presented, and often helps the reader to Letters to the Editor: summarize the salient points and conclusions the author has Submission of letters regarding topics relevant to the Society made throughout the text. or creation science is encouraged. Submission of letters com- 6. References. Authors should take extra measures to be certain menting upon articles published in the Quarterly will be that all references cited within the text are documented in published two issues after the article’s original publication the reference section. These references should be formatted date. Authors will be given an opportunity for a concurrent in the current CRSQ style. (When the Quarterly appears in response. No further letters referring to a specific Quarterly the references multiple times, then an abbreviation to CRSQ article will be published. Following this period, individuals is acceptable.) The examples below cover the most common who desire to write additional responses/comments (particu- types of references: larly critical comments) regarding a specific Quarterly article Robinson, D.A., and D.P. Cavanaugh. 1998. A quantitative approach are encouraged to submit their own articles to the Quarterly to baraminology with examples from the catarrhine primates. for review and publication. CRSQ 34:196–208. Lipman, E.A., B. Schuler, O. Bakajin, and W.A. Eaton. 2003. Editor’s Forum: Single-molecule measurement of protein folding kinetics. Sci- Occasionally, the editor will invite individuals to submit differ- ence 301:1233–1235. ing opinions on specific topics relevant to the Quarterly. Each Margulis, L. 1971a. The origin of plant and animal cells. American author will have opportunity to present a position paper (1000 Scientific 59:230–235. words), and one response (500 words) to the differing position –—–—–. 1971b. Origin of Eukaryotic Cells. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. paper. In all matters, the editor will have final and complete Hitchcock, A.S. 1971. Manual of Grasses of the United States. Dover editorial control. Topics for these forums will be solely at the Publications, New York. editor’s discretion, but suggestions of topics are welcome. Walker, T.B. 1994. A biblical geologic model. In Walsh, R.E. (editor), Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Creationism Book Reviews: (technical symposium sessions), pp. 581–592. Creation Science All book reviews should be submitted to the book review editor, Fellowship, Pittsburgh, PA. who will determine the acceptability of each submitted review. 7. Tables. All tables cited in the text should be individually Book reviews should be limited to 1000 words. Following the placed in numerical order following the reference section, and style of reviews printed in this issue, all book reviews should not embedded in the text. Each table should have a header contain the following information: book title, author, publish- statement that serves as a title for that table (see a current issue er, publication date, number of pages, and retail cost. Reviews of the Quarterly for specific examples). Use tabs, rather than should endeavor to present the salient points of the book that multiple spaces, in aligning columns within a table. Tables are relevant to the issues of creation/evolution. Typically, such should be composed with 14-point type to insure proper ap- points are accompanied by the reviewer’s analysis of the book’s pearance in the columns of the CRSQ. content, clarity, and relevance to the creation issue. Volume 43, December 2006 199

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Add 20% for postage (for U.S. orders: min. $4, max. $25; for Canadian orders: min. $5, no max.; for other foreign orders: min. $9, no max.) Total enclosed: $______Make check or money order payable to Creation Research Society. Please do not send cash. For foreign orders, including Canadian, please use a check in U.S. funds drawn on a U.S. bank, an international money order, or a credit card. (Please type or print legibly) Name ______Address ______City ______State ______Zip ______Country ______❏ Visa ❏ MasterCard ❏ Discover ❏ American Express Card number ______Expiration date (mo/yr) ______Signature ______Mail to: Creation Research Society, 6801 N. Highway 89, Chino Valley, AZ 86323, USA Creation Research Society History—The Creation Research Society was organized fund for these purposes are tax deductible. As part of its 1. The Bible is the written Word of God, and because it in 1963, with Dr. Walter E. Lammerts as fi rst president vigorous research and fi eld study programs, the Society is inspired throughout, all its assertions are historically and editor of a quarterly publication. Initially started operates The Van Andel Creation Research Center in and scientifi cally true in all the original autographs. To as an informal committee of 10 scientists, it has grown Chino Valley, Arizona. the student of nature this means that the account of rapidly, evidently fi lling a need for an association devoted Membership—Voting membership is limited to origins in Genesis is a factual presentation of simple to research and publication in the fi eld of scientifi c scientists who have at least an earned graduate degree historical truths. creation, with a current membership of over 600 voting in a natural or applied science and subscribe to the 2. All basic types of living things, including humans, members (graduate degrees in science) and about 1000 Statement of Belief. Sustaining membership is available were made by direct creative acts of God during non-voting members. The Creation Research Society for those who do not meet the academic criterion for the Creation Week described in Genesis. Whatever Quarterly has been gradually enlarged and improved and voting membership, but do subscribe to the Statement biological changes have occurred since Creation Week now is recognized as the outstanding publication in the of Belief. have accomplished only changes within the original fi eld. In 1996 the CRSQ was joined by the newsletter Statement of Belief—Members of the Creation created kinds. Creation Matters as a source of information of interest Research Society, which include research scientists 3. The Great Flood described in Genesis, commonly to creationists. representing various fi elds of scientifi c inquiry, are com- referred to as the Noachian Flood, was a historical event Activities—The Society is a research and publication mitted to full belief in the Biblical record of creation and worldwide in its extent and effect. society, and also engages in various meetings and early history, and thus to a concept of dynamic special 4. We are an organization of Christian men and women promotional activities. There is no affi liation with any creation (as opposed to evolution) both of the universe of science who accept Jesus Christ as our Lord and Sav- other scientifi c or religious organizations. Its members and the earth with its complexity of living forms. We ior. The act of the special creation of Adam and Eve as conduct research on problems related to its purposes, propose to re-evaluate science from this viewpoint, and one man and woman and their subsequent fall into sin and a research fund and research center are maintained since 1964 have published a quarterly of research articles is the basis for our belief in the necessity of a Savior for to assist in such projects. Contributions to the research in this fi eld. All members of the Society subscribe to the all people. Therefore, salvation can come only through following statement of belief: accepting Jesus Christ as our Savior.