The Bikinians: a Study in Forced Migration

Home , Kili Island, Ujelang Atoll

MARSHALL ISLANDS FILE TRACKING DOCUMENT

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Addditional Information: RogerRm 10252 Haabcrhgb Drive The Bikinians: -_.-_Betbesd~.- MD___ 20814_-_-v-d A STUDY F i IN FORCED MIGRATION ’ ’ Robert C. Kiste ._-.___------. -_--__-_ --.-_

COMMEKTS OK KLSTE’S THE BXKSNMNS

Page 147

Footnote continued fron 146: Date rhould be 1958. Operation Hardtack,

uring; both Bikini and Errcwetak was conducted in Spring Summer 1958.

Pr?ge 175

Second 6 cntence: 1957 rhouid be 1958 (rrmc reamon)

- Page 175

Accuracy of statement in third reatence should be checked bgoinst

State DcpaOtment reference (which we do not have).

Fkge 194

Interior may .wish to challenge the rtateztnt in the first ful! paragraph

that ptanr for reeettling the Encaetak people I’. ,. . are IPOWbeing

formulated bu.t only titer recent kgal proceedinga became embarrassing

for the United Shter Air Force. . . , etc. I’

X beLteve the record will rho- that the decirion to release Eaewetak from I Defense Department controt, and thus make it available for rebabititation f I was tticn independent of and in fact prior to the hitirtion of the PACE

litigation. THE KISTE AND OGAN SOCIAL CHANGE

SERIEmSIN ANTHROPOLOGY

r ,. iLlitOr5

ROBERT C IJSTE EL’GESE OGAS

Uf7l~crslrl/ 0’ .~ll~7ne5ora

Robert C. Kiste was born and raised in Indiana. After completing his undergraduate studies in anthropology at Indiana Universq in 1961. he took his graduate trammg at the University of Oregon. where his Ph.D. in anthropology was awarded III 1967. In the same year. he moved to the University of Minnesota where he now has an appomr- ment as associate professor of anthropology. While on sabbatical leave durmg the 1972-73 academic year. he taught at the University of Hawaii. Dr. Kistc’s specialita- tions and interests inciude social and cultural change, rhe hist.ory of anthropology. and Oceania, particularly Micro- nesia. Among :his current professional memberships are the American Anthropological Association, the Association for Social Anthropology III Oceamn, and the Society for Applied Anthropology. ? !

THEBIKINIANS

ec ummings Publishing Company A Study in Forced Migration

ROBERT C. KISTE

Unizrsity of .Mi~7~7esota

Menlo Park, California . Reading, Massachusetts London . Amsterdam . Don Mills, Ontario . S_ydnq

I mII ” Environmental and Historical Setting 25

P R

Plocre 1. Outrigger sailing canoe with Bikini Island m background. 1946. ,‘Phoro by Cd Mydans. Time-Life, Inc.) 5

in- - .f m E b ? i ;- Ii

ie I_

Phte 2. Outrigger sailing canoe similar to those used by the Bikinians prior to their relocation. The outrigger in foreground is being loaded with copra bags. The canoes are those of the Enewetok people on Ujelang Atoll.) Photo by author.) .?6 Chapter Two

: t of recreation. Men sometimes sailed simply for sport. and fishing expeditions were seldom devoted entirely to work. Men took i pleasure in their fishing ventures. often stopping at small islands ! to refresh rhemsel\*es with coconut and co explore for driftwood ‘: and other objects cast up by the sea. Men devoted a considerable amount of time and energy to i constructing and maintammg their canoes. They fashioned hulls I from hand-ihaped planks which were lashed together with sennit. t .Valntenance was a never-ending task as canoes frequently required zauikinc. renewai of senmt lashings. and replacement of broken or ije:er,orated planks. Men took great pride in their canoes: a craft ’ :,iar \t.as s\slfr and easllv maneuverable was especially prized (Kiste 157’.50-8“. ~11 economic actlvirv was suspended on Sundays. The most routlnlzed aspects of Bikinian life were the consequences of mission effort. Bv 1916. rhe Islanders’ version of the fundamental- 1st~ Protestan;lsm derived from New England had become firmly established as an integral part of their culture. (Spoehr’s descrip- tlon of the mixture if traditional and Christian beliefs and the organlzatlon of the church at Majuro is fairly representative of the entire Marshalls [1919:221-31].‘- The pastor of the church was a Biklnl man -Iho had been rrained bv the mlssionaries. The com- munltv celebrated all Protestant hoiidavs. The Sabbath was ob- jemed with both morning and afternoon services and a strict pro- 5lblrlon on work and mosr recrearlon. Two afternoon services marked the weekly calendar. and elders of the church met on the ilrsr of each month ro conduct church business and to plan sen-Ices for the commg month.

It7itial Relocation

The detonation of acomlc bombs over Hiroshima and Naga- saki in 1935 had ended the war in the Pacific and ushered the world into the Atomic Age. The nature and effects of the de- structlve force that had outmoded earlier concepts of warfare were. however, little known or understood. and the fuuture role of nuclear weapons In the arscna! of the UnIted States was un- dcrerm;ned. In the weeks iollo\vins the war. American mllitar! EnvIronmental and Historical Settine ,77

and politicai leaders began piannmg.nuciear experiments to gather mllltarl; and scientlflc knowiedge. Attention soon focused on the question of the effects oi nuciear weapons employed against naval vessels (Hines 1963:11’. .A pax of tests given the code name of Gperatlon Crossroads \vas pianned. and in November of 1945 a search for an appropriate site began.’ It had to be located in an area controlled bv the L!nlted States and was to be uninhabited or have a small popuiatlon which could be easiiv relocated. The site had to be in a ciimarlc zone free from storms and cold tem- peratures. and have a iarge and sheltered anchorage for a fleet of rarget vessels. The &ncer 3i radloacxve contamination required d site distant from nea~:i\ ropu~ared areas and ar ieasr 500 miles irom ail sea amd air rou’res. In late January. 1946. navy officials m U’ashington. D.C. Announced that Blkinl Atoll fulfilled all cl]- matlc and geographlcai conciltlons ior CIDeratlon Crossroads. Iron- xallv. some of rhe same’ factors of seoeraphv and environment whiih had limited ~3, Blkinlans’ conta;; With the outside world caused an abrupt end to rhex lsolatlon and thrust them into the malnstfeam of events ot’ :he rwentlzrh ienturv. Further. the Christianxy which the lslanciers had accepted’from Americans was employed to convlncr tnem of the necessxv of their reloca- tlon. The Bikinlans’ :nlr,lal reiocarlon was accomplished swiftI> and with little planninE. The military , governorc of the Marsha& obl:amed the consent di :he Bikinians‘ paramount chief to move his subjects. 0n Sundas . Februarv 10. 1946 the governor. mem- bers of his staff. and th2 paramount chief arrived at Bikini b\ seaplane. After the morning church seTvIces had been concluded. th2 Bikinlans werr addresse; bv the governor. According to his own account. he drew upon the Bible and:

. compared the ij;i;lnlans to the children of Israel whom the Lord saved from their enemy and led unto the Promised Land. He told them of the bomb rhat men in America had made and the destruc- tion It had wrought upon the enemy Richard 1957:510).

5 After Operation Crossroads in 1946. Bikinr was not utilized as a nuclear test site for eig!ht years. In 1954. further tests were conducted at rhe aroil. and the last occurred in 1958 Hines 1962:157-195; 270-292). He i:;r;,?prespjalned that sclentlsts were esxrlmer.::nZ ulth

lLlCic?ai 3evlces ‘.. .ior the good of mankind and to end all worid wars” and told how the navv had searched the worid for 2 test site and had determined tha; Bikml Leas the best iibid.). The Bikinlans deliberated. and according to the governor’s descrlutlon of events. chief Juda reported their deckon:

pi [he UnIted States government and the sclentlsts of the world want to use our Isiand and atoll for furthering development. which mth God’s blessing ~111 result in kindness and benefit to all mankind. my peopie wlii be pieased to go eisewhere :Mason 195-13163

U’h~ie official sources report that the Bikinlans aneed to re- iocate :s: rhc good ci dii ‘humanit\.. :I: IS more likely :hat other :zc:;75 I\?:? ;:ir:iai ‘2 i:!aplng their dec:slon. The :slanciers were dCL_>.--*T -cmcs to axtnorl:\. lmpdsed from the outslde :he para- .mo-nt ;r.:?t- and *‘-..,L a calonlai governments \v.‘nlch preceded that 2: 1”; ;::;crlcans inci :n 1946. thev were stii! impressed bv the u ... n:: nine named Ron9

2rz.i; .4roi: 2s the]: f;rst ;nolcr ior the reser:irment” Lieade 1946). T+ere were scverai fd;t~~s Lvhlch appeared to determine the Biki- nldns’ se1ect1on oi Roneer!k. First. the islanders were iamliiar \vIth the atoll since it IS onI\. eighteen miles irom Rongelab whose pcopie the Bikinlans had long been in contact see Map 1 I. Sec- ond. RonperIl; was uninhabited. and resettlement there offered the promlse that the Bikm:ans couid conrmue their IIves free from the interierence of outsiders. Lastly. there IS some evidence which indicates that the Bikinlans were never convmced that their relocation was more than a temporarv measure. and as a result. they ma\ not have considered the selectlon of a new home sire to be an im- portant matter. Envrronmentai and Historrcal Settmg .?9

:07’130’ E

.-iepbtlb B&bat -_-T -___ - \_4 . -.__GtJab

I Bok \ Ranged. ! f,’

Bok Pass

‘i’.

_r 0 Bokrall i‘re -_ /

.i I -hc 5 1 2 3 ; -.p- statutf mries

.Vap j Rongertk Atoii.

Surveys of Ronger:k bv navv personnei revealed that it r mreht present some iproblems of economic self-sufficiencv for \‘- :he‘ communlt\. The aroil IS much smaller rhan Bikinr. In con- :rasr to Bikini’s t\venrv-sl\ Islands and !and area of 7.32 square mnlies. Rongerrk has conic ten Islands iv;:h a total area of about 0.63 square mrles: the !araesr_ of the ren islands covers a scant !!.I7 square miles as opposed to the (3.66 square miles of Bikmr Island. Rongerik’s lagoon of fiftv-five square miles is less than I)SC one-fourth that of Bikinr’s ‘see Map 4‘. Further. as Rongerik was only Ioccasronallsy vrsrted by the people of Rongelab.‘:r was not developed to supporr a permanent population ot any size. 3m and the quality and quantrtv of its subsistence crops were not .ICll impressive (Mason 10 54 : 264 j. ,ca- The adminlstratron sought the counsel of the Bikinians’ na\ paramount chief. He urged that the people be moved to either Cjae or L,ae Atolls in northern Ralik: both were inhabited and = .i = ; = = Z 4 3 y=

- - 3 34 Chapter Two

overnight vovage to Roneerik provided the first documentarv evidence that they considered their relocation to be a temporarv inconvenience: he was Informed by the islanders %*.. . that they’ wouid come back to Bikini someday” (Life Mdgarine 20:105-109, March 25. 1946). The Bikinians arrived at Rongerik on March 8. 1946. Less than a month had elapsed since the date they had first learned of their Impending relocation.

. Rongerik and Kulajalein

The Rongerik Resettlement

Upon their arrrvai at Rongerik in early March. 1948. the Bi- kinians iound their new village was mcompiete. although, a total of twenty-six tent structures. the same number of dwellings that had been abandoned at Elikini. had been prepared bv the advance partv. In contrast to Bikini’s dispersed settlement pattern, the Rongerlic village plan. prepared by Americans. resembled a community in the United States-dwellings were arranged in a com- pact i-shaped cluster on the main island. Before the community was disembarked, the naval officer in charge had Juda go ashore to determine which dwellings were to be occupied by each household (Meade 1946). Perhaps as a result of Juda’s hurried. spur of the moment allocation o:f dwellings, two households which had been adjacent at Bikini were assigned dwellings at opposite ends of the Llllage. Other households which had been adjacent were given dwellings in close proximitv to one another. The general composition of ten of thle eleven’househoids was preserved, and the eleventh was divided when the widowed brother of alab ‘4 and his children were giv’en a separate residence. He was to re- marry shortly thereafter. and his nuclear family came (D comprise a twelfth household. Thle households were no longer located on parcels of land., however, and this remained the situation for the duration of the settlement; land was never divided on Rongerik. As the Bikinians settled into their new surroundings, the off- cer in charge directed their work. Men were given meals and paid

77 n A --

3 i= E

--z -

The Kili Resettlement:

Ct-IAI’TER FIVE 1948-1954

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III I,ltc St~I~t<.i~ll)cr, 1948 two vcbscl~ c;irtyillg &III .~(IV.IIILC pit ty 01 twcllty l;nlr ISikirli IIIL’II and ciglit Sc,ilkcs iiud~r tlic COIII ~n.r~rcl of‘ .I II.IVY ol‘f1ccr arrived ;;t KiIi. Ihxau5c: oL“roligli hc.15 ai1~1. : , Kiii’s t-ccl‘, tllc VC~SLCIScc)uItl IIOC bc ;Incllo.rcd nc;rti chc SIIOI-c. OVCI 1,‘;. i( pcrlod of twclvc d.tys, JutnbL’r, tarprpcr roc,filig, (.olIcl~‘t~*, tool:~, ;rud otlrcr Illiltcriill for constructiirg a vill.rgc Ii.rtl to Ix firrrictl d slIorc I)y rilftk.. AI) ,Iru was chrcd OII the Ilortll sitIt* of tIlc is I.rud whcrc tlic’ tlwcllings of tlic l)l,iilt,itlo1i l.il>orc.rb 11.1~1 1;,1 iiic*ily stoWI. I Iuriug ( kxohr tent bhcltcrb, two coI1cI~‘t~’ ( lat~‘llls, .Il\,l four ~~~rlllilll~l1l I,uiltlings--a store, cop w;ircl1oubc, ~IIC~~I~~~.II tlis- pcus;hry, and co~llicil l10usc wcrc ercctd. 011 NovcIIIIxr 2 two VW& arrived hxrriilg tlrc test cht’ tlie co111iiiui1ity. ‘1’11~ isl;rnclers kitI only tllcir l)crsc)iial l~c~sscssiol~s; their c.111ocs lmcl Irlrtl1cr detcrior;1ted at Kw;ij.lIeill .III~ 11,1tl IW~II ;Lb;liidothtxI ;IS wclrtlrlcss. Kill’s reef apin Ililllll>Crc:d oI)cr,ltlolls; rough Sc;IS alltl IiilZ.lrdOUS Ii1lltlillg corditio11s ;illOWc~l only .I I;:w pcoplc to rcath shore, md the vcsscls procecdcd to J.rht ard the shcltcr of its lagoon. Three days later the SC’XGsuhsidctl; tllc vessels made a dash o Kili, and unloading was complctcd. On November 11 the ve scls and all navy personnel were rctutncd to Kwajalcin, except f a carpent& mate wlio rcmaiiicd to super- 1 vise the construction’ of permanent dwellings. The K wrrjakir1 epi- sode hild Iilstcd ;L little over SC’VCIImonths. -

Z- r. =

z ,- 3 5 ._ _ - ._ = L = .= _ - = = 108 Shanter Five

Few difficulrtes and no subststence problems were experienc- ed during the first months on KIWI. Crops were collected and dis- :rrbuted under the council’s direction. Local resources, food pro- vlded bv the admlnrstratron. and copra recerpts were divided among the households m shares proportionare to then relative sizes. In order to provide easier access to the island. a navy dem- olltlon team dynamrted a shallow channel through Km’s fringing reef a short distance west of the vrllage. Small craft could nego- :!ate the channel when seas were calm, but it proved of little use during rough surf conditions. Nonetheless, all seemed to go well, and officials believed that the resettlement was off to a good start and the problem of provrdmg a secure future for the Bikini- ans was being resolved.

PLre 10. Channel in the reef which surrounds Kili Island. taken durmg cairn sea and low tide. 1963. (Pho- to by twrhor.,

Phre f f. Bikini men attemprmg to negornte the channel during the rough seas of wmter months. 1964. (Plroro by aurl:or.,

As at Rongcrik, such earl\, optimism was premature: a number of setbacks were soon encountered. A shortage of vessels in the entire Trust Terrnorv caused field trip ships to lag far behind schedule, and the islanders were unable to trade then copra for food and other supplies.3 When vessels did attempt to call, stor-

-3 During the time (more than a quarter century) that the United States has administered the Trust Territory. Inadequate funding and poor planning have accounted for the unreliable field trip service in the Marshalls. Some The Kili

Development Project.

Proieci

The immed:ate :Gnsequrnce ot’ the land di\vision-that each of the bLrnllr bqan :Z clrdr iis idni and produce copra-was pre- cisely what the admmlstratron had desired. The islanders’ response also ‘helped to launch the Kili Development Project on a posrtive course. As defined b>’ the Amencans. the project’s goals were to: : 1) clear the coconut qoves of brush and increase copra produc- tion: (2) provrde !nrtruction in ~rrcultural techniques: (3) stimu- late the producrlon and sale of handicraft: and (4) develop a co- operative to manare rradlne operarrons. Mr. Milne. the project manager. had two dsststants: a man from Kusaie m the Eastern Carolines who was a tare speclallsrI and a Marshallese woman skilled as a handler:,:‘: Instructor. Milnc soon de\.cioped a good personal relationship with Juda who encouraged h;s people to work wtth the project team. In CO- operation with the l:ouncli. Milne orsantzed. scheduled. and super- vtsed work acttvtttes. Taro. banana. pandanus. breadfruit. papaya. and sweet potato cattmgs were imported from Kusaie Island and Ebon and Jaluit Atolls. Men were organized into work teams and began to develop the taro swamp. Milne and the Kusaien taught them how to plant. mulch. and care for unfamiliar crops. The most productive methods of coconut palm cultivation were also introduced: the Bik,inians were instructed in the reasons and neces- sity for keeping the groves free of brush, and thev learned why the proper spacing of trees ensured a maximal yield. Within five months. substantial progress was evident. The 131 Chapter Six

reported *‘. . . It is obvious that the peopie have worked hard un_ der the manager’s directton. and the results are obvious to the

to remain on Kili if progress continued to be made. The majority bf the islanders. however, remained pessimistic. At least three of the Bikini dab withheld their support and led a group of d’lssi d ents which dampened the morale and optimism of others. The dissidents were skeptical and critical of efforts to improve their lot on Kili. From their point of view. the success of the relocation was the Americans’ responsibility. and the Unit- ed States owed them wages for theu work with the project. Rlesenberg Judged that the project was at a crItica stage. and that bnrh further support and encouragement. a greater number of people would adopt a more positive attrtude. In his opin- ion, the negative attitude expressed by most of the people was at least based partlallv an the assumptmn that the Americans would do more for Kili if they could be made to feel responsible and guilty for the Bikinians’ unforrunate plight. He concluded:

In other words, consciously or not. they are trying to place themselves in an advantageous bargaining position. An improvement in the general prosperity of Kili as a result of the development project may cause mrcigation of this negativism. In any case. the project would seem co be a last chance for Kib. and is so viewed by some of the people: if it fails. they feel the only remaining recourse is to move elsewhere (Ibid.!.

The district administration concurred that maximum effort should be made to support the project. To ensure that the people had an adequate food supply until they realized a harvest from their labor, local resources were supplemented by an issue of C-rations. In August the first of three special field trips was arranged to obtain more plantings from Kusaie. District anthro- pologrst. Jack Tobin, accompanied Milne and a number of Biki- nians on the trip. They returned to Kili with 6,000 taro cut- tings and large quantities of breadfruit. banana, and other plants. The K;!II Development Project lY1

votes m the 1918 picbiscrte had been miscounted had now ‘been transformed: some mdividuals contended that the Amerrcans had dellberatelv rrged the entire affair.

The Kili Development Project had few of the consequences that the Amerrcans had intended. The Bikinians committed themselves to developms Kili’s agrrcultural potentral onlv when they had little hope of another relocatron and Lvhen their efforts were guided bv outslde super\-xlon. What had been accomplished dur- I~C the prolecr Leas negated bv damage and discouragement from narzrai disasters. ;:I~: lc:tn3ra\\ai oi sucen’:sorv personnel. and the isianders’ conrrnumj: drslrc to retltrn t:: S!klnr or to be resettled cisewiiere. The acitnln:stratron :nrttated the prclecr as an artempr to help the peopie achieve a satrsfactor\- ailutmenr to theu new home and to end problems that had resulted from their reloca-

-11 t:ons. .?it :ix same t:me it IS clear rhat during the latter part of :ad r!le project. the admlnrstration was respondin: KO the threar of embarrassment and pressure exerted b\ the United Nations Trust-

rc- eeship Council. The administration had lltrle alrernatrve but to mobilize the effort required for the t%!ii:i!ment of commlrments made KO tne Cnrred Narlons. The Amer:can effort to assist the Bikinians \vas thus !argelv a consequence of external forces as it was in the earher period at Rongerrk. The Kiil Drveiopmrnt Project also r-:nrorced the Bikinlans’ not:on chat tne C’nrrcd States should assume the responsibilirl !-or then welfare and had the resources to do so. The provrsion of manpower and other resources requrred bv the project (vessels. radio equipment. housing at Jaluit. etc. served as further demon- stration oi \vhar rhc Americans could do when they desired. Orh- er welfare measures Implemented after the project’s termination. the Bikinians’ esperrences at Kwajalein. and their awareness of the United Stares missile and space technology represenred still more dramatic evidence of the magnirude of American power and resources. and reaffirmed the Bikinians’ earlier conclusion that it was ro then advantage. to attach themseives firmlv to the Ameri- cans. __.... cI . .._ r. _,“” . . . . *... _.._ “b -__..-_.-_ -.._ c itates represented an end to their subordinate status vis-a-vrs the paramount chief. As he had no legal or traditional claim to Kili, he had no right to their services or resources. and in their eves., a significant victorv had been won. The financral .compensation awarded the islanders increased their ability to purchase imported foods and material items. This in turn increased the people’s desire for a wider range of goods, a process that had begun early in their relocations. and made them more dependent upon the Amerrcans and the outside world. At the same tune. the Bikinians’ income gave them less incentive to engaee_ _ m the productron of copra and handicraft as a means oi satrsfving then wants. BY .thc later 1950s and early 1960s. the esperlence that the Feopie had acquned srnce rhea innial relocatron and the corres- ~ondrnp Improvement in their own self-image gave them a greater contidence In themselves. These changes in the people’s attitudes were manifest In their assertiveness in making numerous petitions to the admmlsrratron and the strong stance taken by Juda and others In dealmgs with Amencans. The Bikinians were no longer the meek and uncertain Islanders who had readily acquiesced to the Americans’ request for their relocation a decade and a half _.__ _ . _ ._- ---. _-__ _- .--_ - ____ _.__ .__. --_- _-- ______-___-- -.- ’ Chapter EiglJt

l\‘c}irct,ilitntirrg Uikirri

Otl‘lt_t.115 ol‘ tllc ‘I‘rust ‘I’crritory, AU:, .rlltl .I~;CIIC ICS c)l III,. I)cp4rtirrciit of I)efeJJse (IIOI)) planned tire rclJ.ilJilit,rtiotJ 01’ IllhI ni iJJ cl two pliase progrml. First, tlJe AH: .III~I 1)OI) l~atl 111, 11.1

.JtJvL’Iy sliort-terfn but huge task of rcJJloviJJg rldli~dctlve 111.11~II

als, otlicr ilcbris, ;rntl scrub vcgcUtl011, diid ill so f,lr ‘15 ph~~l~lt~, rc5toriiig LIIC JJatiJral tc)lJograpbv of isldnils. -l‘llV ‘I-rust I’CII II/b1 y

P&te 15. Aerial view of Bikini Island, bikini Atoll Irom the webt, 190-l .155uinc’( I tl\c responsibility for tlic sccori(! pl14sc of the pr1iKi.1111

The lagoon is to right, and the ocean is iu the foreground Jutl I~OIIL~BII. All iJlvc,lvillg III~ longer r,Juge tasks of rcpl,lntlllt; tl~c* ;~toll, COII\IIII~ t palm trees are gone; only scrub veget,btiuu remrins. (I’/Io~c> by I.eomr~l irig 1lou,i111;, ,Jrid relocating tlic coJiJiiJiJriity. ‘I’he two pliasc, B ~VC’IL: Mason.) to OV~*I-I.II) siii(‘c rcplautiiig W~IS to cou1tneJ1~‘c wit11 tlJc: reJii~,\,.l/ of

!3( I Ill) vc’~;c’l.IIIllII. months before the 1’resJdenti.d announcement. Judd’~ 5011 NC- lilllll, tile SCCOIICI I;rrgcst ISlillld III tllC .ltl,ll IcKI.rted %,lllII ot ceeded as head of his bmnli, but the chiefs tlc;rtll opcncd ;Illchtllcr (IIC III.IIII isl,rnd on tire reef’s c’astcrn rim (see M.rI> 3, page I-/), clraptcr iu the ~:otiJpetitiou for power ;rntl inflticitcc ii1 (IIt. 1 OIII w.15 ~.Il.t 1t.11 .ib Jlrc I~ILC of iiJi1i.d 0 I )cr.bt loii\ 111~I.III~C II lJ.itl .lII

inunity. ‘I’bc head of tlie junior lijirik liiicag:” rclrcwctl 1115 C~JIIII ,lii5tri1) c.~,iJ5tructed durJJJg tlic test period. Ily Lilly IO00 ., 1~111 that Juda had ucvcr been tllc lcghlatc chief. From III:, 1)olllt 01’ vill,igt* wit11 ;III clcctric.il power plalbt, i1 waIcr tlistJll.rtiolJ sy’.I~‘III, view, the time had come !or the rcctificatiou of past iujusticcb, airtl ‘I iiiiiiiO(*r of otlicr iiiodCri1 coiivciiicI\cc~ WC!-(. cst.ihllslli 11 1111 and because be was of superior generational stallding witlJiJJ tlJc the I~lilII~I .III~ weekly air service tcJ Kw;lj;lIeill WAS initi.Jled. A structure of the Ijjirik sub-clan, be claimed tlJc rigbt to succeed task f0rL.c c,f Inen outfitted with bcavy cclLJipJJJ~ut, A variel), 01

to the cbieftainsbip. Predictably, and as Jud;r a1111 l,okwur Ilad vcbiclus, .iiitl Ls’l”s of World War II viiitdgc \)C~.III tlic cle;iii~lI~ 01) done in earlier years, the Jitoen headmarl also clairucd tllc cllkf- eration. III JLIIIC eight tjikini IIWII were flown to tIlcb .titc))! ~(1 .ttc1 tainship because he was a nlenlber of tllc senior rallkillg I:Uirik with the work. lineage.’ It W,IS projected that tlic actual rcsctllclllciit would hc .LCL 0Ill l3y 1908 both aspirants to tire cllieftainslrip wcrc: qultc old. ylisllcd over ;I period of tight or Inore yc,rrs to ,3llow for (II{. Iii.it- Because of their age and pst self-asscrtivcncss, ucitlrcr cro )a. AC II.ICI the uratioii 01 iicwly lJl.JiJtcd paliiis and 0lhc1 siilhihtciicc I confidence of their fellow ishnders. ‘I’lic office of ii1;tC;i5tr;ric pro- cortlitlg to tile ;rdnliIIi.\tratioII’s plan, work crews of IIIC’II flt,ltil KI vided an alterudtive that 11.~1 not IICCII avdil.rblc in tllc I).I!,L. ‘I’II(* II WC-I-~’ IO LN:~III tlJc l)Jallting umlcr tlJc cl~rc*ctioll 01‘ tile M.II,,I~.~I~ IJ,rrltls I )Istrlct Agriculturtil IIep~rtllJc~~t. ‘1‘11~’(‘rcwb wcrc I (1 11,. employed by the administration and rotated cvcry tllrec IIIOII~~I> 1 . Like Judr. two more of the &b did uot survive to learn of their impend- between Iiikini and Kili so that IWII would not I)c separ~tcll ~'IOIII ing return home. One was Kili alrlb if, the herd of a type-one b~mli who WJS their hnlilies for extendctl periods of time. At ;III unsptx.iI.~~ ‘1 succeeded by his son. TIIC second, ulrll C, was one of the old Wkini rll& date, falllily units would gradually be relocated until the ~II~IIC who headed a type-two bamfi. More thaa a year after his death, its men)- bcrs had yet to select a successor. With the deaths of juda and &!J C, only conmtitiity was rettmed. Buildings were to lx constructcll ,,f four of the eleven Bikini clhb remained. coucretc block and alutninum roofing to avoid tllc s;lnle IICI~ I 1or i

.c ‘- ‘E =: = 3 2 - ._ = ;

3 .” >

-- - .- _= Y =^’ a=_ _ I i. --_- - ---____ _~._._ ------.-__. ..-.------. __.. -. _-- - .-. -

T Bibliography

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