Annex II – Feasibility Study GREEN CLIMATE FUND FUNDING PROPOSAL I

FEASIBILITY STUDY

Addressing Climate Vulnerability In the Water Sector (ACWA)

United Nations Development Programme UNDP

On behalf of Government of the Republic of the Marshall Islands RMI

March 2018

For Submission to the Green Climate Fund EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) is a small island developing states (SIDS) consisting of 29 coral atolls and 5 single islands. The nation is a large-ocean state, with approximately 1,225 islands and islets with a total land area of only 182 km2, spread across over 2 million km2 of vast ocean space. Most of the 24 inhabited local government jurisdictions (atolls and islands) are remote and lie merely 2 meters above sea level on average, posing various challenges and risks to sustainable development in face of climate change. RMI’s population in 2017 is estimated as 55,5621, most of which is concentrated in urban atolls of Majuro and Kwajalein (Ebeye)2.

Context

Climate Change: It is predicted, that RMI will face increasing sea level rise, increasing rainfall variability with potential for extended drought periods and increasing storm surges with climate change3, further aggravating RMI’s vulnerability and more specifically sustainable water supply. These climate change impacts are likely to exacerbate the risks of water shortages in RMI, by further challenging the ability of the Marshallese people to have access to safe freshwater resources year-round. Droughts and storm waves are some of the key climate based events that impact RMI. Climate projections show that in the next twenty-five years, rainfall and drought scenarios in RMI will continue and may increase in the short term4. Combined with changing weather patterns, extreme events, and sea level rise5 due to climate change, the finite and fragile water resources in RMI are likely to be even more constrained in the future.

Water: Communities and the households in RMI primarily rely on an inadequate water resource and supply system, which makes them vulnerable to risks of water shortages and drought. In urban communities of Majuro and Kwajalein (Ebeye), there are public water reticulated systems which will be improved through existing Master Plans that address their water needs for the future. For rural communities6, families rely on household or community rainwater harvesting (RWH) systems to supply their freshwater for drinking, cooking, and basic hygiene and RMI has not addressed their current adaptive needs in the face of climate change and are consequently the most vulnerable. Many of the rural communities in RMI also have access to groundwater wells however increased salinity of groundwater is experienced during drought conditions with the reduction of the freshwater lens due to increased reliance as an alternative water source. The potential of groundwater as an alternate water source is further compromised by pressure from sea level rise and also seawater inundation due to high tides which contaminating the freshwater which will be further exacerbated by climate change.

The rural communities have the least adaptive capacity due to their social and economic conditions versus the urban communities and face the following challenges  The dependence on rainwater harvesting for freshwater, without adequate safe water options, make Marshallese people extremely vulnerable to water shortages due to varied rainfall patterns, especially in face of climate change. People in RMI are often faced with severe water shortages, where they cannot access sufficient water required for basic drinking, cooking, and hygiene (minimum of 20 liter per capita day (Lpcd) annually – WHO/Sustainable Development Goal Standard7) under drought conditions. During the dry season between December to April8, people across RMI are often faced with very low quantities and quality of water, especially during ENSO years.

1 2016 population estimates were calculated based on 2011 RMI Census of Population and Housing and 2016 SPC Pacific Island Populations. Estimates and projections of demographic indicators for selected years. (PRISM) . Details are included in FS Annex 2. 2 urban population is approximately 74%. Government of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. 2011. Census. 3 Historic data shows a decreasing trend of rainfall quantities, with drought risk respectively increasing. Historic observation data indicate that the sea level has risen near Majuro by about 7mm (0.3 inches) per year since 1993. This is larger than the global average of 2.8–3.6 mm (0.11– 0.14 inches) per year. In the future, sea level is projected to continue to rise. 4 RMI Climate Projection Report – FS Annex 21 5 In terms of sea level, measurements at the Majuro project site indicate a sea-level rise of 4.0 mm/year since 1993 (SPSLCMP, 2010). This is an insufficient temporal sampling for some purposes but the data are consistent with regional rates of sea level rise (Figure 15, right) and reconstructed global data extending back to 1900, which indicate a sea-level rise of about 1.7 ± 0.2 mm/year (Figure 15, left). Satellite-based observations since 1993 closely mirror this upward trend (Church and White, 2011) . Source: SPREP, et. al. 2014. PACC Technical Report 5. Vulnerability and adaptation (V&A) assessment for the water sector in Majuro, Republic of the Marshall Islands. 6 Communities in Majuro, Kwajalein and other outer atolls and islands without access to public reticulated water will be termed rural communities throughout the FS 7 WHO and SDG minimum standard to provide water for drinking, cooking and basic hygiene 8 Dry season extends to May or June during El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

Page | 2 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA  Protection of Groundwater . Protection of groundwater wells from inundation of seawater, which is under threat from sea level rise and increasing level of high tides and development of the understanding of its optimal to reduce dependency on RWH.  Tackling issues of water security and resilience in face of climate change is a critical national priority for RMI, formalized by various national policies and institutional frameworks. RMI’s Strategic Development Plan “Vision 2018” sets out 15-year (2003 – 2018) long-term goals, objectives, and strategies, where climate change resilience and water sector improvements are part of 3 of its 10 goals.

The following institutional and financial barriers hinder RMI from advancing efforts in tackling integrated water resilience in both their urban and rural communities.

Barriers

Institutional Barriers: The National Water and Sanitation Policy as well as the recently amended National Environmental Protection Act formalize the political accountability mechanisms for water governance. This can be utilized as the overarching framework to advance comprehensive and integrated implementation at all levels of governance in RMI.

However, significant gaps remain in implementing national policies related to water security, in terms of effectiveness of stakeholders and institutions from environmental, social, political and economic levels. These include:  Limited coordination, reporting and accountability mechanisms related to water at all levels  Limited institutions and stakeholders with formalized roles and responsibilities at the subnational and community levels  Limited information generated and shared for all types of water resources at all levels, limiting transparency and evidence-based participatory decision-making at all levels  Limited accountability frameworks and public participation at all levels of governance  Limited effectiveness of water governance especially in terms of functioning institutions at the subnational level and coordination mechanisms with other sectors.

As a result, current water governance from economic, social, environmental and political dimensions is challenged in RMI.

Financial barriers: The best practice in achieving financial sustainability for investments towards climate change adaptation in the water sector is to recover the full investment cost from rational tariff based revenue collected from the project beneficiaries. However, especially in the rural communities of RMI , this is difficult given their low income levels. The median income of rural household in RMI in 2011 was estimated at USD 1,936 per annum, with a number of residents in the outer atolls (rural communities) earning $1 to $2/day. The predominant economic activity in most of the rural communities includes copra production, fishing, and subsistence agriculture/ animal husbandry.

Therefore, rural communities in RMI cannot afford to finance capital investments, nor support the annual O&M costs through their own resources (i..e water tariff). As a result, alternate sources of funding has to be identified and arranged by the national government in order to provide water security.

Theory of Change

Problem - Water Insecurity: People of the rural communities of RMI still do not have year-round access to safe freshwater supply for drinking and cooking despite many past initiatives. The Government of RMI has announced a State of Emergency due to the severe droughts most recently in 2017, 2015/2016 and 2013/2014, and has invested significant financial resources to deploy drought response efforts in urban and rural RMI with support from external parties. There is little confidence at the national, subnational and community levels that there is sufficient water infrastructure, human capacities, financial resources, and institutional capacity mechanisms in place to avoid and mitigate future water shortages in RMI, especially with the projected impacts of climate change.

Root Causes: Strategically placing investments to avoid or mitigate droughts and/or to holistically strengthen and improve the freshwater resource system in which communities rely on during drought and non-drought

Page | 3 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA times have not been done. Given this context, previous water interventions focused more on one-off infrastructure investments, with limited time and resources allocated for an integrated and participatory planning water security supported by sustainable operations and maintenance practices. This has been further exacerbated by the fact that national and subnational institutions and governance framework for water is yet to be set up in RMI. There is a lack of coordinated and officially endorsed water security targets, good practices, institutional set up, roles and responsibilities for the various actors, and implementation plans backed up by historical data and evidence. The resultant reactive approach risks the inclusion of vulnerable groups, such as women, children, and people with disabilities to actively participate in the design, decision, and implementation of water security efforts.

Remaining gaps: Many of the current initiatives are focused on water resource management and drought risk management, while institutional capacity initiatives are still very limited. Efforts are already underway to define goals and detail the process of enhancing the piped water systems through the Master Plan development processes for MWSC and KAJUR. In rural RMI, water security solutions depend on improving, protecting and scaling existing systems as well as better protecting and utilizing available resources.

Lessons learned and good practices: Recommendations for addressing identified gaps and barriers, which are presented in this Feasibility Study (FS), were designed through an extensive assessment of past experiences and consultations with stakeholders, including an assessment of ongoing related projects and efforts. It was found that community participation is required in all key activities, including the design of community based and supported infrastructure. This study recommends building on best practices, such as community participation in all steps in upgrading water systems. The report recommends establishing community water level committees for water management, which ensures these committees have roles to play in the monitoring drinking water supply as well as the monitoring of operations and maintenance in supporting community specific water safety planning.

Proposed Adaptation Solution

The proposed, Addressing Climate Vulnerability in the Water Sector (ACUWA) project aims to realize RMI’s transition into a more water resilient future by providing year-round access to safe and more diversified freshwater resources to the 55,226 people9 of RMI (2017) in face of climate change risks managed through national and subnational water governance systems.

This will be achieved by delivering the following results:  Improving water security through providing access to safe freshwater resources year-round for at least 15,572 people (28% of 2017 estimated population), including 7,369 (49%) women;  Improving groundwater protection and awareness training of use to reduce demand on rainwater harvested water;  Capacity building of both national and subnational institutions and stakeholders to manage water security and disaster preparedness efforts to be coordinated, effective, participatory, equitable, and sustainable

Water Security, improving access to safe water year round, requires a multi-step approach to ensure that people in RMI have at least 20 Lpcd accesses to safe freshwater resources year-round. The water security investments focus on infrastructure improvements that include scale-up of cost effective measures from proven projects for both Urban and Rural population:

a. Rural -The project analysis indicates that 77 rural communities10 across 24 atolls and islands require additional safe freshwater supply to meet the minimum water security standard of 20Lpcd year-round. This will be achieved through implementation of:  Household Rainwater Harvesting System improvements  Community Rainwater Harvesting System improvements and new community storage tanks  New community roof with rainwater harvesting system and storage tanks  Protect Groundwater from inundation from seawater due to higher tides and storms exacerbated by sea level rise.

Table 1: Summary of Water Security Investments

9 100% of 2016 estimated population. Government of RMI. 2011. Census. SPC. 2016 Population Projection. 10 Communities that were found water secure with existing and/or planned water resources were: Kili Community in Kili Island Enejelar Community in Ailuk Atoll.

Page | 4 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Investments Number and Locations Type Local Gov’t Communities Jurisdictions Water Household Rainwater Improvement 2,529 households 24 77 Security Harvesting Systems Community Improvement and 158 community 18 60 Rainwater Harvesting additional storage buildings Systems tanks Construction of new 121 new 18 35 community roofs community RWH with RWH systems systems and tanks Rehabilitation Up to 2,586 wells 24 77

Institutional Capacity Building - Empowering national and subnational institutions & stakeholders to champion water governance for efforts to be coordinated, effective, participatory, equitable, and sustainable a. National Level: Supporting and strengthening the implementation of existing policies  Support EPA to implement monitoring, reporting, accountability, and sustainability of National Water and Sanitation Policy.  Strengthen OCS/NDMO’s coordination capacity to manage water related disaster risks  Develop comprehensive National Water Safety Plans in line with the Community Water Safety Plans and National WASH Policy, National Environmental Protection Act, JNAP, and other relevant policies b. Community Level – support establishment of Community Based Water Committees (CWC’s)  Developing and fostering ownership and buy-in for a (financially and technically) sustainable operation and maintenance practices for new infrastructure and supporting resilience programs will require behavioral changes through awareness and understanding of value of effort.  Developing and utilizing best practice SOP’s for RWH (community and household) solutions, and consistently monitoring and managing groundwater source will ensure sustainable services.

The proposed interventions will benefit water security for the Rural inhabitants of RMI for up to 28% of the population. By definition established within this project Water security is defined as people’s ability to access safe freshwater resources year-round through RWH and groundwater. Improvement, upgrading and restoration of the rainwater harvesting systems and community water supply schemes, including protection of groundwater resources will support water security efforts for the entire communities.

The key paradigm shift of these recommendations derives from building on lessons learned from previous projects and utilizing best practices, by strengthening both the institutional and community levels to actively manage water resources management through local community level accountability and monitoring.

Key Design Parameters and Approaches Determined through the Feasibility Study

The technical evaluation process informed the following key design parameters and approaches of the ACUWA project’s water investments. These include:

Water security target – The proposed intervention aims to achieve water security in RMI by providing at least 20 Lpcd safe water supply year round, which is in line with the WHO standard for drinking, cooking, and basic hygiene. Various stakeholder discussions took place that led to the selection of this water security target during the project design period, and the target was endorsed at the national stakeholder consultation meeting in August 2016.

Strategies for rural water security – The technical evaluation reviewed existing water baselines in RMI where existing water resources, root causes of water shortages, past, current and future investments, and climate change trends were reviewed and analysed. The baseline analysis indicated that water security solutions for rural communities in RMI require different strategies given their diverse contexts. In rural communities, defined as areas in Majuro and Kwajalein that are not serviced by public water utility companies, and the Outer atolls and islands, different water security solutions are needed that are suitable for their unique,

Page | 5 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA small and remote socio-economic and climatic contexts. Most importantly, water interventions in rural communities need to be community-led to ensure the ease of construction, operation, maintenance, and financial sustainability.

Water security, groundwater protection and institutional capacity interventions Climate resilient water interventions for the rural communities were selected based on resilient design principles that were established through the technical evaluation process in line with the GCF investment criteria. Based on these principles, water investment options that were brought to the attention of the project design team during the stakeholder consultation process were first sorted based on their relevance and appropriateness as water security and/or resilience interventions in rural Marshallese communities. Second, the investment options were ranked based on their cost effectiveness of their lifecycle costs. The technical evaluation process found that based on lifecycle cost of water investments trialled in RMI and in the Pacific (or similar) region, effective water interventions in rural communities in RMI are (in order of effectiveness): 1) household rainwater harvesting (RWH) system improvements; 2) community RWH system improvements (including improvement of existing system and addition of new roofs and RWH systems); and 3) desalination technologies. Third, the gap between existing (and planned) water resources against the water security target at the community level were calculated using available information gathered during the project design. Based on this gap analysis, the technical evaluation process found that water security for all target rural communities could be met through the top 2 effective water security solutions11.

Groundwater interventions were designed to foster resilience against future climate change impacts and to provide additional water volume and use (such as for sanitation and food security) that are significantly affected during drought times leading to health, gender and equity concerns. Groundwater and smart water usage awareness were selected as strategic interventions based on review of national policies and plans, past and ongoing initiatives, and community survey results.

Furthermore, a robust institutional framework was designed based on literature review, stakeholder consultation, and community surveys. Information was analysed through a Rapid Water Governance Assessment to ensure that this framework is in line with, and informed by, current national climate change, water, and disaster policies, and coordinates and drives integrated water resource management and disaster risk reduction efforts that are resilient to climate change. Furthermore, various community level governance mechanisms related to water, such as disaster committees, Reimaanlok natural resource management committees, etc were also identified as mechanism for communities to build on and integrate with. Training, awareness raising, and knowledge management mechanisms were also reviewed, and existing efforts as well as good practices were integrated into the design of the water governance system.

Conclusions and Next Steps

This Feasibility Study presents a comprehensive analysis of the existing context of climate change in RMI and how that is influences water security in rural communities; examines the mandates and capacities of stakeholders and institutions related to water governance; reviews ongoing and planned initiatives related to water resilience and identifies remaining gaps; studies the root causes and theory of change of transforming the water sector in RMI to a more sustainable system; reviews the various technologies options and proposes a good practice design of the proposed integrated water security, resilience and governance interventions; through cost effective and equity analysis recommends the implementation strategies; and highlights definitions, limitations, and assumptions relevant to the FS process.

11 These are: 1) household rainwater harvesting (RWH) system improvements; 2) community RWH system improvements (including improvement of existing system and addition of new roofs and RWH systems)

Page | 6 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... 2 Context ...... 2 Barriers ...... 3 Theory of Change ...... 3 Proposed Adaptation Solution...... 4 Key Design Parameters and Approaches Determined through the Feasibility Study...... 5 Conclusions and Next Steps ...... 6 List of Figures...... 9 List of Tables ...... 10 Abbreviations and Glossary of Key Terms...... 12 Preface...... 14 1. Climate Change in the Republic of the Marshall Islands ...... 17 1.1. Country Context and Background ...... 17 1.1.1 Geographical context and Vulnerabilities ...... 17 1.1.2 Socio-Economic Context and Vulnerabilities...... 17 1.2 Climate Change: Observed and Projected Climate Variability and Change ...... 21 1.2.1 Precipitation Patterns...... 21 1.2.2 Sea Level Rise, High (King) Tides, Cyclones and Storms...... 25 1.2.2.1 Sea Level and Tides (King) – Modelled Future Changes ...... 25 1.2.2.2 Cyclones and Storms...... 26 1.2.3 Temperature...... 27 1.2.4 Aridity and Evaporation – Current and Projections...... 29 1.3 Key Climate Change Risks: Droughts ...... 29 1.3.1 Droughts – Historical Impact...... 30 1.3.2 Impacts – Focus on Drought 2015/16 ...... 34 1.4 Targeting – Prioritizing the Geographic Regions to Address Climate Change Induced Drought Impacts ...... 41 2. Climate Change Policies and Strategies...... 42 2.1 National Policies, Plans and Climate Change...... 42 Principles:...... 43 2.2 Institutional Arrangements...... 43 2.2.1 Stakeholders and Institutions – National Level...... 43 2.2.2 Effectiveness ...... 45 2.2.3 Jurisdictional and Local Level ...... 46 2.3 National Drought monitoring, early warning, and communication...... 46 2.3.1 Planning for Response ...... 49 2.3.2 Drought Risk Management ...... 49 2.3.3 Key Findings and Barriers – Drought Response ...... 51 3. Current Status of Water Infrastructure in RMI ...... 54 3.1 Overview...... 54 3.2 Available Data – Collected or Compiled through Site Visits...... 54

Page | 7 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA 3.3 Freshwater Resources ...... 55 3.3.1 Overview of Water Resources in RMI ...... 55 3.3.2 Water Resources in the Rural communities ...... 56 3.3.3 Key Barriers – Rural Communities...... 67 4. Ongoing and Planned Efforts to Address Water Security...... 68 4.1 Water Resource Management...... 68 4.2 Institutional Capacity Building ...... 72 4.3 Drought Risk Management...... 73 4.4 Key Findings ...... 74 4.5 Remaining Gaps ...... 75 4.5.1 Water Resource Management ...... 75 4.5.2 Institutional Capacity...... 77 4.5.3 Drought Risk Management ...... 78 4.5.4 Key Findings...... 78 5. Challenges to Support Water Security and Adaptation Practices...... 78 5.1 Problems and Root Causes ...... 78 5.2 Adaptation Solutions – Paradigm Shift ...... 79 5.3 Theory of Change ...... 80 5.4 Institutional and Financial Barriers ...... 81 5.4.1 Institutional Barriers...... 81 5.4.2 Financial Barriers...... 82 5.4.3 Key Findings ...... 83 6. Intervention Development – Design Process ...... 83 6.1 Design Process...... 83 6.2 Water Security Definitions ...... 84 6.3 Design Principles ...... 86 6.4 Key Findings ...... 87 7. Options Review ...... 87 7.1 Introduction to the Options Review...... 87 7.2 Multi-Criteria Assessment of Options ...... 88 7.2.1 Developing the Long List of Options ...... 88 7.2.2 Developing the Short List of Options...... 90 7.3 Operations and Maintenance Costs for the Shortlisted Water Security Options ...... 91 7.3.1 Rainwater Harvesting – Household...... 91 7.3.2 Community Rainwater Harvesting...... 91 7.3.3 Desalination – Stationary Reverse Osmosis Systems...... 92 7.4 Good Practices ...... 92 7.4.1 Rainwater Harvesting Systems (Household and Community) ...... 92 7.4.2 Groundwater...... 95 7.4.3 Asset Management of Existing Large Concrete Tanks...... 97 7.5 Key Findings ...... 99 8. Selection for Water Security Investments ...... 99 8.1 Introduction to Rural Water Security ...... 100

Page | 8 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA 8.1.1 Target Communities ...... 100 8.1.2 Water Resources...... 100 8.1.3 Design Target...... 101 8.2 Design Methodology for the Rural Water Security Investments...... 102 8.2.1 Rural Water Security Technical Design...... 102 8.2.2 Rainwater Harvesting Modeling Methodology...... 103 8.2.3 Rainwater Harvesting Model Inputs and Assumptions ...... 104 8.2.4 Status Quo Rural Water Security under Baseline Drought...... 108 8.3 Rural Water Security Investment Design...... 110 8.3.1 New Community Storage Tank Design...... 114 8.4 Cost Effectiveness Assessment for Rural Water Security Technical Design Options...... 116 8.4.1 Introduction to Cost Effectiveness...... 116 8.4.2 Marginal Abatement Cost Curve (MACC) methodology ...... 117 8.4.3 Assessment of interventions ...... 119 8.4.4 Assessment of costs for targeted interventions...... 121 8.4.5 Cost curves for targeted islands/ atolls of RMI ...... 121 8.5 Final Water Security Intervention Mix...... 122 8.6 Operations and Maintenance (RWH and Storage) ...... 127 8.5.1 Maintenance Task for Rainwater Harvesting System...... 127 9 Technical Design for Water Resilience (Rural Communities)...... 128 9.1 Groundwater ...... 128 9.2 Proposed Water Resilience Interventions - Rural ...... 130 10. Implementation Strategy...... 131 10.1 Partners – Scaling and Stakeholders ...... 131 10.1.1 Household RWH improvements in the rural communities –IOM and MIRCS WASH...... 131 10.1.2 Community RWH improvements and new construction...... 131 10.1.3 Institutional Capacity Building ...... 132 10.1.4 Training for Building Capacity in Key Stakeholders...... 132 10.2 Logistics for Implementation...... 133 10.3 Key Findings ...... 133 11 Definitions, Limitations and Assumptions...... 134 11.1 Definition of High Level Impacts ...... 134 11.2 Water Security Definitions ...... 134 11.3 Demand Response and Preparedness Definitions ...... 135 11.4 Capacity Development Definitions...... 135 11.5 Limitations and Assumptions...... 136 11.5.1 Limitations for Rural Communities Water Security Intervention Design - Technical...... 136 11.5.2 Limitations and Assumptions for Rural Water Resiliency Intervention Design – Technical...... 140 12 Exit Strategy...... 140

List of Figures

Figure 1: a) Location of RMI and b) Extent RMI Exclusive Economic Zone...... 17 Figure 2: Percent of contribution to the GDP by sector in the RMI ...... 18

Page | 9 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Figure 3: Household income level in different island – atoll groups...... 19 Figure 4: Poverty incidence across urban and rural communities, based on BNIL...... 20 Figure 5: Average annual rainfall versus latitude for the RMI weather stations ...... 22 Figure 6: Majuro Annual Rainfall and Temperature...... 23 Figure 7: Kwajalein Annual Rainfall ...... 23 Figure 8: Annual Average temperatures for Majuro ...... 27 Figure 9: Annual Average temperatures for Kwajalein ...... 28 Figure 10: Typical Temporary Water Collection Point ...... 35 Figure 11: Institutional Effectiveness (Based on Institutional Capacity Scorecard)...... 46 Figure 12:Disaster Communication System in RMI...... 48 Figure 13: Water Resources in the Rural Communities ...... 56 Figure 14: Assessment of Roof Conditions of Household Rainwater Harvesting Systems...... 57 Figure 15: Volume of Household Rainwater Harvesting Tanks based on Community Surveys ...... 58 Figure 16: Summary of household rainwater harvesting tank sizes ...... 58 Figure 17: Example of Upgraded Public Schools with Rainwater Harvesting Systems (Wotho Atoll) ...... 60 Figure 18: Concrete rainwater storage tank in Jabwor, Jaluit Atoll...... 61 Figure 19: Emergency RO desalination unit with a capacity of 1360 litres/day...... 67 Figure 20: Theory of Change...... 80 Figure 21: Macro-fiscal position of RMI since the amended Compact...... 82 Figure 22: Design Process ...... 84 Figure 23: Current and Potential Water Security Score for the Long List of Water Resource Options...... 90 Figure 24: Dry rainwater harvesting system components in a best practice design...... 94 Figure 25: Wet rainwater harvesting system components in a best practice design (SPREP, 2015)...... 94 Figure 26 MACC Cost Curve Example ...... 117 Figure 27 Overview of water availability and drought water requirements by 2045 across 24 target islands/ atolls...... 118 List of Tables

Table 1: Summary of Water Security Investments ...... 4 Table 2: Site locations of the seven existing weather stations...... 24 Table 3: Comparison of Expected Changes in rainfall (percentage) for Years 2035 and 2045...... 24 Table 4: Sea Level rise projections for the Marshall Islands for three emission scenarios...... 25 Table 5: Historical Disasters in RMI (1987 – 2016)...... 26 Table 6: Annual and Seasonal trends in max, min and mean air temperatures (1950 to 2009)...... 28 Table 7: Projected Annual average air temperature changes for the Marshall Islands three emission scenarios...... 29 Table 8: Projected changes (by percent) in aridity ...... 29 Table 9: History of Droughts experienced by RMI...... 30 Table 10: Summary of Rainfall for 2015 - 2016 Drought ...... 31 Table 11: Projected changes Percentages in drought frequency ...... 32 Table 12: Projected changes (days) in drought duration...... 33 Table 13: Summary of Baseline and Projected Drought Periods reflecting Max Anthropogenic Change by Station ...... 33 Table 14: MWSC Drought Rules...... 34 Table 15: Key Water Institutional Stakeholders in RMI ...... 43 Table 16: Key Policies & Strategies Related to Water Sector ...... 44 Table 17: Drought Risk Management and Institutional Efforts...... 49 Table 18: Disaster Coordination Mechanisms in RMI ...... 51 Table 19: Overview of Freshwater Resources in RMI ...... 55 Table 20: Household Rainwater Harvesting Systems in Rural Communities in RMI (Typical)...... 59 Table 21: Community Rainwater Harvesting Systems in Rural Communities in RMI (Typical)...... 60 Table 22: Survey data for existing large concrete tanks...... 62 Table 23: Comparison of Global and RMI Daily Water per Capita Figures...... 84 Table 24: Expanded Water Technology Options to Improve Water Security in RMI...... 89 Table 25: Groundwater Wells in Rural Communities in RMI ...... 96 Table 26: Volume of concrete tanks (m³) in each condition rating...... 97 Table 27: Concrete tank rehabilitation options based on the tank condition...... 98 Table 28: Concrete Tanks in Rural Communities in RMI...... 99 Table 29: Water Resource Applicability for Rural Water Security...... 100

Page | 10 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Table 30: Stationary RO systems and water provided per person ...... 101 Table 31: Baseline Drought Length and Climate Change Additionality to 2045...... 102 Table 32: Atoll and Most Representative Weather Stations ...... 102 Table 33: Relationship between RWH system condition and catchment efficiency ...... 104 Table 34: RWH Modelling Approach to Estimate Percent Full for Household Tanks on 1st Day of Drought ...... 105 Table 35: RWH Modelling Approach to Estimate Percent Full for Household Tanks when the Drought Warning is Issued...... 106 Table 36: RMI wide baseline assumptions (used for the infrastructure data gaps)...... 107 Table 37: Summary of the Status Quo RWH Systems and the Baseline Drought RWH results at the atoll/island level ...... 109 Table 38: Household Rainwater Harvesting Systems in Rural Communities in RMI (Typical)...... 110 Table 39: Community Rainwater Harvesting Systems in Rural Communities in RMI (Typical)...... 110 Table 40: Water Security options...... 112 Table 41: Summary of the 2045 rainwater harvesting modelling results at the atoll/island level (with climate change additionality)...... 113 Table 42: Tank material option assessment result...... 114 Table 43: Tank material option assessment detail for life expectancy...... 115 Table 44: Water Security Options – RWH Systems ...... 116 Table 45 Interventions included in cost curve analysis across all target islands/ atolls ...... 119 Table 46 Overview of weighted average unit costs of interventions across 24 target islands/ atolls...... 121 Table 47 Comparison of Selected Project Interventions and total possible interventions ...... 122 Table 48 Overview of final interventions to meet the water security target (differentiated by baseline and climate induced drought) ...... 122 Table 49 Comparison of selected project interventions and total possible interventions ...... 123 Table 50: Summary of Cost Effective Water Security Investment Results by Atoll/Island...... 124 Table 51: Community Level Water Supply Gap Results and Distributed Cost Effective Water Security Investments...... 125 Table 52: Planned Maintenance Tasks for RWH Systems and Recommended Frequency ...... 128 Table 53: Groundwater Wells Investment Options...... 129 Table 54: Description of proposed water resilience interventions...... 130 Table 55: Proposed Training for and with Community Stakeholders...... 132 Table 56: Limitations of Water Security Design and Maintenance ...... 136 Table 57: Model assumptions for the volumetric benefit calculations...... 139 Table 58: Limitations or Assumptions of Ground Water and Concrete Tank Design ...... 140

Page | 11 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Abbreviations and Glossary of Key Terms

ADB Asian Development Bank ARFF Airport Rescue and Fire Facility AusAID Australia's aid program CERF Central Emergency Response Fund CIP Capital Improvement Program CSIRO Australian Bureau of Meteorology and Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization Compact Compact of Free Association with the United States DHS Department of Homeland Security (USA) D.U.D. Delap-Uliga-Djarrit (area on Majuro Atoll) DRM Disaster risk management ENSO El Niño-Southern Oscillation EPA Environmental Protection Agency EPPSO Economic Policy, Planning and Statistics Office, RMI EU European Union FAOLEX Food and Agriculture Organization of the United States FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency, U.S.A. GCF Green Climate Fund GDP Gross Domestic Product GFDRR Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery GRMI Government of the Republic of the Marshall Islands GNI Gross National Income HH Household IOM International Organization for Migration ITCZ Inter Tropical Convergence Zone KAJUR Kwajalein Atoll Joint Utilities Resources MACC Marginal Abatement Cost Curves MIMRA Marshall Islands Marine Resource Authority MIRCS Marshall Islands Red Cross Society MJO Madden-Julian Oscillation MOE Ministry of Education, RMI MOM Management Operation Maintenance MWSC Majuro Water and Sewer Company NDC National Disaster Committee NEMCO National Emergency and Coordination Office NEOC National Emergency Operation Centers NGO Non Governmental Organization NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration NOAA-NWS National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration - National Weather Service

Page | 12 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA NOC National Emergency Operation Centers NWSO National Weather Service Office O&M Operation and Maintenance OCHA Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ODM Office of Disaster Management OEPPC Office of Environmental Policy and Planning Coordination PACC Pacific Adaptation to Climate Change PCCSP Pacific Climate Change Science Program PCRAFI Pacific Catastrophic Risk Assessment and Finance Initiative PEC Pacific Environment Community Reimaanlok Marshall Islands Conservation Plan RMI Republic of the Marshall Islands RO Reverse Osmosis RWH Rainwater Harvesting – guttering and downpipes systems (including first flush systems) SITREP Situation Report SOPAC South - Pacific Islands Applied Geoscience Commission SPC Secretariat of the Pacific Community SPREP Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Program SPSLCMP South Pacific Sea Level and Climate Monitoring Project STI Sexually transmitted infections SWOT Strength, Weaknesses, and Opportunities, Threats analysis TDS Total Dissolved Solids WS Water Security – defined as people’s ability to access safe freshwater resources year-round US United States UNDP United Nations Development Program UNEP United Nations Environmental Program UNICEF United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund USACE United States Army Corps of Engineers USAID United States Agency for International Development USD United States Dollar WASH Water, Sanitation and Hygiene WHO World Health Organization

Page | 13 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Preface

Government of the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI), supported by UNDP as the accredited entity to the Green Climate Fund (GCF), has been leading the development of a proposal to the GCF that aims to strengthen RMI’s water sector resilience to climate change impacts, which is an urgent and critical sustainable development priority for RMI. Despite the recognition of the importance of water security in RMI, due to various institutional and financial barriers, the Government of RMI faces constraints in addressing water challenges without assistance, especially when these issues need to be tackled immediately given the imminent risks of climate change impacts faced by Small Island Developing States such as RMI. In light of this context, in June 2015, RMI Government, together with UNDP has embarked on a process to develop a GCF proposal for water security. This Feasibly Study (FS) for the Addressing Climate Vulnerability in the Water Sector (ACWA) is a product of an 24 month project development process and the projects already completed or ongoing by RMI and donor agencies.

Objective The FS aims to:  Evaluate the socio-economic and technical effectiveness of existing water security measures – by describing what infrastructure is in place and evaluating the effectiveness of its operation and maintenance.  Derive lessons learned and good practices – by reviewing past and planned initiatives and identifying gaps in both the hard (technical and infrastructure investment) and soft measures (institutional, political, capacities, knowledge, skills, and systems) to strengthen climate change adaptation in the water sector in RMI.  Propose an effective and efficient solution – by identifying sustainable cost effective interventions by types, technology options, quantities and locations of interventions, including provision of technical specifications, costing and sustainability strategies (for financial and operation and maintenance).

By achieving the above objectives, this FS provides the baseline analysis for the Project Design Team, stakeholders, and beneficiaries to make an informed decision and build consensus around how best to achieve water security in RMI based on the investment criteria of GCF. The information, analysis, and recommendations detailed in the FS are incorporated into the design of the proposed water investments under the ACWA funding proposal to be submitted to the GCF.

Process The project design and preparation process was initiated upon the receipt of an official request letter from RMI’s National Designated Authority (NDA) to the GCF to UNDP in May 2015. Shortly after receiving this letter, which indicated RMI government and stakeholder’s desire for a project on water security and resilience, UNDP together with stakeholders in RMI initiated a Pre-Feasibility Study. The Pre-Feasibility Study was based on a desktop analysis and extensive literature review, which took place in 2015-2016. Based on the key findings of the Pre-FS on the challenges and potential solutions, as well as remaining information gaps, a full FS process was launched in 2016. This FS Report is a product of this process.

The FS was informed by the following inputs gathered from 2015 - 2017: 1) Literature review – of statistics (census, etc.), government, project, donor, agency, academic papers and reports, past assessments and surveys, etc. Key documents gathered and reviewed are highlighted in Annex 7 of the Feasibility Study (FS). 2) National stakeholder consultation workshops - From May 2015 – December 2017, the Government of RMI in partnership with UNDP held national stakeholder consultation meetings. These workshops were used to gather information on baseline, good practices, and lessons learned, as well as discuss and / confirm / endorse key methodologies and findings emerging from the FS and proposal design process. 3) Mayor’s survey –implemented in conjunction with the annual Mayor’s meeting in August 2015. General information on existing water resources and challenges in the outer island context was gathered through this survey. This informed the process of narrowing / focusing the scope of the proposal, as well as the overall Theory of Change for water security and resilience. 4) Bilateral meetings and discussions – took place in Majuro and in rural communities as well as through emails and phone calls. Bilateral meetings allowed the design team to gather documents, information, data and feedback on baselines, good practices, and lessons learned, implementation strategies, logistical and operational contexts, budgets, etc. Six technical assessment missions took

Page | 14 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA place as part of the design process, where many bilateral meetings and discussion took place – along with stakeholder workshops and community consultations and surveys. 5) Community consultation and surveys - 33 community visits, where men and women’s group consultations were held along with site surveys, were conducted to assess the structural condition of the existing water infrastructure. These community consultations and assessments were implemented in partnership with Women’s United Together Marshall Islands (WUTMI) and Marshall Islands Organic Farmers Association (MIOFA). Some of the community consultations were conducted together with GIZ and SPC, who are designing and implementing water initiatives in rural communities of RMI. Government leaders (senators and ministers), Mayors and traditional leaders, government department staff (OCS, OEPPC, Ministry of Public Works, EPA, etc.) also joined the community consultation missions. Detailed methodology and findings from the community consultation and survey are included in FS Annex 21.

Organization of the FS:

1) Section 1 provides the climate change context, including RMI’s ability to cope with it, especially in relation to drought. This section identifies the target communities for the project. 2) Section 2 provides background relating to strategic policies, plans and programs that are incorporated within both the national and sub-national level addressing water security planning, institutional capacity assessment, drought response planning and preparedness. 3) Sections 3 and 4 provide background information discovered through literature review and local consultations relating on-going and past initiatives to ensure water security and disaster preparedness. 4) Section 5 identifies the gaps and barriers through a development of the theory of change that RMI faces in addressing its water security needs and disaster preparedness planning. 5) Section 6 provides background of the principles and general design process utilized in addressing the technical gaps faced in addressing the water security needs. 6) Section 7 provides a review of technical options to address water security gaps, their technical prioritization and review of best practices for operations and maintenance. 7) Section 8 focuses on the appropriate technical options for water security suitable for the needs of each community and details the engineering design required. 8) Section 9 provides the background in the technical requirements to assure groundwater protection and quality/quantity assessments. 9) Sections 10 and 11 reviews the implementation strategy to be used by the project and also describes the assumptions and limitations in the design process.

Key Stakeholders This FS has been conducted through the engagement of and in partnership with various national, regional, community and international stakeholders.

The proposal development and FS process was led by the RMI’s NDA to GCF: the Office of Environmental Planning and Policy Coordination (OEPPC), who coordinated the project design, assessment and consultation activities together with UNDP to ensure that various stakeholders were engaged and consulted throughout RMI in the development of the proposal. Given that 2015 – 2016 was a very strong El Niño year, and one of the most severe droughts experienced in many communities in RMI, the FS was also informed by and contributed to the drought response coordination mechanism led by the RMI Government, regional agencies and international and bilateral agencies.

National thematic experts on water served as the key technical working group informing the design, analysis and decision-making related to the proposal development and FS process. These agencies included: Office of the Chief Secretary (OCS), Environmental Protection Authority (EPA), National Disaster Management Office (NDMO), Majuro Water and Sewer Company (MWSC), Weather Service Office (WSO), Ministry of Finance (MOF), Ministry of Public Works (MPW), National Training Council (NTC), and Ministry of Internal Affairs (MOIA).

Political leaders, including the President, Ministers, Cabinet members and Senators were also informed and engaged throughout the process to provide strategic guidance and endorsement. Government leaders (senators and ministers), Mayors and traditional leaders, government department staff (OCS, OEPPC, Ministry of Public Works, EPA, etc.) also joined the community consultation missions.

Page | 15 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Non-government actors also played critical roles in the project design and FS process – by not only contributing information and experiences, but also as key implementers of the surveys and community consultations (i.e. WUTMI and MOIFA). Regional, bilateral, and international partners also supported the FS and project design, both financially and technically. Some of the community consultations were conducted together with GIZ and SPC, who are designing and implementing water initiatives in rural communities of RMI. This ensured close coordination, synergies, and collaboration in the design and implementation of the proposed project.

Technical assessments and missions were conducted by a team of UNDP experts with financial resources made available by UNDP, as well as through generous support from Korea Environmental Industry & Technology Institute (KEITI), the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade (MFAT) New Zealand, USAID Adapt Asia Program, who enabled Government of RMI and UNDP to engage thematic experts in the areas of gender, financial sustainability, and water engineering.

Key stakeholders consulted and contributed to the FS included:  RMI Ministries – Chief Secretary’s Office, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Public Works, Ministry of Education, Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Environmental Planning and Policy Coordination (OEPPC), Weather Service Office (WSO), Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Internal Affairs, Ministry of Finance, National Training Council, Municipal Governments – Council of Mayors.  Traditional leaders, Mayors and Community Leaders – Mayors and community leaders of each atoll visited, Church groups, Landowners and Community Groups.  Multi-lateral and Bi-lateral Donors – World Bank, Asian Development Bank, UNDP, International Federation of Red Cross/RMI National Volunteer Group (IFRC/MIRCS), GIZ, Japan Embassy and Japan International Cooperation Agency, International Organization for Migration (IOM), Die Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), Germany, Republic of China (Taiwan), Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade - Australia, Ministry of Foreign Affairs – New Zealand, Secretariat of Pacific (SPC/SOPAC), Secretariat of Pacific Region Environmental Programme (SPREP)  Representatives of civil society - Women United Together Marshall Islands (WUTMI), Local Churches, Hospitals and Schools, Marshall Islands Organic Farmers Association (MIOFA)  Representatives of private sector and State Owned Enterprises – Majuro Water and Sewer Company (MWSC), Kwajalein Atoll Joint Utilities Resources (KAJUR), Marshalls Islands Shipping Corporation (and other shipping companies), Air Marshall Islands, Moana Marine (Reverse Osmosis Supplier), Marshall Islands Marine Resources Authority (MIMRA)

Page | 16 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA 1. Climate Change in the Republic of the Marshall Islands 1.1. Country Context and Background 1.1.1 Geographical context and Vulnerabilities

The Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI), one of the small island developing states (SIDS) in the sub- region of Micronesia in the Pacific Ocean, consists of 29 coral atolls and 5 single islands. The atolls form 2 groups, the Ratak (sunrise) and the Ralik (sunset) chains, that run parallel to each other, spanning from the northwest to the southeast. The nation is therefore a large-ocean state, with 1225 islands and islets. RMI’s population in 2017 was 55, 562 people (RMI ESSPO)12. Population has been growing, and is expected to continue to grow, despite strong trends of outward migration. Average annual population growth rate was reported as 0.4% in 2011, and estimated as 0.5% in 201613.

RMI embodies many of the SIDS challenges with respect to the various issues and risks in the face of climate change. RMI’s land area is extremely limited – approximately 182 km2 of land remains visible above water level during high tide; most of the 24 inhabited local government jurisdictions on average lie merely 2 meters above sea level; and the islands are generally small - the largest island, Kwajelein, is approximately 16 km2.

This puts physical limits on growth and infrastructure, which can create serious pressures on natural resources and the environment, influencing water and food insecurity. Furthermore, isolation from other countries globally, as well as other communities within the country makes access to markets and achieving economies of scale difficult.

Figure 1: a) Location of RMI and b) Extent RMI Exclusive Economic Zone14 The hydro-geophysical features of the country significantly contribute to its high vulnerabilities to natural disasters and climate change. The geographic location is such that it is heavily influenced by storms, cyclones, king tides, sea level rise, El Nino, reduced annual rainfall and temperature rise contributing to reduction of water security for the residents of RMI.

1.1.2 Socio-Economic Context and Vulnerabilities The unique socio-economic context of RMI makes climate change adaptation extremely challenging without external support. Since its independence in 1990, when the United Nations formally dissolved US trusteeship15, RMI’s revenues have depended on resources provided by the United States under the Compact of Free Association (Compact), which initially provided USD 1 billion during 1986-2001, and was renegotiated to provide USD1.5 billion in direct US assistance from 2003-2024. Through the amended Compact agreement, the US Government is also funding, jointly with the Marshall Islands Government, a Trust Fund

12 Refer to FS Annex for population data projections provided by RMI EPPSO. 13 2016 SPC Pacific Island Populations. Estimates and projections of demographic indicators for selected years. (PRISM) 14 Source: Chapman, L. 2004. Information Paper 8. Near shore domestic fisheries development in Pacific island countries and territories. 4th SPC Heads of Fisheries Meeting. 15 RMI entered into a Compact of Free Association (Compact) with the United States in 1986. Further information on independence is provided in FS 1.1.2 History

Page | 17 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA that will provide an income stream for RMI after 2024, which is when the amended Compact agreement with the United States is scheduled to expire16.

Impacts of climate change and expiration of the US Compact of Free Association in FY2023 are major medium-term fiscal challenges17.The annual grant assistance under the Compact has been diminishing since 2003 (ADB, 2014). Compact annual grants have reduced from $35.2 million to current annual distribution of $32.1 million (as of 2016) and will end with the distribution of $27.7 million in the year 2023. After the Compact grant period expires in 2023, RMI is expected to complement domestic revenues with returns from currently accumulated Compact Trust Fund, which receives annual savings from fiscal surpluses, and contributions from development partners. Building the trust fund is a major challenge, especially under prevailing global economic uncertainty. The US Department of Interior Audit of RMI Trust Fund indicated as of 2015 that the trust fund was valued at $247.1 million USD18, which is short of maintaining the necessary real value needed in 2024. By 2024, a balance of $550M within the Compact Trust Fund is likely needed to generate investment earnings to replace the existing grant. However, the real value of the Compact Trust Fund will not be maintainable due to the possible volatility of investment returns without further assistance (IMF, 2016). The Republic of Taiwan has assisted by contributing funds to the trust and additional donors will be required to meet the long-term fiscal goal. The US Ronald Reagan Missile Test Site at Kwajalein Atoll also provides key income to the RMI economy and delivers an estimated one-third of economic activity19.

In search of employment opportunities, people have been steadily migrating from the rural and islands to the two urban centres of Majuro and Ebeye. Migration is also suspected to be accelerating from Marshall Islands to the United States given terms under the Compact that Marshallese citizens may work and study in the United States without a visa. These forces of migration contribute to further decline of the outer island economy, therefore increasing the income gap between the urban and rural and island population20.

Given its small and sparsely distributed land and population size, RMI’s economy is small and fragile. RMI is heavily dependent on external aid. RMI has limited private sector growth due to challenges of accessing domestic and international markets due to its remoteness and is additionally challenged with dispersed communities over a vast ocean area with a weak regulatory framework. Estimated GDP in 2016 was US$ 186,716,626 (in current US$) and US$ 3,816 (PPP). The public sector is the largest employer and contributor to RMI’s GDP.

40 1997-1999 35 30 2010-2012 25 20 15 10

Sector Sector Contribution (%) 5 0 Private Public Finance Government NGOs Households Indirect Enterprise Enterprise (Banks) Sectors

Figure 2: Percent of contribution to the GDP by sector in the RMI21 The largest sources of domestic revenue are taxes on trade and consumption, a small percentage of income, closely followed by revenue from taxes on income and profits, which respectively generated US$17.3 million and US$11.3 million in fiscal year 2012/13 (PCRAFI , 2015). Remittances make up 14.3 percent of GDP

16 The RMI will continue to receive annually declining grants averaging US$45 million (26 precent of GDP as of FY2012) until FY2023. 1 A Compact Trust Fund (CTF) is being built up to provide funding from FY2024 onwards. The fiscal year runs from October to September. Source: IMF 2014. IMF Country Report No. 14/26. RMI. Staff Report for the 2013 Article IV Consultation. 17 IMF. 2016. 2016 Article IV Consultation – Press Release ; Staff Report; and Statement By the Executive Director for Republic of the Marshall Islands. 18 US Department of Interior – Trust Fund for the People of the Republic of Marshall Islands Financial Statements Sept 2015. 19 Government of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. 2008. Republic of the Marshall Islands National Action Plan for Disaster Risk Management 2008 – 2018. 20It is reported that 2/3 of outer islanders live on less than $1 day. In the urban areas, there is a concentration of highly paid public servants on the urban islands of Majuro and Ebeye. US Compact and federal funding that largely benefit urban areas, and nuclear compensation and lease payments that benefit communities on certain islands. There is a continuing decline in the price of copra (the economic mainstay of the outer islands and a lack of low-skilled jobs in both urban and rural areas. ADB. 2003. Priorities of the People, Hardship in the Marshall Islands. 21 RMI FY 2012 Economic Review, Mark Sturton et.al available on www.pitiviti.org

Page | 18 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA according to estimates provided by World Bank22 and grants from the Compact and from development partners amounted to $59.2 million. This means that contributions from donors account for approximately 60 percent of the annual budget. The country’s limited budget flexibility and access to cash make it difficult to fund disaster response domestically (ADB, 2014). This provides context for the challenges the government will face in co-financing activities for future climate response infrastructure enhancements and disaster response activities after 2023.

Income inequality within atolls and islands: The income inequality within an island or atoll is also important when determining ability to pay for water services. Given that RMI is 74% urbanized, close to 50% of the poor households (below BNIL) live in the urban atolls of Majuro and Ebeye. The income inequality is also very high in urban atolls where the average income of poor households is only 15% of the islands average income. In rural communities, the income inequality is comparatively lower and average income of poor households is about a third of the island’s average income. Any effort to cross subsidize water charges using volumetric fixed rates will be more effective in urban atolls than in rural communities.

The trends in household income can help understand a household’s ability to pay for improved water facilities and services. The three sources of household income are: wages, agricultural income and remittances. The primary revenue for the residents of the rural communities is copra production and handi-crafts.Of these, wages contribute 92% of the income. Wages are significantly higher in the government sector, public enterprises, financial sector, and at Kwajalein air base. These sectors employ close to 50% of the work force. There is wage disparity even within the government sector. The central government employees in Majuro earn twice as much as those employed by the local governments. The private sector, which employs 38% of the workforce, pays the lowest salaries (2.6 times lower than central government wages). The higher paying government positions are concentrated within the urban atolls.

The average household income in Marshall Islands in 2011 was USD 13,362. There is a huge disparity between rural and urban regions in household income level as shown below:

Annual Household income and population of atolls and islands Urban 30000 27,797 Near Serviced atolls Typical and isolated outer atolls urban 25000

20000 17829 16549

15000 10751 Median 6767 income 10000 8061 5210 5558 6909 6873 4725 5443 4294 5026 4267 4031 2817 3812 3738 5000 2964 2636 2393 2246 2824

0

Figure 3: Household income level in different island – atoll groups23

The following are key observations with regards to household income at different atolls. Income disparity between rural and urban centers - the average household income in urban atolls is three times the median household income of USD 4,725 per year. The chart above shows that average household income is higher in urban and serviced atolls. Serviced atolls have higher household income as they receive additional income from special trust funds. It is to be noted that the proximity to urban atolls has not improved the household income levels in near islands. Incomes are significantly higher in communities (such as Enewetak, Rongelap, Utrik and Kili/ Bikini) affected by nuclear testing and receiving compensation for loss of land use based on $/acre affected than those in

22 World Bank Group April 2017 - Migration and Development Brief 27 23 Source: RMI Government. 2011. Census.

Page | 19 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA other islands (CRS, 2005). In the remaining atolls, communities’ lack of income-earning opportunities has led to concerns over rising unemployment, financial hardship (including declining real incomes and higher levels of consumer debt), and hunger. These factors provide powerful incentives for migration from rural communities to the two major urban centers, as well as externally to the United States.24

Poverty statistics: While the incidence of absolute poverty is low, data indicates high levels of inequality, evidence of malnutrition in urban areas, and limited access to cash incomes in rural areas (GFDRR 2011). The Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR, 2011) reported that 20% of the population in RMI lived on less than US$1 a day. Consultations with RMI Economic Policy, Planning and Statistics Office (EPPSO) in November 2017 confirmed this as consistent with their findings.

Based on the 2011 Census using a single Basic Needs Income Line (BNIL) approach to define poverty level, it is estimated that 40% of households in Marshall Islands fall below the poverty line. Assuming that an income level above twice that of BNIL is considered ‘not vulnerable’, an additional 21% of the households are vulnerable to poverty. The poverty incidence across different atoll and island groups is given below :

Poverty trend in RMI

% national level 38.4 20.9 40.7

% outer islands 59.1 20.3 20.6

% urban 29.7 21.2 49.1

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Below Basic Needs Income Level Vulnerable to poverty Not Vulnerable

Figure 4: Poverty incidence across urban and rural communities, based on BNIL25

With more than 80% of households vulnerable and below the poverty line, the rural communities ability to pay for water charges is low. However, the ability to pay should be seen in the context of the costs to attain water currently incurred by the households.

Unfortunately, the poverty rate in the Marshall Islands has been increasing in recent years. According to the country’s 2011 census, one-third of the population fell below the basic-needs income level. A “basic-needs income line” or BNIL for RMI was estimated at $15.46 per person per week for the urban centres, and $13.60 per person a week for the rural islands.26

Education and Employment Vulnerability

Based on the 2011 Census for urban residents greater than 25 years old, 28 percent completed high school and 20 percent completed some level of college. The related figures for the ruralcommunities is 16 percent and 11 percent. The census reported that in the urban areas 24 percent of males and 17 percent of females had some college education or higher; in the rural communities this differential was more stark, 14.4% for males but only 7.4% for females. Taken together these figures suggest that those in the rural communities areas are disadvantaged in relation to education and that, in particular, females are especially disadvantaged at the post-high school level. Connected to education vulnerability, the lack of employment or under-employment is a consequence of many other factors including gender, education, health and disability as well as location, and the impact of broader economic policies on the general economic environment.

24. World Bank http://www.wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2013/02/27/000356161_20130227121655/Rendered/PDF/695100CAS0P1310 Official0Use0Only090.pdf

25 Derived from RMI Government. 2011. Census. 26 Derived from RMI Government. 2011. Census.

Page | 20 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA According to the 2011 Census, there are a total of 12,647 people in the labour force, with 51 percent of all men of working age engaged in either paid or unpaid work, compared to 28 percent of women of working age. Based on the 2011 Census, 40% of the RMI population were considered economically active, with 65 percent males and 35 percent females. Females generally have a lower employment rate and in government there is a better balance, for the private sector males accounted for two thirds of the workforce with the remaining one third balance for females. The vast majority of women in the rural communities rely on food production and processing and handicraft production for family subsistence.27 The other side of a low level of formal employment is often a high reliance on agriculture for both subsistence and cash income. As the 2015/16 drought demonstrated, a reliance on agriculture can lead to a serious increase in hardship as income from cash crops and food from subsistence farming declines putting a major squeeze on household incomes and food security; this is very relevant for the rural communities which rely on subsistence farming and copra production.

Note on Private sector development: The private sector in RMI has been growing at an annual average rate of 3.3% over the past 6 years, reflecting strong growth in fisheries. With the set-up of a tuna loining factory in 2010, the commercial fisheries sector has seen significant growth. Copra production and processing is an export oriented manufacturing activity supported by Tobolar, a state owned enterprise. There are small entrepreneurs in sectors such as fisheries, retailing, construction, and hospitality. There are also some small farms that produce exports such as coconuts and breadfruit, but the atolls have few natural resources and the entire Republic relies on imports.

In addition to foreign aid, the primary economic driver is the sale of fishing rights, which represents twelve percent of the RMI economy, but is primarily managed through Majuro. The RMI benefits from its participation in the Parties to the Nauru Agreement (PNA), which has doubled tuna revenue over the past two years. Development of sustainable coastal fisheries is underway using ecosystem-based management guidelines established under the Reimaanlok mechanism to assist local governments in formulating fishery management plans and fishery management ordinances, and to harmonize efforts in facilitating the implementation of community fishery management programs28.

1.2 Climate Change: Observed and Projected Climate Variability and Change 1.2.1 Precipitation Patterns29

The current climate of RMI is tropical with two seasons: a wet season from May to November; and a dry season from December to April. Air temperatures show very little variation, with mean maximum temperatures in the warmest months less than 1°C (2°F) warmer than those in the coldest months. Rainfall however varies greatly from atolls and islands in the north to those in the south. The atolls and islands located 10°N and further north receive less than 1,250 mm (50 inches) of rain annually and are very dry in the dry season. The atolls and islands located further south of 7°N receive more than 2,500 mm (100 inches) of rain annually. Given the variation of precipitation patterns, the 24 local government jurisdictions (or atolls and islands) of RMI are often categorized into 3 zones:  Zone 1 with atolls/islands located above 8’ N latitude  Zone 2 with islands between 6’ and 8’ N latitude  Zone 3 with atolls/islands below 6’ N latitude. During the dry season, atolls and islands in the northern Zones 1 and 2 often experience prolonged days without rain, and therefore are more vulnerable to drought events. This rainfall pattern relating latitude and amount of rainfall is reflected in Figure 5, which has been generated through analysis of annual average rainfall data (provided by RMI NWS) and relating it to the atoll latitude; the further north the atoll, the lower average rainfall experienced. The dotted line on the graph is the polynomial trend of the data points. In addition, the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) brings rainfall to RMI throughout the year. It is strongest and closest to RMI during the wet season, and weakest and farthest away during the dry season.

27 RMI, Ministry of Internal Affairs. 2015. National Gender Mainstreaming Policy of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. 28 Republic of the Marshall Islands: National Report, May 2013. Produced by the RMI Ministry of Foreign Affairs in preparation for the Third International Conference on Small Islands States in Apia, Samoa 2014 29 Australian Bureau of Meteorology (BoM) and Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO). 2014. Report: Climate Variability, Extremes and Change in the Western Tropical Pacific 2014. Chapter 7. Marshall Islands.

Page | 21 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Figure 5: Average annual rainfall versus latitude for the RMI weather stations

The main influence of the year-to-year natural climate variability in RMI is the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) where rainfall can be suppressed by as much as 80%. In a normal year, dry season lasts for 2 to 4 months with an average of 10 consecutive days without rain. In a dry year (i.e. 2015/2016, which was one of the driest years in history for many atolls and islands), days without rain range from 10 to 30 days, for up to 5 months (Dec 2015 to May 2016). Refer to Annex 4 for information on weather stations and Annex 5 for detailed charts of the daily rainfall from December 2015 to end May 2016 for each of the seven weather stations. A typical El Nino event is followed by a prolonged dry season of up to 6 months and a drop in 80% rainfall. King tides, typically occur in January to March and have been growing in intensity due to higher sea levels resulting in greater inundation of the atolls.

The West Pacific Monsoon (WPM) also affects RMI in some years, Madden Julian-Oscillation; the tropical upper tropospheric troughs and the North Pacific sub-tropical high can also influence rainfall in a given year.

Historical data (details provided in FS Annex 4, 5, 6) shows a decreasing trend of rainfall quantities, with drought risk respectively increasing. Droughts and storm waves are the main extreme weather events that impact RMI. Droughts generally occur in the first 4 to 6 months of the year following an El Niño. During severe El Niño events, rainfall can be suppressed by as much as 80% and the dry season begins earlier and ends much later than normal.

To measure the climate information (recording rainfall and temperature on a 6 hour basis) for RMI the Weather Office operates 9 stations (3 on Majuro). Majuro (main weather office) and Kwajalein locations are consider first order stations and have been in operation for the last 50 years. The second order stations located at Ailinglaplap, Jaliut, Mili, Utrik and Wotje have been in operation for the last 20 years. Using this available data UNDP has determined the observed baseline drought periods as shown in Table 13 of this FS.

Figure 6 and 7 shows the historical drop in rainfall and rise of temperature (red line series on the graphs) for the Majuro and Kwajalein atolls with the light blue, dark blue and grey bars denoting El Nino, La Nina and

Page | 22 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA neutral years respectively. Analysis of rainfall during the 2015 – 2016 drought year is included in FS Annex 5.

Figure 6: Majuro Annual Rainfall and Temperature30

Figure 7: Kwajalein Annual Rainfall31

30 Australian Bureau of Meteorology (BoM) and Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO). 2014. Report: Climate Variability, Extremes and Change in the Western Tropical Pacific 2014. Chapter 7. Marshall Islands 31 Australian Bureau of Meteorology (BoM) and Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO). 2014. Report: Climate Variability, Extremes and Change in the Western Tropical Pacific 2014. Chapter 7. Marshall Islands

Page | 23 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA 1.2.1.1 Precipitation – Modelled Future Change

The climate projections 32 based on Coupled Model Intercomparison Project version 3 (CMIP3) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC A4) show that in the future, rainfall and drought scenarios in RMI through to 2030 will continue with little or no change. After 2030 with “moderate confidence” rainfall during the dry-season will increase and consequently the frequency of drought events will decline. However, climate models also predict an increase in extreme event intensity, which may influence the frequency and/or magnitude of droughts in RMI.

UNDP commissioned a review of the available information and to apply CMIP5 GCM models that are associated with the IPCC 5th assessment report to better understand the specific climate projections for RMI. The future emissions projection scenario used for analysis was the Representative Concentration Pathway 8.5 (RCP8.5), which is consistent with 8.5 W/m2 of anthropogenic radiative forcing by 2100; this is widely considered the “business-as-usual’ scenario and represents the trajectory that anthropogenic carbon emissions are presently tracking (Le Quéré et al., 2016). Refer to Feasibility Annex 22 for final Report on Climate Projections for RMI developed on behalf of RMI and UNDP by Dr. Kristopher Karnauskas. Within the report (see FS Annex 22), climate change projections are focused on time horizons 2035 (representing climatology spanning 2030 to 2039) and 2045 (2040 to 2049) in relation to the baseline decade of 2006 to 2015.

Projections within the models were attenuated to provide annual, wet and dry season rainfall totals for the time horizons of 2035 and 2045 based on the location of the existing RMI weather stations (Table 2):

Site Weather Station Lon./Lat. Relative geographic Category # description 1 Utrik 167°E 11°N South of Rongelap Atoll Northern 2 Wotje 171°E 10°N Northeast of Wotje Atoll Northern 3 Kwajalein 168°E 9°N East of Kwajalein Atoll Northern 4 Ailinglaplap 169°E 7°N Southeast of Ailinglaplap Atoll Southern 5 Majuro 172°E 7°N East of Majuro Southern 6 Mili 172°E 6°N South of Mili Atoll Southern 7 Jaluit 169°E 6°N West of Jaluit Atoll Southern Table 2: Site locations of the seven existing weather stations

Baseline Rainfall (mm) 2035 2045 Weather Site # (Climate Model) (Percentage Change) (Percentage Change) 27Station Annual Wet Dry Annual Wet Dry Annual Wet Dry 1 Utrik 2397 1031 196 -10.6 -13.7 -23.4 -3.2 -10.3 -30.0 2 Wotje 2741 1088 269 -12.6 -15.6 -22.0 -5.5 -9.7 -41.0 3 Kwajalein 3062 1084 423 -9.5 13.0 -24.4 -7.3 -11.9 -31.8 4 Ailinglaplap 3577 1029 734 -7.9 -11.9 -17.5 -17.0 -14.8 -29.6 5 Majuro 3574 1030 714 -8.5 -20.2 -18.6 -15.3 -13.4 -25.0 6 Mili 3492 911 811 -11.7 -22.1 -14.0 -18.3 -16.7 -25.0 7 Jaluit 3527 922 838 -12.8 -15.0 -12.7 -19.4 -17.8 -27.6 T RMI (Ave) 3196 1014 569 -10.5 -15.8 -17.3 -13.1 -13.4 -28.4 Table 3: Comparison of Expected Changes in rainfall (percentage) for Years 2035 and 2045

Baseline rainfall totals (mm) and projected changes (%) in annual, wet season and dry season rainfall for each RMI site and the average across all RMI sites are shown in Table 3. Baseline totals were computed from the period 2006-2015 (first 10 years of simulation), averaged across all 20 GCMs. Projection figures

32 Source: Marshall Islands National Weather Service Office, Australian Bureau of Meteorology, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) (2013) Current and future climate of the Marshall Islands. http://www.pacificclimatechangescience.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/8_PACCSAP- Marshall-Islands-11pp_WEB.pdf

Page | 24 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA given are the greatest reduction in rainfall within 95% confidence limits. Negative numbers indicate rainfall reductions.

The projections show that the greatest possible reduction in rainfall within 95% confidence limits corresponds to a significant drop in rainfall for both wet and dry periods for the 2035 and 2045 modelled scenarios as shown in Table 3. This will exacerbate the need for assuring water storage capacities and rainwater harvesting efficiencies to be maintained at a high level to capture maximum amount of available water. Based on the historical trend of reduction in rainfall over the last forty years, the modelled projection is consistent with the experiences of RMI.33

1.2.2 Sea Level Rise, High (King) Tides, Cyclones and Storms

Historic observation data indicate that the sea level near Majuro has risen by about 7mm (0.3 inches) per year since 1993. This is larger than the global average of 2.8–3.6 mm (0.11– 0.14 inches) per year. To measure local wave and sea levels, a Datawell Directional Waverider buoy was deployed in July 2014 in partnership with University of Hawaii’s Pacific Islands Ocean Observing System (PacIOOS). The buoy is deployed about one and half kilometres off of the eastern shore of Majuro and measures wave height, wave direction, wave period and sea surface temperature every 30 minutes34, which is then reported to the Weather Office. This information is used by regional studies.

The Pacific Climate Change Science Program report35 indicates that there are a number of historical sea- level records available for RMI: Enewetak (1951 – 1971); Kwajalein (1946 – present); Majuro‐B (1968–2001); and Majuro‐C (1993–2009). The report also mentions that long‐term locally‐monitored sea‐surface temperature data, however, are unavailable for RMI.

High tides and specifically king tides are a common phenomenon in RMI. The consistent inundation from tides and flooding compromises the ground water use as a potential drinking and a cooking water source (RMI NDMO, pers comm). RMI NDMO indicated that the overwash height at the airport reservoir reached 75mm during the King Tide event experienced in March 2014.

1.2.2.1 Sea Level and Tides (King) – Modelled Future Changes Sea level is projected to continue to rise in RMI, refer to Table 4 for expected sea level rise based on three emission scenarios. Saltwater intrusion and flooding of the airport catchment and freshwater storage reservoirs, as well as damage to their saltwater pump stations and treatment plant of the Majuro Water and Sewer Company (MWSC) has historically impacted water supply to residents of Majuro. These risks due to inundation to critical infrastructure, especially in the urban centres, may increase associated with extreme sea levels and high tide events. Saltwater intrusion may also further stress the limited groundwater availability and quantity, which will affect the Laura Community in Majuro and in the rural communities that have limited, but vital, access to groundwater resources. For Majuro and the Laura community addressing this risk is part of the overall Master Plan for MWSC. The islands not serviced by MWSC and KAJUR have not yet addressed possible comprehensive alternatives for drinking water sources.

Table 4: Sea Level rise projections for the Marshall Islands for three emission scenarios.

Y2030 Y2055 Y2090 (cm) (cm) (cm) Low Emissions Scenario 4 to 15 10 to 27 18 to 47 Medium Emissions Scenario 4 to 15 11 to 32 21 to 60

33 Additional information reviewed for climate change analysis relevant to RMI includes: Karnauskas, K, J. Donnelly, and K. J. Anchukaitis. 2016. Future freshwater stress for island populations. Nature Climate Change. 2987. Antonietta Capotondi et. al, American Meteorological Society, June 2015, Understanding ENSO Diversity S. Chand et al, Nature Climate Change (letters), Dec 2016, Projected Increase in El Nino driven tropical cyclone frequency in the Pacific

34 University of Hawaii. 2014. http://www.hawaii.edu/news/2014/07/10/wave-buoy-in-majuro-helps-keep-islanders-safe/ Near real-time data can be viewed from; http://www.pacioos.hawaii.edu/waves/buoy-majuro/ 35 Australian Bureau of Meteorology (BoM) and Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO). 2014. Report: Climate Variability, Extremes and Change in the Western Tropical Pacific 2014. Chapter 7. Marshall Islands.

Page | 25 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA High Emissions Scenario 3 to 16 11 to 30 22 to 62

The seal level rise values in Table 4 represent 90% of the range of models and changes are relative to the average of the time period 1980-1999.18

A review of the Kiribati report (PACCSAP, 2014) where mean sea levels are also projected to increase by 7-17 cm by 2030 irrespective of the climate change scenario and by 2050 this range in sea-level rise is 21- 33 cm and by 2090, 23-87 cm. Increases in mean-sea level will raise tide levels which may result in King Tides (which currently make up approximately 3 to 4% of High Tides). By 2090 potentially over 90% of all high tides could exceed what is presently considered a King Tide. It is expected that RMI will also face this same phenomena.

1.2.2.2 Cyclones and Storms

Records of historical disaster events, including climate-induced disasters such as cyclone, floods and droughts, are limited in RMI. Current evidence shows that the RMI is not located within the core cyclone belt. However, historically, RMI has experienced impacts of and losses from tropical cyclones, which caused significant damages to buildings, infrastructure, and livelihoods. In 1997, Typhoon Paka36 caused US$80 million of damage to crops and affected 70 percent of houses on Ailinglaplap Atoll37. During a 20-year period, it is estimated that cyclones in RMI caused on average US$63 million per cyclone; Typhoons Zelda, Axel, and Gay caused significant damage and loss within the span of one year (1991–1992). However storms and cyclones

Below Table 5 summarizes information regarding historical disasters (non-droughts) declarations by the RMI Government and often supported by a State of Emergency Declaration by the US President to release US funding and resource support to RMI.

Table 5: Historical Disasters in RMI (1987 – 2016)

Year Disaster Type Affected Population & Location Economic Source* Cost / Value March 2014 King Tides Majuro: 70 homes damaged, 940 Unknown 1 evacuees Arno, Mili, Maloelap, Kili and Wotje also affected38 June 1994 High Surf, Wave Majuro Unknown 2, 3 Action Dec 1992 Typhoon Gay 5,000 people in Mejit, Ailuk, Maloelap, Aur, Unknown 2, 4 Ujae, and Majuro Feb 1992 Tropical Storm Unknown Unknown 2 Axel Dec 1991 Typhoon Zelda 6,000 people in Ebeye (Kwajalein) Unknown 2, 5 Jan 1988 Tropical Storm 1 person killed. 3,500 affected in Majuro US$ 5 million 2, 6 Roy and Ebeye (Kwajalein)

*Source numbers correspond to those listed above. Data sources available for historical records in RMI in regard to type of disaster, affected population, location, and/ or economic cost are:

Sources: 1 – Relief Web. http://reliefweb.int/disaster/ss-2014-000032-mhl 2 – FEMA. Disaster Declarations for Republic of the Marshall Islands. https://www.fema.gov/disasters/grid/state-tribal-government/83 3 – RMI. 1997. Hazard Mitigation Plan. http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/www.pacificdisaster.net_pdnadmin_data_original_DM0008.pdf 4 – Joint Typhoon Warning Center, Guam, Marshall Islands. 1992. Annual Cyclone Report. http://www.usno.navy.mil/NOOC/nmfc- ph/RSS/jtwc/atcr/1992atcr.pdf 5 – UNDRO. 1991. Marshall Islands - Typhoon Zelda Dec 1991 UNDRO Situation Reports 1-3

36 Paka is not included in the summary table of disaster as there is no record of state of emergency declaration in RMI (record available by FEMA for declaration in Guam). 37 World Bank. Pacific Catastrophe Risk Assessment and Financing Initiative (PCRAFI). (2015). Country Note. Marshall Islands. 38 In Arno, Tinak Health Centre was completely destroyed, and Malel and Kilange Health Centers were low on medical supplies. Most breadfruit, pandanus and banana trees destroyed, and shops lost all food stock. Many household water catchments were damaged and community tanks contaminated. Around 80 percent of sanitation facilities were affected, with sewage reported in some locations.

Page | 26 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA http://reliefweb.int/report/marshall-islands/marshall-islands-typhoon-zelda-dec-1991-undro-situation-reports-1-3 6 – Joint Typhoon Warning Center. Guam, Marshall Islands. 1988. Annual Tropical Cyclone Report. http://www.usno.navy.mil/NOOC/nmfc- ph/RSS/jtwc/atcr/1988atcr.pdf

1.2.2.3 Cyclones and Storms – Modelled Future Change

From the RMI Climate Report in FS Annex the projected changes in tropical storm climate presented here are statistically limited of their frequency over the last ten years (2005 to 2015) except perhaps for the northernmost sites in the RMI. The climate baseline of number of storms per decade (2005 to 2015) in the RMI region is approximately 30; the Global Climate Model (GCM) multi-model mean projection for RMI is to experience an additional 2 tropical storms per decade by 2035 and an additional 3 tropical storms per decade by 204539. The intensity of the storms is also projected to increase by 9% and 14% by 2035 and 2045, respectively.

Based on long-term projections (past 2045), the frequency of cyclones and storms is expected to decrease with moderate confidence (CSIRO, 2011). Fortunately the cyclone point of origin lies south and west of RMI and typical travel west. However, the vulnerability to cyclones may increase due to a combination of factors including sea level rise in the densely populated urban centres and associated increased risk for primary and secondary impacts through increased destruction and interruption of critical infrastructure as a result of cyclone events. Extreme weather events such as cyclones and storm surge flooding can cause saline intrusion and overflow of septic tanks into freshwater lenses making them unsuitable for use.

1.2.3 Temperature

Air temperatures in RMI are constant year-round at approximately 27°C with average historical normal temperature depicted for Majuro showing an increasing trend (Figure 8). The consistently increasing temperature may result in deeper heat waves if continued that may affect consumption and usage levels.

Figure 8: Annual Average temperatures for Majuro

Light Blue Bars indicate El Nino years, dark blue indicate La Nina yeas and the grey bars indicate neutral years 40.

Similarity similar historical temperature trends are shown by Figure 9 for Kwajalein Atoll.

39 Refer to RMI Climate Projections Report V4 in the FS Annex. Projected changes in number of tropical storms (storms per decade) and power dissipation index (PDI) (% change) for the RMI region by the methodology of Zhang et al. (2017). 40 Australian Bureau of Meteorology (BoM) and Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO). 2014. Report: Climate Variability, Extremes and Change in the Western Tropical Pacific 2014. Chapter 7. Marshall Islands.

Page | 27 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Figure 9: Annual Average temperatures for Kwajalein

Light Blue Bars indicate El Nino years, dark blue indicate La Nina yeas and the grey bars indicate neutral years 41.

The temperature graphs (Figure 8 and Figure 9) are typical of RMI where the historical mean temperatures have risen by 1 degree Celsius over the last 60 years.42

The main influence of temperature variability year to year is the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO), with wet season temperatures increasing slightly during the event. The seasonal temperatures vary very slightly and the long term historical trends show increasing temperature values as per Table 6.

Majuro Tmax Majuro Tmin Majuro Kwaj. Tmax Kwaj. Tmin (Deg. C per (Deg. C per Tmean (Deg. (Deg. C per (Deg. C per Kwaj. Tmean 10Y) 10Y) C per 10Y) 10Y) 10Y) (Deg. C per 10Y) Annual +0.12 +0.17 +0.15 +0.16 +0.14 +0.15 Wet season +0.11 +0.20 +0.16 +0.18 +0.14 +0.16 Dry Season +0.13 +0.15 +0.14 +0.13 +0.14 +0.14 Table 6: Annual and Seasonal trends in max, min and mean air temperatures (1950 to 2009)

1.2.3.1 Temperature - Modelled Future Changes

The increase in temperature trend is expected to continue for all emission scenarios for both average air and sea surface temperatures increasing as shown in Table 7. The temperature values represent 90 percentile of the range of the climate models and described changes are baseline to the average of the time period 1980-1999.44

Projections indicate higher average temperatures resulting in the rise of number of hot days and a decline in cooler weather. This is expected to exacerbate the existing demand for water supply and also accelerate the evaporation potential of open air stored water reservoirs.

Y2030 Y2055 Y2090 (deg. C) (deg. C) (deg. C)

41 Australian Bureau of Meteorology (BoM) and Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO). 2014. Report: Climate Variability, Extremes and Change in the Western Tropical Pacific 2014. Chapter 7. Marshall Islands. 42 Australian Bureau of Meteorology (BoM) and Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO). 2014. Report: Climate Variability, Extremes and Change in the Western Tropical Pacific 2014. Chapter 7. Marshall Islands.

Page | 28 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Low Emissions Scenario 4 to 15 10 to 27 18 to 47 Northern Medium Emissions Scenario 4 to 15 11 to 32 21 to 60 Atolls High Emissions Scenario 3 to 16 11 to 30 22 to 62 Low Emissions Scenario 4 to 15 10 to 27 18 to 47 Southern Medium Emissions Scenario 4 to 15 11 to 32 21 to 60 Atolls High Emissions Scenario 3 to 16 11 to 30 22 to 62 Table 7: Projected Annual average air temperature changes for the Marshall Islands three emission scenarios

1.2.4 Aridity and Evaporation – Current and Projections Projected changes in aridity were also calculated for each RMI site (Table 8). This is based on a mid- century time horizon due to availability of required model outputs (many variables are required for this complex calculation).43 The aridity change is expressed as percent change from the year of 2016/17. An increase in aridity can be affected by either decreased rainfall and/or increased evaporation—whichever is the larger change in terms of the surface water balance will determine the sign of the change within 95% confidence limits. The maximum increases in aridity for sites across the RMI are in the realm of 8-20%, refer to the RMI Climate Project report in FS Annex 22 for breakdown by weather station region.

Site Weather station Projected Percentage of Change in Aridity 1 Utirik 8.1 2 Wotje 12.0 3 Kwajalein 18.4 4 Ailinglaplap 22.1 5 Majuro 23.6 6 Mili 15.3 7 Jaluit 17.0 Total 15.3 Table 8: Projected changes (by percent) in aridity

Fortunately for RMI, the majority of storage tanks at the household and community level are covered and have limited exposure to the effects of evaporation. The Majuro catchment system is an open storage reservoir and is exposed to the environment so subject to evaporation. Based on an estimate provide by Allen Gale (pers comm) the existing airport system is losing approximately 41.6 million litres yearly due to evaporation. This will only be exacerbated with higher temperatures and resulting higher aridity values. The MWSC Master plan has hi-lighted this risk and is proposing to scale the completed UNDP PACC (2014) project that covered two of the reservoirs with floating membranes and also re-sealed the floor of each reservoir.

1.3 Key Climate Change Risks: Droughts

Climate change impacts faced in RMI can be characterized by both slow onset changes in the average weather condition across several years as well as changes in the frequency and/or intensity of extreme weather events. Slow onset changes are often interlinked with current and future extreme weather events. Slow-onset changes that RMI is already observing include sea-level rise (SLR) and changes in precipitation and temperatures patterns. Extreme weather events that are observed in RMI include droughts, tropical storms and related storm surges, and high tides including king tides. The focus of this project is to address drought, which has affected RMI repeatedly. Drought intensity has been has been shown to be exacerbated with climate change.

Droughts are commonly categorized by the GRMI into 4 types:

43 All methods are documented fully in Karnauskas et al. (2016) and Karnauskas et al. (2017)

Page | 29 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA  A meteorological drought often refers to a period of lower-than-normal precipitation duration and/or intensity. The commonly used definition of meteorological drought is an interval of time, in terms of weeks, months or years, during which the actual moisture supply at a given place is consistently below the climatically appropriate moisture supply.  An agricultural drought occurs when there is inadequate soil moisture to meet the needs of a particular crop at any given time. Agricultural drought usually occurs after or during a meteorological drought but before hydrological drought and may affect livestock and other dry-land agricultural operations.  A hydrological drought refers to deficiencies in the availability of surface and groundwater supplies. There usually occurs a delay between lack of rain or snow and the occurrence of less-measurable water availability in streams, lakes and reservoirs. Therefore, drought hydrological measurements would tend to lag other drought indicators.  A socio-economic drought may occur when physical water shortages start to affect the health, well- being, and quality of life of the people, or when the drought starts to affect the supply and demand of the production of goods and services in a given country or sub-national divisions.

According to the Glossary of Terms in IPCC, droughts by definition are:

A period of abnormally dry weather long enough to cause a serious hydrological imbalance. Drought is a relative term, therefore any discussion in terms of precipitation deficit must refer to the particular precipitation- related activity that is under discussion. For example, shortage of precipitation during the growing season impinges on crop production or ecosystem function in general (due to soil moisture Glossary of Terms Annex II 559 drought, also termed agricultural drought), and during the runoff and percolation season primarily affects water supplies (hydrological drought). Storage changes in soil moisture and groundwater are also affected by increases in actual evapotranspiration in addition to reductions in precipitation.

1.3.1 Droughts – Historical Impact The combination of all the general climatic factors has resulted in a series of localized and nation-wide droughts that have become more frequent over the last few decades. A review by Polhemus (2017) determined that droughts like the 1986 drought which at the time was declared as a 1:125 year drought (Van der Brug 1986), can now be expected to occur 1 in 10 years based on the last three decades of observed data. That is, the frequency of severe droughts has increased. As further evidence of this, data for Majuro atoll (Presley 2005) indicate that the meteorological drought events of 1992 and 1995 were equally severe as the 1986 event studied by Van der Burg. In addition, during 2015-2016, total rainfall at Majuro from October 2015 to July 2016 was the driest 10-month period in the 62-year historical record (PEAC 2016c). The recurrence interval of severe meteorological drought at Majuro seems to be closer to 10-15 years, in close track with ENSO cycles as postulated by the Polhemus report. Table 9 lists the reported number of droughts experience by RMI.

Table 9: History of Droughts experienced by RMI Year Disaster El Nino Affected Population & Location Economic Source Type Event Cost / Value 2017 Drought N Northern Atolls $350,000 5

2015 / Drought Y 21,000 people across all inhabited atolls US$ 8 million 1, 4 2016 and islands 2012 / Drought N 6,384 people living in 13 drought affected US$ 4.7 2, 4 44 2013 northern atolls and islands million 2007 Drought N Drought affected northern atolls and Unknown 3, 4 islands 2001 Drought N Drought affected northern atolls and Unknown 3, 4 islands 1997/ 1998 Drought Y 27,034 people of Majuro only have 4 gpd. Unknown 4 Ebeye only have 1 gpd. 20,806 in the rural communities and island 1995 Drought N Unknown Unknown 4

1991-92 Drought Y Unknown Unknown 4

44 Enewetak, Wotho, Ujae, Lae, Lib, Namu, Likiep, Utrik, Ailuk, Wotje, Mejit, Maloelap, Aur

Page | 30 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Year Disaster El Nino Affected Population & Location Economic Source Type Event Cost / Value 1982-83 Drought Y Ebeye water supply was supported by the Unknown 4 US military base but on the other more remote atolls beyond Majuro and Kwajalein, which rely on small catchments and shallow wells, the water supply situation became acute, with daily rations reduced to one gallon per day per person (van der Brug 1986). Water limited from MWSC to 4 hours per day.

1969/1970 Drought Y Unknown Unknown 4

1965/1966 Drought Y Unknown Unknown 4

Source: 1 – RMI. 2016. Post Disaster Needs Assessment and Emergency Response Plan 2 – OCHA. 2013. Pacific; RMI Drought. Situation Report No. 3. http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/RMI_Drought_OCHA_SitRep03_21%20May%202013_FINAL.pdf 3 – Pacific Disaster Net. http://www.pacificdisaster.net/pdnadmin/data/original/ENSO_1997_pacific.pdf 4 – Polhemus – 2017 Pacific Islands Climate Science Center/USAPI Drought in the US – Affiliated Pacific Islands (A Multi-level Assessment) 5. NDMO Consultations with UNDP on September 2017 Mission

For the drought of 2015-2016, each atoll exhibited slightly different rainfall patterns based on their location (Table 10). However throughout RMI, both the household and community rainwater systems were depleted on multiple occasions during this period. The poor condition of household RWH systems prevented the little rainfall that was available from being captured and stored efficiently. Together with the rainfall data from the weather stations, various impacts of drought have been documented via community surveys during Project design period. Table 10 provides a summary of the 2015 – 2016 drought conditions.

Table 10: Summary of Rainfall for 2015 - 2016 Drought

Site Weather Rainfall Drought Drought Rainfall Length of each Days of Largest station depth 1 start date end date depth drought periods drought community Dec 2015 (HH tanks (tanks not during (days)1 based on droughts > to 31 empty empty after these May under this date drought 15 days (drought 2016 Baseline) under dates continues as long as (mm) Baseline) (mm) daily rainfall < 5mm)2

1 Utirik 292 8-Feb-16 29-Jun-16 152 4 drought periods – 52, 142 Utirik 18, 25, 38 days

2 Wotje 295 18-Dec-15 18-May-16 53 1 drought period – 143 152 Wotje days 3 Kwajalein 314 4-Jan-16 31-May-16 151 3 drought periods – 47, 148 Santo 23, 30 days 4 Ailinglaplap 530 14-Jan-16 10-May-16 128 5 drought periods – 20, 117 Woja 22, 34, 32 and 20 days 5 Majuro 650 16-Dec-15 4-May-16 228 4 drought periods – 37, 140 Arno 24, 18 and 25 days

6 Mili 637 28-Dec-15 13-May-16 358 3 drought periods – 41, 137 Mili 25, and 27 7 Jaluit 759 9-Jan-16 26-Apr-16 198 2 drought periods – 17 108 Jabwor and 22 days Notes: 1. Within Section 3 more details are provided relating to the effects of limited rainfall and the state of infrastructure that resulted in days without water experienced by the residents. 2. Values are compiled by UNDP Project Design Team based on interviews and data collected with Majuro National Weather Office. 2016

Page | 31 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA 1.3.1.1 Droughts – Modelled Future

Drought Frequency Projected changes in drought frequency are not uniform across the RMI and depend on duration of drought being considered. Changes in drought were analysed in terms of drought of typical but impactful (e.g., “once in five years”) droughts, as well as aridity (which accounts for the increasing evaporative demand of the atmosphere in a warming climate). Based on the analysis performed with the GCM in the RMI Climate Report in the FS Annex 22 a minimum no-rain threshold of 30 days is a more appropriate representation of the “once in 5 year’s drought” for southern atolls of RMI, while 60 days is a more appropriate representation of the “once in 5 year’s drought” for the northern atolls and are representative of typical baseline droughts.

As summarized in previous sections, historically severe droughts in the RMI are driven by basin-scale inter- annual climate fluctuations due to the quasi-periodic El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle.

The projection analysis provided in Annex 22 FS, using the latest GCM 8.5, reports changes in drought characteristics (be they frequency or duration) based entirely on anthropogenic climate change is shown in Table 11. For some sites/durations/time horizons, the consensus projection may even be a reduction in drought frequency (e.g., 10% decrease in 30-day drought frequency at site 7). However, increases in drought frequency (of either duration, at either time horizon) cannot be ruled out at the 95% confidence level at almost all sites. For example, Site 6 in Table 11 is the only site at which there is a very high confidence that drought events of 30 days in duration will not increase (at either 2035 or 2045).

Table 11: Projected changes Percentages in drought frequency

2035 (30 days) 2035 (60 days) 2035 (30 days) 2035 (60 days) Weather Percent Percent Percent Percent Site # Station Mean Up To Mean Up To Mean Up To Mean Up To

1 Utrik 7 20 56 102 20 36 24 48 2 Wotje 12 39 -12 30 14 40 -23 7

3 Kwajalein 21 97 -3 34 7 43 -10 27 4 Ailinglaplap 7 54 -43 -9 32 84 5 54 5 Majuro -22 9 -10 39 -13 10 17 38 6 Mili -44 -12 60 223 -37 -6 -25 25 7 Jaluit -10 45 40 214 17 106 -30 10 T RMI (Ave) -4 36 11 90 6 45 -6 30

For 30- and 60-day droughts (with a minimum non-zero daily rainfall threshold of 3 mm) at time horizons of 2035 and 2045 for each RMI weather station site listed and the average percentage across all RMI sites. The multi-model mean as well as the greatest increase in drought frequency within 95 percent confidence limits are provided. Positive numbers indicate increases in drought frequency.

Drought Duration (Intensity) Projected changes in drought duration are provided in Table 12. The multi-model mean projections are relatively modest (on the order of a few days), but the spread is sufficiently large that increases in drought durations by several weeks and even months cannot be ruled out at the 95% confidence level. For example, the multi-model mean projection for changes in droughts at Site 2 for the time horizon of 2035 is 3 days, but a change of 30 days is not outside of the 95% confidence limits. In this case, for example, a typical severe drought of 55 days in duration today would occur at the same frequency in the future but last 58 days (multi- model mean projected change in duration) or up to 85 days (the maximum change in duration within 95% confidence limits). The duration of a “typical” drought (i.e., a roughly once in five years drought) as indicated in Table 12 corresponds to such typical droughts in the GCMs and therefore may differ slightly from the experience in the real world; such modified values are necessary to convey because GCMs attempt to simulate the real world, time-varying climate system including extremes, but all GCMs have persistent biases that do not necessary preclude the usefulness of their projections of changes in mean climate and extremes.

Page | 32 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Table 12: Projected changes (days) in drought duration

2035 2045 Site # Weather Station Mean Up To Mean Up To (Days) (Days) (Days) (Days)

1 Utrik +1 +20 -1 +14 2 Wotje +3 +30 +1 +16 3 Kwajalein +3 +30 +1 +13 4 Ailinglaplap +6 +58 -1 +9 5 Majuro +2 +17 +1 +11 6 Mili +2 +17 +3 +27 7 Jaluit 0 +15 +1 +19 T RMI (Ave) +2 +27 +1 +16

The model results shown in Table 12 are the projected number of additional days of drought due to anthropogenic climate change.45 The multi-model mean as well as the greatest increase in drought duration within 95% confidence limits are provided. Positive numbers indicate increases in average drought duration.

Drought Summary There is a combination of factors presented that postulate climate change projections for RMI will realize a higher frequency of droughts that will be more intense (increase in consecutive drought days) putting greater strain on residents. The project design will need to address a combination of climate factors:

1. Less potential rainfall 2. Longer drought periods (days without significant rain) 3. More frequent droughts 4. Higher aridity 5. More intense storms

Based on the above, the project design will need to resolve the storage gap and need for improved rainwater capture efficiency to achieve a sustained supply of safe water for the duration of baseline and climate change drought periods for RMI (summarised in Table 13). The table superimposes climate change induced increases in drought days with current baseline drought days to suggest longest droughts within 95% confidence limits. This is further corroborated by observed drought durations based on existing data.

Table 13: Summary of Baseline and Projected Drought Periods reflecting Max Anthropogenic Change by Station

Projected Additional days of Projected Observed Baseline Drought Baseline Drought (2025 - Drought Length of Climate Length Days Drought Length 2035 or 2035 – Length 2015/16 Region (Climate Model) Observed** 45_***) Up to Y2045 Drought Utrik 60 90 20 110 134 Wotje 60 90 30 120 143 Kwajalein 60 70 30 100 100 Ailinglaplap 60 60 58 118 128 Majuro 30 40 17 57 120 Mili 30 40 27 67 93 Jaluit 30 40 19 59 91

* Analysis based on Climate Model data for years 2005 to 2015. ** Analysis of rainfall data completed by UNDP based on information provided by RMI Weather Office over the last 50Y for Majuro and Kwajalein and more than 20Y for the remaining weather stations . *** the higher of the projected values either in 2025 to 2035 or 2035 to 2045 periods are chosen.

45 The results are indicative for any drought lasting longer than 15 days and with a daily rainfall threshold of <5 mm (discounted to mean that no rain day), for time horizons of 2035 and 2045 for each RMI site listed in Table 12.

Page | 33 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA 1.3.2 Impacts – Focus on Drought 2015/16

RMI has two major urban areas at Majuro (Capital City) on Majuro Atoll and Ebeye on Kwajalein Atoll. Both of these communities have water utilities that operate and manage the water and sanitation facilities for the community members in their service area. The two water utilities are MWSC and KAJUR respectively. The remaining communities in the rural communities not connected to the MWSC or KAJUR service area (commonly collectively referred to as rural communities for this Feasibility Study) do not have the benefit of a managed system of collection and distribution water and sanitations services. The impact to each type of location is described below. Note that both the MWSC and KAJUR utilities have developed utility level Master Plans to cover the impacts from drought and future developments to properly service their communities.

1.3.2.1 Drought (2015 – 2016) Impact – Majuro Response

Within Majuro, approximately 98% of its residents are living within the possible service area of MWSC. Majuro Water and Sewer Company (MWSC) has responsibility for urban water and sanitation services for Majuro, with a community base of 28,000 people. MWSC has operated at a loss for the whole of its 26 years life and the level of service is very low, with extremely limited supply of water that cannot be guaranteed as potable.

However, some communities living in the other islets of Majuro Atoll are not within the service area of MWSC. In these communities, most of their safe freshwater resources are supplied through HH RWH systems and their water system context is similar to that of an outer atoll and island community of RMI.

Droughts relevant to Majuro are mainly meteorological, hydrological, and socio-economic droughts given that: Majuro’s freshwater resources for drinking and cooking depends heavily on rain; the Laura lens provides significant water resources to the Laura community and MWSC’s public reticulated system and serves as a particularly important source of water during dry season and low rainfall years; and agricultural production is limited to kitchen gardens.

When a meteorological drought is expected, MWSC coordinates their operations and response by following their Drought Management Plan developed in 2015. During a drought, when total storage falls below 50% and the weather forecast is for no rain, water distribution to customers will be reduced to 4 hours per day one day per week. This is achieved by operation of the valves within the distribution system to supply the areas of Long Island/Rairok on Monday, Delap on Wednesday and Rita on Fridays. Private tanker deliveries are managed by MWSC to ensure equitable supply.

When total reservoir storage falls below 20%, supply to customers will be restricted to basic needs only, with treated water only being delivered to storages located at: Rita – Marshall Islands School, Courthouse, Hospital, and Rairok Elementary School. MWSC’s operating procedures under drought are described in Table 14.

Table 14: MWSC Drought Rules46

Declining Storage (no rain predicted) Increasing Storage (rain predicted) 30,000,000 Initiate Laura transfers 30% total storage Restore distribution supply for one day per gallons week 50% total storage Distribution supply 40% total storage Restore distribution supply for three days per reduced to one day per week week only 40% total storage Notify Chief Secretary 50% total storage Cease Laura transfers regarding emergency

20% total storage Basic supply only – no distribution

For the majority of the households in Majuro that are not connected to MWSC’s reticulated water system,

46 MWSC. 2015. Drought Master Plan.

Page | 34 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA when their household rainwater tanks are empty in times of drought, their options to source freshwater include:

 Get water from family and/or neighbours’ whose tanks are not empty  Purchase water from shops (bottled or fill containers)  Purchase and transport water from MWSC to fill household tanks  Get water (free of cost to residents) from water points set up by RMI Government (Figure 10) – subject to long line ups and open for limited hours.

Source: RMI. 2016. Post Disaster Needs Assessment. Photo courtesy Marshall Islands Journal Figure 10: Typical Temporary Water Collection Point

During the 2016 drought in Majuro, 21 temporary water collection points were installed at various locations around Majuro. Water was supplied from a 20,000 gpd RO unit at the College of the Marshall Islands and delivered by trucks operated by the MWSC and Majuro Atoll Local Government daily. The Post Disaster Needs Assessment (PDNA)47 reports that long lines, inconvenient schedules, and strict limits led to increased tensions and fighting. Estimate for water collection time in urban and rural areas increased significantly. Estimates for loss in productive labor due to increased water collection are in the order of USD 500,000 and USD 400,000 total for urban and rural households respectively for the duration of the drought period.

Given the large population and economic activity, drought-induced losses in Majuro are high. The PDNA estimated that Majuro had the highest drought-induced financial losses totalling to US$ 2.5 million out of the total US$ 4.9 million, although rural communities particularly those located in the drier northern areas had a much higher per capita loss compared to Majuro (US$ 84 dollars per capita loss).

The impacts of climate change on water supply for Majuro are many, including:

• Increased demands for potable due to the residents experiencing higher temperatures. • Insufficient water resource from the airport catchment for the extended dry periods • Short-term salinization of the airport catchment due to high seas overtopping seawall protecting the airport catchment. This has been very infrequent in the past but is expected to increase with climate change. At present there is no means of managing seawater inundation other than the current practice of monitoring the conductivity and diverting runoff to the lagoon if the salt levels are beyond a safe limit. Increased frequency of inundation due to climate change could present a major risk to this vital water source and management options need to be explored to prevent long-term salinization. • Expected increased evaporation losses from the airport catchment storage open air reservoir due to higher aridity values. • Short-term salinization of the Laura groundwater lens due to potential for higher sea level rise exacerbating king tide impacts. Inundation of the Laura lens in the past has resulted in a short- term, but not significant, increase in salinity of the freshwater lens but the lens recovered quite

47 RMI. 2016. Post Disaster Needs Assessment.

Page | 35 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA quickly. There currently are no means of managing seawater inundation. Increased frequency of inundation due to climate change could present a major risk to this vital water source and management options need to be explored to prevent long-term salinization.. • Over-extraction of water from the Laura groundwater lens due to increased demand from higher temperatures. • Long-term salinization of the Delap groundwater lens by over-extraction, resulting in loss of this resource. • Insufficient capacity in individual property rainwater harvesting systems, which is their primary water source, to cope with the extended dry periods.

Majuro Master Plan which has been developed for the MWSC service area of Majuro Atoll will address the gaps and impacts identified here, therefore will not be included as part of scope development as part of this project.

1.3.2.2 Drought (2015 – 2016) Impact – Kwajalein Response

There was limited impact to Kwajalein due to their dependency on the operation of the Sea Water Reverse Osmosis (SWRO) system to provide year-round water. Only 17% of households were reported to be relying on household and/or community rainwater harvesting systems as their primary source of drinking water, although 37% of households had household rainwater harvesting systems with similar storage capacities to the systems in Majuro.

Currently, approximately 84% to 91% of households in Kwajalein Atoll are within the service area of Kwajalein Atoll Joint Utilities Resources Inc. (KAJUR). Connection rate to the public water system supplied (KAJUR) is high. The KAJUR water supply system is based solely on desalination through Sea Water Reverse Osmosis (SWRO) and therefore less vulnerable to climate and rainfall variability compared to the freshwater supply system in Majuro. This SWRO unit is serving 857 water connections, with water distributed for a few hours per day to select areas, on one day each week48. Therefore, normally drinking water is collected from the plant directly in 3-5 gallon containers with piped water filling household rainwater tanks and used for cooking and cleaning.

Groundwater in Ebeye is known to be brackish and contaminated and is not relied upon.

Bottled water is available for purchase in stores and is either imported or desalinated in Kwajalein or Majuro. This is only available in urban Kwajalein, or Ebeye. During the 2015/16 drought water was available for free at Kwajalein U.S. military base. In Ebeye, some residents, especially during water shortage times, travel to the Kwajalein U.S. military base, 4 miles (6 kms) south of Ebeye, to fill their containers free of charge and carry them back home on ferries

For communities on islets and islands not connected to the KAJUR service area, the condition of RWH systems, household and community infrastructure is similar to the rural communities. They had to travel to the military base to collect water or were dependent on the mobile Reverse Osmosis systems distributed and installed by MWSC or KAJUR technicians based on need.

The KAJUR Master Plan, currently under implementation by ADB, has been developed for the KAJUR service area (Ebeye) of the Kwajalein Atoll and will address the gaps and impacts identified here, therefore will not be included as part of scope development as part of this project.

1.3.2.3 Drought (2015 – 2016) Impact – Rural Communities

In the rural communities of RMI, where approximately 28% (2017) of RMI’s population lives, dependence on rainwater as the primary source for drinking water is even higher than in urban areas; estimated at 98% in 2011 based on RMI Census results.

While the number of consecutive days without rain and drought days can vary greatly depending on the location/latitude of the outer atolls and islands and between seasons and years, under existing conditions, many people and communities in RMI are frequently faced with significant difficulty in securing year-round

48 PDNA report (2016) mentions “service is irregular and limited to a maximum of 45 minutes only a couple of days per week.”

Page | 36 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA access to safe freshwater resources, with very limited options for drinking, cooking, basic hygiene and livelihoods once their household rainwater harvesting systems are empty.

Based on historical daily rainfall data from 7 weather stations in RMI (with varying years of data available) the national maximum and median number of days with little or no rain are 132 days (in Wotje during 1989 / 1990 drought) and 11 days, respectively. Furthermore, during a very dry year, such as the 2015 / 2016 dry season that had some of the lowest historical rainfall during the dry season for many communities in RMI due to the strong El Niño, estimated days where communities experience water shortage (drought days) under baseline (existing and planned49) water infrastructure conditions ranged from zero (0) days in Kili to 175 days in Ujae. More than 52 rural communities across 13 local government jurisdictions were estimated to have experienced more than 100 days of drought during this period. Harvested rainwater ran out less than 30 days of the start of the 2015-16 drought in most rural communities.

Groundwater

Groundwater is an important source of water on most islands, however most usage is often restricted to bathing, cleaning and washing. According to 2011 Census, 33% and 27% of the population use well water for watering livestock and crops, respectively, while only 2% of the population of RMI reported wells as their primary source of drinking water; most of these (85%) were on Ujae atoll during normal rainfall periods. However during drought periods, when the community and household water tanks are empty, groundwater is the primary source for all water. The normal practice is to not boil their water prior to consumption, aggravating the incidences of contaminated water borne ailments. PDNA (2016) report results indicate a rise in skin disease and diarrhoea as a result of consumption of groundwater (due to depleted stores of rainwater) in a number of atolls. This is indicative of polluted groundwater consumed by residents in utilising any available water supply during the drought. The 2016 UNDP survey completed by the residents indicated that they experienced consistent incidents of diarrhoea and stomach ailment, however did not generally seek medical treatment because they are “getting used to this and don’t go for medical treatment.”

Community consultations highlighted that sanitation is a key concern for water security in the rural communities, both in terms of securing safe freshwater resources, but also resolving critical public health and gender concerns, especially during times of water shortage. While lack of sanitation facilities, including toilets and hand-wash facilities, is a major concern from public health and gender perspectives, given that there are no capacity or infrastructure for collecting and disposing of sewage from septic tanks (such as pump trucks and well-functioning sewer outfalls), installation of flush toilet systems in the rural communities pose risks to further contaminating the groundwater resources. In rural communities that have flush toilets, such as Wotje and Jaluit, it was found that septic tanks that collect the sewage are often abandoned in place and found to be leaking and overflowing, therefore polluting the groundwater.

The College of Marshall Islands completed a water quality survey on multiple atolls after the 2016 drought, of groundwater wells and catchments of both community buildings and households (Annex 21). The results indicate approximately 50 percent of the water sources tested are contaminated. By interviewing the residents of the atolls, UNDP survey results indicated consistent evidence of diarrhea, stomach ailments and dehydration. Impacts to residents were due to a number of factors, including:

 Limited information on water quality testing of groundwater and rainwater storages to help residents avoid contaminated water and limit medical incidences.  Limited understanding of groundwater lens thickness and monitoring – leading to poor understanding of capacity of available groundwater resources.  Limited information on number of groundwater wells and current condition – no programmatic approach for capturing required information.  Poor understanding of conservation measures communicated to the community.

Sanitation Facilities

For the Urban atolls of Kwajalein (KAJUR Service Area – Ebeye) and Majuro (MWSC service area) the

49 Planned interventions reviewed and incorporated into the calculation of number of days where community RWH systems are empty (or drought days) include: community rainwater harvesting improvements and installations planned by Ministry of Public Works, GIZ and Government of Japan / JICA.

Page | 37 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA sanitation system utilizes a saltwater pumping and collection systems for their sanitation needs and the households and communities are connected to this. These systems are managed by the respective public utilities.

In the rural communities sanitation facilities use harvested rainwater to flush their toilets, therefore straining freshwater supply particularly in drought times. There are limited numbers of toilet facilities installed for all of the RMI, but especially on the Outer atolls, particularly evident at schools and churches. The few toilets installed at these locations were restricted for students/school staff and for the pastors/congregation respectively but often not suitable for the number of users. Most of these facilities are dependent on rainwater for flushing, hygiene and hands washing. In addition, some households do not have toilet facilities and people will then resort to open defecation using the lagoon, oceans and bushes. During times of drought most household could not utilize their toilets due to lack of water.

Issues associated with sanitation:

 Poor consideration of privacy for women and limited accessibility for the physically disabled.  Limited number of public toilets for community  Schools often do not have toilets or have insuffient toilets or toilets that are non-operational due to poor flushing systems (seawater or well water) or rainwater flushing has been depleted due to drought conditions.  Inappropriate technology (flushing toilets and septic tanks) often installed without considering operational issues.

Consultation and Survey Results – Impact of Drought

Surveys across the following rural atolls and islands were conducted during 2016: Utrik, Ujae, Namu, Mejit Island, Mejatto, Likiep, Lib, Lae, Ebadon, Ailuk, Jabot, Aur and Maloelap. Key findings include:

 Water Source: − People felt water collected from rainwater harvesting systems, when available, was safe to drink. However, it was also reported that people do get sick from drinking harvested water evidenced by reports of stomach aches and diarrhea. − Groundwater wells are at lower levels with incidences of higher salinity based on taste. Poor understanding of contamination levels and available information on capacity and quality of ground water. − Water shortages and equitable sharing of available safe water resulted in increased community stress and tensions, especially affecting minors and women. − Women and children, who have primary responsibility for collection of water during shortages, experience long lines and delays, which takes them away from other productive activities like home gardening, handicrafts and school activities.  Water Management: − Radio communication was reported as an effective means of being informed of the onset of drought. The Weather Office, through the NDMO, communicates with the local town council and mayors office which disseminates forecasts and weather information to the community. − NDMO communicates with local focal points to identify volume levels in tanks and support validation efforts from the community to the National government. − When water levels are low, a restriction on the use of water is put in place – however definitions are not clear or consistent between atolls. SOPS have not been developed or communicated to inform the residents of necessary actions. − Water Safety Plans relating to consistent monitoring of water sources specific to each community have not been developed to help inform the residents on possible alternate sources of water (ie. regular testing of groundwater). − SOPS that define the use of groundwater and seawater for washing and cleaning have not been developed or communicated. − Enforcement and understanding of limitations of water taking/sharing is limited, except where community tanks at schools and churches are managed by staff. The available quantities of water and distribution based on needs is not properly monitored or managed.  Community Services:

Page | 38 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA − There are major impacts to school when water supply is low. Schools have been closed due to lack of water sources for both drinking and hygiene. − Toilet facilities provided for students are not always functioning and rainwater flush based systems are not operational. − Other services like coconut collecting, fishing and gathering food are impacted, and other important events and activities are impacted because of limited food and water for the event/activity.  Water Sanitation and Infrastructure: − Some households do not have toilet facilities and people will then resort to using the lagoon, oceans and bushes. − Rainwater fed flushing toilets at community buildings and households are not functioning.  Communication of drought information: − Many residents of the rural communities reported that they had received information regarding the drought through radio from NDMO and prepared for drought, but the scale of this drought extended beyond their means.

Further results of the Community Surveys that examines the impact of drought from a gender, equity and social inclusion (GESI) perspectives are included in FS Annex 21 and Proposal Annex XIIIc.

Key impacts of drought to RMI from a Gender Equality and Social Inclusion (GESI) perspective, documented from community consultations, are summarized below:  Women are primary caretakers and caregivers of the home and family. They are responsible for upkeep of the house including cleaning of RWH guttering systems. Limited training and availability of proper tools for proper operations and maintenance practices has not been provided  The drought conditions and scarcity of fresh water for maintaining home gardens has negatively affected food insecurity, caused by decreased yields of good quality subsistence crops and increased diseases, loss of livestock and depleted fisheries stocks; This situation has created additional work for women in gathering and preparing family meals and has resulted in malnutrition which has a significant impact on children;  Health problems, leading to increased prevalence of conjunctivitis (pink eye), diarrhea, dehydration; scabies, influenza-like illness, communicable diseases that are made worse by unhealthy diets during droughts.  Poor hygiene and sanitation conditions is having a significant health impacts due to the lack of water for bathing and cleaning, non-functioning toilets leading to increased open defecation and reduction in critical public services – primarily schools. Issues related to menstruation hygiene management were also raised by women during community consultation;  Exclusion of women and other vulnerable groups from planning and decision-making processes at community, island and national level.

1.4 Project rationale: Drought impacts due to climate change and focus on adaptive solutions

Observed and projected climate change trends, coupled with RMI’s geographic, political, environmental, economic, and social contexts make the small island, large-ocean nation one of the world’s most vulnerable countries to the impacts of climate change. Although RMI’s contribution to global greenhouse gas emissions is minute, their estimated cost for adaptation is one of the highest in the world in terms of percent of GNP at 7.24% (ranked 8th in the world)50.

According to climate change projections discussed above:  The rate of sea level rise observed in Majuro is about 7 mm (0.3 inches) per year, which is at least twice as fast as the global average of 0.125±0.015 inches (3.2±0.4 mm) per year. This fast rate of sea level rise is expected to continue to accelerate, with a rise between 20 to 60 cm (8 to 24 inches) by 2090, relative to the sea level in 2000. This is likely to lead to increased inundation due to king tides and storm surge.

50 Source; Nurse, L.A., R.F. McLean, J. Agard, L.P. Briguglio, V. Duvat-Magnan, N. Pelesikoti, E. Tompkins, and A. Webb, 2014: Small islands. In: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1613-1654. / Tsyban, A., J. T. Everett, J. G. Titus, and others. World Oceans and Coastal Zones. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, Australia, 1990. http://risingsea.net/papers/federal_reports/IPCC-far_wg_II_chapter_6.pdf.

Page | 39 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA  RMI will continue to experience drought periods, but there is likely to be a decrease of drought occurrence in RMI over the course of the 21st century, although there is only moderate confidence in this prediction. However, climate models also predict an increase of extreme event intensity, which may exacerbate the frequency and/or magnitude of droughts in RMI.

These climate change impacts are likely to exacerbate the frequent water insecurity RMI faces by further challenging the ability of the Marshallese people to have access to safe freshwater resources year-round. Currently, people in RMI utilize rainwater as their main, and often only, freshwater resource for drinking, cooking and basic hygiene. Groundwater is used mainly for hygiene and sanitation, but also for drinking and cooking in times of water shortage. Only in very limited communities is desalination water regularly accessible. Further description of RMI’s water baseline is provided in Section 2. With current infrastructure and considering climate change induced effects, such as sea level rise and a change in rainfall patterns, water security will be further threatened.

In the medium term (upto 2045), greater rainfall variability with reduced rainfall and longer periods of no rainfall, will make capturing sufficient rainfall before drought events ever more challenging with existing infrastructure.

Summary of Impact from Climate Change Given the significant impact of climate change on the Marshallese people’s ability to have adquate safe freshwater resources year-round will require strengthening the water security of RMI through enhancing the infrastructure and supporting institutional capacity development related to crucial climate change adaptation investment for the people of RMI. However, RMI’s financial conditions described above makes national investments towards water resilience extremely difficult. In light of this situation, RMI seeks financial resources from the Green Climate Fund (GCF) to support the strengthening and scaling of integrated water resilience interventions together with the institutional mechanisms and human capacities to sustain these efforts. It is clear from the evidence presented above that climatic changes have been and will continue to affect RMI. These climatic changes affect the environment throughout the country (often through reduction of stored rainwater and decreasing groundwater potential) and can be summarised as:  Changes in rainfall are more uncertain. The historical record suggests that annual rainfall has decreased hence reduction in RWH potential and acceleration of drought intensity. Future scenarios also suggest potential for increase in number of droughts and also intensity of droughts (within 95% confidence interval) within the 2045 time scenarios.  Changes in rainfall will affect groundwater captured, with less rainfall resulting in higher groundwater salinity. This is exacerbated by the increased pressure on the maintained freshwater lens due to sea level rise.  Both historical observations and projected changes in storms, cyclones, and king tides demonstrate that frequency will increase and potentially be more intense. Associated with these intense cyclones are greater storm surge, inundation levels and intrusion of saline water into groundwater, leading to the availability of less potable water;  Temperatures have been rising and are predicted to continue to rise. One important consequence of this is the increase in evaporative demand from surface water reservoirs, especially during the dry season when temperatures are greater; Changes in the climate system pose direct and indirect impacts on the availability of freshwater resources and impact the livelihoods which depend on these resources. The lack of freshwater additionally impacts human health. Climate change impacts on clean freshwater resources and safe water supply systems are exacerbated by non-climatic factors.

Groundwater quality and quantity may be influenced by both sea level rise and droughts. With sea level rise, groundwater may become more saline due to intrusion of saltwater into the water lens. Droughts can also cause groundwater overuse due to lack of rainwater by community members, the result may be the further loss of water lens capacity which may also cause salt-water intrusion. The effects of drought of the 1998 on Majuro’s major groundwater lens (Laura) are included in FS Annex 6. Unfortunately understanding of the groundwater quality and quantity for usage by the residents is limited, especially within the rural communities of the Outer Atolls. Consistent inundation of seawater onto the atolls due to SLR resulting in higher tides and

Page | 40 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA seasonal King tides will more frequently contaminate the groundwater lenses This will affect the usability of the groundwater.

A recent study by Barkey and Bailey published in the Water magazine51 reported the results of an atoll island algebraic model used to estimate the thickness of the freshwater lens for 680 inhabited and uninhabited islands of the RMI, with a focus on the severe 1998 drought. Model results were tested for islands that have fresh groundwater data. The results highlight the fragility of groundwater resources for RMI. The study found that the average lens thickness in RMI during typical seasonal rainfall is approximately 4 m, with only 30 percent of the islands maintaining a lens thicker than 4.5m and 55 percent of the islands with a lens less than 2.5 m thick. Groundwater on small islands (<300 m in width) is typically completely depleted during drought. Based on this report over half (54 percent) of the islands are classified as highly vulnerable to drought if dependent on this resource.

The challenge is to ensure that groundwater lenses are protected from inundation from seawater and also developing better awareness of groundwater usage through demand conservation. By understanding of alternate uses of groundwater, for instance washing water for homes or watering gardens will help limit the reliance of higher quality harvested rainwater for similar demands.

Gender inequality arises from various societal and cultural norms that impact women’s day to day activities as well as their capacity to adapt to climate change. Women have less decision-making power within the household and are the primary managers of the household and care for the family. This includes ensuring safe drinking water for their families, which can often mean having to endure long lines to access a relatively clean water source. The responsibility for finding drinking water leaves less time to engage in income generation (handicrafts), and agricultural income generation becomes more difficult due to the lack of freshwater for either home gardens or other labour-related activities. Women are therefore disadvantaged by climate change on multiple levels.

The population consumes water quantities below WHO water thresholds during drought period and coupled with compromised sanitation facilities due to the lack of flushing water leads to unsanitary conditions and potential health risks. Unless additional freshwater solutions are provided e.g. reverse osmosis, upscaling rainwater harvesting, maximizing groundwater potential or alternative technologies, the residents of RMI will face increased stress from droughts and or compromises of freshwater resources. 1.4 Targeting – Prioritizing the Geographic Regions to Address Climate Change Induced Drought Impacts

Drought affects all of RMI, however some regions have greater capacity to respond and adapt based on financial capacity and access to resources. In addition to the increases in temperature and reduction in rainfall which will be experienced over the whole country, climate based impacts for all RMI include sea level rise (SLR) and increased storm surges from cyclones and tropical storms. All of these impacts work to increase the risk to reduction of rainwater harvesting, reduction of groundwater sources through the increased risk of inundation of sea water contaminating available freshwater lenses and higher evaporation rates of open reservoirs (Majuro).

The Majuro and Kwajalein (Kwajalein Atoll Joint Utility Resources) atolls are the two main populations centers of RMI and have public utilities (MWSC and KAJUR, respectively) managing their reticulated systems. These public utilities have both completed Master Plans, with KAJUR securing ADB funding to complete their implementation plan, and MWSC in the process of securing funding. Both of these Master Plans, once fully implemented, will provide water security for the serviced communities of Ebeye and Majuro.

Based on geographical and climate factors, the residents in the rural communities, having a higher percentage of poor people than the urban atoll of Majuro and Kwajalein (Ebeye), are also likely to suffer more deeply the intensification of impacts from climate change. They have a high dependency on rainwater harvesting hence are very exposed to fluctuations in both rainfall patterns and seasonal, long-term variations. In addition, this places further stress on rural communities populations who rely on both surface and groundwater for drinking and agricultural/farming activities, causing people (particularly women) to have to travel further to source safe and potable drinking water. The rural communities do not have publically piped water or ready access to more comprehensive government services.

51 Estimating the Impact of Drought on Groundwater Resources of the Marshall Islands. Bandon Barky and Ryan Bailey, Colorado State University, 2017

Page | 41 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA As identified by the RMI, the focus of this GCF project should be to address the needs of the Outer Atolls and the islands/islets not serviced by the public utilities or not having access to other options due to their low income and high unemployment and poverty rates and exposure to climate events. As a result, these populations experience greater water insecurity. This inability to adapt is exacerbated by a greater percentage of poverty and unemployment evident in the Outer Atolls from the lack of income opportunities. The potential income from copra farming and handcrafts, which are some of their main income streams, are directly affected by the possibility of drought or inundation from king tides and and consequent impact on groundwater resources. Gender inequality also arises from various societal and cultural norms that impact women’s day to day activities as well as their capacity to adapt to climate change. Women have less decision- making power within the household and at the workplace and are expected to manage the household and care for the family. This includes ensuring safe drinking water for their families, which can often mean having to travel long distances to access a relatively clean water source. The women working in income generating activities, have poultry and pig rearing and homestead gardening as main livelihood activities. Women are therefore disadvantaged by climate change on multiple levels; the responsibility for finding drinking water leaves less time to engage in income generating activities, while water scarcity affects their ability to engage in agricultural activities for either subsistence or income generating farming. 2. Climate Change Policies and Strategies

2.1 National Policies, Plans and Climate Change Climate change resilience and water security are key priorities for RMI, and critical to achieving various government policies and strategies for sustainable and equitable development. RMI’s Strategic Development Plan “Vision 2018” sets out 15-year (2003 – 2018) long-term goals, objectives, and strategies, where climate change resilience and water sector improvements are part of three of its 10 goals. RMI’s most recent medium-term development plan, the National Strategic Plan (NSP) (2015 – 2017) is the roadmap for development progress in anticipation of the scheduled completion of the U.S. Compact Agreement in 2023. Climate change and water resilience are highlighted as critical priorities in the NSP, particularly in achieving environment and climate change resiliency and infrastructure development.

National Climate Change Policy Framework (NCCPF) established in 2011 with a vision of “Building the Resilience of the People of the Marshall Islands to Climate Change” guides RMI’s efforts to climate change, for both adaptation and mitigation. Goal 2 of the policy focuses on Adaptation and Reducing Risks for a Climate Resilient Future, whereby food and water security is highlighted as one of the key priority sector requiring development of effective adaptation and risk reduction responses and capacity (Objective 2.1). The Joint National Action Plan (JNAP) for Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Risk Management further mainstreams the NCCPF with the Disaster Risk Management National Action Plan by providing a detailed strategy for holistically and co-operatively addressing climate and disaster risks in RMI. Enhancing water resource sustainability and improving risk management for water related disasters are key priorities indicated under JNAP goals 2 “Public education and awareness of effective DRM/CCA responses from local to national level” and 5 “Enhanced local livelihoods and community resilience”.

The RMI Water and Sanitation Policy and Proposed Action Plan approved in 2014, which was formalized as a legal instrument through the National Environmental Protection (Amendment) Act in 2016, serves as the foundational framework for climate-resilient water sector development at the national and subnational levels, outlining strategic steps for “enabling all citizens to access clean and adequate water supplies” and providing a “level of hygiene and sanitation comparable to world standards.” With the legal mandate given to the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) in consultation with the Office of Chief Secretary to assume the role of the national authority for integrated water resource management, RMI is now ready to define and implement their national institutional framework to strengthen their resilient and integrated water resource management.

RMI has established a National Gender Mainstreaming Policy with a Policy Strategic Plan of Action for 2015 – 2019, which aims to “progress gender equality and the empowerment of women in the RMI with meaningful involvement and contributions in all development sectors and civil society, and women and men from all spheres, and at all levels of development and decision-making, from the Council of Iroij, the Nitijela, and in local governments in the outer islands.” Engagement and empowerment of women, youth, children,

Page | 42 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA the elderly, people with disabilities, and other vulnerable groups through the proposed water resilience initiatives are fully in line with and will further strengthen the realization of RMI’s policy objectives on gender.

Principles: Governance principles examine, transparency, accountability and participation (TAP) in order to analyze institutional performance as well as how stakeholders behave and relate to each other.

In RMI, strengths include:  With the national policy framework in place for Water Governance, RMI is well placed to now define and establish governance principles  Community-based natural resource management approaches, especially the Reimaanlok, can be used as a mechanism to also engage communities in water resource management, planning and decision- making.

However, overall, transparency, accountability, and participation in relation to water governance are very limited in RMI. Information regarding the water sector is limited at all levels as data are not consistently gathered, monitored and analyzed. Therefore, both water governance officials and water users are not well informed to make decisions related to their water investments. Furthermore, accountability mechanisms are yet to be defined and operationalized at all levels. Participation for water governance is also limited at all levels as mechanisms are yet to be defined and formalized.

2.2 Institutional Arrangements

2.2.1 Stakeholders and Institutions – National Level

Water governance refers to the political, social, economic and administrative systems in place that influence water's use and management52. A Rapid Water Governance Assessment for RMI is included in FS Annex 11. Summary of key findings is indicated below.

Water resilience is a key priority for various stakeholders and institutions in RMI (Table 15), and is mainstreamed within various mandates, policy and strategies. An overarching national institution for water governance was recently formalized through the Water and Sanitation Policy and National Environmental Protection Act amendment, which now officially designates EPA as the national authority to coordinate and oversee RMI’s water governance under the purview of the Chief Secretary’s Office. Furthermore, the various types and levels of institutions and stakeholders involved in water management and security provide a good enabling environment to better monitor and manage water resources in terms of its quality and quantity. This oversight and reporting mechanisms are to be further defined and implemented under the National Water and Sanitation Policy.

However, significant challenge and gaps still remain. For example, clear mechanisms for coordination, reporting and accountability are limited, which is critical given the breadth of stakeholders and institutions involved. Formal stakeholders and institutions related to water governance at the sub-national level is less established, in terms of its number of personnel available and clear understanding of coordinated responsibilities. As a result, there tends to be a disconnect between community-based water governance and national-level water governance mechanisms. As the majority of people in RMI rely on freshwater harvested through their household RWH systems as their primary source of water for drinking and cooking, formalization and/or enhancing the understanding of the subnational water governance mechanisms is important for strengthening water resilience. Furthermore, stakeholders and institutions working on political (i.e. participatory decision-making process related to water resources and distribution), social (i.e. equitable access and distribution, including women, children and vulnerable groups) and economic (i.e. application of cost effective and efficient solutions) dimensions of water are still limited at all levels. The key institutions responsible for Water Security are listed in Table 15 based on sectors. Table 15: Key Water Institutional Stakeholders in RMI

Public Sector Private Sector Civil Society External Direct Stakeholders Direct Stakeholders College of Marshall Government of Australia Islands EU

52 UNDP. Water Governance Facility. 2013. User’s Guide on Assessing Water Governance.

Page | 43 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Public Sector Private Sector Civil Society External Majuro Water and Sewer Churches German Government Office of the Chief Secretary Company (MWSC) Schools US Government (OCS) Kwajalein Atoll Joint Utilities Hospitals Government of Japan Environmental Protection Resources (KAJUR) Community groups Government of Taiwan Authority (EPA) Traditional leaders and Other Relevant landowners SPREP Other Relevant Stakeholders Stakeholders SPC Marshalls Islands Shipping Non-government Office of Environmental Corporation (and other Organizations (NGOs) IOM Planning and Policy shipping companies) – i.e. Women United UNFPA Coordination (OEPPC) Air Marshall Islands Together Marshall UNDP Water vendors Islands (WUTMI) FAO Weather Service Office Coastal Management WHO (WSO) Majuro Advisory Council ADB Economic Policy, Planning (CMAC) World Bank, etc. and Statistics Office Marshall Island Red (EPPSO) Cross / International Federation of Red National Disaster Cross Management Office (NDMO)

Ministry of Health

Ministry of Public Works

Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Ministry of Internal Affairs

Ministry of Finance

Marshall Islands Marine Resources Authority (MIMRA)

Local Governments

A detailed description of the institutions with their roles and responsibilities, including an assessment of their capacities, is provided of each institution within FS Annex Water Governance Baseline Table 11.

WASH Cluster

The WASH Cluster, headed by the Office of the Chief Secretary (OCS) is a rapid response governmental driven project team organized to deal with acute crises and consequential water shortages. In remote areas, where drought affects are particularly intense due to distance from the major atolls, including Majuro and Kwajalein, the WASH cluster (includes EPA, MWSC, KAJUR, NDMO, and other stakeholder agencies) consists of institutions that are responsible to provide immediate relief and stabilization to the water system. This gap cannot be covered by the ongoing program interventions because existing systems do not produce enough water to meet local demand in the acute stages of droughts. Also, actors managing the systems are often negatively affected by the crisis.

Key Water Policies and Strategies

A list of key policies and strategies at the National and Subnational levels have been compiled in Table 16. A more detailed description of their relationship to water security is provided in the FS Annex Table 12. RMI has focused time and effort in developing these strategies and plans, the key next steps of implementation to the ground level, communication etc. are needed to ensure effectiveness.

Table 16: Key Policies & Strategies Related to Water Sector

Page | 44 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA National Overarching National Policies and Strategies Other Relevant Policies

National Strategic Plan 2015 - 2017 EPA Public Water Supply Regulations, 1994

Vision 2018 (2001) EPA Marine Water Quality Regulations

National Climate Change Policy Framework (2011) Standard Hazard Mitigation Plan, 1994/2005

RMI Climate Change Roadmap (2010) Disaster Risk Management National Action Plan 2008 – 2018 Joint National Action Plan for Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Risk Management (JNAP) RMI National Emergency Response Plan (2010) Water Sector Policies and Law RMI Ports Authority: Airport Emergency Plan (2012) National Water and Sanitation Policy National Environmental Protection Act 1984 RMI Drought Contingency Plan (2010) (2016 amendment) EPA: Strategic Plan (2012–14)

R&D Strategy and Action Plan (2005–10)

R&D Performance Report (2013)

MOIA Strategic Plan (2010–12)

Reimaanlok Looking to the Future: National Conservation Area Plan for the Marshall Islands 2007-2021 (2008)

Reimaanlok Field Guide (2012)

RMI Protected Areas Management (PAM)

RMI Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (2000)

Public Health and Sanitation Act, 1996

Coastal Conservation Act, 1988

Draft National Solid Waste Management Strategy (20120

National Gender Mainstreaming Policy

Subnational Local Government Ordinances Public Utility Master Plans (Urban Atolls) Public Utility Disaster Management Plans (Urban Atolls)

2.2.2 Effectiveness Effectiveness of institutions was assessed using an institutional Scorecard (Figure 11). Given that the efforts have just commenced in RMI through establishment of formal institutional frameworks, much work remains to be done to enhance effectiveness of institutional in RMI. The analysis shows that legislation for both water allocation and water quality have been developed, but the next stages of implementation are limited and require further support.

Indicators of Water Governance Effectiveness 0 1 2 3 4 5 1. Legislation for water allocation e s, 2. Legislation for water quality including:

legislative 3. Existence of conflict-resolution mechanisms Appropriat framework 4. Groundwater regulation Page | 45 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA e s, 5. Land-use planning control including:

regulatory 6. Nature protection Appropriat instrument Figure 11: Institutional Effectiveness (Based on Institutional Capacity Scorecard)

2.2.3 Jurisdictional and Local Level

Subnational: Institutional effectiveness at the subnational level (i.e. municipal government, and traditional island / community system) is still very limited. Regulatory bodies and enforcement agencies do not exist and are yet to be defined at the subnational level. The National Water and Sanitation Policy indicates plans to establish Water Committees, both at the national and community levels. Through the Reimaanlok process, there are 3 to 5 communities with community resource management groups established. Through the Ridge to Reef Project53, five more community-based resource management committees are to be established. Some efforts are also underway through NDMO to establish disaster focal points and committees. As drought disasters are key events for communities of RMI, the disaster committees will also likely to be key agents for community resource management, especially for water. Awareness campaigns are implemented at various scales and locations by various stakeholders, often as part of projects and initiatives financed by external partners. 2.3 National Drought monitoring, early warning, and communication Drought monitoring, warning and communication are significant elements of drought risk management in RMI. The Weather Service Office (WSO) of RMI plays a critical role in monitoring, warning and communicating drought risks before and during potential water shortage events.

Drought information monitored and communicated varies, but is mainly comprised of:  Seasonal Forecasts – provides bulletins to scientists but also “translates” forecast for normal residents to understand which is then sent to the OCS. OCS consolidates information and provides to the radio station to publically broadcast. A government radio base station is used to primarily to disseminate forecast info but are not always functional or may be turned off during nights by the outer islands since VHF radios use a lot of power. Climate phenomena like the onset of El Niño/La Niña can be identified early and communication is provided, the challenge is to ensure the residents respond using conservation methods and maximizing potential of water sources through proper maintenance and repair.  Rainfall outlooks – Weather office, through the use of Chatty Beetles54 and radios provide weather alerts and notifications (by text) to remote locations where communication options are limited. WSO send an alarm signal for a disaster warning over the Chatty Beetle. The Chatty Beetle alarm keeps

53 Ridge to Reef - Testing the Integration of Water, Land, Forest & Coastal Management to Preserve Ecosystem Services, Store Carbon, Improve Climate Resilience and Sustain Livelihoods in Pacific Island Countries (Regional R2R Project)” (2016 - 2021. GEF Trust Fund. US$ USD 10 million) 54 Chatty beetle is a portable satellite terminal that utilizes text-based alerts and messaging in remote locations, where communication options are limited. This is used to send messages from the WSO and NDMO relating to potential of adverse weather or oncoming events.

Page | 46 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA going until someone manually acknowledges receipt at the other end. RANET (Radio and Internet for the communication of hydro-meteorological and climate related information) developed the Chatty Beetle as a text based alert and messaging device for remote application. The system is reliable and robust to use where other communications do not exist and where simple notification is needed.  Predicted atolls and islands with high drought risks – Both long and short-term rainfall outlooks and predictions were also provided by the NOAA’s Pacific ENSO Applications Climate Centre and Guam Forecast Office and were of help during the identification of Atolls forecasted to be hardest hit.  Drought monitoring information – feedback about impacts of drought are passed through radio communication to council members and OCS to organize response.

WSO shares this information with the Chief Secretary’s Office (NDMO), who then relays this information to relevant national and subnational stakeholders through appropriate forums and channels. Furthermore, the drought monitoring information provided by WSO is the main weather information used to prepare and plan for drought management and response; together with situation updates received from communities regarding water shortages observed, it serves as a key consideration for national declarations of State of Emergencies. The RMI Weather Office currently use the NOAA weekly drought monitor for RMI to provide drought statement and alerts. There are not yet any standard procedures or thresholds in RMI for triggering State of Emergency declarations of drought.

Monitoring & Early Warning WSO operations include undertaking a full cycle of manual synoptic and upper-air observations transmitted to GTS/WIS, and communicating warning developed by US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) NWS to RMI authorities and communities. Locations of the current weather stations are included in FS Annex 5.

In 2016, the detection of the El-Niño and early warnings were well received and disseminated to the RMI authorities and communities by the WSO well ahead of time. Through its established support from the NOAA NWS, WSO received forecasts, rainfall outlooks and drought monitoring information well in advance. Both long and short-term rainfall outlooks and predictions were also provided by the NOAA’s Pacific ENSO Applications Climate Centre and Guam Forecast Office and were of help during the identification of atolls forecasted to be hardest hit. However, according to the PDNA report, the forecast and actual impacts were very different. This highlights that the need for RMI authorities to improve capacities to analyze real-time actual rainfall and temperature data to better target the response, whilst recognizing the lack of analyzing capacity in country. In addition, spatial distribution of automated weather stations is to be improved.

Based on discussions with WSO following challenges were identified in terms of existing monitoring and early warning capacities:  Forecasting: Where there is a shortage of data, such as on atolls without a weather station, the weather office extrapolates from existing weather stations based on zone plus for short-term forecasts, WSO also calls atoll locals to ask what they see to strengthen the accuracy of the forecast (“informal weather stations”).  Often there is only one person on each island who is a NOAA certified weather observer, the Weather office offers training for these personnel to maintain their certification. The observers provide real time feedback on current weather situations to support the weather forecast models.

Communications Communication required for effective drought risk management is diverse – in terms of its content, channels, timing, and stakeholders. Currently in RMI, drought risk information before and during water shortage events are communicated through hand-held radios located in centralized community buildings or local council office and Chatty Beetles located in weather stations. Forecasts of possible lower rainfall are communicated from Majuro to communities before drought through these channels, as well as communities communicate through these channels to report on water shortage situations and request for supplies and equipment.

Based on UNDP Survey results, the majority of residents were informed of drought through the radio systems and local council. General radio broadcast and bulletins from the Weather Office prior to onset of drought was also provided through council of Mayors.

Page | 47 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Standard operating procedures and guidelines for how, what and when to communicate are not fully developed. NDMO together with various stakeholders are in the process of developing these guidelines as well as designating and training disaster focal points in communities to execute these reporting and communication protocols. As part of this effort, NDMO together with IOM are disseminating radios and training communities in disaster communication as part of the community-driven preparedness plans through the PREPARE program.

Active discussions are ongoing in RMI in regard to how best disaster communication can be enhanced. Figure 12 describes existing and envisioned disaster communication system for RMI developed by national stakeholders.

Figure 12:Disaster Communication System in RMI55 DISASTER COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM

-Empowered to issue National Weather warnings if limited time (need more MOUs) Service Office -Work directly with and Possible activities between these part of NDC/NDMO Possible activities between these two groups: two groups: -Need improved 1. Confirm receipt of information informaiton gathering 1. Early Warning Information (rapid 2. Follow up with Outer Island Forcal (rain gages) and slow on set) Point on assessment reports (using 2. Request information on post event Office of the Chief standard templates that exist) situation Secretary 3. Work with NDMO to prepare for 3. Information about upcoming (National Disaster assessment teams and relief items assessments/surveys. Text Message Public School 4. Keep NDMO informed on 4. Assessment/survey results shared (needs to Management Office) System communities well being 5. Announcements about disaster be activated) 5. Beneficiary follow up on relief relief distributions (who? what? chatty bettle items - ensure distribution has been where? when? why?) conducted as indicated at community V7AB Local Government level. Mayor or Acting NTA 6.5 chatty bettle Representative on DAMA sites Majuro or Ebeye (if Possible activities between these NTA 6.5 Possible activities between these two groups: DAMA sites neither available bipass two groups: Forecast this stage) Rain gages 1. Confirm receipt of information 1. Early Warning Information (rapid (need more) 2. Conduct atoll/island wide and slow on set) assessments (standardized 2. Request information on post event Outer island Outer island forms)and relay information to Mayor situation Despensary System Despensary System or NTA 6.5 operator 3. Information about upcoming 3. Prepare for assessment teams and assessments/surveys. Outer Island Focal Point relief items - support team 4. Assessment/survey results shared 4. Keep Majuro/Ebeye informed on 5. Announcements about disaster Public School System communities well being relief distributions (who? what? 4.Assist with relief distribution and where? when? why?) monitoring 5. Beneficiary follow up on relief items

Volunerable Community populations groups Community Disaser (disabled, (Church, members Committes elderly, sick, Women, etc) Youth)

Community groups work together as agents of change, prepare for disasters, act as first responders and recovery/ restore their communities to pre disaster levels.

Based on discussions with WSO following challenges were identified in terms of existing communication capacities:

 Currently WSO is developing new communication strategy working with the NDMO office. Chatty Beetles provide weather alerts and notifications (by text) to remote locations where communication options are limited. The NDMO sends an alarm signal for a disaster warning over the Chatty Beetle. The Chatty Beetle alarm keeps going until someone manually acknowledges receipt at the other end. RANET (Radio and Internet for the communication of hydro-meteorological and climate related information) developed the Chatty Beetle as a text based alert and messaging device for remote application. The system is reliable and robust to use where other communications do not exist and where simple notification is needed.  The level of island or atoll specific rainfall and temperature information that is available is limited (to 7 for all 24 local government jurisdiction) based on the number of installed weather stations. Nearby

55 RMI Disaster Stakeholders Consultation output. Shared by IOM in 2016.

Page | 48 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA weather information from atolls with weather stations was captured and then extrapolated to cover all atolls in the area.

2.3.1 Planning for Response Negative impacts of droughts can be avoided or reduced significantly with effective response. Therefore, planning for drought response is a critical element of drought risk management. Measures to strengthen drought responses at national and community levels include:

 National level: 56 o Conduct Risk Analysis with specific demographics, urban growth etc. o Establish coordination mechanisms for greater coherence and improved effectiveness of combined hazard. Planning for preparedness and risk avoidance is captured and reviewed. o Strengthen regional, sub-regional, national and international approaches o Promote know-how transfer through partnerships o Develop and apply standardized forms for statistical recording of risk factors, o Establish risk monitoring capabilities and early warning systems as part of integrated process. o Pre-positioning of emergency relief supplies o Maintenance of mobile desalination units o Training of technicians for operation and maintenance of mobile RO units o Water resource monitoring and mapping of both stored water and ground water – in terms of quality and quantity is noted by EPA but lack of formalized GPS based system. o Organizing private sector engagement – including shipping agencies, local RO water bottling providers.  Community level: o Establishment of disaster focal points and committees o Development of contingency plans, with gender-differentiated impacts of drought taken into consideration o Clarification of standard operating procedures (SOPs) and awareness raising on the SOPs o Employing water conservation measures and reviewing water use efficiencies. o Resource monitoring – reporting back in timely manner. o Drills and simulation exercises to build capacities to implement SOPs o Capacity building, training, and awareness for community-driven preparedness plans o Training for emergency medical responders o Training for situation reporting o Training for water resource maintenance, efficiency and operations (i.e. RWH, groundwater monitoring, desalination, sanitation, etc.)

RMI’s drought response capacities have improved significantly over the past couple of droughts. 2013 was the first drought in which RMI Government, together with external partners took initiative of drought response efforts, due to the transition of U.S. involvement in emergency under the Compact agreement with the U.S. that was amended. With lessons learned from 2013 drought, preparedness and response for 2016 improved significantly, with the Disaster Response Plan developed and released and utilized starting February 2016. However, the need for an updated National Water and Sanitation policy is urgently required to align the efforts of the National Weather Office, NDMO, national, local governments and communities in avoiding replication, inefficiencies and even conflicting efforts. There is an urgent need to promote dialogue and cooperation among government departments and agencies, including budget sharing and decision making, to create value added interventions that address multiple needs and interests. This will result in a more holistic and efficient approach to developing resilience.

2.3.2 Drought Risk Management

With drought risk management and institutional efforts, drought can be mitigated or avoided at various levels. Table 17 provides examples of possible drought risk management efforts.

Table 17: Drought Risk Management and Institutional Efforts

56 International Strategy for Risk Reduction https://www.unisdr.org/who-we-are/international-strategy-for-disaster-reduction

Page | 49 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Drought Risk Management Institutional Efforts

Meteorological Improve the quality and quantity of meteorological information, Improve and enhance existing water systems drought communication and dissemination to wide stakeholders so that safe freshwater is available during lower-than-normal precipitation dry seasons Agricultural Disseminate early warning / seasonal forecasts / outlooks Enhance cross-sectoral coordination drought relevant to the agriculture sector. Key parameters (i.e. soil including stakeholders of the agriculture moisture) are monitored. Farmers know how to change farming sector. practices if needed in response to information provided.

Hydrological Community members are aware of available water resources Enhance knowledge of existing freshwater drought (i.e. groundwater, community RWH systems, etc.) and know resources throughout the country through how to utilize them effectively (i.e. water quality check, improved monitoring and data management. treatment, and making good decisions on differentiated use of Various water resources are managed in an water resources based on their quality and quantity, etc.) integrated way and well maintained. Socio-economic Situation of water shortage and impacts are monitored and N/A. Aims to reduce and avoid incidences of drought reported effectively within communities and between the socio-economic drought community and national authorities. Response strategies are planned based on evidence and data. Efforts are coordinated at national, subnational and community levels following standard operating procedures. Everyone in the community knows their roles and responsibilities. Relevant members of the community know how to operate, fix, and manage equipment (i.e. desal units, community RWH systems, etc.) Women, children and vulnerable groups in the community can access water resources safely and equitably.

Institutional capacity building aims to reduce and mitigate the negative impacts of socio-economic drought. However, even with the best coordination in place, risks of drought will always remain, especially given the dependency on rainwater for their primary source of fresh water supply, especially in rural57 communities of RMI. With projected climate change impacts, the drought risks are expected to continue to increase in RMI, thus making drought risk management critical to RMI’s water resilience strategy.

2.3.2.1 Stakeholders and Institutions Stakeholders and institutions relevant to drought risk management are similar to key actors of water management in RMI. However, one of the unique characteristics of the stakeholders and institutions of drought risk management are: 1) the role of the United States under the Compact, and 2) the coordination mechanisms that are set up specific to prepare for and respond to drought disasters.

When a Disaster declaration is issued by the President of United States for RMI FEMA acts as the lead agency to provide money through USAID and its implementation partners, such as IOM, to implement disaster response (food, WASH supplies and water distribution). Since FY 2010, USAID/OFDA has supported IOM to pre-position emergency relief supplies in three strategic locations throughout RMI. They also develop standby agreements with island-based organizations (such as WUTMI and MIRSC representatives on islands and/or local farmers associations (linked with MIOFA)) for logistical support during an emergency response, including the provisioning of Reverse Osmosis Units to alleviate immediate and medium-term effects of droughts.58

The Office of the Chief Secretary, who chairs the Emergency Operations Centre (EOC), lead the disaster response with the clusters (Water and Sanitation (WASH), Health, Logistics and Food Security and Agriculture and the Infrastructure and Shelter Cluster) to identify and meet immediate needs emerging from disasters including droughts.

In 2016 drought, RMI Government coordinated a Joint Preliminary Damage Assessments (PDA) with the support of the USA Team (US FEMA, WASH, Agriculture, Health, Logistics, and USAID). Based on findings of the PDA, RMI Government released a Drought Response Plan seeking for specific areas of support from

57 Outer atolls and islands as well as communities that are not connected to MWSC and KAJUR supplied water in Majuro and Kwajalein. 58 USAID/OFDA Program Summary FSM, RMI and Palau Retrieved from: https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1866/palau_program_summary_01302014.pdf

Page | 50 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA international partners. External support included financial, human resource, materials and technical assistance. Among others, the UN system coordinated and provided support for emergency needs assessment as well as non-food commodities. For swift response RMI has setup a Disaster Assistance Account (DAA) and a Contingency Fund. Both RMI and the US government with USD100,000 each resource annually through the Contingencies Fund once both governments agree that a disaster warrants a certain drawdown.

Disaster preparation, warnings and planning related to drought is under the purview of the Office of Chief’s Secretary in coordination with departments and organizations, including but not limited to: MWSC, KAJUR, EPA, Ministry of Internal Affairs and the Weather Office and civil society organizations that are all part of the WASH cluster.

The mechanisms followed by these institutions in organizing and responding to disasters are described in Table 18.

Table 18: Disaster Coordination Mechanisms in RMI Mechanisms Descriptions Emergency Operation Center The National Emergency Operations Centre (EOC), under the direction of the Chief Secretary, activates upon the Declaration of a State of Emergency and coordinates activated Clusters. Currently Terms of Reference for the Clusters, and Emergency Operation Centre or other DRM structures do not exist. Under the leadership of the NDMO, rapid needs assessments and deployment of necessary supplies to meet immediate lifesaving needs were coordinated. The NDMO utilizes the EOC and its clusters to provide recommendations to the National Disaster Committee for decision-making and further recommendations to the Cabinet. In addition, the NDMO has begun to establish Outer Island Disaster Committees (DisCom) and Disaster Focal Points with the assistance from the International Organization for Migration (IOM). This focal points and DisComs would be responsible for relaying early warnings, assisting the community to prepare for disasters and reporting through standardized reporting forms. There are still many communities that need to establish DisComs and strengthen focal points. Cluster System During the 2013 Drought Response in the Northern Islands of the RMI the National Cluster system was introduced to the RMI. Since 2013 the National Cluster System has been tested during multiple medium and small size events – such as the 2014 inundations and Typhoon Nangka that initiated the creation of the Infrastructure and Shelter Cluster. The National Cluster System has been institutionalized into the RMI DRM operations structure. Different clusters have different levels of operational capacity depending on how often they have been activated and their composition. The WASH cluster was the most active cluster during the 2016 El Nino Drought response, and also has the largest membership bringing together government agencies, NGOs and Civil Society. WASH Cluster Members of this cluster include EPA, OEPPC, Weather Service, MWSC, KAJUR, EPPSO, ODM, MOH, MPW, MFA, MoF, MIA, College of Marshall Islands, MIMRA, Local Governments, NGO’s (WUTMI, Youth to Youth), Donors and development partners, traditional leaders and landowners. - During disaster situations a multi-sector Water Task Force is constituted to plan, mitigate and respond to drought disasters organized by the OCS Post Disaster Needs Assessments During the 2015 / 2016 drought, RMI government conducted their first Post Disaster Needs (PDNA) Assessment, which provided an evaluation of infrastructure and assets, described effects on production/delivery of goods and access to services and the effects of the disaster on government functions and systems. The assessment included estimating the value of effects and impact of disaster for each sector and develop and recovery and reconstruction strategy.

2.3.3 Key Findings and Barriers – Drought Response

 Limited coordination, reporting and accountability mechanisms related to water at all levels  Limited institutions and stakeholders with formalized roles and responsibilities at the subnational and community levels  Limited information generated and shared for all types of water resources at all levels, limiting transparency and evidence-based participatory decision-making at all levels

Page | 51 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA  Strengthening of community preparedness and response to drought using applicable public awareness and education materials and the development of a national training framework in conjunction with community specific response plans.  There is a need for upgraded information and communications platform to better facilitate information flows prior to, during and after events. This will help to expedite damage reporting particularly from the rural communities and formally incorporate the use of social media as an additional tool to enhance the understanding or disaster impacts. Using basic Internet over HF radio may be looked at for outer Islands.  With regard to disaster information management system, there is a need for a government –based centralized data system with content monitored, properly protected by the intellectual property legislation, and properly followed protocol while promoting awareness, maintenance and regional data sharing and public access.  Topographic data and GIS layers relevant to disaster risk management are unavailable for response purposes, or consolidated from old maps and new data from fieldwork to support effective response.  Since the 2013 drought response, the introduction of Clusters and designation of government agencies’ leads has improved the partnership across the different government agencies and non- government sectors. One of the key challenges to the coordination is the lack of ability of partners to sustain their engagement through dedicated and knowledgeable staff from the beginning to the end of the disaster risk management processes. The high level of participation in Cluster meetings in the initial days of emergency usually fizzles as the responders have their own ‘regular jobs’.  Other areas where risk management could be strengthened include the need to further develop the procedures for disaster warning and monitoring system. Validation and promotion of indigenous knowledge to enhance good governance through increased participation of community decision making, engagement of women as well as other marginalized groups such as youth, elderly and disabled in community DRM decision making processes is an important necessary enhancement.  Cross government data collection, compilation and analysis systems to provide timely and reliable sex disaggregated statistics. Capacity strengthening related to knowledge sharing is then required so that the data is then analyzed, interpreted and disseminated in a timely and appropriate manner to the affected groups. Response plans and support can become more effective with the right data availability.  NDMO and EOC needs a better understanding on roles and responsibilities of all stakeholder groups (including supporting NGOs and private partners) having the power and capacity to make decisions rather than relying so heavily on centralized decision making.  Meteorological and field data was inconsistent and sometimes conflicting. Data gathering was inconsistent due to the lack of standardized forms and understanding of use to relay effective actionable data. The level of granularity needs to improve for the provided data – leading to the need for more equipment distributed onto atolls that provide overall coverage.  Lack of staff or systems to perform real time tracking of activities and feedback mechanisms. Poor understanding by support agencies to report back consistently on findings and progress so that next steps can for response is clearly understood.  Terms of Reference, for all parties involved within response, are not documented to describe ownership of activities and to provide an understanding or coordination between organizations, mayors and community representatives in the outer islands.

In light of urban and rural communities contexts described above, people in RMI currently face significant challenges of accessing safe freshwater year-round. Freshwater access is particularly constrained during extreme weather events with many consecutive days with little or no rain. During these events, people have to sustain their lives and livelihoods without water for several days and months, resulting in agricultural drought, hydrological drought, and socio-economic drought59. Just within the past two decades, RMI experienced four major droughts - in 1998, 2007, 2013, and 2016, all negatively impacting water, sanitation

59 An agricultural drought occurs when there is inadequate soil moisture to meet the needs of a particular crop at any given time. Agricultural drought usually occurs after or during a meteorological drought but before hydrological drought and may affect livestock and other dry-land agricultural operations. A hydrological drought refers to deficiencies in the availability of surface and groundwater supplies. There usually occurs a delay betweenlack of rain or snow and the occurrence of less-measurable water availability in streams, lakes and reservoirs. Therefore, drought hydrological measurements would tend to lag other drought indicators. A socio-economic drought may occur when physical water shortages start to affect the health, well-being, and quality of life of the people, or when the drought starts to affect the supply and demand of the production of goods and services in a given country or sub-national divisions. The most recent 2015/16 drought covered all of the 3 definitions of drought.

Page | 52 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA and hygiene (WASH), food security and economic activities in varying severities and locations60. These drought years coincided with El Niño events (1997/98, 2007/08, 2015/16. Other key natural hazards faced by the urban and rural communities of RMI include: tropical storms and typhoons, sea swells coinciding with king tides and tsunamis. These hazards, together with drought, all influence the quantity and quality of the limited safe, freshwater resources accessible by the Marshallese people.

60 1998 - Severe Drought, All of RMI; 2007 - Severe Drought, Majuro, Utrik, Wotho, Lae, Namu, Ailuk; 2013 - Drought, 15 atolls/islands north of Majuro (above 8°N latitude); 2016 - Severe drought, All of RMI. Source: Government of RMI. 2014. Republic of the Marshall Islands Joint National Action Plan for Climate Change Adaptation & Disaster Risk Management 2014 – 2018.

Page | 53 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA 3. Current Status of Water Infrastructure in RMI 3.1 Overview

Given its unique geography and climate, freshwater resources are extremely limited in RMI, thus making access to safe water and sanitation extremely challenging. In urban (Majuro and Kwajalein) and rural communities of RMI, “improved water supply” coverage is high at 93% and 98% respectively61. However, the majority of the improved water supply is reliant on rainwater harvesting systems alone, as groundwater lenses can be accessed only in limited locations for drinking or cooking given their quality and quantity issues, although data on the locations and quality of groundwater resources are limited. Furthermore, very few surface water resources such as lakes and ponds exist throughout the country. Therefore, communities in RMI currently do not have viable alternative safe water options, but are completely dependent on a single source for freshwater resource. This lack of integrated water resource management system makes Marshallese people extremely vulnerable to water shortages.

During the dry season between December to April (or until May during El Niño years), people across RMI frequently face very low quantities of water with sufficient water quality, making year-round access to water challenging. In 2010, 59% of households in Majuro reported that they did not have year-round access to their primary drinking water source, indicating the high frequency of their household rainwater harvesting systems being empty62. Conditions in the drier northern atolls and islands are more severe especially during the dry seasons of El Niño years. Therefore, water insecurity is a major concern for the Marshallese people today and in the future, based on climate change projections it is expected to be further exacerbated in the future.

The focus of this section will be related to describing the conditions within the rural communities not connected to MWSC and KAJUR public reticulation systems on Majuro and Kwajalein (Ebeye) respectively since their needs for water security is covered through their individual master plans.

3.2 Available Data – Collected or Compiled through Site Visits

Available data and assessments on water resources in RMI vary by location, year, and the types of water resources. The key data and assessments gathered and analyzed during the project design period are included in FS Annex 7. In addition UNDP performed site visits to the largest communities of on 19 out of the 24 populated atolls. The visits comprised of the infrastructure and completing consultations with local communities to compile a better understanding of the technical state of the in

Detailed and consistent data and analysis on water resources in terms of its quality and quantity are lacking in RMI, especially for the rural communities. Existing comprehensive nation-wide information related to water and sanitation in RMI is limited to those collected through the 1999 and 2011 Household and Population Census.

Surveys results from different agencies provided condition and community assessment data for review: Including local community visits. Through these surveys UNDP was able to compile information on the site and community conditions from 19 out of the 23 atolls.

1. IOM 2013 WASH surveys (households and community buildings) of Ailuk, Aur, Enewetak, Ebadon and Mejatto (both Kwajalein), Lae, Lib, Maloelap, Ujae, Utirik, Wotho and Wotje. 2. International Red Cross 2013 WASH surveys (households and community buildings) of Likiep, Mejit and Namu, 3. UNDP GCF Preparation Team April 2016 mission visit to Utrik (households and community buildings) 4. UNDP GCF Preparation Team August 2016 mission visit to Wotje, Jaluit and Majuro Atolls (Rongrong Island) (households and community buildings) 5. UNDP GCF Preparation Team September 2016 visits to Ebon and Namdrik 6. UNDP GCF Preparation Team 1 (Technical Team) October 2016 visits to Kwajalein (Santo Island), Ailinglaplap and Wotho

61 Source: WHO / UNICEF. 2014. Joint Monitoring Programme for Water and Sanitation. 62 Source. Government of RMI. 2014. National Water and Sanitation Policy.

Page | 54 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA 7. UNDP GCF Preparation Team 2 (Gender Consultation Team) October to November 2016 – WUTMI and MIOFA team visited Majuro atoll (RongRong community), Aur (Aur, Tobal), Maloelap (Airok, Tarawa, Wollot, Jeng, Kaven), Mejit (Mejit), Utrik (Utrik), Ailuk (Ailuk), Likiep (Likiep), Ujae (Ujea), Lae (Lae), Kwajalein (Ebadon, Mejatto), Lib (Lib), Namu (Majkin), Jabot (Jabot) 8. PDNA site visit to Arno 9. UNDP Water Proposal_2016 Provided by College of Marshall Islands

Additional information available is linked with technical assessments and studies conducted in relation to water and infrastructure projects (during development and implementation), drought responses (situation reports, rapid assessment surveys, etc.) and limited number of academic research.

With an acute recognition of the importance of water baseline information, there are significant interests and intentions to develop monitoring mechanisms and databases for water and disasters within National Disaster Management Organization (NDMO) and Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) under the purview of the Chief Secretary’s Office. Some efforts have initiated where the newly recruited Water Security Officer within EPA, supported by SPC with financial support from the New Zealand Government, is embarking on gathering information on past and ongoing water-related initiatives in RMI.

3.3 Freshwater Resources

3.3.1 Overview of Water Resources in RMI As described above, households in RMI primarily rely on a single water resource and supply system – their private household rainwater harvesting system – that is highly vulnerable to low precipitation and climate change. This is true across both urban and rural communities, with some site-specific variations in contexts.

Besides household rainwater harvesting (HH RWH) systems, limited options for alternative safe freshwater supply currently exist in the rural communities of RMI. While limited in number and quality, these options include: rainwater harvesting systems in community buildings (public, commercial, or churches), household or shared community groundwater wells, and desalination systems that are available in some schools and health centers or owned and operated by the municipal government. Below Table 19 summarizes the different types of freshwater resources available in RMI.

Table 19: Overview of Freshwater Resources in RMI

Resources Supply Capture Storage Owners / Users Locations Systems Managers Rain Rainwater Household 4.5 / 5.7 / 6.1 HHs HHs Throughout RMI harvesting (HH) roofs m3 tanks63 in systems HHs Community Majority of Schools, Students, patients, Throughout RMI building tanks same hospitals, community groups, roofs size as HH community HHs, but new tanks groups, etc. Up to 189 m3 tanks HH and Concrete HHs, HHs, community Throughout RMI Community tanks (i.e. community groups, etc. Roofs WWII, often groups, etc. underground) Airport Storage Majuro water MWSC customers Majuro reservoirs and sewer (commercial, company government and HHs) Groundwater N/A Wells HHs, HHs, community Throughout RMI community groups, etc. groups, MWSC, etc. Sea Water Stationary Solar or 4.5 / 5.7 / 6.1 Local HHs, patients, Kili, Utrik, Rongelap, reverse diesel m3 tanks65 government, students, customers, Enewetak, Mejit, Ailuk, osmosis KAJUR, etc. Likiep, Wotje, Maloelap,

63 1,200 / 1,500 / 1,800 gallon tanks 65 1,200 / 1,500 / 1,800 gallon tanks

Page | 55 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Resources Supply Capture Storage Owners / Users Locations Systems Managers (RO) units operated Majuro Aur Mejatto, Wotho, Ujae, with 200 – pumps hospitals, Lae, Lib, Namu, Kwajalein, 13,200 gallons schools, Majuro per day stores, etc. (gpd)64 capacity Mobile RO Solar or Jerry cans, WASH Cluster HHs N/A – deployed based on units with 360 diesel etc. (NDMO, need during drought gpd66 capacity operated MWSC, IOM), pumps local government Solar water Solar 4.5 / 5.7 / 6.1 Health centers Patients, HHs, etc. Mejit, Ailuk (Ailuk and purifiers with operated m3 tanks67 Enejelar), Likiep (Likiep 4 L per day pumps and Jebal), Wotje (Wotje capacity and Wodmej) Imported N/A N/A Water bottles Shops Urban HHs Majuro and Kwajalein, etc. Water

3.3.2 Water Resources in the Rural communities Water The types of freshwater resources available in the rural Resources communities of RMI are: Rainwater  Household Rainwater Systems – HH residents Harvesting directly use rainwater captured by the household System rainwater harvesting systems Other  Community rainwater harvesting systems, often 98% supplying water to commercial and public buildings  Groundwater resources are available in many of the rural communities, although information regarding their specific locations, available volume, and quality are 11% HH RWH limited. Based on survey results, groundwater is Ownership normally used for washing, cleaning, and / or for sanitation, while in times are drought also used for Yes drinking and cooking.  Alternative and experimental systems are available at ad-hoc bases in limited atolls (solar panels, hoop 89% No systems etc.)

Rainwater Harvesting Systems Households Figure 13: Water Resources in the Rural Communities In the rural communities of RMI, where approximately 28% of RMI’s population lives, dependence on rainwater as the primary source for drinking water is even higher than in urban areas; it was estimated at 98% in 2011. A water survey conducted in 2013 in 11 atolls and islands68 reported that 89% of households in these atolls and islands had rainwater-harvesting systems with 4,542 L (1,200 gallon) and/or 5,678 L (1,500 gallon) tanks. For a household of average 6 members69, at a water consumption level of 20 L (5.3 gallons) per person per day70, the household rainwater tanks can supply water for one household for 37 to 47 days under conditions of little or no rain, if water tanks are well maintained and kept full at the beginning of the dry spell.

Based on the completed atoll surveys for households in 2013 and the GCF preparation team in 2016, as listed in Section 2.2. the rainwater harvesting systems typically have: a. Corrugated steel or Aluminum/Tin sheet roof – typically in good condition.

64 0.8 – 50 m3 66 1.4 m3 67 1,200 / 1,500 / 1,800 gallon tanks 68 Ailuk, Aur, Ebadon, Lae, Lib, Maloelap, Mejatto, Ujae, Utrik, Wotho, and Wotje. Source. 2013 Wash Survey. 69 Average household size in outer islands and atolls calculated from 2011 Census was 6 for the outer islands and atolls, 7 for urban atolls, and 7 for the national average. 70 WHO and SDG minimum standard to provide for drinking, cooking and basic hygiene

Page | 56 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA b. 75mm (3”) to 100mm (4”) guttering system is installed which provides less than 50% coverage or less and was found to be poorly installed and in poor condition. (Need to consider larger guttering systems (150mm) to limit overflow and spillage during heavy rainfall.) c. No first flush mechanism or mosquito guard systems in place or provided as part of the original installation. General practice on first seasonal rainfall was to divert the feed away from the storage system to overflow onto the ground. This provides some level of first flushing of dirt and d. Storage tanks are plastic PVC – usually one to two per households each sized (with (1000G), 4,542 L (1,200 G) and/or 5,678 L (1,500 G) tanks). Some households have not been provided a storage tank. e. Water quality during periods of rain within the storage tanks is adequate to be used for drinking, cooking, showering and general cleaning of the house. During drought periods the water is restricted for drinking and cooking only. f. Maintenance of the rooves and the guttering system, based on observations documented within the surveys, indicate minimal maintenance is performed. The guttering system in most households is found to be in poor condition and not connected properly to the storage tanks – during periods of rain a number of leaks resulted, demonstrating poor efficiency in capture and storage of water. g. Each household was responsible for maintaining their own RWH system and clear identification of existing costs to maintain system was difficult to qualify. Surveys indicate that residents spent minimal money on maintenance of their RWH systems.

The infrastructure survey results (IFRC (2013), IOM (2013) and UNDP (2016)) have been graphed by atoll. Figure 14 shows the household rainwater harvesting system condition assessment ratings (five point condition rating from Excellent to Very Poor). Figure 14 shows the volume of household rainwater harvesting tanks.

120

100

80

60

40

20 Number of householdsNumberSurveyed 0 Ailuk Aur Jaluit Kwajalein Lae Lib Maloelap Ujae Utirik Wotho Wotje

Very Poor Poor Fair Good Excellent

Figure 14: Assessment of Roof Conditions of Household Rainwater Harvesting Systems

(Source: 2011 Census, IOM and IFRC (WASH Survey 2013) and UNDP (GCF Design Surveys, 2016)

Page | 57 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Figure 15: Volume of Household Rainwater Harvesting Tanks based on Community Surveys (Source: 2011 Census, IOM and IFRC (WASH Survey 2013) and Government of RMI / UNDP Surveys during Project Development, 2016))

The household rainwater harvesting systems in the three atolls surveyed by IFRC in 2013 (Likiep, Mejit and Namu) were typically in worse condition and with smaller tanks than the atolls surveyed by IOM in 2013. A rainwater harvesting improvement program was implemented in 2014 that targeted those three atolls (for more details see Section 3). Rainwater harvesting storage tanks were distributed widely in Likiep, Mejit and Namu which should improve the baseline household rainwater harvesting significantly in those atolls.

Figure 16 shows a distribution of different rainwater harvest tank sizes (and those without tanks) of households in rural communities (the graph excludes Likiep, Mejit and Namu).

Figure 16: Summary of household rainwater harvesting tank sizes

Page | 58 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA The household roof materials were recorded during the IFRC and IOM 2013 surveys (total of 1,106 households in 14 atolls). A total of 95 households (8% of the surveyed households) were recorded as having thatched roofs rather than tin or concrete, 74 of these households were in Namu. The IFRC 2013 survey also recorded whether a house was occupied or not in those three atolls and 24 households were recorded as being unoccupied (or 6% of the 411 households).

Table 20: Household Rainwater Harvesting Systems in Rural Communities in RMI (Typical)

Baseline HH RWH Systems in RMI Roof  Surface area is normally around 54 m².  Roof materials are corrugated steel or Aluminum/Tin sheet roof – typically in good condition. Connection In most HHs, only about 50% of the roof area is connected with guttering leading to loss of of roof area rainwater from roof to tank. to RWH Gutters 75mm (3”) to 100mm (4”) guttering system is installed which typically provides 50% coverage or less and was found to be poorly installed and in poor condition. Downpipes 100mm diameter Tanks Most households have at least one 4,542 liter (1,200 gallon) to 5,678 liter (1,500 gallon) storage tanks. Tanks are normally plastic PVC materials. Most tanks in HHs do not have first flush diverters or mosquito guard systems. General practice on first seasonal rainfall was to divert the feed away from the storage system to overflow onto the ground. Therefore, significant rainwater stored in tanks is often lost for cleaning. Efficiency Typical 20% Given above conditions, it is estimated that there is significant loss of rainwater in typical HH RWH systems. 516mm of rain required to fill typical household tank under baseline RWH system conditions

Community RWH Systems Besides household rainwater harvesting systems, community RWH systems are available and utilized in the rural communities in public, commercial, or community buildings. While approximately 79%71 of community buildings in the rural communities have community rainwater harvesting systems, especially in upgraded public schools (Figure 17), health centers, police centers, churches, and recreation or community centers, many systems are in poor condition, with installation, maintenance and efficiency challenges, similar to household systems. In particular for community rainwater harvesting, most of these systems are not fully utilizing their catchment potential; although many public buildings have large roof areas to capture rainfall, most structures only have 5,800 L tanks connected to them, and therefore are unable to store a lot of water that is captured. Furthermore, public, commercial, and community structures in the rural communities with sanitation facilities use harvested rainwater to flush their toilets, therefore straining freshwater supply particularly in drought times.

Results of these surveys identified in section 3.2 provided:  Newly Constructed Public Schools (Primary Schools and High Schools) – good condition for both roofs and updated guttering systems, first flush mechanisms were installed.  There are number of schools have not been upgraded and continue to be in use, their roof condition are generally in good condition and guttering systems are in poor condition for these older facilities.  Health Centers – good condition for both roofs and updated guttering systems – first flush mechanism were not installed.  Police Centers - good condition for both roofs and updated guttering systems – first flush mechanism were not installed.  Churches - good condition for roofs but limited guttering systems (often poorly constructed) and – first flush mechanism were not installed  Recreation / Community Centers - - good condition for roofs but limited guttering systems (often poorly constructed) and – first flush mechanism were not installed

71 2011 RMI Census

Page | 59 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Figure 17: Example of Upgraded Public Schools with Rainwater Harvesting Systems (Wotho Atoll)

Based on the surveys of community buildings the condition of the roofs was taken into account as well as the guttering systems for 209 surveyed community buildings. A total of 44 community buildings did not have guttering systems and only 8% of the community buildings with RWH systems had first flush components. The roof condition of each community building was considered to be in good shape with the results described in Table 21.

Table 21: Community Rainwater Harvesting Systems in Rural Communities in RMI (Typical) Element Baseline Community RWH Systems in RMI Roof area  Surface area of suitable community building is at least 100 m2. Large roof areas can be over 400 m².  Roof materials are corrugated steel or Aluminum/Tin sheet roof – typically in good condition. Connection In most suitable community buildings, only about 50% of the roof area is connected with of roof area guttering leading to loss of rainwater from roof to tank. to RWH Gutters 75mm (3”) to 150mm (6”) guttering system which typically provides 50% coverage or less and was found to be in good condition. Downpipes 100mm diameter Tanks  Most suitable community buildings have at least one 4,542 liter (1,200 gallon) to 5,678 liter (1,500 gallon) storage tanks.  Given small tank size compared to large roof area, significant water is lost from tank overflow.  Most tanks in community buildings do not have first flush diverters or mosquito guard systems. General practice on first seasonal rainfall was to divert the feed away from the storage system to overflow onto the ground. Therefore, significant rainwater stored in tanks is often lost for cleaning. Efficiency Typical 35% Given above conditions, it is estimated that there is significant loss of rainwater in typical HH RWH systems. 81mm of rain required to fill typical community tank under baseline RWH system conditions Users 20 to 150 people per community building

The maintenance operations of the rainwater harvesting systems for cleaning tanks and upkeep of the guttering systems are to be performed by the staff of the community building or ministry of education (for schools) and ministry of public works for health care centers and police buildings. Based on the condition of the guttering systems it is evident that limited maintenance was being performed. Water quality testing of the catchments was not completed on a regular basis by EPA or properly trained staff and limited records are available. The newly installed systems were still in good condition but need clean-out and minor repair.

Page | 60 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA The College of Marshall Islands completed a water quality survey on multiple atolls (Annex 21) after the 2016 drought, of groundwater wells and catchments of both community buildings and households. The results indicates approximately 50 percent of the water quality sources tested are contaminated. By interviewing the residents of the atolls UNDP survey results indicated consistent evidence of diarrhea, stomach ailments and dehydration.

Summary of Condition of RWH Systems for Rural Communities

The frequent water shortages in the rural communities based on household rainwater harvesting systems are caused by a combination of: 1. low efficiency of rainwater harvesting systems – poor sizing gutters, downspouts, brackets and fittings, which are poorly installed for the maximum rainfall, capture. 2. lack of sufficient storage of rainwater harvesting systems – tank sizes for households and community buildings are insufficient and are prone to overflows during normal rainfalls. 3. poor quality of water – due to improper operation and maintenance clean practices of guttering and tanks the water capture is often contaminated leading to ailments within the community. Many rainwater harvesting systems do not have mosquito covers or first flush systems72 that allow cleaning of the tanks without losing all of the water stored in the tanks. 4. lack of water conservation practices – there is limited written guidance available and the community has not identified lead personnel to establish community specific water conservation measures including supporting encouragement of proper operations and maintenance practice. 5. extended period of very little or no rain - There is a significant difference between precipitation levels and patterns of northern and southern atolls and islands. As such, atolls and islands of RMI are often categorized into 3 zones 73 in recognition that different rainfall pattern requires different water resilience strategies. However, studies have also shown74 that in most atolls and islands in RMI including all zones, there is adequate rainfall during rainy season to supply for drinking, cooking and basic hygiene; however, it is not effectively stored for utilization during the dry periods, where households particularly in the northern Zones 1 and 2 have to manage with little or no rainfall for extended periods of days.

Concrete Tanks (WWII)

In RMI, many atolls and islands have underground or partially underground concrete structures to store water. Most of these concrete tanks were constructed by Japanese troops during their occupation in World War II and are ageing. There are a number of these concrete tanks (the older tanks being called “WWII catchments”) still in use today connected to the rainwater harvesting systems of households and community buildings like schools and churches. During the infrastructure surveys in 2013 and 2016, 23 large concrete tanks were recorded across 12 atolls and islands ranging in volume from 11m³ to 453m³. The concrete tank volumes are included in the baseline storage in the relevant communities with a total recorded volume from the infrastructure survey data of 1,254m³. An example concrete tank is shown in Figure 18.

Figure 18: Concrete rainwater storage tank in Jabwor, Jaluit Atoll

72 Based on IOM, Red Cross and UNDP 2016 Survey results gathered during proposal development process, out of 209 community buildings surveyed, only 17 buildings had first flush systems (8%). For households, only 43 (6%) out of 711 households surveyed had a first flush system. 73 Zone 1: atolls and islands located above 8’ N latitude, Zone 2: atolls and islands between 6’ and 8’ N latitude, Zone 3: atolls and islands located below 6’ N latitude. 74 Wallis. 2011.

Page | 61 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Survey data for the large concrete tanks connected to suitable community buildings (see Section 8.2.3 for the description of suitable community buildings) are summarized in the table below75. There may be other concrete tanks in use in communities that have not been surveyed.

Tanks smaller than 10m³ have not been included in Table 22. The tanks in Table 22 are included in the status quo existing community storage volumes for the technical design. The qualitative condition ratings from the infrastructure surveys are also shown in the table below. The condition rating is a five point rating from Very Poor to Excellent.

Table 22: Survey data for existing large concrete tanks

Atoll Community Location of tank Survey Volume of Condition of tanks date concrete tanks (m³) Ailinglaplap Jeh School Oct-16 15 Very Poor Ailuk Ailuk Religious Center IOM 2013 38 Good

Ailuk Enejelar Religious Center IOM 2013 38 Good

Ebon Ebon School Sep-16 24 Very Poor Ebon Ebon Government building Sep-16 14 Good Jaluit Jabwor Community building Aug-16 141 Poor Jaluit Jabwor Community hall Aug-16 17 Poor Kwajalein Santo Church Oct-16 453 Good Kwajalein Santo Church Oct-16 22 Very Poor Majuro Rongrong School-Dormitory Girls Aug-16 54 Poor Majuro Rongrong School-Dormitory Girls Aug-16 18 Poor Majuro Rongrong School-Dormitory Girls Aug-16 19 Poor Namdrik Namdrik School Sep-16 12 Very Poor Namu Namu Church (protestant) IFRC 2013 11 Very good Namu Majkin School IFRC 2013 72 Very good Ujae Ujae Public School IOM 2013 37 Very poor Utrik Utirik Health Center IOM 2013 38 Excellent Utrik Utirik Religious Center IOM 2013 44 Good Wotho Wotho School Oct-16 38 Excellent Wotje Wotje Public school Aug-16 42 Good Wotje Wotje Community Centre Aug-16 26 Good Wotje Wormej Primary school Aug-16 41 Poor Wotje Wormej Primary school Aug-16 41 Poor Total 1255

The condition ratings in the table show that more than half (52%) of the tanks are rated to be in poor to very poor condition. The remaining tanks (42%) are rated to be in good to excellent condition. Concrete tank condition and asset management are discussed further in Section 7.4.3.

Some of the connected concrete tanks currently in use have slight cracks in the side walls or foundations, resulting in small leaks. The water quality was generally good (as long as proper cover for hatch opening was maintained) and the guttering system was cleaned out on a regular basis. Maintenance of these catchments and guttering systems is completed by the community-building operator (e.g. schools or churches).

The table excludes the concrete tanks that are either connected to a community building with a small roof area (roof catchment area <100m²) and the tanks that are abandoned or located a considerable distance from the existing community. Abandoned concrete tanks are often filled with debris or have groundwater inundation due to cracks in the foundation and sidewalls, resulting in poor water quality condition. These were not included in the status quo assessment due to their condition and/or location.

Groundwater

75 It is unknown if there are other large concrete tanks that are relied on for rainwater storage in the communities without infrastructure survey data.

Page | 62 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Fresh groundwater in the rural communities exists in the form of a freshwater lens that floats (due to lower density) atop the deeper, salty groundwater. The availability of fresh groundwater depends on island size and rainfall, and diminishes during droughts. People tend to use groundwater for showering, washing laundry, and watering animals and garden crops, as well as a backup source for drinking and other needs during droughts.

Besides being moderate to extremely saline (depending on the season, tide, location and depth of the well), basically wells are often found unprotected (i.e. uncovered and/or with a hand pump installed), with artisanal lining and without a sanitary seal. And although there is little known about human excreta disposal (e.g. availability and location of latrines with distance to well), the mere fact that the wells are unprotected and with chickens, dogs and pigs roaming around makes bacteriological testing redundant; it is close to certain that all wells are bacteriologically contaminated and thus unsafe to drink (without treatment). Based on consultations the groundwater is still not used for drinking and often not used for cooking as well for either dry or wet season.

Ground water wells lack proper covering or are not raised from ground level to protect from pollutants and possible inundation from high tides. Further pollution or increase of salinity of the ground water will not only affect possible availability of drinking water but will also affect ability to maintain vegetation (eg. coconut trees) and island ecological functions. (Ryan T Bailey, 2016)

The number, locations, and conditions of groundwater wells in RMI, owned by households or shared among communities are unknown76. Testing of the quality and quantity of the groundwater is part of the Reimaanlok77 process’ household surveys (Reimaanlok steps 3-4). However, most of the testing for groundwater quality and quantity (through modeling) has focused on the major lenses in Majuro (Laura lens) and in Kwajalein Atoll. As a result, currently, there are no a standard operating procedure for the frequency and parameters for water quality and quantity testing or modeling for the rural communities.

Groundwater is collected through wells owned by households or communities. Some wells are protected, while others are open (unprotected). Wells are typically concrete lined and have a concrete access cover with a plastic hinged cover for the opening. Over the course of time these wells have been neglected and minimum maintenance and repair has been performed. Some have collapsed, some are contaminated from accumulated debris or fallen animals, and some are simply missing their plastic hatch opening potentially exposing them to inundation from King tides and large storms.

An unknown percentage of wells are unprotected (i.e. uncovered and/or with a hand pump installed), with artisanal lining and without a sanitary seal. Although water quality data is unavailable, it is likely that these wells are susceptible to contamination from bacteria (from human and livestock activities).

Although limited information exist regarding groundwater quality in the rural communities, the location, the use, and conditions of the wells (as described above) affect water lens quality significantly. Within a community, proximity to sea as well as toilets and their septic tanks affect water quality significantly in terms of salinity and bacteria such as fecal coliform. Wells that lack proper covering or are not raised from ground level are susceptible to pollutants and inundation from high tides and storm surge (particularly due to climate change induced sea level rise).

Furthermore, given its history of U.S. nuclear testing, the 4 northern atolls closest to the testing sites also have concerns for nuclear radiation levels in water. During community consultations, residents of Utrik Atoll, particularly women, expressed that they were concerned of using groundwater for drinking or bathing, especially for babies and children and that they would save rainwater even during times of drought so that the most vulnerable in the communities did not have to use groundwater.

The volumes of use and how / where the water is used also influence groundwater quality. Excessive use and extraction of groundwater, which occur during the dry season and drought times, can cause saltwater intrusion and increase the salinity of groundwater resources. Also, discharging used water above and/or near wells and water lenses can also contaminate groundwater resources, especially when they are not covered and protected.

76 Cross-reference FS section 7.3.3 on Groundwater. 77 Reimaanlok process on natural resource management is a community-driven, participatory approach that strengthens local capacities for effective and financially sustainable ecosystem management

Page | 63 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Based on testing performed by EPA at a few of the atolls (Ebon, Jaluit and Namdrik) during the 2016 disaster response more than 50% of the wells tested did not meet the required drinking water standard (EPA set TDS > 500 mg/L).

RMI EPA Rating System: For Wells the TDS Levels for Groundwater can be classified as  Class 1 -0-250mg/L (Good Source)  Class II -250-500mg/L –(Alternative Source)  Class III > 500 mg/L – Not recommended for drinking

It is useful to compare the EPA rating system against the WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality 2006. WHO have not established health-based guideline values for TDS and other naturally occurring chemicals such as chlorine and sodium. The reason given is because they occur in drinking water at concentrations well below those at which toxic effects may occur. WHO agree that TDS may affect acceptability of drinking water and state that the palatability of water with a TDS level of less than 600 mg/litre is generally considered to be good; drinking-water becomes significantly and increasingly unpalatable at TDS levels greater than about 1000 mg/litre. The WHO unpalatable TDS level is twice the EPA rating level shown above.

During consultations residents confirmed at the majority of atolls that they limit the usage of ground water – especially for drinking water due to perceived quality and known high salinity issues in times of drought. The recent study on groundwater availability during drought by Barkey and Bailey published in the Water magazine78 identified that groundwater on small islands (<300 m in width) is typically completely depleted during drought. Based on the modelling, it was estimated that over half (54 percent) of the islands are classified as highly vulnerable to drought if dependent on this resource. Thicker lenses typically occur for larger islands, islands located on the leeward side of an atoll due to lower hydraulic conductivity, and islands located in the southern region of the RMI due to higher rainfall rates.

During drought the community coordinates their activities to ensure that they clean out the known contamination from ground water sources and also share wells that are checked or qualitatively considered to still have good water for consumption and cooking. The community understands the shared responsibility of all and will coordinate through the community chief and Mayor to support each other. The residents will share ground water well access during times of water stress.

King tides and inundation of seawater of the atolls are projected to become more frequent due to SLR and higher resultant storm surges and tides

Desalination Systems (Stationary) In recent years, as a measure to manage the frequent water shortages during dry season, desalination systems with varying technologies have been deployed in selected rural communities. These have had different degrees of success in terms of installation, operation, maintenance, effectiveness (i.e. actual water production volume) and sustainability.

Currently within the rural communities there are three types of fixed desalination units deployed.  Solar powered Reverse Osmosis from Toray Industries (Supplied by JICA through the Pacific Environment Community Fund) – Rated for 1130 Liters/day were installed at 15 public schools. These units were designed to only be used during dry season or when there is an emergency water shortage. In addition, 7 solar distillation systems, or solar water purifiers, are installed in 4 atolls and islands79 with capacity of 4 liters (1 gallon) per day using FCubed technology. Capital cost for the solar distillation systems were financed through the GEF Special Climate Change Fund, and in partnership with SPREP & UNDP Pacific Adaptation to Climate Change (PACC) Programme. Unfortunately, many of the desalination units installed through the PEC and PACC programs are not generating the freshwater at average volumes they are designed for or have broken down due to poor maintenance and weather damage. As a result most of these systems were unable to provide emergency water supply to the schools and health clinics and communities in which they were placed during the 2016 drought.

78 Estimating the Impact of Drought on Groundwater Resources of the Marshall Islands. Bandon Barky and Ryan Bailey, Colorado State University, 2017 79 Health Centers of Mejit, Ailuk (Ailuk and Enejelar), Likiep (Likiep and Jebal), Wotje (Wotje and Wodmej),

Page | 64 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA  Reverse Osmosis Units – Utrik, Rongelap and Enewetak (Northern Atolls) and Kili (Southern Atoll) currently have RO units, which are supported through local supplier Mauna Marine or locally trained staff (Rongelap and Enewetak). For Utrik and Kili the systems were designed to produce 15 liters per person per day and then the equipment sizes were determined based on population served. Maintenance contracts are provisioned through grant programs to support proper operation and maintenance. o Utrik - The RO system (installed in 2010) is the Spectra LB-1800 water treatment plant, which includes two LB-1800, water making units (each rated for 6800 Liters/day), two XL4 solar and wind power packs, a prefabricated building, and three 6600 liter catchment tanks. A well was constructed to provide brackish feed water for the system. Only one LB-1800 unit is run each day. (The capital cost for this system was approximately $270,000 plus transportation costs allowing for local labor use). Utrik uses a small piped distribution system to provide water to the residents from the RO system.. o Rongelap – This diesel driven RO Systems (installed in 2009) is rated for 22, 700 Liters (6000 G) per day and was installed in 2009, purchased by the US Department of the Interior. Local residents operate and maintain the system costing in the order of $10, 000 yearly. This cost does not include diesel. o Kili – The RO system (installed in 2015) is the Spectra LB-2800 water treatment plant which includes two LB-2800 water making units (each rated for 10600 liters), two XL 6 wind and solar power packs, a prefabricated building, four 6600 liter catchment tanks, well construction, installation, technician training, filters and chemicals for one year. Does not include shipping. (The capital cost for this system was approximately $290,000 plus transportation costs allowing for local labor use). A small piped distribution system is used to provide water to the residents from the RO system. o Enewetak - The RO system is the Spectra LB-2800 water treatment plant which includes two LB-2800 water making units (each rated for 10600 liters), two XL 6 wind and solar power packs, a prefabricated building, four 6600 liter catchment tanks, well construction, installation, technician training, filters and chemicals for one year. Does not include shipping. (The capital cost for this system was approximately $350,000 plus transportation costs allowing for local labor use). Will be installed in 2017. A water distribution truck was purchased through donations from JICA to help distribute the water to the residents.

Costs to maintain and operate the systems are covered by local government and external grants, however the financial commitment is not sustainable without external grants as indicated by the Mayors of Utrik, Rongelap and Kili.

 Solar distillation units are installed as part of a pilot program on Mejit Island, Ailuk, (Ailuk), Enejelar (Ailuk), Jebal (Likiep), Likiep (Likiep), Wotje (Wotje), and Wodmej (Wotje). They are primarily installed at health centers and operated and maintained by the Ministry of Health. They currently are not producing water and are abandoned due to pump system failures that provide seawater to the solar systems. Each unit produces 4 liters per day and can be installed into a bank of units to produce water.

Alternative and experimental systems Hoop Solar Distillation System – is a pilot program that produces 1 liter per day per unit by, condensing humidity from the air. The units have been installed and are managed/maintained at the health centers staff. The units are primarily used for awareness training and for the community and are not considered as part of a sustainable water security solution.

Solar Distillation Units – Solar distillation units are installed as part of a pilot program from PACC/SPC and UNDP on Mejit Island, Ailuk, (Ailuk), Enejelar (Ailuk), Jebal (Likiep), Likiep (Likiep), Wotje (Wotje), and Wodmej (Wotje). They are primarily installed at health centers and operated and maintained by the Ministry of Health. Currently they are non-operational and are not producing water. They are abandoned due to pump system failures that provide sea water to the solar systems. Each unit, if operational, produces 4 liters per day and can be installed as a bank of units to produce larger amount of water potentially. The units are capable of:  Providing drinking water of reliable quality that meets EPA standards.  Collecting rainwater when racked together.  Produces marketable salt as a byproduct rather than a concentrated brine.

Page | 65 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Due to the limited capacity to produce water in addition to the lack of acceptance, as evidenced by its abandoned state, this solution is not included in the proposed water security interventions.

Summary of Desalination Installations: Based on the several trials and errors experienced over the past few years of operating desalination in the rural communities, following key success factors critical to the sustainable implementation of permanent desalination units in the rural communities of RMI have been identified. These include: 1. installation and training conducted on site by manufacturer, supplier, or technical staff sufficiently trained by manufacturer or supplier; 2. standard operating procedures for operation, maintenance and monitoring clearly defined and understood by all stakeholders involved on site and in Majuro; 3. roles and responsibilities for operation, maintenance and monitoring designated officially; 4. adequate financing mechanism identified or established to perform operation, maintenance, and monitoring for the typical 15 to 20 year lifecycle of the system.

Drought Response – Rural Communities

In RMI, the National Disaster Management Office coordinates with the Weather Service Office to determine and validate if the residents within Atoll or community will experience a drought within the next 30 days using the following procedure:

1. RMI Weather Service Office – communicates with the National Disaster Management office the projected weather patterns and the possibility of drought conditions. The metrics used are: a. For Northern Atolls (Utrik and Wotje) weather stations – if the forecast rainfall will be less than 150mm (6 inches) over the next 30 days then NDMO shall be informed. b. For the Central Atolls (Majuro, Kwajalein and Ailinglaplap) weather stations - if the forecast rainfall will be less than 200mm (8 inches) over the next 30 days then NDMO shall be informed. c. For the Southern Atolls (Mili and Jaliut) weather stations - if the forecast rainfall will be less than 250mm (10 inches) over the next 30 days then NDMO shall be informed. 2. NDMO – starts to communicate with the Atoll jurisdictional rural communities focal points and also the local community leaders to identity the level of water available in their storage tanks. If the level is less than 50 percent in more than 550 households in the affected area then NDMO takes the next step in response. 3. Validation teams are organized and sent with response equipment to the affected communicate to confirm the experience conditions and report back to the NDMO office which communicates to the Office of Chief Secretary and the National Disaster Committee to advise the need for declaration of state of emergency. 4. Validation teams consist of personnel from RMI Environmental Protection Agency who test both stored water and ground water for quality. They communicate to the residents their findings and support development of solutions relating to demand response. In addition, MWSC mobile reverse osmosis technicians set up their stations in the event of need. Note it may take a week or more for the validation team to organize and arrive on site to perform their tasks. 5. If there is an emergency declaration required the NDMO develops a response plan which is tailored to the findings of the validation team including estimation of budget and resources for the necessary response. 6. Identify contaminated wells with the community or household and organize cleaning to ensure that this water source can be used for the upcoming drought. (The wells whether they were community or HH owned were shared as necessary during times of water stress).

In response to potential drought conditions the validation team MWSC RO technicians with mobile desalination units are deployed. MWSC currently has 54 RO desalination units (Figure 19) each with a capacity of 1360 litres per day. The mobile RO units provide sufficient water for about 140 people assuming a water need of 10 Lpcd to cover drinking, cooking and basic WASH needs or for 600 people assuming a water need of 2.3 Lpcd covering only drinking/cooking needs.80

The units come complete with solar panels and batteries allowing them to run on a 24-hour basis. Deployment is normally by a team of technicians, utilising a charter flight, who set up the unit in situ and handover the unit

80 This volume of water meets the requirements for short duration (<2 weeks) water availability based on WHO Guideline and Sphere Standard

Page | 66 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA to locally trained residents with oversight by council. After the drought emergency has passed, the desalination unit is picked up and brought back to Majuro for maintenance and storage, so that it is ready for service when needed next.

Figure 19: Emergency RO desalination unit with a capacity of 1360 litres/day

Due to experience from the 2013 and 2015/16 and the development of this procedure the coordination and speed of setup and installation was improved, however problems due to limited maintenance and lack of centralized storage space hamper effective timely deployment. In the 2016 drought response, deployment was financed by USAID and RMI with assistance from JICA, Government of Australia. The cost included provision of chartered boats and planes to deploy bottled water, WASH kits, food distribution, jerry cans, hygiene soap mobile RO deployment and retrieval. For rural communities RO maintenance, currently 2 staff from KAJUR and 3 staff from MWSC are required to provide support to the rural communities RO maintenance – these technicians are required to travel to the 19 atolls once a month. This takes them away from their work at the water utilities and limits their ability to respond to failures of the units in a timely manner due to the long distances and the transportation capabilities between the islands and atolls.

When they are not deployed for drought response, the mobile RO units are stored and maintained by IOM and MWSC. MWSC lacks of centralized warehouse for storage of these units, spare parts inventory and proper testing centre for performing performance and preventative maintenance. This hampers their ability to deploy the units in an efficient manner as well as ensure that the units are in good condition in preparation of projected drought events.

3.3.3 Key Barriers – Rural Communities Based consultations with community members during the project design phase and survey results from previous studies the following are key barriers to water security to rural communities:

 Long distances between atolls require local self-supported solutions coupled with limited means for transportation.  Programmatic sustainable funding to support operations and maintenance of household and community rainwater harvesting has not been developed.

Page | 67 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA  Programmatic sustainable funding to support operations and maintenance of desalination systems has not been developed.  Water Safety plans and asset management plans have not been developed in support of long-term sustainability.  Water Safety committees which are empowered to support proper practices and monitor condition of water infrastructure have not been mandated, funded or developed for the community.  Comprehensive standard operating practices for water resilience has not been provided to the communities.  Poorly functioning guttering systems for households with very limited first flush systems installed which impacts water quality, poor material used for RWH systems and limited practices for installations reducing the efficiency of capture of rainwater.  Community buildings rainwater catchment systems are under utilized due to undersized connected tanks and or no guttering system employed.  Limited information on water quality testing of groundwater and rainwater harvested storage tanks to help residents avoid contaminated water and limit medical incidences.  Limited understanding of water lens thickness and monitoring – leading to poor understanding of capacity of available groundwater resources.  Limited information on number of groundwater wells and current condition – no programmatic approach for capturing required information.  Limited knowledge and capacity to support extensive maintenance and operations of infrastructure. Mechanisms to support monitoring and enforcement of proper maintenance practices are not accepted.  Poor understanding of conservation measures communicated to the community.  Weather information may not be specific enough for appropriate response measures (i.e. drought forecasting, weather alerts and warnings). The need for more atoll specific information is necessary to support specific response solutions and future planning.  Communication of atoll or community specific information needs to be strengthened.  Hygiene and WASH requirements are a challenge due to limited infrastructure (no toilets or wash basins) and hampered by no budget available to maintain existing infrastructure.  Limited capacity to store and maintain stock of mobile RO units in central warehouse. Deployment is hindered due to minimum staff trained to install and maintain.  There has been some evidence of safety issues during water collection by minors or women. Need better mechanisms and understanding to provide safe points of access.  Stationary desalination systems require financial support by external providers (not sustainable) due to high operations and maintenance costs. Higher level of training required to maintain the systems.

4. Ongoing and Planned Efforts to Address Water Security

Various projects and initiatives to enhance water resilience in RMI are being implemented, ongoing, or planned. Many of these initiatives are focused on water resource management and drought risk management, while institutional capacity building initiatives are still very limited. 4.1 Water Resource Management

Public Water System Planning and Improvements – have been implemented and are ongoing in both urban centers of Majuro and Kwajalein (Ebeye).

Recent and ongoing interventions include the following:  In Majuro, efforts to climate-proof urban water supply system was supported by the Pacific Adaptation to Climate Change (PACC) project (2009 – 2013, US$ 1.25 million financed by the Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) managed by the Global Environment Fund (GEF) and Government of Australia (formally AusAID) implemented by SPREP in partnership with UNDP). The PACC project, based on a cost-benefit analysis of different options, invested in relining (3 out of 6) and covering (1 out of 6) airport rainwater reservoirs managed by MWSC at Majuro Airport, which increased rainwater storage capacity by 15%.  In Ebeye, Master Plan for 2013 to 2025 was developed by the Asian Development Bank through a Project Preparation Technical Assistance (PPTA) Project from 2013 – 2015 (US$ 1.37 financed by Multi-Donor Trust Fund under the Water Financing Partnership Facility and Government of Australia). 5 major

Page | 68 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA components encompass the plan: Water Supply Master Plan for 2025 population projections; Wastewater Master Plan; Electrical Master Plan; Hygiene Awareness and Education programs; and Project Implementation assistance, Institutional Strengthening and Capacity Building.  Implementation of the Master Plan is ongoing under the Ebeye Water Supply and Sanitation Project (2015 – 2017; US$ 19 million grant financing through ADB grant, Government of Australia Grant, and Grant from Compact of Free Association Agreement)  Currently, Majuro has developed a 20-year Master Plan through the Capital Improvement Program financed by US Government managed by the Department of Interior, RMI Government and US Department of Agriculture (2015 – 2016, US$ 1.96). The Master Plan focuses on institutional strengthening, financial management and tariff reform. No financing has been confirmed for implementation, though preliminary discussions are underway with various bilateral partners with the finalization of the Plan completed in July 2017.

Furthermore, below initiatives are planned:  Building on the Master Plan for urban Majuro that is underway through the Capital Improvement Program currently under implementation, MWSC plans to implement the Majuro Water and Sanitation Master Plan after the completion of all the technical feasibility studies, stakeholder consultations and engineering designs in 2017. The estimated total budget for the Master Plan implementation is estimated at US$ 42 million for both water supply and sanitation improvements and expansions. No financing has been identified to date; however, potential donors may include ADB, JICA and other bilateral partners.

Rainwater harvesting system installation and improvements – have been supported through national and international financing.

Recent and ongoing interventions include the following:  During the 2013 drought response in the RMI, the Marshall Islands Red Cross Society (MIRCS) and the International Federation of Red Cross (IFRC) (IFRC post drought appeal, US$861,00081) implemented a rainwater harvesting improvement program that targeted the following 3 atolls; Likiep Atoll, Mejit Island, and Namu Atoll. The MIRCS/IFRC program built community catchments (for those areas with only thatch roof), improved existing rainwater harvesting systems and promoted hygiene and education in schools and communities. The WASH cluster considers this a very effective approach and during recent assessments to these locations, the improvements made during 2013 remain and those homes with proper guttering installed were capturing more water.  At the household level, Government of RMI with support from international donors have an active rainwater tank program serving remote island communities, where households now have a water tank of over 3,785 liter (1,000 gallon) capacity. Government of Japan has also supported construction of water reservoirs through Grassroots Grant funds made available at the Embassy of Japan in RMI. In November 2015, 2 water reservoirs, 75,708 liters (20,000 gallons) each were constructed for the local government of Ailinglaplap Atoll (US$, 100,132. Japan Grass-Roots Grant). In June 2015, a 189,270 liters (50,000 gallons) water reservoir was constructed for the local government of Mejit Islands (Japan Grass-roots Grant. US$ 100,000).

Rainwater harvesting system installation and improvements are completed at household and community levels, in response to financial support made available after the 2015 / 2016 drought. These include:  The Chief Secretary’s Office in partnership with Ministry of Public Works is upgrading rainwater harvesting infrastructure at community buildings in the rural communities. (construction for Zone 1 and 2 catchments 2016 – 2017), US Department of Interior, US$ 1.9 million out of US$ 5 million secured). Zone 3 Construction dependent on securing further funding from Compact. Refer to FS Annex 12 for description of size of catchments and community/atoll location, information provided by staff at Ministry of Public Works (MPW). Under this Outer Island Water Catchment Project, a total of 30 new rainwater storage tanks were installed during 2017 in 27 communities in 17 atolls (in priority Zones 1 and 2) with a total installed capacity of 2,744 m³ (the tank sizes range from 47 to 189 m³). The RWH system gutters and downpipes were also upgraded at the community buildings during construction of the new rainwater storage tanks.  Based on technical design and consultations conducted in 2016, GIZ through their Coping with Climate Change in the Pacific Island Region (CCPR) Program had constructed additional RWH systems at the

81 IFRC. 2014. Emergency appeal final report Republic of the Marshall Islands: Drought. USAID. RMI Drought. Fact Sheet #4. September 2013. https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1866/09.30.13%20-%20USAID- DCHA%20Republic%20of%20the%20Marshall%20Islands%20Drought%20Fact%20Sheet%20%234%20-%20FY%202013.pdf

Page | 69 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA three boarding high schools located in Jaluit, Wotje and Kwajalein (Gugeegue). Construction is planned to commence in 2017, with an estimated budget of US$ 800,000.  Rainwater Harvesting Improvement Program (2016, IOM, Ministry of Public WorksMIRCS, US$ 75K financing from New Zealand Embassy) During the 2016 El Nino induced drought response, the WASH Cluster developed a program to improve rainwater harvesting systems in the outer islands of RMI. IOM received funding from the New Zealand Embassy to “pilot” or “test” the Program in three of RMI’s outer islands. Funding was sufficient to cover fifty percent (50%) of households in Wotho, Ujae and Lae. Three teams were created for implementation of the program using personnel from IOM, MIRCS and MPW. IOM personnel acted as the “Team Leaders” and were responsible for overall implementation. The Public Works personnel acted as the “Foremen” who had primary responsibility for the improvements / construction. Finally, the MIRCS personnel were charged with “Community Liaison” responsibilities, including the selection of beneficiary households and outreach to community members during implementation. On average, each team had four (4) members: (1) Team Leader / IOM; (1) Foreman / Public Works; and (2) MIRCS Community Liaison Volunteers. A total of 68 households were targeted for improvement by the pilot project. During the implementation of the project in October and November 2016, a total of 64 households were direct beneficiaries. The project was concluded to be a success and the approach was recommended for expansion to other atolls. The project report included a list of key recommendations and considerations for future efforts and these are discussed further in Sections 7.3.2 and 10.1.2 (a key recommendation was to expand the approach to include community RWH improvements).

Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) and Groundwater – is a priority issue for RMI, but most efforts to date have been limited to the urban areas where significant improvements will be made through the implementation of the Master Plans for MWSC and KAJUR. Apart from the public utility interventions, past and ongoing IWRM and groundwater efforts include:  The “Ridge to Reef - Testing the Integration of Water, Land, Forest & Coastal Management to Preserve Ecosystem Services, Store Carbon, Improve Climate Resilience and Sustain Livelihoods in Pacific Island Countries (Regional R2R Project)” (2016 - 2021. GEF Trust Fund. US$ USD 10 million) aims to further scale this initiative in the Laura Community by scaling-up community adoption of appropriate on-site waste management systems to improve environmental and public health at Laura Village; strengthening the knowledge base for evidence-based integrated coastal management (ICM) planning for integrated land, water, and lagoon resource/fisheries management at Laura; and integrated Coastal Management planning, including the application of Marine Spatial Planning principles, for the promotion of sustainable livelihoods in the Laura area.  In Majuro, through the “Integrated Water and Land Management for the Sustainable use of the Laura Water Lens, Majuro Atoll” project (2009 – 2015, GEF Trust Fund US$9 million, EU Pacific IWRM Planning Programme funds US$2.8 million for 14 pacific countries) trialed integrated water resource management in the Laura community and resulted in successful demonstration of 3 compost toilets, including one at the Laura Lens Learning Centre. A 30% reduction in household water use is expected based on the typical volume of a toilet flush and its contribution to total household daily use volume. Additional project achievements include: 21 dry litter waterless piggery demonstration sites across Laura farms with evidence of reduced small and nitrogen leaching from piggery farms utilizing dry litter pig pens; Negotiation with the RMI Bank to provide micro loans for establishing dry litter piggeries (with one uptake to date); 40 percent of all overloaded septic systems in Laura have been remediated; establishment of the National IWRM Task Force; Establishment of the Laura Lens Community Advisory Committee to oversee local implementation of IWRM activities; Establishment of the Laura Lens Learning Centre (see photo above); Draft Water and Sanitation Bill well progressed towards Cabinet approval (some amendments still required at the time of the TE assessment).

Planned efforts for IWRM including groundwater management include:  The Reimaanlok – Looking to the Future: Strengthening natural resource management in atoll communities in the Republic of Marshall Islands employing integrated approaches (RMI R2R) (OEPPC / UNDP, GEF-5 Trust Fund, US$ 3.9 million, 2017 – 2022) aims to support operationalizing the Reimaanlok – the National Conservation Area Plan, adopted in 2008 to effectively conserve at least 30% of the near- shore marine resources and 20% of the terrestrial resources across Micronesia by 2020. By doing so, the project objective is to sustain atoll biodiversity and livelihoods by building community and ecosystem resilience to threats and degrading influences through integrated management of terrestrial and coastal resources. The principles and processes outlined in Reimaanlok will be implemented in 5 islands/atolls (Aur, Ebon, Likiep, Mejit, Wotho). Integrated water resource management will serve as an integral part

Page | 70 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA of the Reimaanlok process implemented in the target sites, with implementation of groundwater monitoring and modeling planned for identified critical resources.  The UNDP led “Managing Coastal Aquifers in Southern Pacific SIDS” project objective aims to improve the understanding, use, management and protection of coastal aquifers in Tuvalu and RMI towards enhance water security with the context of changing climate. (GEF Funded project $US 5.24M), implementation expected to start in Feb 2018. The Outputs include: o Enhanced understanding of locations of coastal aquifers and threats to the use of these aquifers for domestic use. o Develop improved management and protections mechanisms for the aquifers including better governance at the national and community level.  The proposed GEF-funded regional project “Managing Coastal Aquifers in Selected Pacific SIDS” covering RMI, Palau and Tuvalu, which will improve the understanding, use, management and protection of coastal aquifers towards enhanced water security within the context of a changing climate. This project with potential funding of $5.24 million, will directly complement this proposed GCF project. Additional UN Agency led programmes within the region include:  The Pacific Adaptation to Climate Change Programme (and PACC+). USD 20 million over 5 years to support policy development, governance and implementation capacity for 13 countries to pilot food security, water security and coastal management resilience projects  The Pacific Island Greenhouse Gas Abatement through Renewable Energy Project (PIGGAREP). USD 8.2 million over 6.5 years to support an enabling environment for Renewable Energy (RE) investments and delivery of practical RE solutions.  GEF project on Implementing Sustainable Integrated Water Resource and Wastewater Management in the Pacific Island Countries - under the GEF Pacific Alliance for Sustainability. USD 9.03 million, 14 Pacific SIDs,  GEF Project on Testing the Integration of Water, Land, Forest & Coastal Management to Preserve Ecosystem Services, Store Carbon, Improve Climate Resilience and Sustain Livelihoods in Pacific Island Countries. USD 9.83 million in 14 Pacific SIDs  Project on Enhancing Capacity to Develop Global and Regional Environmental Projects in the Pacific. USD 1 million in 14 Pacific SIDs.  Pacific Risk Resilience Program (PRRP). Funded by the Australian Government, USD 16.1 million, Fiji, Solomon Islands, Tonga, and Vanuatu. Direct Implementation by UNDP.  GEF project on Pacific Islands Oceanic Fisheries Management (PIOFMP 1). USD 11 million in 14 Pacific SIDs.  GEF project on Implementation of Global and Regional Oceanic Fisheries Conventions and Related Instruments in the Pacific Small Island Developing States (PIOFMP 2). USD 10 million in 14 Pacific SIDs.

Desalination – Significant international donor financing has been provided to stationary and mobile desalination equipment with various size, location and technologies.

Existing and planned desalination systems are detailed in FS Annex 9. A summary is provided below: Stationary Desalination Systems  A grant from Japanese Pacific Environment Community Fund (PEC) (2011-2016, $4 million). The PEC Fund Project purchased (15) 1,135 liters (300 gallons) per day RO systems to be distributed to the 15 Atolls in 2013. The majority of these units are not currently operational due to poor operations and maintenance training and lack funding for purchase of spare parts.  The Government of Japan has also financed 3 RO units (approx. 50,000 liters (132,000 gallons) per day per unit) which will be installed in the hospital in Majuro and managed by MWSC along with water quality testing equipment (2016. Government of Japan. Grant. US$ 569,000).  IOM, through financing from Government of Australia has also provided 3 diesel powered desalination units that were deployed in 2016 as part of the drought response efforts. These units were deployed in the high schools of Jaluit, Wotje and Kwajalein (Gugeegue). Each RO provides 3028 liters per day (FCI Water Makers 800 gpd) (2016, part of US$ 3.3 million financed by US Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA), Government of Australia).  Solar Water Purifiers that produce 4 lpd utilizing F-Cubed technology was deployed in health centers of Mejit, Ailuk (Ailuk and Enejelar), Likiep (Likiep and Jebal), Wotje (Wotje and Wodmej) in 2014 / 2015 also through the Pacific Adaptation to Climate Change (PACC) project (2009 – 2013, US$ 1.25 million financed by the Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) managed by the Global Environment Fund (GEF) and Government of Australia (formally AusAID) implemented by SPREP in partnership with UNDP). However, during the 2015 / 2016 drought preparation, very few of these units were found to be operating. Lessons learned are analyzed in the technical evaluation chapter of the Feasibility Study.

Page | 71 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Mobile Desalination Systems  During the Northern Island Drought in 2013, FEMA provisioned mobile Reverse Osmosis (RO) units to alleviate immediate and medium-term effects of the drought. ADB drew from its Asia Pacific Disaster Response Fund in response to fund life-preserving services, including water assistance. (2013, Grant financing from US FEMA/USAID - 2013-2014, US $5 million; ADB - 2013, US $300K).  During the 2015 / 2016 drought, an additional 23 units with a capacity of 1,360 liters per day (360 gpd) were purchased through by US Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA), USAID) funds as part of US$2.3 package. As a result, as of December 2018, there are 54 mobile desalination units managed between NDMO / MWSC and IOM.

There are no planned additional stationary or mobile RO units apart from those indicated above (including the SWRO unit to be upgraded through the Ebeye Water and Sanitation Project) in RMI as of December 2016.

4.2 Institutional Capacity Building Initiatives working towards strengthening institutions are still very limited in RMI. However, now that the national institutional framework is formalized under the amended National Environmental Protection Act and National Water and Sanitation Policy, there is a significant opportunity and need to set up and initiate work towards establishing and implementing capacity building at all levels in RMI.

Institutional strengthening and planning –envisioned to build on various existing and planned natural resource management committees and disaster committees set up at the community levels.  In the to present (ongoing to July 2018 under current funding), under the CADRE+ program (2015 – 2016. USAID/OFDA, US$ 1 million for RMI and FSM), IOM in partnership with NDMO has been targeting at least 500 school-aged children and 5,000 community members across the 2 countries to build the resilience of vulnerable communities to climate change and climate-induced hazards. Program activities include establishing community disaster preparedness and response committees. As droughts are one of the major disasters in many communities, significant linkages and collaboration and coordination with water resource management committees and planning frameworks.  Going forward, through the scaling of the Reimaanlok process, the RMI R2R project (OEPPC / UNDP, GEF-5 Trust Fund, US$ 3.9 million, 2017 – 2022) aims to establish community level groups that analyze, plans and make decision on natural resources on land and sea through a participatory bottom-up approach. Freshwater resources are envisioned to be part of the natural resources planning of the Reimaanlok process.

Water quality and quantity data gathering, monitoring and management – have been implemented for groundwater and rainwater harvesting systems through various initiatives. Past efforts include:  Groundwater monitoring has been focused mainly in the two urban centers of Majuro and Kwajalein. In Majuro, from 2011 – 2015, Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS) assessed the sustainable daily pump discharge for Laura Lens based on numerical simulation was performed using the SEAWAT model. Based on results found, JIRCAS developed a Laura Lens Conservation and Management Manual.  The Government of Japan in 2016 also provided grant financing to support EPA purchase 9 water quality testing equipment to be used in Ebeye and Majuro.  Water education and awareness raising efforts have been implemented by Pacific Resources for Education Learning (PREL) in Hawaii in partnership with Ministry of Education through the Water for Life (WfL) project. WfL project (US$2,842,492 financing from US National Science Foundation for RMI, Chuuk, Yap and Palau. 2012 – 2017 (estimate)82) is a full scale development youth and community based program centered on freshwater literacy, water conservation and rainwater harvesting. The goals of the project are to: (a) promote an understanding of water conservation and stewardship in areas lacking adequate quality water supplies and (b) build local capacity among rural communities to develop and employ site specific freshwater harvesting strategies proven to improve water quality. In RMI, the project is working with the Ministry of Education to upgrade existing catchment systems at all 12 public schools around Majuro. Gutters have been replaced/repaired, screens and/or first-flush diverters installed, leaks fixed, covers replaced, tanks cleaned/repainted, runoff/drainage improved, etc. Thousands of students, as well as teachers, other school staff, and surrounding communities, now enjoy more ready access to

82 Source: National Science Foundation. https://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward?AWD_ID=1224185&HistoricalAwards=false

Page | 72 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA cleaner water. School-based Water Quality Management Teams (WQMTs) are now in place at all the 12 public schools in Majuro. These teams of students, teachers, and parents have taken three days of training from RMI EPA staff and now maintain and monitor the schools’ water resources. WQMTs keep roofs and gutters clean, empty first-flush diverters, and assess water quality in school dispensers, reporting their data to RMI EPA monthly83. There is strong interest to scale these efforts at the national level. Some efforts have already started in Ebeye. Through the Land to other outer island schools. Planned and ongoing efforts include:  The Strengthening Water Security of Vulnerable Island States (2016 - 2021, US$ 5 million across 5 countries financed by New Zealand Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (NZ DFAT) and implemented by SPC) in the Marshall Islands a Water Security Officer has been appointed who will support EPA and various stakeholders in RMI implement and enhance water monitoring, reporting, and assessments, community awareness raising and training, community-level drinking water safety plans and drought management plan development and piloting innovative technologies. The proposed ACWA project will collaborate and partner very closely with the Water Security Officer throughout the project implementation.

4.3 Drought Risk Management

Disaster risk reduction, management, and disaster and climate change awareness – have been advanced through response initiatives after major drought events. Past and ongoing efforts include:  During the 2015/16, approximately US$ 2.5 million was provided from USAID’s Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance (USAID/OFDA) to fund IOM for the procurement and distribution of supplemental food assistance and WASH supplies to drought-affected communities. IOM is continuing to implement the Climate Adaption, Disaster Risk Reduction, and Education (CADRE+) program in FSM and RMI. Under the CADRE+ program (2015 – 2016. USAID/OFDA, US$ 1 million for RMI and FSM). IOM is targeting at least 500 school-aged children and 5,000 community members across the 2 countries to build the resilience of vulnerable communities to climate change and climate-induced hazards. Program activities include establishing community disaster preparedness and response committees, developing school emergency management plans and training teachers in climate change and evacuation center management.  Since 2010, IOM with financing from USAID/OFDA has worked on pre-position emergency relief supplies in 3 strategic locations throughout FSM and RMI and develop standby agreements with island-based organizations for logistical support during emergency response, if necessary (2016, USAID/OFDA, US$ 46,000). In coordination with the pre-position supplies IOM manages the USAID funded five-year (2013-2018) Disaster Preparedness for Effective Response (PREPARE) program with the goal of increasing the resilience of FSM and RMI in mitigating the effects of natural disasters by enhancing national and local capacities for disaster preparedness, response and recovery (July 2013-2018 approximately US$ 1,000,000 both countries).  Government of Japan has also provided drought response in 2016, by supporting the Government of RMI purchase 9,605 barrel of diesel to meet disaster response energy and logistics needs (Feb 2016. Government of Japan Grant. approximately, US$ 720,000), providing 20 water filter pumps and 510 polyester water containers to be used in the drought-affected atolls and islands (March 2016. Government of Japan Grant. approximately, US$ 44,000), and handing over 4 safety loader trucks to the Ministry of Public Works to be used to deliver large amount of water to various communities’ water distribution points / stations (June 2016. Government of japan Grant. approximately, US$ 817,000).  The Micronesia Red Cross Society (MRCS), the Pacific Red Cross Society (PRCS), and RMI National Volunteer Group supported by the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies partnered with local government agencies, businesses, and communities to build awareness of disaster response activities and cultivate a knowledgeable volunteer base for emergency responses. (2013 - ongoing, Grant financing from USAID/OFDA - $260k).  European Union – North Pacific Readiness for El Nino (RENI) Project – supporting communities to secure food and water resources ahead of drought. By understanding individual and community key behaviors and implementing measures through informed training for institutional and technical planning with focus on Water Security in FSM and Palau and food security in RMI. (2017 – Grant Financing European Union US$ 5.3M)

83 Source: Water for Life. http://w4l.prel.org/?page_id=44

Page | 73 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Climate information and early warning – in RMI has evolved through the development of the establishment and development of the Weather Service Office (WSO) in Majuro, which is the responsible agency in RMI for providing weather services and related early warning programs.  They are supported by United States Department of Commerce’s National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service (U.S NOAA NWS) in accordance with Article VII (Weather Services and Related Programs) of the Compact Agreement (approximately US$ 500,000 annually84). According to Sections 5 to 13 of Article VII of the Compact Agreement, U.S NOAA NWS provides weather services through a WSO in Majuro. Furthermore, the National Weather Service Pacific Region Headquarters (NWSPRH) that based in Honolulu, Hawaii Islands via a contract between U.S NOAA NWS and the Government of the Republic of Marshall Islands provides administration, financial, operational, management and oversight assistance to WSO Majuro. Weather Forecast Offices (WFOs) Guam and Honolulu prepare and provide weather forecasts, watches, warnings and advisories for Micronesia (Federated States of Micronesia, Republic of Palau, Republic of Marshall Islands and Northern Marinas) through their respective WSOs.85  Marshall Island is also part of the Finnish-Pacific project (FINPAC) project, which is a four-year, 3.7 million Euro, regional project funded by the Government of Finland and coordinated through the Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) with a range of partners. FINPAC aims to improve livelihoods of Pacific island communities by delivering effective weather, climate and early warning services. The project commenced in 2013. In RMI, the FINPAC project is supporting community-based climate early warning assessment and implementation in the Jenrok community of Majuro with partnership with the IFRC and MIRC.

Furthermore, planned efforts for Disaster risk reduction, management, and disaster and climate change awareness and Climate information and early warning in RMI include:  World Bank supported RMI Pacific Resilience Project (PREP) Phase II (US$ 36.2 million. Financing to be sourced from International Development Association (IDA) and GCF) focuses on: institutional Strengthening early warning and preparedness; strengthening coastline resilience in Ebeye, and Contingency Emergency Response. Under the first component, human resources, technical, and hard investments are planned to: a) Support the government to integrate climate change adaptation with disaster risk management as foreseen in the JNAP and to help fully operationalize the central and local government levels; b) Promote multi-hazard early warning systems (e.g. data management) - prepare a clear system and technology roadmap for outer island communications, establish communications systems (e.g. radio system, Chatty beetle or others) in remote locations and train people to use them; and c) Prepare a detailed roadmap for NDMO modernization, including accommodation and fit-out; develop and implement priority activities of the roadmap subject to available funding.  Disaster Resilience for Pacific Small Island Developing States (SIDS) (RESPAC) (Implemented by UNDP with financial support from the Russian Federation. US$ 7.5 million across selected 14 Pacific Island Countries. 2016 – 2018) aims to improve Pacific SIDS’ resilience to climate-related hazards by: 1) Strengthened early warning and climate monitoring capacity in selected PICs, 2) enhancing preparedness and planning mechanisms and tools to manage disaster recovery processes at regional, national and local level; and 3) Increased use of financial instruments to manage and share disaster related risk and fund post disaster recovery efforts. In RMI, RESPAC is planning to support WSO to improve their weather and climate information monitoring, forecasting and warning capacities.

4.4 Key Findings

There are a number of past and existing initiatives underway within RMI to address water security and resilience. Key topics included: Water Resource Management:  Public Reticulation System improvements are ongoing and currently under development in Majuro (MWSC) service area and Kwajalein (KAJUR -Ebeye) service areas.

84 Operating budget provided by NOAA is approximately US$ 500,000 annually (Source: Interview with WSO, April 2016) 85 Taiki, Henri. (2014). Final Report on Republic of Marshall Islands Regional Basic Synoptic Network (RBSN) Stations(31 October 2014) Prepared by Mr Henry Taiki (WMO Office in Apia)

Page | 74 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA • Master plan for KAJUR (2013 to 2025) is funded and implementation is underway. Further funding under this project is not required for the KAJUR service area but islands not connected with the KAJUR system (part of Kwajalein atoll) are to be considered as part of rural communities requirements and considerations. • 20Y Master planning is underway with MWSC however funding has not been secured for implementation. Technical feasibility study to be completed by mid-2017 is underway, initial estimates indicate $42M improvements required for water and sanitation infrastructure. • Successful completion of the PACC project which piloted relining and covering airport catchment system for three out of six reservoirs and covering of one.  Rainwater Harvesting Improvements – there have been a number of initiatives for improving RWH systems and capacity building within the rural communities, often connected to disaster response. The IOM Rainwater Harvesting Improvement pilot project implemented in 2016 in Wotho, Ujae and Lae atolls was a success. The project concluded that the household RWH improvement approach should be scaled to other atolls after incorporation of the project recommendations (a key recommendation was to expand the approach to include community RWH improvements).  WASH and IWRM Initiatives – similar to the RWH improvements sectoral improvements (example schools have been improved) or specific regions (Laura Wells – Majuro) have been completed. The lessons learned from them have not been fully up-scaled to other regions that also have similar needs. The Ridge to Reef (2016 to 2021) and Reimaanlok projects (2017 to 2022) will address lessons learned for integrated coastal management and terrestrial resources.  Desalination Systems (Stationary and Mobile) – installation of stationary systems through grant programs in response to DRM specifically for provision of safe water during times of drought have focused on schools (JICA and EU – GIZ) and the Majuro Hospital have been underway for many years in RMI. Mobile systems have been procured through disaster response grants primarily and RMI has a total of 54 units that can be deployed to communities in need to producing 1360 liters per day. Stationary desalination systems have high operational costs which cannot be borne by the rural communities which depend on grant funding to support operations and maintenance of the existing units. In addition limited staff and training to maintain the proper operations of the equipment is noted as part of existing conditions and capacity of the community.

Institutional Capacity • Institutional -Very limited funded initiatives are underway. • The CADRE+ program which is facilitated by IOM on behalf of NDMO and are developing disaster preparedness and response committees in select communities. • Planning within the Reimaanlok and RMI R2R projects will build capacity of community groups to establish help decide best use of natural resources (land and sea including freshwater resources).  Water Quality – Information is limited to scope of smaller projects, EPA does not regularly test for water quality in catchments/tanks or groundwater for rural communities.

Drought Risk Management  Multiple efforts underway preparing for future drought with expansion of awareness and training programs, pre-positioning of equipment, small equipment purchases etc.  Enhancement and support of weather information through partnerships with NOAA NWS in coordination with weather stations in Guam and Hawaii.  Planned projects include World Bank PREP Phase II institutional strengthening of early warning systems and preparedness and RESPAC – did not address secondary weather station improvements. Key gaps in water resources, institutional capacity building and drought risk management remain that will need to be identified in the next section as part of the continued baseline assessment.

4.5 Remaining Gaps 4.5.1 Water Resource Management Currently, inadequate rainwater harvesting infrastructure and a lack of groundwater well protection in combination with high rainfall variability results in water shortages during drought periods. In many communities in both urban and rural communities of RMI, households rely primarily, and often solely, on their household RWH systems.

Page | 75 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Efforts have been implemented and are underway in RMI to reduce this vulnerability to drought through expanding the water supply infrastructure. The availability of options and strategies for freshwater access vary from urban and rural Marshallese populations. Urban areas of RMI include areas in Majuro and Kwajalein atolls that are within the service area of the public water utility companies – MWSC and KAJUR. Rural areas in RMI include all the remaining local government jurisdictions in the rural communities as well as communities in Majuro and Kwajalein that are not within the service areas of the public utility companies.

In urban RMI, increasing access, reliability and service levels of the piped water systems can provide significant water security improvements to residents living in their service areas by serving as a primary or secondary water resource. Efforts are already underway to define goals and detail the process of enhancing the piped water systems through the Master Plan development processes for MWSC and KAJUR. While the piped water system upgrade is already in implementation in KAJUR, MWSC is still in the planning phase. For MWSC, gaps remain in identifying financial resources to implement the Master Plan, which was finalized in July 2017.

In rural RMI, water security solutions depend on improving existing systems as well as better utilizing available resources through a more participatory and holistic, water resource management approach.

Based on evaluation of past successful trialed projects the water security options include: 1) improving existing systems, including household RWH systems, community RWH systems, and stationary desalination units (in selected communities); 2) expanding rainwater capture and storage capacities; 3) exploring non- rainwater dependent freshwater resources (i.e. stationary desalination systems; 4) improving the understanding of the quality and quantity of groundwater resources; and 5) improving conservation and efficient use practices

Although various initiatives have been implemented in the rural communities of RMI to improve water security options, remaining gaps exist as described below:

1) Improving existing systems, including household RWH systems, community RWH systems, and review of stationary desalination units (in selected communities):  Poor operation and maintenance capacities of water investments are a key barrier to increasing the quantity (through efficiency improvements) and quality of freshwater resources in rural RMI. Some successful initiatives to train communities in operations and maintenance of RWH systems have been trialed in selected atolls and islands, but there is a significant gap in scaling this to other local government jurisdictions and communities.  The efficiency and effectiveness of the various stationary desalination units to provide reliable freshwater resources depends on the type of technology and the available support provided for operation and maintenance and training. While systems owned and operated by municipal governments have trained technicians in Majuro and the rural communities responsible for operation and maintenance, other systems lack people trained and responsible for operation and maintenance. Grants are required by external providers to support the operations and maintenance costs for fuel or spare parts. Therefore, this is not financially sustainable in the long-term.  Further details of gaps and options are provided in FS Section 7: Options Review.

2) Expanding rainwater capture and storage capacities;  Various projects have undertaken placements and/or construction of new household RWH tanks in rural RMI and most households surveyed during past assessments and the project design process were found to have at least 1 if not 2 tanks86 . The exact gaps for the number and conditions of the household RWH tanks, need to be assessed per community as this information is not available and has been extrapolated based on available information during the project validation phase.  At the community level, although several initiatives are ongoing to improve and expand community RWH storage, gaps remain to further expand storage capacities through improving unutilized community storages (i.e. leakage reduction – by sealing or relining used WW2 concrete tanks) and adding additional storage tanks to fully utilize the roof catchments.  In some communities, there is a possible gap and opportunity to construct roofing for RW capture, along with additional tanks for storage.  Further details of gaps and options are provided in FS Section 7: Options Review.

86 Normally sized at 4.5 / 5.7 / 6.1 m3

Page | 76 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA 3) Exploring non-rainwater dependent freshwater resources (i.e. stationary desalination systems)  Based on stakeholder consultations conducted during the project design, no gaps were identified for additional stationary desalination systems to be placed in rural RMI apart from those already planned for installation by other initiatives (i.e. Australia, Japan, etc.)  During the project design consultations strong interests were shown to explore alternative and experimental technologies. For example, technologies such as the HOOP Solar Distillation System, which is a University of South Pacific led pilot program that utilizes local materials to construct a system that can produce 1 liter per day per unit, were found important, not only as a potential freshwater resource, but also for communities to explore low-cost, low-technology and self-sufficient alternative options for freshwater resources.

4) Improving the understanding of the quality and quantity of groundwater resources; Groundwater resources can potentially serve as critical alternative freshwater resources especially in times of low precipitation. However, Some initiatives have been implemented where groundwater quality have been tested. Good quality information is available especially for the Laura Lens in Majuro only.  For the rural communities of RMI, groundwater data available is inconsistent in terms of defining location, water quality and water lens quantity parameters.  Under the National Water and Sanitation Policy, the importance of developing a comprehensive strategy and methodology for groundwater monitoring is elaborated; however, gaps remain in terms of identifying the financial and technical resources for implementation.  The “Managing Coastal Aquifers in Southern Pacific SIDS” project will build on better understanding of the existing aquifer systems but does not include components to build protection of well systems from contamination.

5) Conservation and Water Smart Use Practices  Understanding the triggers and atoll specific practices for employing conservation measures based on each type of drought forecasted.  Educating and awareness communication materials develop and distributed to all of the communities to manage non-essential water use and encourage review their rainwater harvesting systems and storage tanks to ensure they are properly functioning and clean with updated O/M practices.

4.5.2 Institutional Capacity RMI is just embarking on strengthening their institution systems, with a strong recognition and awareness of the critical role it plays in strengthening water resilience at the national, subnational, and community levels. As described in above sections, at the national level, the National Water and Sanitation Policy as well as the recently amended National Environmental Protection Act formalize the political accountability mechanisms. Building on this national framework, RMI aims to further advance comprehensive and integrated implementation at all levels in RMI.

Based on the rapid water governance assessment, gaps to be tackled include:  Limited coordination, reporting and accountability mechanisms related to water security and resilience at all levels.  Limited institutions and stakeholders with formalized roles and responsibilities at the subnational and community levels.  Limited information generated and shared for all types of water resources at all levels, limiting transparency and evidence-based participatory decision-making at all levels.  Limited accountability frameworks and participation at all levels.  Limited effectiveness, especially in terms of functioning institutions at the subnational level and coordination mechanisms with other sectors.  Limited information, capacity, authority and funding available to support local community level in outer atolls.

As a result, current capacity building from economic, social, environmental and political dimensions are challenges in RMI.

Page | 77 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA 4.5.3 Drought Risk Management Drought risk management efforts have improved substantially since 2013 while RMI have been transitioning from a U.S. government supported drought response approach to a more nationally-led drought risk management approach. However, remaining gaps have emerged, and have been confirmed especially through the most recent drought experience in 2015 / 2016.

Recognizing lessons learned and gaps, initiatives are ongoing and underway to strengthen institutional capacities of NDMO at the national level. At the subnational and community levels, efforts to establish disaster focal points and committees are advancing, but need further financial resources and technical support to scale to cover all of the vulnerable communities, especially in rural RMI. The Weather Services Office is able to provide 30 days warning to communities on the potential for upcoming droughts. The key issues are the response from the residents to change their practices for demand conservation,

4.5.4 Key Findings Water Security  RWH Systems for both household and community building are poorly designed to maximize capacity or in poor condition or both that reduces effective capture of rainwater. Poor operations and maintenance practices utilized by the residents exacerbate these limitations.  Stationary desalination systems are not supported effectively due to lack of trained personnel to support operations and maintenance. Key issue is reliance on external funding providers through grants to maintain operations costs.  Despite multiple efforts to add capture or capacity of RWH or storage tanks within a community – limited results due to non-holistic approach.  There is a need to better understand the availability and quality of groundwater sources to serve as an alternate source of fresh water. Lack the resources or funding to support comprehensive program that reaches the outer atolls.  Safe and sustainable sanitation options need to be developed because existing infrastructure often depends on rainwater to support WASH. Limited programs have been developed to deal with successful sanitation and hygiene implementation. Capacity Building  Limited coordination, reporting and accountability mechanisms related to water at all levels  Limited institutions and stakeholders with formalized roles and responsibilities at the subnational and community levels  Limited information generated and shared for all types of water resources at all levels, limiting transparency and evidence-based participatory decision-making at all levels  Limited accountability frameworks and participation at all levels.  Limited effectiveness of functioning institutions at the subnational level and coordination mechanisms with other sectors. Drought Risk Management  The weather service lacks equipment and trained personnel on strategic atolls to better collect and subsequently analyze, with proper granularity, data to inform seasonal and immediate weather patterns.  Disaster response, using mobile RO units and MWSC personnel, is hampered by limited storage space for centralized testing and maintenance location of equipment and personnel. Additional factors includes limited number of trained personnel to support operation and maintenance of both stationary and mobile systems.  Sea level and tidal changes from the northern atolls cannot be measured due to lack of equipment and they are subsequently more exposed without sufficient warning on possible events. 5. Challenges to Support Water Security and Adaptation Practices 5.1 Problems and Root Causes

Problem: Water Insecurity  Despite diverse and numerous water related investments made in urban and rural communities the people of RMI still do not have year-round access to safe freshwater supply for drinking and cooking.

Page | 78 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA  The RMI Government has announced a State of Emergency due to severe drought most recently in 2017 for Northern Atolls, and for all atolls in 2015/2016 and 2013/2014, they have expended significant financial resources to deploy drought response efforts in urban and rural RMI with support from external parties.  There is little confidence at the national, subnational and community levels that there is sufficient water infrastructure, human capacities, financial resources, and institutional mechanisms in place to avoid and mitigate water shortages in RMI, especially with the projected impacts of climate change.  In addition to concerns of climate change, the high cost and frequency of drought response is a significant concern to RMI government, given that the Compact agreement with the United States, which currently provides substantial financial support to RMI Government including assistance for drought response through USAID, is expected to end in 2023.  If water insecurity continues or exacerbates, RMI’s socio-economic development is at threat. Migration is already increasing, from rural to urban areas, as well as from RMI to abroad. Young people migrate often in search of better living conditions and economic opportunities , which are further jeopardized in RMI with increasing water insecurity.

Root Causes:

Many of the past water security interventions have been one-off efforts financed through time-bound projects, often initiated through drought response efforts. In other words, water investments in RMI to date have been allocated reactively after a drought event, rather than strategically placing investments to avoid or mitigate droughts and/or to holistically strengthen and improve the freshwater resource system in which communities rely on during drought and non-drought times. Given this context, these previous water interventions focused more on one-off infrastructure investment, with limited time and resources allocated for integrated and participatory planning, operations and management. They were also often time-bound and geared towards quick-fix solutions, with very little time and resources spent to identify where, how and why these investments are placed and how the communities themselves may be able operate and maintain them.

This has been exacerbated by the fact that national and subnational institutions and institutional framework for water is yet to be fully set up in RMI. There is a lack of coordinated and officially endorsed water security targets, good practices, institutional set up, roles and responsibilities the various actors, and implementation plans backed up by historical data and evidence. This makes it difficult for stakeholders, including decision- makers, beneficiaries, and financiers, to effectively and strategically identify and place water resilience interventions when resources become available (often with a limited funding window). The reactive approach has also risks the participation of vulnerable groups, such as women, children, and people with disabilities actively participate in the design, decision, and implementation of water resilience efforts.

5.2 Adaptation Solutions – Paradigm Shift Strengthening water security to ensure that people in RMI have year-round access to safe freshwater resources is a paramount climate change adaptation concern and priority for RMI. This transformation will be catalyzed, coordinated, and sustained through the implementation of the sustainable infrastructure with SOP’s that inform and align with the National Environmental Protection Act and the National Water and Sanitation Policy. Furthermore, existing water resources will be assessed, monitored and recorded across resource types, locations, and timescales to inform effective management and use. Based on the specific community context, examined alongside good practices and lessons learned, appropriated demand management measures will be discussed, determined, designed, implemented, operated, monitored, and maintained through a participatory process.

The paradigm shift potential of this project from a preventive risk management approach to a holistic and integrated approach. Combined with proposed community managed and monitored water supply solutions for year-round access of safe water as well as local and national institutional capacity building for climate demand management and improved drought preparedness planning . Another key feature of the holistic approach is the integration of actions in various levels, from community to local, regional and national institutional levels.

All of these efforts are bolstered and sustained through improved operation, maintenance and management capacities and coordination instilled among households, community groups, municipal governments, technical officers, and national government staff, civil society organizations, private sector, academic institutions, and regional and international agencies. Targeted training and capacity building opportunities

Page | 79 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA will be designed and delivered in partnership with existing national and regional training institutions and mechanisms

Significant awareness raising and communication efforts will allow for a social-movement, culture, and ecosystem of water resilience to develop and evolve at all levels. Through simple, accessible, integrated, and intuitive tools, platforms, channels, and mediums, using both modern and traditional technologies, a hub of information, knowledge, communication, and data for water will be activated.

The transformed, adaptive and resilient water resource management efforts in RMI will closely coordinate, collaborate, and contribute to advancing disaster risk management in RMI including risk management for drought. Furthermore, it will also coordinate closely with other key sectors such as agriculture, infrastructure, education, health, rural development, and environmental protection and as a result play a critical role in advancing RMI’s Sustainable Development Goals.

In light of above context of RMI, a climate-resilient adaptation solution is to develop an water management system at national and atoll/island levels comprised of multiple water resource options (rainwater, and groundwater). This system will be managed through a robust institutional framework with strong collaboration both laterally and vertically coordinated under a national authority for water – the Water Office newly established under the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA). Standard operational procedures (SOPs) for monitoring and data management will be developed and implemented for effective planning and adaptive management. The implemented water security systems will be cost-effective and financially sustainable, which is able to maintain service levels in the context of climate change, particularly under greater rainfall variability and extended periods without rain. Improved communication of weather and climate information would be needed for evidence-based planning and preparation for extreme weather events. Capacity development of national, subnational (municipal and traditional), and community stakeholders involved in installation, management, monitoring, and operation of the system is critical to provide the appropriate knowledge, skills, leadership and decision-making capacities required to ensure sustainable production, monitoring and distribution of safe freshwater resources throughout the country. In order to achieve the above solution, there are a number of barriers that need to be addressed.

5.3 Theory of Change Figure 20: Theory of Change

As presented in the theory of change (Figure 20) main problems include several aspects related to the lack of safe water sources; better understanding of use of alternate (non-potable) water sources and optimizing

Page | 80 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA disaster risk response from national to community level to limit impact of unsustainable practices and lack of planning on the water resources for the Outer Atolls.

Barriers to address existing problems are associated with limited capacities including financial, technical and knowledge of local communities and governments to respond to the climate change risks and manage water resources; addressing best practices to operate and maintain infrastructure; limited understanding of groundwater capacity and quality and alternate use; limited institutional capacities for coordinating resources of local, government and community based organizations related to drought preparation and response.

GCF funding and RMI co-financing will support the implementation of upgrades of RWH at household and community building level to meet the climate induced longer drought periods and to cover the baseline drought periods and resultant water gaps. In addition, new storage at existing community buildings and new rainwater catchment systems complete with additional storage will be implemented depending on the community assesses water gaps using a cost effective mix of interventions.. (Output 1).

Protecting groundwater from increased frequency of inundation to ensure that the common water lens does not increase in salinity due to increase frequency of inundation of seawater from increase intensity of over- wash water due to increased intensity storms and more frequent higher tides (including King Tides) . In addition identifying options in the different uses of ground water (eg. home gardening, washing clothes and households) coupled with awareness and adaptation training leading towards demand reduction of higher quality harvested rainwater (demand management would contribute to improved water resources management by vulnerable households and communities (Output 2).

GCF funding could support national government and local government barriers related to drought preparedness/response and contingency planning . Further developing or memorializing the procedures and practices relating from nation to community coordination based on types of information provided and implementation communication practices on the relevant issues. This includes development of national and community level coordinated water management and climate change adaptation within a community/atoll approach through Water Safety plan development. In addition development of best practice SOPs in owning, operating and maintaining will be developed and communicated to support affected local households and community building owners/manager to ensure RWH and storage systems are installed, operated and maintained properly. Training shall be provided to women and children (who often have are tasked to support or perform this activity. Specific SOP’s will be developed to identify best practices in operations and maintenance identifying proper methods, tools needed and frequency to perform required tasks. These activities will contribute to strengthen understanding and systemizing operational understanding of the infrastructure and the importance of maintaining them to support water quality and quantity (captured and stored) to ensure long term health of the residents especially in times of drought. (related to sustainably supporting Output 1).These activities will contribute to strengthen understanding and systemizing knowledge of the impacts of climate change on water management (Output 3).

5.4 Institutional and Financial Barriers 5.4.1 Institutional Barriers The Rapid Water Governance assessment found that there is an acute awareness and political will to enhance water resilience through strengthening water governance mechanisms in RMI. Furthermore, various stakeholders are already engaged with integrated water resource management mainstreamed into their policy and strategies, thus providing an opportunity for multi-stakeholder water governance. At the national level, the National Water and Sanitation Policy as well as the recently amended National Environmental Protection Act formalize the political accountability mechanisms for water governance. This can be utilized as the overarching framework to advance comprehensive and integrated water governance implementation at all levels of governance in RMI.

In implementing this national priority for water, significant gaps remain in terms of stakeholders and institutions, governance principles and effectiveness from environmental, social, political and economic levels. These include:  Limited coordination, reporting and accountability mechanisms related to water at all levels

Page | 81 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA  Limited institutions and stakeholders with formalized roles and responsibilities at the subnational and community levels  There tends to be a disconnect between community-based and national level water coordinating mechanisms.  Limited institutional capacity at sub national and community level on good practices in water management, water quality management, and drought preparedness.  Limited information generated and shared for all types of water resources at all levels, limiting transparency and evidence-based participatory decision-making at all levels  Limited accountability frameworks and participation at all levels of governance  Limited effectiveness of water governance especially in terms of functioning institutions at the subnational level and coordination mechanisms with other sectors.  Stakeholders and institutions working on political (i.e. participatory decision-making process related to water resources and distribution), social (i.e. equitable access and distribution, including women, children and vulnerable groups) and economic (i.e. application of cost effective and efficient solutions) dimensions of water are still limited at all levels. As a result, current water governance from economic, social, environmental and political dimensions can be improved to ensure sustainable access to safe drinking water.

5.4.2 Financial Barriers

Financial barriers at country level The national level fiscal situation of the RMI is presented with key observations as follows: Overall GDP generally fluctuates between -1.6 to 3.5% (except for the year FY2005 when it plunged to - 22.3%) which relates to limited capacity for government to affect fiscal balance. The fiscal position of the government appears unrelated to the economic cycle. For example, the government ran surpluses during the financial crisis of FY2008-FY2009 period (when real GDP growth was negative), but ran deficits in FY2012 and FY2013 when conditions had improved.

250 10 8 200 6.4 In percentage 6 3.5 3.7 150 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.9 2.1 4 1.5 1.5 2.3 100 3.4 2 (0.08) (0.7) In US $ $ mn US In 0.3 1.7 - 50 (1.6) 0.2 (0.2) 0.6 (2) (0.9) (1.6) 0 (1.7) (4) FY2004 FY2005 FY2006 FY2007 FY2008 FY2009 FY2010 FY2011 FY2012 FY2013 FY2014 FY2015 Estd.

GDP at current prices Annual growth in real GDP (%) Fiscal balance (% of GDP)

Source: Statistical Appendices, Economic Review for FY 2015 of GRMI; the annual growth in real GDP of (-) 22.3% in FY2005 was an outlier and hence not shown in the above exhibit Figure 21: Macro-fiscal position of RMI since the amended Compact

Key observations emerging from analysis of varied revenues sources of government of RMI are as follows:  Non-buoyant tax revenue base: The major source of tax revenue is income tax, accounting for US$11.8 million, or 39% of a total tax yield of US$30.9 million in FY2015. This income tax, with customs and other import duties constitute second most significant category in terms of yield have not risen significantly with rise of revenues for the government of RMI.  Undiversified base of non-tax revenues: The collection from non-tax revenue sources of the RMI is around $ 17.8 million in FY2015, of which more than 88% is provided through fishing fees (i.e. royalties). Limited diversity in attaining revenue due to lack of diversity of private sector.

Page | 82 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA  Diminishing but substantial dependence on grants: Though steadily declining especially since FY2010, dependency of the government on grants is still significant which account for over 50% of its expected revenues in FY2015. With regard to the grants from US (the single largest source), annual assistance to the RMI under the amended Compact has been diminishing since 2003. After the Compact grant period expires in 2024, the RMI is expected to complement domestic revenues with returns from the Compact Trust Fund, which receives annual savings from fiscal surpluses and contributions from development partners.  Limited capacity to support technical solutions that require high operating and maintenance funding: The earning potential of residents within the Outer Atoll residents will limit their capacity to bear the costs of more expensive operating and maintenance solutions. As explained in Section 1 they have limited income resulting in high poverty rates due to limited employment or agricultural/farming income. Further details related to RMI revenue profile (taxes, fees etc.), expenditure profile (government payments for salaries spending of goods/services) and public debt profile are provided in Proposal Annex III Financial Assessment. 5.4.3 Key Findings Problems and Root Causes  Despite many water related investments, which were often short duration and responding to current needs only, within RMI the people still do not have year-round supply of safe water supply. This is due to limited infrastructure, human and financial resources supported by effective institutional mechanisms.  This reactive approach is often uncoordinated with limited opportunity for participatory approaches which in turn erodes the effectiveness of the initiatives.

Adaptation Solution Coordinated evidence based solutions need to be developed and implemented with complementary capacity building to support effective sustainable water security and demand management measures. Participation by the knowledgeable community, which has the capacity and has been trained to takes ownership of monitoring, maintaining and operating both water security and resilience measures is crucial. Key barriers to address are institutional and financial considerations in delivering a cost effective and financially sustainable solution.  Institutional Barriers – limitations in terms of institutional capacity at both national institution to carry out their mandate and community levels to provide on the ground support. This is further hampered by lack of adequate information to develop evidence based solutions.  Financial Barriers – household incomes and overall revenue generation within the Outer atolls is very low and therefore the end users will not be able to make significant financial contribution to both capital expenditure and annual O&M costs. Therefore external grant finance is required for this project to complement co-financing by Government of RMI. 6. Intervention Development – Design Process 6.1 Design Process

The previous sections of the Feasibility Study provided RMI’s water context, baselines, and remaining gaps towards achieving water resilience. The next sections of the Feasibility Study examines the various options available to fill remaining gaps, and puts forward the technical design that is best suited for the context of RMI in achieving improved water security and water resilience in the face of climate change.

The design process is outlined in Figure 22.

Page | 83 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA 1. Defining project 4. Implementation 2. Options review 3. Technical Design target & principles Strategy

•Setting the water •Review of various •Detailing technical •Partners security target and approaches (technology design in terms of: •Logistics design criteria / equipment & program) •Where •Financial sustainability that can potentially •Defining design •What •M&E achieve the target principles •How many •Assess approaches •Why against design principles

Figure 22: Design Process

6.2 Water Security Definitions

Water security is defined as people’s ability to access safe freshwater resources year-round. To ensure water security under the context of climate change adaptation coupled with an informed understanding of demand for water resources it is important to compensate for the projected changes in precipitation and sea level rise.

Both quantitative and qualitative indicators are used to define and monitor water security levels. One indicator is the amount of fresh water supplied per capita per day. There are a number of national and international guidelines for the quantity of water required per capita per day to ensure access to sufficient water needed to maintain health and well-being. The guidelines listed in Table 23 vary significantly based on the end use of water and the duration of use.

Table 23: Comparison of Global and RMI Daily Water per Capita Figures

Page | 84 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA L / capita / day Description of the standard Source (Lpcd) 2.5 – 3 Lpcd87 Minimum daily water intake needed for drinking and food for survival WHO. 2011. Sphere Standard.88 needs. Intended for very short duration. 15 Lpcd Minimum water intake needed for drinking and cooking. Standard WHO & IOM 201189 intended to guide water levels that need to be supplied through emergency provisions (i.e. water bottles or desalination devices that produce potable water). Intended for short duration of one to two weeks. 20 Lpcd Sufficient daily water to support drinking, cooking and personal WHO and SDG90 hygiene. Suitable for duration of 3 months or more. 38 Lpcd91. Average Daily Fresh Water Use per person with saltwater at non- RMI National Water and residential building (in Majuro) Sanitation Policy 38.6 Lpcd92 Majuro’s daily water consumption level planned for in the Majuro within RMI Government 2015 Drought Management Plan 56.8 Lpcd Basic water needed daily for drinking, cooking, hygiene and washing Gleick, 199693 100 Lpcd Basic water needed daily for drinking, cooking, hygiene and washing Gleick, 199694 plus crop irrigation 170 Lpcd95 Average Daily Fresh Water Use per person with saltwater available at RMI National Water and residence (in Majuro) (2014) Sanitation Policy

Water security can be significantly enhanced throughout RMI if people can have access to adequate amount of safe freshwater resources during this time, and emergency drought response can be mitigated or avoided. Given this context water insecurity in RMI, the most suitable water security target for RMI adopted for the ACWA project is:

People in RMI to have access to at least 20Lpcd of safe, freshwater resources year-round

This figure has been discussed and agreed by relevant stakeholders in RMI during the National Stakeholder Consultation Workshop that was held in Majuro in August 2016. During this meeting the range of national and international guidelines were presented. The National Stakeholder Consultation Workshop Report is presented in Annex 2096.

The relevant duration for the water provision is linked to the length of time that fresh water is scarce. Since fresh water is typically provided by rainwater harvesting in RMI, the water scarce time period is determined by the rainfall patterns. Rainfall levels and length of dry season and extreme dry season vary greatly between atolls and islands of RMI. Water insecurity is most felt during the dry season, especially during the low precipitation years.

87 Conversion of Gallons to liters: 2.5 to 3 liters = 0.66 to 0.79 Gal, 15 liters = 4 Gal, 20 liters = 5.3 Gal, 38.6 liter = 10.2 Gal, 56.8 Liters = 15 Gal, 100 liters = 26.4 Gal. 88 http://www.spherehandbook.org/en/water-supply-standard-1-access-and-water-quantity/ 89 WHO.2011. Technical Notes on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in Emergencies 90 WHO Technical Note No. 9, WHO/SEARO Technical Notes: Minimum Water Quantity needed for domestic uses 91 38 liters (10 gallons per person per day). These figures are average and not minimum. Furthermore, water usage in urban atolls (which these numbers are based on) may be significantly higher than average usage in the rural communities. 92 3800 liters per household for two weeks 93 Basic Water Requirements for Humans Activities: Meeting Basic Needs 94 Basic Water Requirements for Humans Activities: Meeting Basic Needs 95 45 gallons per person per day. These figures are average and not minimum. Furthermore, water usage in urban atolls (which these numbers are based on) may be significantly higher than average usage in the rural communities. 96 2.5 – 3 Lpcd and 15 Lpcd targets were found unsuitable as they are targets for drought response efforts. The objective of investments under ACWA aims to reduce and/or avoid drought disasters from occurring. Figures from the RMI National Water and Sanitation Policy (38 and 170 Lpcd) were found unsuitable, as they are average consumption figures in Majuro. It is expected that water consumption in Majuro is generally higher than that of the rural outer atolls and islands, especially without flush toilets. Furthermore, average consumption level is likely to be much higher than the minimum level of water-required daily per capita for health and well-being. In other words, people can be water secure even though level of water accessible is lower than what they normally use every day. Gleik and other standards specifying higher quantities were not used since washing can be completed using saltwater or brackish groundwater (when available)

Page | 85 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA In a normal year, dry season lasts for 2 to 4 months with an average of 10 consecutive days without rain. In a dry year (i.e. 2015 / 2016 which was one of the driest years in history for many atolls and islands), days without rain range from 10 to 30 days, for up to 5 months (Dec 2015 to May 2016). 97

6.3 Design Principles

In order to ensure that activities and interventions proposed within the ACWA project lead to water security, climate change adaptation and ultimately water resilience, in addition to the quantitative water security target, the following resilient design principles are used to review and design the overall project activities, interventions, and implementation approaches.

The seven design principles (multi-criteria) are:  Ownership  Redundancy  Effectiveness  Efficiency  Sustainability  Equity, and  Coordination

These principles also align with the Green Climate Fund’s investment framework which includes criteria for impact potential, paradigm shift potential, sustainable development potential, needs of recipient, country ownership, efficiency and effectiveness.98

Ownership Ownership is defined as the acceptance of an individual and/or community through participation in developing the design and installation of a solution/system to fully support its proper functioning with funding and resources. Strong ownership at various levels is critical to establish a resilient water system or any public sector initiatives and investments. Ownership can be characterized in various ways – including institutionalization of the mandate / an effort in policies, plans, laws, and legislations, allocation of public and/or community financing and/or human resources to co-financing and/or sustain investments.

 Atolls and islands level ownership can be defined through various parameters including, but not limited to: o Priority and need for the water investments indicated within municipal and/or community policies, plans, and budgets o Willingness to support implementation, operation, and maintenance though cash and/or in kind investments o Existence of ongoing, self-financed efforts / investments for water resilience In assessing ownership, it is also necessary to assess capacities of atoll / island stakeholders including municipal government, community groups, and households as this may highlight the barrier faced between aspirations for ownership and their existing capacities.

Redundancy One of the key principles of climate change and disaster resilient design is to account for both expected and unexpected risks. In designing water systems, redundancy is a way in which risks such as system failure, unexpected weather conditions can be mitigated. Redundancy can be achieved through various methods and scales, but in the case of atoll / island level water resilience, this principle will be achieved through the promotion of an integrated system - whereby, atolls / islands do not rely on single water resource and/ or supply system, but have alternative, back up options.

97 Refer to Annex 5 for detailed charts of the daily rainfall from December 2015 to end May 2016 for each of the seven weather stations.

98 Green Climate Fund GCF/B.09/23 Annex III: Initial investment framework: activity-specific sub-criteria and indicative assessment factors

Page | 86 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Effectiveness The effectiveness of technology was assessed by reviewing challenges and successes of previous investments. Water investments that have been installed, operated, and maintained successfully will be included as options. On the contrary, investments that have broken down and/or underperforming will not be recommended unless measures to resolve issues have been clearly identified through evaluation of lessons learned.

Efficiency The technical efficiency of operations was assessed, for example how efficiently does the option capture and/or supply the available water.

Sustainability Environmental, social, technical, and financial sustainability considerations were examined to determine the final appropriate water investment options. The environmental and social sustainability process reviewed immediate and long-term impacts of the proposed water resilient measures. If any potential risks investments were identified they will be either removed from the options of investments to be supported, or risk mitigation measures will be incorporated into the design and implementation of the investments.

Financial sustainability is assessed by examining the availability of funds and income streams for operations and maintenance of water security investments.

Equity Equity was assessed by examining the distribution of benefits among the various social groups. In the case of water resilience investments, burden and benefits associated with water access and use will be examined between men, women, boys, girls, elderly and people with disabilities. In assessing equity, one key factor is access to the source of safe water. There a few factors that influence this:  Distance and time it takes to retrieve water from the safe water source.  Location of water source on community land accessible by all.  Gender equity sensitivity to ensure that the technology used addresses all capabilities and norms of the society.

Refer to Annex 17 for more detailed description of equity.

6.4 Key Findings Two major points driven by this section are:  The design process defined will support water security measures to achieve 20Lpcd year round.  Key design principles of ownership, redundancy, effectiveness, efficiency, sustainability, equity and coordination will be used to assess the long list of water resource options. 7. Options Review 7.1 Introduction to the Options Review

There are various ways to achieve water security in RMI, defined as no water shortage days experienced in the target communities based on a minimum of 20 Lpcd demand under project climate induced exacerbated droughts. Although how water security is enhanced in each households, communities, and local government jurisdiction may differ, given its diverse geographical, social, economic, and water baseline contexts, all resilient solutions will entail both hard infrastructure investments, such as technology, equipment and/or infrastructural investments (such as RWH tanks and roofing), coupled with soft investments (interventions), such as community members efforts to install, operate, maintain, and monitor the water infrastructure as well as enhancing integrated water resource planning and management as well as drought response capacities.

The final mix of interventions is determined by a cost curve analysis which identifies the most cost-effective interventions per island/ atoll. More details are available in section 8.2.5.

Page | 87 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA 7.2 Multi-Criteria Assessment of Options 7.2.1 Developing the Long List of Options As defined in Section 6.2, water security requires access to safe water supply to meet the 20 liter (5.3 gallons) per capita day (Lpcd) minimum standard (for water used for drinking, cooking, and personal hygiene99) year-round for a 25-year design period to 2045100. To identify the most adequate intervention mix per community, a broad range of interventions (previously trialed) were considered:  Improvement of community rainwater harvesting system and increase in storage capacity  Improvement of household rainwater harvesting system  Protection of groundwater wells  Stationary desalination (RO)  Stationary desalination (Solar Distillation)  Mobile RO desalination  Hoop solar distillation This list of water technology options is based on the existing primary sources of freshwater in the rural communities, along with experimental systems that have been trialed in a limited number of communities. The long list includes options raised by stakeholders in RMI during the consultations. The availability of surface water sources is very limited in the rural communities. There are no rivers in RMI and small lakes and ponds are typically not used for drinking due to poor water quality (e.g. there is a small lake on Mejit Island but it is far from the inhabited areas).

Demand management options were considered including the use of composting toilets instead of flush toilets (from rainwater storage tanks). It was concluded that the 20 Lpcd water supply target for drinking water, cooking and personal hygiene allows no scope for any further demand reduction. In addition, the rural community residents are already well practiced in conserving water during the dry season. Local consultation also concluded that rainwater flush toilets were very scarce in the households of rural communities and the residents typically flushed these with groundwater or saltwater during times of low rainfall.

The long list of water resource options has been expanded in Table 24 24 to include past and present installation sites of relevant technologies along with lessons learnt.

99 WHO and Sustainable Development Goal standards. WHO 2011. 100 25 years is the minimum lifetime Ministry of Public Works designs their public infrastructure.

Page | 88 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Table 24: Expanded Water Technology Options to Improve Water Security in RMI Technology Water resources Past and Past initiatives Lessons Learned Option present supporting the installation technology sites in RMI Household Rainwater All inhabited USAID / IOM; Utilization of 150mm diameter gutter pipes rainwater (Water Security) atolls and Government of Taiwan for the RWH systems ensures improved harvesting system islands performance. Training and awareness of proper operations and maintenance practice Community Rainwater All inhabited USAID / IOM; RMI Provision on larger catchments connected rainwater (Water Security) atolls and government to community buildings – Improved150mm harvesting system islands – in (President’s office, piping for the gutters of the RWH systems. schools, Department of Public Greater understanding of capacity hospitals, Works) requirements for community. churches, community centers, etc. Public rainwater Rainwater Majuro MWSC / ADB; PACC Improved efficiency of rainwater catchment and (Water Security) catchment retention – relining and covers reticulation improve capacity. system Groundwater Groundwater Majuro (Laura Protection from contamination, improved infiltration (Potential Water lens) performance and understanding of water galleries Resource) lens thickness and capacity. Groundwater Groundwater All inhabited MWSC, PACC/ SPC & Water quality testing improvements, wells (Potential Water atolls and UNDP, JIRCAS capacity of water lens, alternate source of Resource) islands water for washing, cleaning and for agriculture. Needs protection from contamination and inundations, requires consistent maintenance. Consider raising the height of opening to be similar to KiriWatsan developed standard. Groundwater Groundwater All inhabited USAID / IOM; RMI Good efficient use of groundwater wells with pumps (Potential Water atolls and government resource. More efficient than using (hand pumps, Resource) islands (President’s office, bucket and rope – ensures protection from solar pumps, Department of Public contamination. Hydraulic Ram Works) Pumps) Desalination: Desalinated sea water Mejit, Ailuk PACC / SPC & UNDP System not installed optimally and has to Solar distillation or brackish (Ailuk and establish clear lines of ownership for (solar water groundwater Enejelar), maintenance and supportive funding. All purifiers) (Water Security) Likiep (Likiep units are not working and not supported – and Jebal), clearly currently not an effective solution. Wotje (Wotje Large farms of solar panels will be and Wodmej), required to support 20Lpcd for the etc. community – not feasible for total solution. Desalination: Desalinated sea water Mobile units USAID / IOM Ideal for disaster response and not Reverse Osmosis or brackish deployed for suitable to meet long term water security units – mobile groundwater disaster needs – requires common warehouse to (Potential Water response to optimally store and maintain the units. Resource) all affected Requires consistent training and upkeep. atolls and islands Desalination: Desalinated sea water Refer to list of US Government, Good source of quality water. Costly to Reverse Osmosis or brackish RO’s in Taiwan Government, maintain and operate, requiring units – stationary groundwater Annex 9 Government of Japan considerable technical skills to support for (Water Security) Kwajalein, (Pacific Environment optimal operation. Community requires Utrik, Community Fund) external support to provide funding – Enewetak, perhaps not a sustainable solution. Kili

300 gpd (PEC / Japan) public schools in: Ailuk, Aur, Mejatto, Lae, Lib, Likiep, Maloelap, Mejit, Namu,

Page | 89 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Technology Water resources Past and Past initiatives Lessons Learned Option present supporting the installation technology sites in RMI Ujae, Wotho, Wotje, Jaluit, Santo, Majuro Hoop system Air moisture – Majuro, Ailuk University of South Limited capacity to provide water source. (hybrid mini poly condensation units Pacific (USP) Can be used for awareness training – tunnel) (Potential Water education. Resource)

7.2.2 Developing the Short List of Options The long list of technology options were assessed against the seven design principles outlined in Section 6. This multi-criteria assessment was used to screen the options and determine whether each option would contribute more to water security enhancement in RMI. The multi-criteria assessment and overall water security scores for each option are described in detail in Annex 16. The overall water security scores are presented as current (based on the existing situation of installed infrastructure) and potential (based on the potential for infrastructure installations to be successful through supportive technical capacity building etc.). The overall water security scores are shown in Figure 23.

Figure 23: Current and Potential Water Security Score for the Long List of Water Resource Options

The highest ranking options based on the current water security scores are household RWH followed by community RWH and stationary desalination using RO units. The highest ranking options based on the potential water security scores are community RWH and household RWH, followed by stationary desalination using RO units. The next highest ranking option is groundwater.

Page | 90 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Groundwater cannot be considered as a reliable source of drinking water to improve water security over the long term (due to a lack of information on the capacity and quality of freshwater lenses in the rural communities) but provides an important source of non-potable water. The groundwater resources are recommended to be secured from inundation of seawater to improve resilience and provide additional non- potable water during severe droughts. Sharing of groundwater wells (either household or community wells) that are still producing good quality water during times of drought is evidenced throughout RMI in times of need. The water technology options were also assessed using a strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis in Annex 18. The SWOT analysis confirmed the results of the multi-criteria assessment and the shortlist of preferred water resource options for meeting the 20 Lpcd minimum target for water security enhancement in the rural communities is as follows: 1. Household Rainwater Harvesting 2. Community Rainwater Harvesting 3. Desalination – Stationary RO Systems

7.3 Operations and Maintenance Costs for the Shortlisted Water Security Options

As concluded in 7.2.2, the shortlisted water resource options for water security enhancement in the rural communities are as follows:

1. Household Rainwater Harvesting 2. Community Rainwater Harvesting 3. Desalination – Stationary RO Systems

The annual operations and maintenance requirements and approximate costs of these three technology options are reviewed below.

7.3.1 Rainwater Harvesting – Household Household rainwater harvesting system operations and maintenance requirements are quarterly cleaning of guttering systems as well as an annual cleanout of rainwater storage tanks. The labor is to be performed by the homeowner a simple tools are used to support the work. There may be some minor repair of guttering needed due to damage from storms or other reasons. The annual cost for supply of maintenance materials (tools and materials including bleach) is estimated be $50/year/household.

The typical household occupancy in the rural communities is 6.1 people per household. The operations and maintenance cost per person is estimated to be $8.20 ($50 per household divided by 6.1 people per household).

The minimum annual volume provided per person is 7,300 liters (20 liters per day for 365 days). This translates to < $0.01 per liter for maintenance costs for household RWH systems.

7.3.2 Community Rainwater Harvesting Similar to household RWH systems, community RWH systems will require quarterly cleaning of gutters with an annual cleanout of rainwater storage tanks. This may be performed by community members on a voluntary basis or part of paid program for Water Security managed by the Council. The annual cost for supply of maintenance materials (tools and materials including bleach) is estimated be $50/year/community building.

The typical community rainwater system will support 67 people as their secondary supply (refer to section 8.3.2 for further details). The operations and maintenance cost per person is estimated to be $0.75 yearly ($50 per community building divided by 67 people estimated accessing a single community tank).

A community tank is the secondary source of water after the primary household rainwater harvesting tanks are depleted. The minimum annual volume provided per person is 7,300 liters (20 liters per day for 365 days). The value per maintenance costs is also <$0.01 per liter of water for community RWH systems.

Page | 91 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA 7.3.3 Desalination – Stationary Reverse Osmosis Systems Permanently installed RO desalination units have significant operational and maintenance requirements to ensure continuous operation over long periods of time. The cost effectiveness analysis will help determine the support necessary by the project for either replacement or supporting the operations and maintenance costs going forward for the duration of the life cycle of the project.

While the example on Utrik has shown that RO desalination units can work successfully, they need significant ongoing financial and technical investments in their operation and maintenance for which funds have to be made available from external sources for the entire operational lifetime of the system. For Utrik, the operational and maintenance costs are covered by external grant funding, which expire in 2020, and the community has limited means to support the operating costs and eventual replacement. The other rural communities will also experience this fiscal constraint for similar reasons.. Further, there needs to be in- country capacity to supply technical expertise and spare parts for the selected RO system in order to ensure timely coverage of any technical intervention needs.

Annex 9 provides a list of stationary RO’s along with their capital and operating costs (information provided by the Office of Chief Secretary).

Considering the financial barriers identified within Section 5.3.2 and discussions within RMI community consultations, no new stationary desalination RO systems will be built under the proposed interventions due to the high operations and maintenance costs and the supply chain challenges and lack of local technical capacity in remote rural communities. Existing stationary RO desalination units that have an expected life covering the project horizon of 25 years have been included in the baseline water supply calculations (this only applies to one location, Enewetak Atoll).

Section 8.2.5 Cost Effectiveness within this FS provides the details on the process utilize to determine the final mix of interventions at a community level by using the unit prices defined within this section and further expanded on within the FS Annex 19 for operations and maintenance and capital cost of the defined infrastructure construction.

7.4 Good Practices101

7.4.1 Rainwater Harvesting Systems (Household and Community) Rainwater harvesting systems are widely used throughout RMI and pacific islands as the primary source of drinking water. Rainwater harvesting systems can serve households or community facilities. Household systems generally catch rain from the rooftops of homes and store it in at least one tank adjacent to the homes. Water is typically drawn from a household tank by means of a tap at the base of the tank. In some cases rainwater may be reticulated within a house using a pump/pressure system. Alternatively the tank may be partly buried and a hand pump used to withdraw water. The roofs of large community buildings, such as churches and schools, are often used as catchment surfaces and the water is stored in large tanks adjacent to these buildings. Alternatively, if no suitable catchment surface is available, a separate catchment surface is built adjacent to, or directly over, the water storage tank. Residents of the community walk to these tanks, draw water from a tap at the base of the tank, and transport it back to their homes for drinking or cooking.

Recent development of modernized forms of rainwater harvesting systems utilizing tin roofs, gutters and plastic storage tanks has improved efficiency for capturing rainwater. These RWH systems are able to produce sufficient quantities of water in good quality if set up correctly. Past failures reported by Wallis (2014) identify the main issues as: 1) improper placement under the roof eaves resulting in poor capture efficiency; 2) improper connections between gutter lengths and between gutter and downspout resulting in leakage; 3) improper slope on gutter; and 4) gutters too small in width resulting in poor capture and retention of rainwater.

101 Best practice for reverse osmosis equipment is not described since they are not a recommended intervention.

Page | 92 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA These observations show that materials need to be well selected and the communities well trained to set up functioning household rainwater harvesting systems. Wallis recommended a transition of guttering from four inch to six inch guttering to improve capture efficiency of gutters during periodic heavy rainfalls..

A simple rainwater harvesting system consists of a rainwater catchment surface (roof), conveyance system (gutters and downpipes), and water storage tank(s). There are two principal types of rainwater harvesting system: 1. The dry system 2. The wet system A dry system involves the downpipes from the roof gutters feeding directly into the tank. This is called a dry system as the feed pipes run dry after the rain has stopped. The pipes in a wet system typically run underground from the building to the tank and the pipes hold water after the rain stops.

Figure 24 shows a diagram of the household rainwater harvesting system components included in a best practice design for a dry system. The primary purpose of the best practice design components is to improve the water quality of the water stored in the tank.

The rainwater harvesting system components in Figure 24, in addition to the roof and the storage tank, are as follows: 1. Guttering, ideally 150mm diameter circular guttering rather than the typical 100mm square profile102 2. Leaf diverter103 (coarse screen) to prevent leaves and other debris from entering the downpipe. 3. Downpipes, ideally 150mm diameter 4. First flush diverter to reduce pollution of tank water by diverting the first flush of contaminated water away from the tank (available in several sizes). 5. Calmed inlet (optional) allows water to enter the system from the bottom without disturbing the sediment in the bottom of the tank. 6. Floating out-take kit (optional) allows withdrawal of water from the top of tank, where the water is the cleanest. 7. Outlet fitted with a tap to obtain water for household use. A valve can also be included where the house is connected to a piped distribution system, e.g. in Majuro. The valve would allow closing of the system to prevent rainwater from the tank entering the public water system. 8. Overflow outlet to spill water from the bottom of the tank (where the water is of lesser quality) when the tank is full. Best practice design is to have the overflow outlet drain to a well for groundwater recharge wherever practical. 9. Vent with a grid to prevent pollutants entering the tank (the overflow pipe will act as a vent where the overflow outlet pipe is from the top of the tank rather than the bottom). 10. Level gauge (optional extra that would be useful for large community storage tanks).

102 Existing rainwater harvesting systems in RMI typically have 100mm guttering and downpipes. The ideal pipe sizing is 150mm for RMI and other high rainfall areas of the Pacific. 103 Design would be ensured to be suitable for SIDS / RMI context – including moderate and high intensity rainfalls

Page | 93 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Figure 24: Dry rainwater harvesting system components in a best practice design (adapted from Marley New Zealand’s Rainwater Harvesting Guide)

A community rainwater harvesting system will likely have a larger building and storage tank than a household system and is therefore more likely to be designed as a wet system. The standard RMI Public Works Department design for rainwater harvesting systems in schools is a wet system.

The typical components for a wet rainwater harvesting system are shown in Figure 25 (component numbering as per the dry system components in Figure 24). With a wet system, the pipes must be fitted with screens at each end to ensure that insects cannot enter and breed in the system. The First Flush diverter for a wet system needs to have a capacity equal to that of the pipes plus whatever amount is to be diverted from the roof. The overflow pipe should be connected to a nearby adjacent ground water well to recharge ground water system.

Figure 25: Wet rainwater harvesting system components in a best practice design (SPREP, 2015)

Page | 94 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Materials commonly used in the construction of the roofs are corrugated aluminum and galvanized iron. Roofs are generally sloped to avoid ponding and roof coatings are required to be non- toxic. The conveyance systems need to be constructed from an inert material (e.g. PVC) for improved water quality. The effective roof area and the material used in constructing the roof influence the collection efficiency and water quality. The rainwater is stored in a storage tank, which also needs to be constructed of an inert material for improved water quality. Reinforced concrete, and plastic are the most common storage tank materials in RMI. The tanks should be raised on a concrete platform to enable easy access to the outlet tap.

During the Rainwater Harvesting Improvement Project in Wotho, Ujae and Lae Atolls to repair the household rainwater harvesting systems a number of lessons learned relating to best materials and community engagement for successful rainwater harvesting implementation were determined. Further details of this project is provided in Section 10.1.2 and utilized as part of the design and implementation approaches.

Best Practice for Operation and Maintenance: Rainwater Harvesting Systems Based on tables sourced from Harvesting the Heavens (SOPAC, 2004) guidelines have been developed for employing best practices in operations and maintenance of household and community building rainwater harvesting systems. These systems if they are well constructed, operated and maintained will provide good quality water without need for water treatment.

In addition to the above recommended maintenance practices annual cleaning of tanks is necessary including using bleach to disinfect the tank after brushing down the sides of the tank and flushing a few times. Periodic water quality testing is also recommended to ensure safety and also trigger the need to clean and disinfect the tanks.

For RWH Systems consisting of the guttering, connectors, downspout and first flush the frequency of simple maintenance requires: a. Quarterly cleaning, for example removal of collected debris from roof (including cutting down overhanging branches), and debris accumulated in guttering downspout. b. Cleaning of first flush mechanisms on an as needed basis – consistent inspection for accumulated debris to clean out. c. Annual clean-out of tanks (catchments) using proper cleaning solutions (e.g. chlorox bleach).

7.4.2 Groundwater

There is currently very limited information on the quality and availability of groundwater resources in the rural communities. The freshwater lenses on Majuro Atoll and Kwajalein Atoll have been extensively studied as they supported significant populations. The RMI Environmental Protection Authority has limited resources to carry out monitoring activities on a regular basis given high transportation costs to rural communities, limited number of staff, and lack of formal water quality and quantity testing protocols and standard operating procedures available. As a result, although groundwater resources may have a high potential of serving as a viable options for alternative to rainwater resources especially in times of limited rainfall, it is difficult to quantify its potential in the rural communities.

There was a proposed groundwater investigation project (concept note prepared by OEPPC in 2015 to GIZ ACSE fund) to research groundwater lenses in specific outer atolls (Wotho, Mejit, Ujae, Lae and Jaluit or Wotje). This proposal included research using recent scientific methods, display of the results for public outreach, and development of wells at the identified best locations for potable freshwater supply. This proposal was not progressed.

Therefore potential interventions include implementing nation-wide groundwater monitoring protocols and methodologies, coupled with the implementation of quick fixes for groundwater protection. This will be in line with the National Water and Sanitation Policy, Policy Statement 2 on groundwater resource sustainability and Policy Statement 5 on climate variability and change, the Project will establish and implement groundwater quality and quantity monitoring protocols and methodologies, where the data will be monitored, reported, and used for evidence-based planning and response integrated water resource management. The Project will focus on protection of the wells from contamination due to inundation:  raise or ensure that the concrete apron surrounding the well is of the proper height and the cover seals the opening to stop inundation from seawater arising from increased frequency of over-wash events.

Page | 95 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA  Identify and document location, final finished height of apron and depth of groundwater well to enable ongoing monitoring of groundwater quality for identified critical groundwater resources.

The critical groundwater resources will be identified by the Community-based Water Committees (CWCs) and are expected to include at least priority and high use community groundwater wells.

In addition to the water quality monitoring and research above, the Project will support good practices for groundwater protection as shown in the table 25 below. The table compares the status quo situation with the proposed improvements.

Table 25: Groundwater Wells in Rural Communities in RMI

Status Quo (Typical) Groundwater Proposed (Protected) Groundwater Wells in Wells in RMI RMI Protection Some wells are protected, while others are Protection from surface pollution by lining the well for the open (unprotected). Wells are typically full depth and to at least 0.6 m above the ground to form concrete lined and have a concrete access a head wall around the outer rim of the well. cover with a plastic hinged cover for the opening. Construction of concrete apron on the ground surface, extending for 2 m around the well. The concrete slab also seals any fissures between the well lining and the walls of the excavated hole, preventing polluted surface water from seeping into the well along the outer casing of the well.

Covering top of the well with Tin or Plastic Cover, and installation of hand pumps that are fitted, to further prevent contaminants from entering the well Maintenance Some wells are neglected and minimum Wells are maintained and cleaned regularly. maintenance and repair has been Implementing periodic inspection to check that there is no performed. As a result, some wells are no debris – every day for open wells, and periodically for longer accessible for clean water. closed wells. Keeping areas surrounding the top of the well clean to protect against contaminants polluting the well

Ensuring periodic inspection and repair of the pumps, including replacement of gaskets and moving parts. Hand pumps are generally preferred from a water conservation point of view as they cut down on over pumping and minimize the risk of saltwater intrusion. The pump selected should be easily operated and maintained by women and children, who, traditionally, are the most frequent users. Spare parts must be readily available and maintenance training provided immediately following installation of the pump.

For community wells, ensuring that there is a representative water committee to monitor and report the well surroundings are kept clean and where there is a pump is properly maintained. Quality Some wells are contaminated from Good water quality (and appropriate for planned use) with accumulated debris or fallen animals, and effective protection and maintenance. some are simply missing their plastic hatch opening potentially exposing them to Ensuring buffer between wells and septic tanks (i.e. a inundation from King tides and large minimum of 30m from a groundwater extraction point ) storms.

Some wells are located close to sea as well as toilets and their septic tanks and therefore their water quality is affected significantly in terms of salinity and bacteria such as fecal coliform.

Page | 96 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Status Quo (Typical) Groundwater Proposed (Protected) Groundwater Wells in Wells in RMI RMI Quantity Information of water quantity of Information of water quantity and sustainable extraction groundwater use is limited and rate of rate is determined for priority and high use community extraction for sustainable use is unknown. groundwater wells identified by the Community-based Water Committees (CWCs)

SPC and UNICEF have completed a best practice KiriWATSAN project in Kiribati - Groundwater and Rainwater Monitoring Guidelines for the Outer Islands of Kiribati, which includes applying best practices for groundwater protection and provided detail design drawings. This document shall be the basis for this investment. Further details on the SWOT analysis of water intervention technology options to determine best practices for groundwater wells are included in FS Annex 18.

7.4.3 Asset Management of Existing Large Concrete Tanks

Section 3.3.2 presented an overview of existing large concrete tanks used for rainwater storage in the rural communities. The reviewed infrastructure survey information from 2013 and 2016 identified 23 community buildings (with suitable roof area sized greater than 100m²) connected to large concrete tanks (>10m³) that are in use by the community. The volume of these large concrete tanks has been included in the status quo for existing community storage volume (which assumes the tanks can retain 100% of the water captured by the RWH systems). Concrete tanks are known to be prone to leaks therefore good practice requires proper asset management of the tanks including condition assessment, leakage assessment and repairs/replacement as appropriate.

The condition of the status quo concrete tanks was assessed at a high level during the 2013 and 2016 infrastructure surveys. A qualitative five point condition rating (very poor to very good condition) was assigned by the surveyors. The assessed concrete tank condition rating ranged from very poor to very good depending on the presence of leaks/cracks. During 2016 the US Navy Seabees (with KalGov and KADA) undertook a detailed condition assessment of large concrete tanks at two communities in the Kwajalein Atoll (Bikeej and Enebuj). Their assessment concluded that the old tanks from the Japanese period of WW II were in very poor condition in these communities and should not be repaired due to expected high cost.

The concrete tank condition information shown in Table 22 in Section 3.3.2 is presented in Table 26 showing the volume of tanks under each condition rating by atoll/island.

Table 26: Volume of concrete tanks (m³) in each condition rating

Atoll 1 2 3 4 5 Excellent Very Good Poor Very Poor Good Ailinglaplap 15 Ailuk 76 Ebon 14 24 Jaluit 158 Kwajalein 453 22 Majuro 91 Namdrik 12 Namu 83 Ujae 37 Utrik 38 44 Wotho 38 Wotje 67 83 TOTALS 76 83 654 332 110 % of total 6% 7% 52% 26% 9% volume

Table 26 shows that 65% of the concrete tank storage volume is rated to be in good to excellent condition. The remaining 35% of the concrete tank volume is rated to be in poor to very poor condition.

Page | 97 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA One of the tanks assessed in Enebuj (Carlos) Island was a larger, newer catchment built 3 to 5 years ago. The Seabees found that this tank has never been operational due to some leaks on the south end of the structure. The Seabees assessment concluded that concrete designs have a high failure rate, and are highly susceptible to leaks and contamination.

The concern is the level of repair necessary to ensure the integrity of each tank and to ensure that their capacity is not compromised especially during times of drought. The project should include an asset management program for the large concrete tanks including detailed condition assessment, prioritization of repairs/relining, followed by regular monitoring. This program should be designed to ensure that the capacity of these concrete tanks to store rainwater without leakage over the design period of 25 years (similar to the other infrastructure). In the worst scenario, assuming that there are many leaks but the foundation and side walls are structurally sound a water bladder could be employed to retain the captured water.

The tanks included in Table 26 have been included in the status quo for existing community storage volume. Four options were considered for concrete tank rehabilitation as shown in Table 27. The qualitative condition ratings from the infrastructure survey data in Table 26 were used to select the indicative improvement option for each concrete tank from the table below and assess an indicative capital cost for the cost effectiveness analysis. The aggregated average unit cost of the concrete tank rehabilitation options was $80/m³ with an expected life of 15 years. In practice, the appropriate option would be determined for each tank through carrying out a detailed onsite condition assessment.

Table 27: Concrete tank rehabilitation options based on the tank condition

# Status quo tank condition as Proposed concrete tank Indicative initial capital cost assessed during the validation improvement estimate including installation phase 1 Tank in good to excellent condition with Do nothing, monitor condition on an $0 no visible leaks. annual basis 2 Tank in fair to poor condition with visible Reline the tanks using a potable water $38/m² of tank surface area (inside) leaks and no structural failure. The liner made of reinforced PVC or surface of the inside of the tank is polypropylene (including a geotextile Average cost for proposed tank smooth and the tank can be lined without membrane to provide cushioning from locations risk of puncturing. the concrete surface). Example supplier: $56 per m³ Fabric Solutions reinforced PVC liner from Australia.

Expected life of at least 10 years (material warranty is for 10 years). 3 Tank in fair to poor condition with visible Waterproof the tank with a painted $43/m² of tank surface area (inside) leaks and no structural failure (i.e. the coating that goes over the concrete roof, walls and floor are not at risk of interior (e.g. 98olyuria and polyurethane Average cost for proposed tank collapse). The surface of the inside of elastomer). Example supplier: CIM locations the tank is broken (e.g. reinforcing steel polyurethane elastomer from US $70 per m³ is protruding) and the tank cannot be lined without risk of puncturing. Expected life of at least 5 years (material warranty is for 5 years). 4 Tank in poor condition with visible leaks Replace the concrete tank with new $371/m³ and structural failure above ground tank from flat pack modular construction Expected life of 25 years.

Further details on the rehabilitation options is provided in Annex 19.

The status quo volume also includes the new concrete tanks installed by Japan in 2015 in Ailinglaplap Atoll and Mejit Island, as well as the concrete tanks installed by MPW in 2017. These new concrete tanks installed in 2015 and 2016 are expected to have a life greater than the 25 year design period and have not been included in the tables above as they do not currently need any rehabilitation.

There may be older concrete tanks in use in communities that have not been surveyed. This would be verified during the validation phase of the project.

Page | 98 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Therefore, the Project could consider the rehabilitation of suitable concrete tanks, based on cost effectiveness, in vulnerable rural communities of RMI. Based on information gathered during the Project Design, it is estimated that there are approximately 23 concrete tanks with storage volumes of approximately 1,254 m3, across 14 local government jurisdictions are suitable for rehabilitation. Concrete tanks that are connected to community buildings with small roof areas (under 100m2) will not be targeted by the project for rehabilitation. Furthermore, concrete tanks that are abandoned and filled with debris or have groundwater inundation due to cracks in the foundation and sidewalls, resulting in poor water quality condition were also excluded as target intervention sites. This is because the reason these tanks were abandoned was primarily due to their remote location, situated far from the water users / community.

Table 28: Concrete Tanks in Rural Communities in RMI

Baseline (Typical) Concrete Tanks in RMI Proposed (Rehabilitated) Concrete Tanks in RMI Tank The typical condition of connected tanks that are currently Existing concrete tanks are repaired and/or lined as condition in use indicate slight cracks noted in the sidewall or necessary to ensure minimal leakage through cracks. foundations resulting in small leaks. (Refer to the options outlined in Table 27) Most tanks require repair to fix the cracks or install a new liner to stop leaks. Water quality The water quality is found to be generally good (as long Good water quality (and appropriate for planned use) as proper cover for hatch opening was maintained) and with effective protection (cover, etc.) and the guttering system was cleaned out on a regular basis. maintenance.

Maintenance Maintenance of these concrete tanks is completed by the Concrete tanks are maintained and cleaned regularly community-building operator on an ad hoc basis (e.g. by building owner. Tanks are also routinely inspected schools or churches). for leaks and repaired as necessary.

7.5 Key Findings

The multi-criteria assessment of the options in Section 7.2 and the information described in the SWOT analysis in Annex 18, identified the following shortlist of preferred water resource options for meeting the 20 Lpcd minimum target for water security enhancement in the rural communities: 1. Household Rainwater Harvesting 2. Community Rainwater Harvesting 3. Desalination – Stationary RO Systems

The analysis of good practices provides the following recommendations for improvements:  Household RWH systems should be improved by upgrading to good quality 150mm diameter ownspouts and guttering capturing the maximum roof area, along with installation of first flush mechanisms and mosquito guards to support water quality.  Community RWH systems should be improved by upgrading to good quality 150mm diameter downspouts and guttering capturing the maximum roof area, along with installation of first flush mechanisms and mosquito guards to support water quality.  Existing RO desalination units should be maintained but new installations are not proposed in this project due to their high operations and maintenance costs (based on assessment of financial barriers in Section 5.3.2), difficulties with the spare parts supply chain and technical capacity in remote rural communities.

To support water resilience – an updated design for well head elevation has been determined and best practices for sustainable operations and maintenance of ground water wells are part of the key interventions suggested by the ACWA project:  Raising the concrete apron and the well head to limit future inundation from SLR and increasing storm waves.  Training in the proper operation and maintenance of ground water wells. 8. Selection for Water Security Investments

Page | 99 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA 8.1 Introduction to Rural Water Security

8.1.1 Target Communities All rural104 communities across the 24 inhabited local government jurisdictions with 5 or more households (approximately 30 people or more people) were considered as target communities for the proposed interventions. For the two urban local government jurisdictions of Majuro and Kwajalein, communities living outside of the public water utility company service areas are also included as target sites given that their water resource conditions and constraints are similar to those of the rural communities in the rural communities. Total target population and communities included in the rural water security design analysis is 15,572 people and 2,574 households (2017 estimate), across 77 communities.

8.1.2 Water Resources Within the water resource options of rainwater harvesting at the household level and at the community level, there are improvements required to the existing rainwater harvesting systems as described in Section 7.5 along with additional storage needed to ensure water security during droughts, particularly under climate change. The rainwater harvesting improvement options for meeting the 20 Lpcd minimum target for water security enhancement in the rural communities carried forward to the technical design and lifecycle cost evaluation are: 1. Improvement of rainwater harvesting systems at existing community buildings along with new storage tanks 2. Improvement of rainwater harvesting systems at households 3. New community roofs with storage tanks (for communities with insufficient existing buildings)

As concluded in Section 7.2.1, there will be no new stationary RO systems built under the proposed interventions due to the high capital costs, operations and maintenance costs and the supply chain challenges in remote rural communities. New storage at the household level was also ruled out as an option due to economies of scale (it is more cost effective to install new storage at the community level) and due to the majority of houses already having at least one storage tank connected to the RWH system.

Table 29 below shows the suitability and contribution of each of these water resources towards the water security target. Table 29: Water Resource Applicability for Rural Water Security

Water Suitability Explanation Contribution of the Water Resource Towards the Water Resource for Rural Security Target Option Water Security Rainwater Suitable Currently the primary source of Primary source of drinking water for the water security target in harvesting drinking water in rural all rural communities (minor source of water for the rural communities communities that have existing functioning stationary RO systems). Improvements to existing rainwater harvesting systems and new storage will be required to meet the water security target. Groundwater Not Groundwater is not suitable for From a long-term perspective of transforming rural communities wells suitable drinking water in the rural water security conditions in RMI to enhance water security, communities in the rural especially in light of climate change, better protection, communities during drought monitoring, management, and utilization (for purposes periods due to microbiological appropriate for its quantity and quality) is critical. Therefore, pollution and increasing salinity groundwater modeling, monitoring, protection, and management during drought, particularly are included as key elements of integrated water resource under future climate change. management and resilience interventions at the community level Information on the quality and in the rural communities. The proposed groundwater quantity of groundwater is improvement interventions will likely add availability of safe limited due to inconsistent and water resources in selected rural communities. However, this is unformulated monitoring and counted outside of, and in addition to, the 20-Lpcd minimum analysis available, especially in water security targets.

104 Rural communities include: Communities of Majuro Atoll that are located outside the service area of MWSC; communities of Kwajalein Atoll that are located outside the service area of KAJUR; and communities located in the local government jurisdictions of the other 22 outer atolls.

Page | 100 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Water Suitability Explanation Contribution of the Water Resource Towards the Water Resource for Rural Security Target Option Water Security the rural communities. (FS Annex 8) Desalination Suitable Functioning stationary RO Existing functioning stationary RO systems in Enewetak will be systems exist in Enewetak, Kili, the primary source of water for the water security target for those Rongelap and Utrik communities (rainwater harvesting will be a minor source of water for those communities). The units at Kili, Rongelap and Utrik life cycle will end before the 25Y asset lifecycle of the project and thus are not included as part of base supply.

There are existing functioning stationary RO systems in Enewetak, Kili, Rongelap and Utrik that are supplemented by rainwater harvesting. However only the Enewetak stationary RO desalination units that has an expected life covering the project horizon of 25 years and is included in the status quo water supply calculations producing 11 Lpcd. The approach for the other communities with existing stationary RO units (Kili, Rongelap and Utrik) is to design assuming 100% reliance on rainwater harvesting in the future (assuming that these assets will eventually fail and not be replaced).

Small stationary RO units with a design capacity of 3,028 L/day (800 Gallon/day) will be installed in 2018 at boarding High Schools at Jaluit, Wotje and Gugeegu (Ebeye) to support emergency drinking water supply. These units are expected to have 25 year life cycle. The capacity of these units is expected to supply the boarding school students only and it is expected that the community will continue to rely on rainwater harvesting.

The estimated current daily outputs from the applicable stationary RO system (with 25 year design life) are shown in the table 30 below. This 11 Lpcd from the RO unit was subtracted from the 20 Lpcd target in the rainwater harvesting calculations (i.e. the demand was reduced to 9 Lpcd for the rainwater harvesting systems in Enewetak).

Table 30: Stationary RO systems and water provided per person

Location Estimated stationary RO daily Current population Estimated RO supply volume for output (m³ per day) estimate (people) current population (Liters per person per day) Enewetak 7.57 687 11.0

8.1.3 Design Target

As defined in previous sections, the project aims to provide people of RMI with access to at least 20 liters (5.3 gallons) per person per day of freshwater supply year-round. The water security target applies for all communities, during wet and dry seasons, as well as normal and low rainfall years.

The proposed design criteria (target level of service) for the project is defined as:

A minimum of 20 liters per capita per day (Lpcd) of water will be supplied to the population in the target communities under the predicted drought length including climate change additionality.

The drought lengths have been predicted for each local weather station area using the analysis of baseline drought length plus the climate change additionality predictions (incorporating anthropogenic impacts of climate change) from the modelling discussed in Section 1. The baseline drought length has been estimated from an analysis of historical information and is the 1 in 5 to 1 in 10 year drought, i.e. shorter than the more severe droughts such as 2015/16 and 1998. The 5 weather stations in the outer atolls have over 18 years of weather data but the record is not continuous (there are typically no data points from July 2003 to December 2013 due to a breakdown in data transfer). The Majuro and Kwajalein weather stations have more than 50 years of continuous weather records available.

Page | 101 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Table 31 summarises the baseline drought lengths and the climate change additionality to 2035 and 2045 for each weather station area (as discussed in detail in Section 1.3.1). The maximum total drought length with climate change additionality was selected for the infrastructure design.

Table 31: Baseline Drought Length and Climate Change Additionality to 2045

Weather Weather Baseline Climate Change Climate Change Total Projected station station name drought length Additionality to Additionality to 2045 Drought Length area # (days) 2035 (days) (days) 2035 - 45 (including climate change additionality (days)) 1 Utirik 90 +20 +14 110 2 Wotje 90 +30 +16 120 3 Kwajalein 70 +30 +13 100 4 Ailinglaplap 60 +58 +9 118 5 Majuro 40 +17 +11 57 6 Mili 40 +17 +27 67 7 Jaluit 40 +15 +19 59

The most representative weather station for each of the 24 inhabited atolls was identified by the RMI Weather Service Office and the results are shown in Table 32 (the weather stations are in geographical order from north to south). The three zones for rainfall patterns (described in Section 1.3.1), are also shown in the table. Zones 1 and 2 are the driest zones and were given highest priority for the 2017 installation of new storage tanks by the Ministry of Public Works (see Annex 15 to this FS).

Table 32: Atoll and Most Representative Weather Stations105

Atoll Zone Appropriate Weather Station Ailuk 1 Utrik Enewetak 1 Utrik Rongelap 1 Utrik Utrik 1 Utrik Wotho 1 Utrik Ailinglaplap 2 Ailinglaplap Jabat 2 Ailinglaplap Maloelap 2 Kwajalein Namu 2 Kwajalein Kwajalein 2 Kwajalein Lib 2 Kwajalein Lae 2 Kwajalein Ujae 2 Kwajalein Aur 2 Kwajalein Arno 2 Majuro Majuro 2 Majuro Mili 2 Mili Wotje 2 Wotje Likiep 1 Wotje Mejit 1 Wotje Ebon 3 Jaluit Jaluit 3 Jaluit Kili 3 Jaluit Namdrik 3 Jaluit

8.2 Design Methodology for the Rural Water Security Investments

8.2.1 Rural Water Security Technical Design

As concluded in Section 7.5, improvements are required to the existing rainwater harvesting systems as the primary water resource in the rural communities. Additional rainwater storage volumes may also be required in the target rural communities if the existing storage is less than required to meet the water security target.

105 RMI – Information provided by RMI Weather Station Office

Page | 102 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA The contribution of each rainwater harvesting improvement to water security is estimated through rainwater harvesting modeling as described in the following sub-sections.

The data requirements for assessing the need for water security investments in each of the target rural communities are listed below.

1. Baseline rainfall patterns for each weather station area (described in Section 1.2 of this FS) 2. Extent and magnitude of the drought risk for each weather station area under baseline and climate change additionality conditions (described in Section 1.3 of this FS) 3. Target water supply requirements (described in Section 8.1.3 of this FS) 4. Current available rainwater harvesting storage volume for households and communities (overview provided in Section 3.3, community level data provided in the results tables) 5. Existing output from the RO desalination units (described in 8.1.2). 6. Condition and efficiency of existing household and community rainwater harvesting systems (overview provided in Section 3.3) 7. Early identification and warning of droughts (introduced in Section 2.3)

These data were used in rainwater harvesting modelling to assess the water supply gap under baseline and climate change rainfall conditions. Rainwater harvesting modelling was used to quantify the volumetric benefit from each water security investment.

8.2.2 Rainwater Harvesting Modeling Methodology

Three rainwater tank volume modeling approaches were considered for assessing the performance of existing (status quo) systems and the future improved systems under both the status quo and climate change rainfall conditions. The three modelling approaches are described below.

Dry period method. This method provides a very rough estimate of the required tank size. The tank is designed to accommodate the necessary water demand throughout the longest dry period. For example, if the daily water demand is 100 liters and the dry season lasts for 120 days, a tank with a capacity of at least 12,000 liters would be required. The longest dry period needs to be defined.

Singular Tabular Method. This method uses monthly data over a one year rainfall period (e.g. the worst recorded year). A table is created to tabulate the monthly supply versus demand. For each month the excess water (not used by demand) from the previous month is factored into the existing tank volume (no allowance is made for overflow from the tanks during high daily rainfall events). Over the year the cumulative volume captured minus the cumulative demand over the year will determine the necessary tank size. The volume captured in a month is calculated by multiplying the available roof area equipped with gutters (A, m²) by an appropriate runoff coefficient based on the type of roof surface (Cr) and the monthly rainfall (R, mm).

Daily mass balance model. This is the most sophisticated of the three methods considered. The daily mass balance model is based on treating the RWH system as a closed system with a single input (rainfall depth), a single output (demand), storage (with overflow when the tank is full), and losses (inefficiencies in the gutter- downspout system and the percentage of the roof area with guttering attached). The daily mass balance model calculates the volume of water stored in the tank at the end of each day and establishes a more realistic estimate of the portion of rainwater volume delivered from the roof to the storage tank. This method provides the most accurate assessment of the required tank size out of the three methods considered but requires daily rainfall data therefore is only useful for modelling historical events not future events.

Monthly rainfall predictions have been prepared for 2045 under baseline and climate change scenarios. The monthly analysis in the singular tabular method was used to estimate the performance of existing (baseline) systems and future improved systems. The rainwater tank balance formula used in the design was the “Yield- After-Spillage” (YAS) formula (Wallace, 2015). The YAS formula is the most widely used rainwater tank volume formula for the water balance approach and the equation is as follows:

The volume stored in the tank at the end of each time period is calculated by this equation.

Page | 103 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA The terms in the YAS formula are defined below. Dimension L represents a length unit (e.g. meter) and dimension T represents a time unit (i.e. month for the singular tabular method). Vt : volume of stored rainwater at the end of the month [L³] Vt-1: volume of stored rainwater at the end of the previous month [L³] Ai: effective rooftop catchment area (area projected from bird’s eye view and enclosed by gutters) [L²] Pt: depth of rainfall per time step [L/T] ε: catchment efficiency of the gutter-downspout system [no dimensions] S: storage tank size [L³] Ot: water demand per time step [L³/T]

Rainfall depth (Pt) is the sole input of water, and this is taken from the representative weather station area for that community. The water demand (Ot) depends on the number of users (typical household or people per community building) and the per capita demand (20 Lpcd) of the users. Design constants included in the model are specific to the RWH system and include effective roof catchment area (Ai), storage tank size (S) and losses. Losses from the gutter-downspout system are allowed for through a catchment efficiency factor (ε) based on the condition of the RWH system (gutters and downspouts to connect from the roof catchment area to the tank). The condition rating of the RWH system is based on the condition and diameter of the gutter and downspout pipes (for example pipe age, presence of cracks, undersized and/or square pipes less than 150mm diameter, incomplete connections between the gutters and downspouts and storage tanks). The adopted time step was one month.

The assumed relationship between the RWH system condition and the catchment efficiency for both household and community RWH systems is shown in the table below. This relationship assumes an impermeable roof material such as corrugated iron sheets. Thatched rooves are only prevalent in a limited number of atolls and are discussed further in the limitations table in Section 11.

Table 33: Relationship between RWH system condition and catchment efficiency106

RWH system condition (gutter-downspout) Catchment efficiency (ε) Very good 80% Good or average 70% Fair 55% Poor 40% Very poor 20%

Table 29 shows that a gutter-downspout system in poor condition is expected to only capture 40% of the rainfall that falls on the connected roof area of the building. The catchment efficiency (ε) is combined with the percentage of roof area connected to the RWH system and storage tank to derive the overall RWH system efficiency, for example if 100% of the roof area is connected to the storage tanks through a RWH system in good condition, the overall RWH system efficiency is 70%. The maximum catchment efficiency of 80% (very good RWH system condition) allows for losses from first flush devices, gutter overflow etc. that will still occur from RWH systems in very good condition. This is a conservative assumption.

8.2.3 Rainwater Harvesting Model Inputs and Assumptions

The rainwater harvesting model calculations were completed for each community using the available infrastructure survey data and assumptions for data gaps. The water supply demand balance assessment was completed at the community rather than at the atoll/island level to reflect the reality of the geographic location of the existing communities where the smaller communities are often very remote from the largest communities (e.g. they could be at least an hour’s boat ride away therefore cannot share water during a drought). Also, some very large tanks were installed by MPW during 2017 and atoll level calculations would average these large storage volumes over all communities. Calculating the water supply demand balance at a community level also takes into account the variation in population densities in different communities.

106 From Master of Science thesis on “Water Resources on Outer-Lying Islands in Micronesia”, by Alise Marie Beikmann, 2016

Page | 104 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA The calculations were run for a community using a representative or typical household and the typical values for the suitable community buildings (i.e. individual models were not created for each community building). The “suitable” community buildings are defined below.

Inputs and assumptions  The water demand (Ot) depends on the number of users (typical household or people per community building) and the per capita demand (20 L/person/day during drought).  The population and households per community was based on the community level population projection figures for 2017 and 2045 as generated by UNDP based on the RMI 2011 Population Census and South Pacific Community (SPC) PRISM figures (with exceptions made for the two communities with boarding high schools as discussed under Exceptions below) and endorsed by RMI Economic Policy, Planning and Statistics Office (EPPSO)107. Where current population = 2017 estimate and future population = 2045 estimate. Community-level population estimates are included in FS Annex 2.  Pt: depth of rainfall per month was based on data for the appropriate weather station for each atoll.

Rainfall and Drought Timing The existing status quo infrastructure condition (poor condition of gutters and downpipes, small diameter pipes and connections to less than 100% of the roof area) leads to lower volumes of rainwater captured prior to the start of the drought when compared to improved conditions. This was taken into account by using the existing infrastructure condition data and estimating the percentage full that the existing storage tanks will be at the start of a drought using the monthly rainfall singular tabular method.

In RMI, the dry season usually runs from December to April inclusive but is longer post El Niño years. As described in Section 2.3, WSO typically provide 30 days warning of a potential drought based on the predictions for rainfall in the next 30 days as follows (these are referred to as the drought rainfall thresholds):  North < 152mm (6”) threshold in one month (Wotje and Utrik)  Middle <203mm (8”) threshold in one month (Majuro, Ailinglaplap and Kwaj)  South <254mm (10”) threshold in one month (Mili and Jaliut)

The RWH modelling approach used to estimate the percentage that the typical household tank is full on the first day of the drought is shown in Table 34 below (based on the assumption that most droughts will start in early January, i.e. a drought warning would be issued in early December). The percentage that the typical household tank is full at the end of the previous month (November) also needs to be taken into account and the modelling approach for this is shown in Table 35. A similar approach was taken for the community tanks using the community wide population, average community storage per building and typical community roof area. The community tanks were only considered to have demands in the 30 days prior to a drought if the typical household tanks in that community were empty at the beginning of that time period.

Table 34: RWH Modelling Approach to Estimate Percent Full for Household Tanks on 1st Day of Drought

Baseline Future Climate Change Scenario with Improved Conditions RWH Based on recent Household RWH systems with maximum 70% Infrastructure infrastructure survey data capture efficiency Condition or RMI median values in Community RWH systems with maximum 70% communities with no capture efficiency survey data. Gross volume of YAS formula using YAS formula using worse case of either drought water captured in minimum of either the rainfall threshold or the 2045 predictions for CC each existing HH drought rainfall threshold impacted December rainfall tank under or baseline December (AF) baseline rainfall conditions in the (A) 30 days prior to a drought (m³ supplied)

Page | 105 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Demand on the 2017 population estimate 2045 population estimate X 20 LPCD HH tank in the 30 X 20 LPCD (9 LPCD for Enewetak due to permanent RO) days prior to (9 LPCD for Enewetak (BF) drought (m³ due to permanent RO) demand) (B) Volume of water m³ supplied in 30 days m³ supplied in 30 days prior to drought minus available in each prior to drought minus m³ m³ demand for the 30 days existing HH tank demand in November (CF = AF – BF) on the first day of from above drought (m³ (C = A – B) Supplied minus Demand) % full for each HH C divided by volume of CF divided by volume of typical HH tank tank on the first typical HH tank day of drought

Table 35: RWH Modelling Approach to Estimate Percent Full for Household Tanks when the Drought Warning is Issued

Baseline Future Climate Change Scenario with Improved Conditions RWH Based on recent Household RWH systems with maximum 70% Infrastructure infrastructure survey data capture efficiency Condition or RMI median values in Community RWH systems with maximum 80% communities with no capture efficiency survey data. Volume of water YAS formula using YAS formula using the 2045 predictions for CC captured in tank in baseline November impacted November rainfall November (m³ rainfall (A) (AF) supplied) Demand from 2017 population estimate 2045 population estimate X 30 LPCD RWH for X 30 LPCD (19 LPCD for Enewetak due to permanent RO) November (m³ (19 LPCD for Enewetak (BF) demand) (higher due to permanent RO) demand per (B) person assumed pre drought) Volume of water m³ supplied in November m³ supplied in November minus m³ demand in available in each minus m³ demand in November from above existing HH tank November from above (CF = AF – BF) when drought (C = A – B) warning is issued at end of November (m³ Supplied minus Demand) % full for each HH C divided by volume of CF divided by volume of typical HH tank tank at the end of typical HH tank November (day drought warning is issued)

The community specific inputs for the rainwater harvesting models were based on the household and community infrastructure survey data available from previous initiatives, as listed in the baseline survey data in Section 3 (infrastructure data gaps are discussed below).

The infrastructure survey data from the community-level data sources were used to determine the baseline assumptions for the following model inputs for each community (households and community buildings):

Page | 106 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Ai: effective rooftop catchment area in m². For the current status quo, this was based on the utilized roof area (available roof area X percentage of roof area connected to rainwater harvesting system). Ε: catchment efficiency of the gutter-downspout system S: storage tank size.

The infrastructure survey data for the existing community building sizes were reviewed to determine a “suitable” roof area size that would capture enough water to store in the proposed large community storage tanks. The threshold for a suitable community building was defined as a roof area greater than 100 m², which is equivalent to twice the area of a small house. Typically the health centers were found to have greater storage than most other community buildings but have roof areas smaller than 100 m² so were excluded from the suitable community buildings (this provides additional contingency storage for the community). The existing community storage tank volume was averaged over the community population (i.e. assuming that the distribution of the community water demand would be proportional to the tank size).

Exceptions An exception to the RMI common inputs for population is the two communities in the outer atolls that have high schools with boarding students (Wotje in the Wotje Atoll and Jabwor in the Jaluit Atoll).

The high school boarding population was included in the 2011 Census population for the community where the school is located (Jabwor and Wotje), even if the students live with their families in other communities or atolls in the school holidays. The high schools are being supplied with additional rainwater storage through the GIZ ACSE fund plus new RO units by IOM and concrete tank (Jaluit HS) from grassroots grant of Japan. For this reason, the boarding student population was excluded from the community population for the community rainwater harvesting design for the proposed investments. The estimated 2017 boarding student population was:  150 students in the Northern Island High School in Wotje, Wotje Atoll  217 students in the Jaluit Area High School in Jabwor, Jaluit Atoll

Data gaps For the communities without infrastructure survey data, the model inputs were based on RMI wide median values from all of the infrastructure surveys (from the community-level data sources listed above) for households and for suitable community buildings. These RMI wide assumptions for all data gaps are shown in Table 36.

Table 36: RMI wide baseline assumptions (used for the infrastructure data gaps) Parameter Households Suitable community buildings Available roof area (m²) 54 m² 200 m² % of roof area connected 50% 50% RWH condition Poor Good RWH efficiency 20% 35% Tank volume (m³) 5.68 m³ (1,500G) 5.68 m³ (1,500G) People supplied with water per community N/A Average of 67 people per building community building

Status Quo rainfall requirement to fill typical tanks Under the status quo situation for RWH system condition and efficiency, the typical household storage tank of 5.68 m³ tank requires 516 mm of rainfall to fill. Under the improved household RWH system conditions (overall capture efficiency of 70%), the typical household storage tank requires 149 mm of rainfall (approximately 30% of the original rainfall) to fill a 5.68 m³ tank.

Under the status quo situation for RWH system condition and efficiency, the typical community building storage tank of 5.68 m³ tank requires 81 mm of rainfall to fill. Under the improved community building RWH system conditions (overall capture efficiency of 80%), the typical community building storage tank requires 36 mm of rainfall (approximately 40% of the original rainfall) to fill.

The rainwater harvesting model outputs are discussed in the sections below.

Page | 107 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA 8.2.4 Status Quo Rural Water Security under Baseline Drought

The status quo situation for the rural communities under the baseline drought is tabulated below at an atoll/island level, including the estimates for the 2017 population and households and the estimated total household and community storage volumes (the figures are rounded in the table). The community storage volume only includes tanks attached to suitable buildings (with a roof area greater than 100 m²). The storage located at additional smaller community buildings (e.g. health centres) provides a storage buffer.

The new large storage tanks built by MPW in 2017 are included in the table and in the total built storage. For Kwajalein, the status quo storage volume also includes a 30m³ tank planned to be built by Seabees in 2018. The baseline drought storage requirement is shown at the atoll/island level, i.e. is the sum of the individual communities in atolls/islands that have multiple communities (due to different population densities and community storage tanks). There are six atolls/islands (Aur, Ebon, Enewetak, Jabat, Jaluit and Kili) that have a status quo built storage volume that is greater than the requirement for the baseline drought. These should be checked during implementation as the community storage volume for some of the communities in these atolls/islands are based on RMI wide assumptions due to a lack of infrastructure survey data.

Table 37 also shows the total aggregated volume of water stored on first day of drought under status quo RWH system conditions and the baseline drought (as estimated from the rainwater harvesting calculations for the status quo system condition and efficiency). The volume of water available on first day of drought is less than the physical built storage in all atolls/islands under the status quo situation. This reflects the reality of water lost from the RWH systems due to inefficient roof capture and leaking gutters and downpipes. After accounting for this water loss through the RWH modelling, there are only two atolls/islands (Enewetak and Jabat) that have more water stored on first day of the baseline drought under status quo conditions than the baseline drought water requirement (i.e. the status quo provides sufficient water for the baseline drought for Enewetak and Jabat only). The modelled number of days of drought that water can be supplied at 20 litres per capita per day under the status quo RWH system conditions can only be shown at the community level, see Table 51 for the community level results.

Page | 108 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Table 37: Summary of the Status Quo RWH Systems and the Baseline Drought RWH results at the atoll/island level

Total Existing Existing Total Built Current 2017 New Modelled volume Number of Household Community Storage Baseline Largest target Community of water stored target Storage Storage Volume at under the Baseline storage Atoll/Island rural population Storage on first day of communities Volume Suitable Status drought volume community (communities Built in baseline drought (>= 5 HH ) Community Quo (HH requirement >= 5 HH) (all 2017 under status quo households) Buildings and CB) UNITS communities people m³ m³ m³ m³ days m³ m³ Ailinglaplap Woja 10 1,788 1,687 327 189 2,209 60 2,395 875 Ailuk Ailuk 2 352 364 104 189 657 90 706 493 Arno Arno 12 1,772 970 117 189 1,277 40 1,583 167 Aur Aur 2 519 557 49 189 801 70 811 607 Ebon Toka 6 724 772 140 0 919 40 648 507 Enewetak Enewetak 1 690 833 57 189 1,079 90 625 781 Jabat Jabat 1 87 114 11 95 220 60 118 185 Jaluit Jabwor 6 1,533 1,363 176 0 1,545 40 1,391 377 Kili Kili 0 569 523 57 0 579 40 509 156 Kwajalein Santo 6 1,606 1,301 606 125 2,079 70 2,513 683 Lae Lae 2 344 273 17 95 384 70 538 316 Lib Lib 1 161 108 0 95 203 70 252 164 Likiep Likiep 3 417 572 35 189 796 90 839 576 Majuro Aenkan 1 180 233 104 0 343 40 161 273 Maloelap Tarawa 5 709 586 86 189 861 70 1,109 861 Mejit Mejit 1 362 335 195 0 530 90 727 381 Mili Mili 6 694 1,083 62 189 996 40 620 616 Namdrik Namdrik 1 528 568 65 0 639 40 472 348 Namu Majkin 4 786 761 102 189 1,058 70 1,229 825 Rongelap Rongelap 1 82 68 11 0 80 90 166 0 Ujae Ujae 1 378 307 42 189 538 70 592 336 Utrik Utrik 1 452 403 93 95 597 90 909 115 Wotho Wotho 1 101 87 72 95 254 90 203 206 Wotje Wotje 3 738 772 228 284 1,284 90 1,517 87 RMI Totals 77 15,572 14,639 2756 2774 19,926 20,633 9935

Page | 109 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA 8.3 Rural Water Security Investment Design

As stated above, the rural community water security investments adopted in the design are:

1. Household RWH improvements: replacing existing gutters and downpipes with new 150mm diameter pipes plus first flush. 2. Community building RWH improvements and storage: a. Replacing existing gutters and downpipes with new 150mm diameter pipes plus first flush b. Construction of new storage tanks c. Construction of additional roof catchments (where there are insufficient community buildings)

The expected efficiency improvements are outlined in Table 38 and Table 39, which compare the status quo situation to the improved situation for typical households and typical community buildings.

Table 38: Household Rainwater Harvesting Systems in Rural Communities in RMI (Typical)

Status Quo HH RWH Systems in RMI Improved HH RWH Systems Roof Typical surface area is 54 m². No change to baseline for household roof area (note limitation on thatched roofs discussed further in Roof materials are corrugated steel or Section 11.5.1). Aluminum/Tin sheet roof – typically in good condition. Connection of In most HHs, only about 50% of the roof area is Under improved design,100% of the available roof roof area to connected with guttering leading to loss of area is connected with guttering leading with minimal RWH rainwater from roof to tank. loss of rainwater from roof to tank.

Overflow pipe connected to nearby groundwater well (if possible) to recharge the ground water table. Gutters 75mm (3”) to 100mm (4”) guttering system is 150mm diameter installed which typically provides 50% coverage or less and was found to be poorly installed and in poor condition. Downpipes 100mm diameter 150mm diameter Tanks Most household[1] have at least one 4,542 liter No change to baseline for household tanks (1,200 gallon) to 5,678 liter (1,500 gallon) storage tanks. Tanks are normally plastic PVC First flush diverter is in place to reduce pollution of materials. tank water by diverting the first flush of contaminated water away from the tank (available in several sizes). Most tanks in HHs do not have first flush diverters or mosquito guard systems. General Insect screens installed practice on first seasonal rainfall was to divert the feed away from the storage system to overflow onto the ground. Therefore, significant rainwater stored in tanks is often lost for cleaning. RWH system Typical 20% 70% after improvements to connection, gutters and efficiency Given above conditions, it is estimated that there downspout outlined above is significant loss of rainwater in typical HH RWH systems. 516mm of rain required to fill typical household 149mm of rain required to fill typical household tank tank under baseline RWH system conditions under improved RWH system conditions

Table 39: Community Rainwater Harvesting Systems in Rural Communities in RMI (Typical)

Status Quo Community RWH Systems in RMI Improved Community RWH Systems Roof area Surface area of suitable community building is at No change to baseline for existing community least 100 m2. Large roof areas can be over 400 building roof area m². For new community roofs, proposed surface area is Roof materials are corrugated steel or 200 m² of galvanized corrugated panels.

Page | 110 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Status Quo Community RWH Systems in RMI Improved Community RWH Systems Aluminum/Tin sheet roof – typically in good condition. Connection of In most suitable community buildings, only about Under improved design, 100% of the available roof roof area to 50% of the roof area is connected with guttering area is connected with guttering leading with minimal RWH tank leading to loss of rainwater from roof to tank. loss of rainwater from roof to tank.

Overflow pipe connected to nearby groundwater well (if possible) to recharge the ground water table. Gutters 75mm (3”) to 150mm (6”) guttering system 150mm diameter which typically provides 50% coverage or less and was found to be in good condition. Downpipes 100mm diameter 150mm diameter Tanks Most suitable community buildings have at least All suitable community buildings have additional one 4,542 liter (1,200 gallon) to 5,678 liter (1,500 storage tanks up to 50m3 in size. The proposed flat gallon) storage tanks. pack materials are structural panels and base (made of either galvanized steel or High Density Given small tank size compared to large roof Polyethylene (HDPE) with marinized aluminum area, significant water is lost from tank overflow. structural components) plus a food grade polypropylene liner. Most tanks in community buildings do not have first flush diverters or mosquito guard Tanks are made of materials that are easy to ship and systems. General practice on first seasonal construct (i.e. flat pack design[2]) rainfall was to divert the feed away from the storage system to overflow onto the In order to avoid land issues and altering function of ground. Therefore, significant rainwater stored the community building, maximum tank size per in tanks is often lost for cleaning. suitable building is proposed at 50m3

First flush diverter is in place to reduce pollution of tank water by diverting the first flush of contaminated water away from the tank (available in several sizes).

Insect screens installed RWH system Typical 35% 80% after improvements to connection, gutters and efficiency Given above conditions, it is estimated that there downspout outlined above is significant loss of rainwater in typical community RWH systems. 81mm of rain required to fill typical community 36mm of rain required to fill typical community tank tank under baseline RWH system conditions under improved RWH system conditions

Users From 20 to 150 people per community building From 18 to 77 people per community building

The volumetric benefit of the RWH system improvements was modelled using the improved RWH system efficiencies in Table 38 and Table 39 along with the monthly rainfall data and assuming drought timing etc. as described in Section 8.2.3.

Uncertainties are inherent in all models. Rainwater harvesting modeling has uncertainties associated with both the supply (capacity of the rainwater harvesting system to capture and store water) and the demand (which is influenced by water use behavior, household occupancy etc.). The aim is to minimize uncertainties where possible and adopt a conservative approach. The key uncertainties and the potential limitations are discussed in later sections (Section 11.5.2).

Table 40 shows the water security options and upper limit for target locations for each option.

Page | 111 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Table 40: Water Security options

Description Inputs – structural / equipment Target locations Household Improving existing Installing new/replacement 150mm Up to 2,524 households RWH System household RWH from a gutters to capture 100% of the across 77 target communities Improvements typical baseline efficiency available household roof area in 24 local island jurisdictions of 20% to 70%108 Replacing existing 100mm downspouts with 150mm downspouts All households in selected communities Installing first flush systems for households with no first flush system

Community Improving existing Installing new/replacement gutters Up to 237 existing community RWH System Community building RWH with 150mm gutters to capture 100% RWH systems available to be Improvements from a typical baseline of the available roof area for suitable improved at 237 suitable efficiency of 35% to community buildings community buildings (defined 80%109 as those with roof areas Replacing existing 100mm greater than 100m²). This All suitable community downspouts with 150mm downspouts excludes the community buildings that were not on suitable community buildings buildings that received upgraded in 2017 improvements and new large Installing first flush systems for storage tanks in 2017. community RWH with no first flush system

Community Adding additional Installing new flat pack community Up to 237 existing community RWH new community storage to storage tanks up to 50m³ in size for buildings suitable for new storage suitable community communities with insufficient storage storage tanks across the 77 buildings to meet the target . target communities The proposed flat pack materials are All suitable community structural panels and base (made of buildings that were not either galvanized steel or High Density upgraded in 2017 Polyethylene (HDPE)110 with marinized aluminum structural components) plus a food grade polypropylene liner.

Additional Construction of new Installing new 200 m² Roof Structures No limit on the number of Community community roofs with made of galvanized roof panels with new community roof Roofs new RWH systems to pressure treated timber supports structures across the 77 connect to new storage including new RWH system of 150mm target communities. tanks. gutters and downspouts with first flush systems connected to the new tanks. Target communities have an insufficient number of existing community buildings to install new storage at (based on the threshold of maximum of one tank per building of 50m³).

Table 41 shows a summary of the 2045 rainwater harvesting modelling results at the atoll/island level including the additional drought days and storage volume required due to climate change (these are additional to the baseline drought days and volume requirement under the status quo condition in Table 37). The table also shows the aggregated volumetric benefit for improved household (HH) and community building (CB) RWH systems as estimated from the rainwater harvesting calculations. The volumetric benefit is the additional water stored on the first day of the climate change drought in 2045 under improved RWH conditions (RWH capture efficiency increased to 70% for HH and 80% for CB).

108 The maximum efficiency will always be less than 100% due to losses in the RWH system from overflows, first flush volumes etc. The maximum improved efficiency has been set at 70% for household RWH to reflect the likely lower maintenance than community buildings. 109 The maximum improved efficiency has been set at 80% for community building RWH 110 Timber system may also be a viable alternative that can be further explored during project implementation

Page | 112 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Table 41: Summary of the 2045 rainwater harvesting modelling results at the atoll/island level (with climate change additionality)

Atoll Number of Projected Climate change Storage volume required for Estimated volumetric benefit Estimated volumetric target 2045 target additional days climate change additional to from HH RWH improvements benefit from CB RWH communities population of drought baseline drought (rounded at based on 1st day of drought improvements based on (>= 5 HH ) (communities community level to nearest 50 in 2045 (with climate change 1st day of drought in 2045 >= 5 HH) m³) impacts) (with climate change impacts) communities people days m³ m³ m³ Ailinglaplap 10 1,996 58 2,550 1,317 17 Ailuk 2 392 20 250 91 0 Arno 12 1,979 17 1,250 952 16 Aur 2 579 30 350 193 0 Ebon 6 810 19 150 412 36 Enewetak 1 771 20 0 275 0 Jabat 1 98 58 0 34 0 Jaluit 6 1,739 19 600 1,150 18 Kili 0 636 19 150 423 0 Kwajalein 6 1,795 30 1,600 1,213 43 Lae 2 384 30 400 64 0 Lib 1 180 30 150 14 0 Likiep 3 466 30 350 195 21 Majuro 1 201 17 0 70 0 Maloelap 5 792 30 750 0 0 Mejit 1 404 30 450 113 0 Mili 6 775 27 150 380 0 Namdrik 1 590 19 0 290 12 Namu 4 878 30 700 233 0 Rongelap 1 92 20 150 35 0 Ujae 1 423 30 300 194 9 Utrik 1 505 20 500 245 0 Wotho 1 113 20 0 36 0 Wotje 3 843 30 650 108 0 77 17,441 11,450 8,037 172

Page | 113 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA 8.3.1 New Community Storage Tank Design During the August 2016 mission to RMI, the project preparation team compared a number of material options for the new community storage tanks including obtaining pricing from suppliers. The evaluated tank material options were as follows:  Molded plastic tanks  Concrete tanks  Concrete Block Tanks  Modular steel tanks with liner  Modular HDPE or timber tanks with liner

The tank material options were assessed based on the following seven criteria: 1. Life expectancy 2. Cost 3. Potable water quality 4. Risk of leaks 5. Environmental sustainability 6. Ease of construction 7. Transportability

The tank material option assessments are shown in Table 42 and 43.

Table 42: Tank material option assessment result Comparison Molded Concrete Concrete Modular Modular Explanation of tank plastic tanks Block steel HDPE or material tanks Tanks tanks with timber options liner tanks with liner Life 3.0 10.0 9.0 8.0 6.8 Life expectancy as per Table expectancy 38 Cost 5 9 10 6 7 Relative cost. Molded plastic tanks would require more land area (based on multiple tanks of 5.68 m³ each tank) so have reduced score Potable water 6 5 5 10 10 Quality of water provided quality (much higher for the modular tanks with liners) Risk of leaks 5 4 4 8 8 Risk of cracks and leaks over time Environmental 7 5 6 8 8 Is the product made of sustainability environmentally friendly materials? It is made from raw or recycled materials? Ease of 9 4 5 8 8 Includes time to install, level of construction technical difficulty of installation, is skilled labor required Transportability 3 3 3 8 8 Transport from Majuro to the outer atolls. Modular tanks have higher scores as can be flat packed with lighter weight than concrete, so transport ‘footprint’ smaller plus can be relocated easily if necessary Total 38.0 40.0 42.0 56.0 55.8

Page | 114 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Table 43: Tank material option assessment detail for life expectancy

Comparison of tank material Molded Concrete Concrete Modular steel Modular HDPE options plastic tanks Block Tanks tanks with liner tanks with liner tanks Life expectancy (years) 10 50 40 30 25 Score for life expectancy 3.0 10.0 9.0 8.0 6.8

The flat pack modular tank material options (steel, HDPE or timber) received the highest assessment scores. Flat pack modular tanks carry significant advantages over the locally built concrete tanks and are recommended despite the need to import the tanks. These advantages include:  Modular delivery - everything you need can be supplied as a kit  Lightweight ease of transport into remote areas (can be flat-packed on to a pallet)  Lighter weight than concrete, so transport 'footprint' smaller  Ease of construction (local labor can be used following training by technician)  Readily relocated (to other communities or atolls) if need be  Can get a range of sizes without having to design specifically  Concrete and block tanks both prone to cracking, prefab tanks are not  The tank, if site is well prepared, will only take a few days to install  The lighter weight tank material option (HDPE) does not require a concrete foundation  No heavy machinery hoists/cranes required for the HDPE tank option, simple hand tools e.g. battery drills and ladders only required.  Inert materials will not rust nor leach out contaminants  Materials used can potentially be recycled e.g. marinized aluminum components, HDPE, timber or steel wall panels, bases and polypropylene liners, steel panels.  Flexible polypropylene potable water grade liner providing superior water quality

Concrete tanks would need to be made from either concrete derived from local sources or imported concrete blocks. Concrete derived from local sources originates from coral dredging and therefore are unacceptable from an environmental impact perspective. Imported concrete blocks would incur equivalent material costs but have much larger transport and installation costs. In addition, concrete tanks are more prone to leaks and cracks.

The technical design has been based on the flat pack modular tanks due to the advantages outlined above. Each flat pack modular tank material has different advantages and disadvantages, for example steel has the longest life but requires a concrete foundation, HDPE does not require a concrete foundation but has a lower asset life than steel, timber may be susceptible to termites. There are a number of suppliers of flat pack modular tanks and the selection of a supplier would follow the standard commercial procurement process (e.g. open tender process). Quotes were obtained from suppliers of each of the flat pack modular tank options and the budget was based on the higher pricing from the range.

Based on discussion within RMI the tank capacity has been limited to 50m3. This moderate size should eliminate the need for concrete foundations and should ensure that the tanks can be located next to buildings even in more populated communities.

The technical design details are included in Annex 19. A wet RWH system is proposed for the community storage tanks.

Page | 115 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA 8.4 Cost Effectiveness Assessment for Rural Water Security Technical Design Options

Chapter 7 and earlier sections of Chapter 8 have assessed the current status of the existing water supply infrastructure in target areas of this project. Further, it has assessed the potential and adequacy of a range of different technical options to contribute to ensuring water security in RMI. The maximum water supply augmentation potential and related costs for each technical option (intervention) has been assessed.

This analysis has illustrated that RMI has different options for ensuring water security across the project period.

Considering RMI’s financial constraints, the interventions are prioritised based on their cost-effectiveness (USD/m3). More details are provided below.

8.4.1 Introduction to Cost Effectiveness

As stated above, the three rural water security technical design options considered to enable the target communities to meet the water resilience target are:

1. Household RWH improvements: replacing existing gutters and downpipes with new 150mm diameter pipes plus first flush. 2. Community building RWH improvements and new storage tanks: a. replacing existing gutters and downpipes with new 150mm diameter pipes plus first flush b. construction of new community RWH storage tanks (flat pack tanks) 3. Construction of new roof catchments with new community storage tanks. 4. Existing Concrete tank rehabilitation (23)

During the feasibility design, a maximum tank size threshold was set to ensure that the proposed tanks are suitable for construction in a village situation (based on one tank per community building). The proposed maximum tank size threshold was set at 50m³ (Design details are included in FS Annex 19111).

The rural water security options were assessed and ranked based on their cost effectiveness index, in order to determine the priority order for implementation of investments per target community.

The infrastructure included within the capital construction cost as well as the estimated number of installations during the 25 year planning horizon for each option are summarized below:

Table 44: Water Security Options – RWH Systems

Rural Water Security Options Types of capital considered Household RWH improvements New gutters New downpipes First flush Community building RWH improvements and new storage New gutters New downpipes First flush New flat pack community RWH storage tanks for each suitable community building New roof catchments

Types of infrastructure considered Expected useful life and number of installations for each intervention during the 25 year planning horizon RWH system improvements New gutters 10 year expected life and 3 installations (1 initial and 2 renewals) in households and New downpipes community buildings First flush

111 The maximum size of the community tanks suitable for each community will be discussed and agreed at the community consultation at the start of the project implementation.

Page | 116 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA New Community RWH Storage Tanks 25 year expected life and 1 installation (1 initial and 0 renewals) Additional roof catchments 25 year expected life and 1 installation (1 initial and 0 renewals) New Household RWH Storage Tanks 10 year expected life and 3 installations (1 initial and 2 renewals)

8.4.2 Marginal Abatement Cost Curve (MACC) methodology

Chapter 7 and earlier sections of Chapter 8 have assessed the current status of the existing water supply infrastructure in target areas of this project. Further, it has assessed the potential and adequacy of a range of different technical options to contribute to ensuring water security in RMI. The maximum water supply augmentation potential and related costs for each technical option (intervention) has been assessed.

This analysis has illustrated that RMI has different options for ensuring water security across the project period. Considering RMI’s financial constraints, the interventions are prioritised based on their cost- effectiveness (USD/m3). More details are provided below. The Marginal Abatement Cost Curve (MACC) methodology was used to assess the most cost-effective sequence of water supply interventions to ensure water security by year 2045 for targeted islands/atolls. By jointly assessing the highest potential to augment water supplies or reduce water demand of each intervention and its related cost, a prioritization of interventions can be made based on their cost-effectiveness and their potential to close the water supply- demand gap.

An example of a MACC cost curve can be seen in Figure 26 below. The cost curve’s horizontal axis measures the amount of water made available by each measure, i.e. either by augmenting water supplies or by reducing water demand. The vertical axis of the cost curve measures the annual cost per unit of water required by each intervention type. This annual cost is measured as Equivalent Annual Cost (EAC), which includes the annual capital, operation and maintenance cost over the asset’s lifetime, as compared to the baseline.

Figure 26 MACC Cost Curve Example

Cost curves were determined for each target island/ atoll, considering their specific situation. However, transportation costs are not considered to differ across interventions and are thus not considered in the unit costs, but in the overall budget.

Water Security Target

The overall water security target is to ensure 20lpd for the target islands/ atolls during drought events. The

Page | 117 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA water security target has to be achieved for:

 Baseline droughts: Drought periods, which are unrelated to climate change  Climate change induced drought periods: Drought periods beyond the baseline drought, which have been prolonged by climate change.

Figure 27 below provides an overview on available water resources at the onset of a drought, as well as the water requirements for the baseline and climate change induced drought. Further, it also shows the water supply-demand gap to meet the defined water security target of 20Lpcd for each of these drought events. To ensure water security in a baseline drought, an additional 11,302 m³ are required. To ensure water security in a climate change induced drought, an additional 9,161 m³ of water are required. Some communities within the atolls have excess water supplies, even after taking the baseline and climate change drought water requirements into consideration. As this water – totalling 118 m³ - cannot be used by other communities on the island/ atoll, this water has to be made available by additional interventions, thus increasing the water availability gap by 118 m3 112. Likewise, as the underlying assessment for the water availability gap for the baseline and climate-change induced drought are made at community level, the RMI-wide totals of existing water availability and water requirements, as shown in Figure 27 below, do not provide the details required to understand the true water availability gaps. Under the status quo infrastructure conditions, most communities require additional water to meet the baseline drought requirements. A few communities have sufficient water to meet the baseline and climate change induced water requirements under the status quo infrastructure conditions. As such, the climate change induced water availability gap is overall smaller than the climate change induced water requirement. This is due to the fact that some communities have water supplies which can meet the baseline and the climate change induced water requirements, thus reducing the total value. Likewise, the baseline water availability gap is larger than one would expect when just subtracting the existing water availability from the baseline water requirement – as some of the existing water is used by communities with excess water supplies to meet the climate change induced drought. This demonstrates the importance of a community-based assessment of the water availability gap.

Figure 27 Overview of water availability and drought water requirements by 2045 across 24 target islands/ atolls

112 When not considering this community specific situation of existing water supplies and water requirements, the total water gap would be 20,345 ( total water requirement for baseline and climate-induced drought minus existing water availability). This, however, would mask the true water requirements at a community level.

Page | 118 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA The MACC analysis was conducted at an atoll/island level using the community specific water supply gap calculations as described earlier in Section 8.2.

The achievement of the water security target for the baseline drought is considered a development objective, and thus has to be ensured by the Government of RMI. The associated costs will be borne by the Government of RMI as partial Co-financing to this project. The additional requirements to achieve water security for a climate change induced drought are intended to be assured with GCF financing.

In practice – it is not possible to distinguish between water made available for the baseline or climate change induced drought. Water security for climate change induced drought periods cannot be achieved without having first achieved water security for baseline droughts. Thus, this project proposal targets the achievement of both water security targets.

To ensure transparency, the analysis distinguishes between water required, water supply-demand gap, required interventions and related costs for a baseline drought and for a climate change induced drought.

8.4.3 Assessment of interventions Through this process the number of interventions – on community level at each island/ atoll - as feasible to close the water supply-demand gap and to thus ensure the water security target.

These include:

1. Improvement of household rainwater harvesting structures 2. Improvement of community centre rainwater harvesting structures and increase in storage tanks 3. Construction of new community-based roof structures in combination with a storage tank 4. Rehabilitation of existing concrete storage tanks

In addition to stationary RO units, RMI has 54 mobile RO units, which are stored in Majuro and deployed to islands in need as emergency measure response measure during droughts. The centralized storage facilitates the O&M of these RO units, as compared to the stationary ones. To consider existing assets and to provide a holistic analysis of measures, mobile RO units are included in the cost curves analysis.

Table 45 provides an overview of interventions included in the cost curve analysis for all islands/ atolls. The cost curve analysis includes the maximum possible number of beneficiaries and volumetric benefit for each intervention.113 The analysis of the possible interventions has been conducted for each island/ atoll separately.

Table 45 Interventions included in cost curve analysis across all target islands/ atolls Intervention Definition Total # of possible Total potential water interventions increase (m3)

Improvement of household Total number of 2,529 households114 8,036 m3 rainwater harvesting households requiring structures (HH RWH) RWH improvements. Based on current state of RWH schemes, the volumetric benefit of this intervention was estimated.

Improvement of community Total number of 237 existing CB RWH Improvement: building rainwater harvesting community buildings community buildings structures and increase in requiring RWH for RWH improvement 172 m3 improvements and/or

113 For example, the final intervention mix may only include 100 interventions related to HH RWH. However, 2,524 HH could potentially benefit from this type of intervention. Thus, to allow for a holistic analysis of all possible intervention mixes, the total possible number of all interventions are used as input variables to the analysis. 114 Excludes the households improved by IOM in 2016 in Ujae, Wotho and Lae Atolls/Islands

Page | 119 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Intervention Definition Total # of possible Total potential water interventions increase (m3) storage tanks (CB RWH) additional storage. A 158 additional tanks Additional tanks: maximum of one for community storage tank (50m3) buildings 7,900 m3 per community building was assumed. Based Total: on current state of RWH systems and 8,072 m3 existing tanks, the volumetric benefit of this intervention was estimated.

Construction of new Total number of new 445 new community 22,250 m3 community-based roof roof/ tanks structures roofs and storage structures in combination with required to close the tanks (50m3)115 a storage tank (new CB RWH total water supply- roofs and tanks) demand gap. As these are new, free-standing structures, their number is not limited to existing buildings etc. The volumetric benefit is estimated based on the tank volume (50m3) per roof structure.

Rehabilitation of existing Total number of 23 concrete tanks 1,113 m3 concrete storage tanks existing storage tanks (concrete tank rehab) requiring rehabilitation. Based on their current state the volumetric benefit (less leakage) was estimated for this intervention.

Mobile reverse osmosis units Total number of 54 mobile RO units 104,248 m3 (mobile ROs) existing mobile RO units. Volumetric benefit is estimated based on total days with a projected water gap and actual daily production (as opposed to design capacity) to reflect local realities.

Further, the feasibility study has identified the importance of rehabilitating and protecting groundwater wells. The importance of groundwater as complementary water source for non-potable water uses was

115 While an unlimited number of community roofs and storage tanks could be installed, the number of total possible interventions is based on the total number of roofs and storage tanks, which would be required to close the water supply demand gap on their own, i.e. without any other intervention.

Page | 120 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA demonstrated during previous drought events and is highly relevant for building additional resilience.

However, uncertainty around groundwater quality does not allow for its consideration as additional, reliable drinking water source. Its importance lies in meeting non-potable water demand and thus reducing the pressure on drinking water supplies – thus building further resilience. For these reasons, this intervention is not included in the cost curves, which seek to identify cost-effective interventions to ensure the water security target for essential uses (20 Lpcd).

While the cost curves are based on the type of interventions assessed in the feasibility study – with the exception of existing mobile RO units - detailed on-site assessments will be required before implementation to assess the exact scope and costs. 116

8.4.4 Assessment of costs for targeted interventions Three categories of costs are considered for the project period of 26 years, starting with the implementation phase:

 Capital expenditure  Sustenance expenditure  Operation and maintenance expenditure

The costs are discounted at 10% to derive the net present value. The unit costs for each intervention are based on the annual volumetric benefit from each intervention and the equivalent annual cost (EAC) of each intervention. Transportation costs are not included, as these would be similar per intervention. 117

The weighted average unit costs of each intervention type across all target islands/ atolls can be seen in Table 46 below.

Table 46 Overview of weighted average unit costs of interventions across 24 target islands/ atolls

Intervention Unit cost (USD/m3) HH RWH Improvement 49.37 CB RWH Improvement & Storage 56.95 CB new RWH roofs and tanks 78.56 Concrete tank rehab 96.97 Mobile RO 141.27

Note that the existing status quo infrastructure status of the rainwater harvesting structure of households and community centres has an impact on the total volumetric benefit of each intervention. Thus, the unit costs across islands/ atolls for these interventions can differ. Likewise, the volumetric benefit from rehabilitating concrete tanks is tank specific and thus, unit costs differ per tank. For an island/ atoll specific overview, please refer to the attached Excel File, sheet ‘Water savings and costs’. 118

8.4.5 Cost curves for targeted islands/ atolls of RMI Following the cost curve analysis, it becomes apparent that only interventions from three out of the five analysed intervention categories are required to meet the water security target. Concrete tank rehab, as well as mobile RO are not among the most cost-effective interventions to close the water gap. More detailed information on the Cost Curve Analysis is provided in FS Annex 24.

The differences in unit costs for HH RWH improvement and CB RWH improvement and storage across islands/ atolls have resulted in islands/ atolls specific prioritisation of interventions based on cost-

116 For more details, please consult the Feasibility Study.

117 As per expert opinion. 118 File Name: Final_RMI MACC_Final Interventions_19122017

Page | 121 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA effectiveness. Thus, in some islands/ atolls, HH RWH improvement may be more cost-effective – and thus prioritised – than CB RWH improvement and storage. In other islands/ atolls the opposite may be the case.

A comparison of the maximum number of interventions within each category with the most cost-effective ones can be seen in 94% of all CC RWG improvement and storage interventions, as well as 64% of all HH RWH improvement interventions were among the most cost-effective solutions and are thus prioritised. Further, 29% of the total potential CC RWH roofs are found to be cost effective solutions across the target area. The remaining interventions – while feasible – were not found to be cost-effective to meet the water security target.

Table 47 Comparison of Selected Project Interventions and total possible interventions Max # # Cost- % interventions effective included interventions CB RWH Improvement & Storage 155 147 95% CB RWH roofs with storage 445 140 31% Concrete Tanks Rehab 23 - 0% HH RWH Improvement 2,524 1,635 65% Mobile RO 54 - 0%

The cost effective analysis is solely based on the technical feasibility of the interventions and their cost- effectiveness (USD/m3). It does not consider criteria related to social or equity concerns, nor does consider factors related to implementation. Thus, the results of this analysis can be used as guidance for the final determination of the intervention mix.

8.5 Final Water Security Intervention Mix

The intervention mix based on the criteria of cost-effectiveness needs to be reviewed considering the basic design principles described in Section 6.3, ownership, redundancy, effectiveness, sustainability, equity and coordination.

Based on these criteria, it was decided to provide upgraded household Rainwater Harvesting Improvements to all target households with rainwater harvesting systems. The principles of ownership, equity and sustainability apply. The government of RMI needs to ensure equitable benefit to all the residents equally in beneficiary communities. HH which receive repair in one community and not in another will not be perceived as an equitable solution for all the residents despite the theoretical costs calculations not supporting their complete intervention. RMI previous projects have not holistically supported every resident equally and this project cannot be afford to follow this without the potential perception of favouritism, It is not appropriate to build additional water security interventions in one community benefitting at the HH level while leaving others without. By providing HH RWH improvements at each home (additional 152 above the cost effective determination) then the number of CB requiring improvements with storage and new CB roofs with storage are affected and the final interventions are summarised in Table 48.

Table 48 Overview of final interventions to meet the water security target (differentiated by baseline and climate induced drought) Total M3 Interventions # # CB # new roofs # tanks Baseline Drought buildings and tanks rehab # HH CB RWH Improvement & Storage 3,204.89 69 CB RWH roofs with storage 1,364.36 29 Concrete Tanks Rehab - - HH RWH Improvement 6,733.05 1,937.00

Page | 122 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Sub-total 11,302.30 Climate Change Additionality Drought CB RWH Improvement & Storage 4,170.69 89 CB RWH roofs with storage 4,032.00 92 Concrete Tanks Rehab - - HH RWH Improvement 957.93 311.00 Sub-total 9,160.62 Total Baseline and Climate Change Additionality CB RWH Improvement & Storage 7,375.59 158 CB RWH roofs with storage 5,396.37 121 Concrete Tanks Rehab - - HH RWH Improvement 7,690.97 2,248.00 Total 20,462.93 158 121 - 2,248.00 Additional HH RWH for social equity 550.82 281** Additional CB with Storage* (included in numbers above) 3* Grand Total (incl. 100% HH RWH) 21,359.21 158 121 - 2,529.00

* 3 tanks and CB improvements are due to the calculation rounding up of tanks where communities require a partial tank to complete the storage gap then this was rounded to a whole number. For example if a community required 65m3 to cover their storage gap then 2 standard 50m3 tanks were allocated to the community. ** number of interventions was increased from 2,248 to 2,524 for social equity reasons.

Table 49 below provides an updated overview of the final selected interventions and the maximum possible interventions, when considering social equity concerns.

Table 49 Comparison of selected project interventions and total possible interventions Max # # Selected % interventions interventions included CB RWH Improvement & Storage 237 158 67% CB RWH roofs with storage 445 121 27% Concrete Tanks Rehab 23 - 0% HH RWH Improvement 2,524 2,524 95% Mobile RO 54 - 0%

Page | 123 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Table 50 shows the cost effectiveness results for rainwater harvesting at an atoll/island level. As described earlier, the cost curves results concluded that the concrete tank rehabilitation was not a cost effective option for water security investment. Rehabilitation of the existing concrete tanks is not shown in the results tables but is recommended as a good asset management practice as it will ensure the baseline water storage is available in times of drought. The results for the atoll/islands that have multiple communities have been distributed amongst the communities using the community level water supply demand balance calculations. The community level proposed cost effective technical investments to ensure the goal of water security are shown in Table 51. A map of each atoll showing approximate locations for the target communities is provided in the atoll profiles in Proposal Annex IX. Scale- up of current successfully cost-effective existing measures will provide assurance of sustainable interventions.

Table 50: Summary of Cost Effective Water Security Investment Results by Atoll/Island

Atoll/ 2017 HH Baseline Baseline Baseline Baseline Climate Climate Climate Climate Total # of Total # of Total # of Total new Island Drought # of Drought # of Drought # of Drought # of Change Change Change Change new new households storage new existing new households Additionality Additionality Additionality Additionality Community community for RWH volume Community Community community for RWH Drought # of Drought # of Drought # of Drought # of tanks at roofs (1 tank Improvement tanks at buildings roofs (1 tank Improvement new existing new households existing per roof) existing requiring per roof) Community Community community for RWH buildings buildings improvement tanks at buildings roofs (1 tank Improvement existing requiring per roof) buildings improvement households tanks buildings tanks households tanks buildings tanks households tanks tanks households m³ Ailinglaplap 298 5 5 0 298 26 26 22 0 31 22 298 2650 Ailuk 64 2 2 2 64 0 0 3 0 2 5 64 350 Arno 256 10 10 0 256 14 14 0 0 24 0 256 1200 Aur 99 1 1 0 99 4 4 4 0 5 4 99 450 Ebon 137 0 0 0 63 1 1 0 75 1 0 138 50 Enewetak 110 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 110 0 Jabat 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 20 0 1 20 50 Jaluit 241 0 0 0 213 11 11 0 29 11 0 242 550 Kili 92 0 0 0 77 3 3 1 16 3 1 93 200 Kwajalein 232 12 12 0 232 10 10 13 0 22 13 232 1750 Lae 48 4 4 0 24 1 1 4 0 5 4 24 450 Lib 19 1 1 1 19 0 0 3 0 1 4 19 250 Likiep 76 2 2 0 76 6 6 0 0 8 0 76 400 Majuro 42 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 42 0 Maloelap 129 6 6 0 0 5 5 5 0 11 5 129 800 Mejit 59 5 5 0 59 1 1 5 0 6 5 59 550 Mili 131 0 0 0 32 0 0 1 100 0 1 132 50 Namdrik 101 0 0 0 43 0 0 2 59 0 2 102 100 Namu 135 4 4 0 135 6 6 5 0 10 5 135 750 Rongelap 12 2 2 1 12 0 0 1 0 2 2 12 200 Ujae 54 2 2 0 27 1 1 5 0 3 5 27 400 Utrik 72 2 2 9 72 0 0 5 0 2 14 72 800 Wotho 23 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 12 0 1 12 50 Wotje 136 11 11 16 136 0 0 11 0 11 27 136 1900 TOTALS 69 69 29 1937 89 89 92 311 158 121 2529 13950

Page | 124 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Table 51: Community Level Water Supply Gap Results and Distributed Cost Effective Water Security Investments

Local Community Current 2017 Number of days that Gap in water Climate change # of new # of new Total new # of households Additional governmen households in water can be supply for additional days of Community tanks community storage volume for RWH Households to t community supplied on first day baseline drought tanks at existing roofs (1 tank Improvement receive RWH jurisdiction of baseline drought drought under Community per roof) improvements for under status quo status quo buildings (also equity conditions conditions RWH improvement) households days days days tanks tanks m³ households households

Ailinglaplap Jah 19 26 34 58 2 1 150 19 0 Ailinglaplap Mejil 18 28 32 58 2 1 150 18 0 Ailinglaplap Jeh 47 24 36 58 2 7 450 47 0 Ailinglaplap Kattiej 16 58 2 58 2 0 100 16 0 Ailinglaplap Woja 78 16 44 58 10 6 800 78 0 Ailinglaplap Enewe/Bikajl 10 1 59 58 2 1 150 10 0 a Ailinglaplap Bouj 41 39 21 58 4 1 250 41 0 Ailinglaplap Jebwan 18 13 47 58 2 2 200 18 0 Ailinglaplap Airok 45 30 30 58 4 3 350 45 0 Ailinglaplap Olar 6 28 32 58 1 0 50 6 0 Ailuk Enejelar 6 177 0 20 0 0 0 6 0 Ailuk Ailuk 58 55 35 20 2 5 350 58 0 Arno Ine 22 0 40 17 3 0 150 22 0 Arno Japo 19 0 40 17 2 0 100 19 0 Arno Likwoj 24 27 13 17 1 0 50 24 0 (Lukoj) Arno Arno 47 0 40 17 4 0 200 47 0 Arno Ulien 32 12 28 17 2 0 100 32 0 Arno Bekarej 24 13 27 17 2 0 100 24 0 Arno Todo (Tutu) 6 0 40 17 1 0 50 6 0 Arno Langor 19 0 40 17 2 0 100 19 0 Arno Tinak 21 0 40 17 2 0 100 21 0 Arno Kilange 10 0 40 17 1 0 50 10 0 Arno Malel 10 0 40 17 2 0 100 10 0 Arno Matolen 22 2 38 17 2 0 100 22 0 Aur Tabal 43 57 13 30 2 1 150 43 0 Aur Aur 56 60 10 30 3 3 300 56 0 Ebon Jittaken 35 30 10 19 0 0 0 35 0 Ebon Jittoen 22 17 23 19 1 0 50 22 0 Ebon Rerok 12 10 30 19 0 0 0 12 0 Ebon Enilok 7 84 0 19 0 0 0 7 0 Ebon Toka 44 49 0 19 0 0 0 44 0 Ebon Enekoton 17 50 0 19 0 0 0 17 0 Enewetak Enewetak 110 126 0 20 0 0 0 0 110 Jabat Jabat 20 106 0 58 0 1 50 20 0 Jaluit Imiej 17 13 27 19 1 0 50 17 0 Jaluit Imroj 28 25 15 19 1 0 50 28 0 Jaluit Jabnoren 8 5 35 19 1 0 50 8 0 Jaluit Jabwor 108 6 34 19 5 0 250 108 0 Jaluit Jaluit 47 15 25 19 1 0 50 47 0 Jaluit Mejrirok 15 22 18 19 1 0 50 15 0 Jaluit Narmej 18 27 13 19 1 0 50 18 0 Kili Kili 92 14 26 19 3 1 200 93 0 Kwajalein Santo 100 32 38 30 6 4 500 100 0 (Enubirr) Kwajalein Ebadon 11 0 70 30 2 3 250 11 0 Kwajalein Mejatto 52 13 57 30 6 3 450 52 0

Page | 125 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Local Community Current 2017 Number of days that Gap in water Climate change # of new # of new Total new # of households Additional governmen households in water can be supply for additional days of Community tanks community storage volume for RWH Households to t community supplied on first day baseline drought tanks at existing roofs (1 tank Improvement receive RWH jurisdiction of baseline drought drought under Community per roof) improvements for under status quo status quo buildings (also equity conditions conditions RWH improvement) households days days days tanks tanks m³ households households

Kwajalein Gugeegue 44 19 51 30 5 1 300 44 0 Kwajalein Enubuj 11 28 42 30 1 1 100 11 0 (Carlson) Kwajalein Carlos 14 4 66 30 2 1 150 14 0 Lae Lae 48 46 24 30 5 4 450 24 0 Lib Lib 19 51 19 30 1 4 250 19 0 Likiep Melang 8 32 58 30 2 0 100 8 0 Likiep Jebal 10 82 8 30 1 0 50 10 0 Likiep Likiep 58 73 17 30 5 0 250 58 0 Majuro Aenkan 42 76 0 17 0 0 0 0 42 Maloelap Kaben 30 49 21 30 3 1 200 0 30 Maloelap Jang 20 63 7 30 2 0 100 0 20 Maloelap Wolot 20 100 0 30 1 0 50 0 20 Maloelap Tarawa 24 42 28 30 4 2 300 0 24 Maloelap Airok 30 68 2 30 1 2 150 0 30 Mejit Mejit 59 53 37 30 6 5 550 59 0 Mili Lukonwod 8 4 36 27 0 1 50 8 0 Mili Enejet 33 39 1 27 0 0 0 33 0 Mili Arbar 6 72 0 27 0 0 0 6 0 Mili Mili 49 58 0 27 0 0 0 49 0 Mili Nallu 28 47 0 27 0 0 0 28 0 Mili Tokewa 7 18 22 27 0 0 0 7 0 Namdrik Namdrik 101 33 7 19 0 2 100 102 0 Namu Namu 29 40 30 30 2 2 200 29 0 Namu Majkin 68 82 0 30 4 0 200 68 0 Namu Mae 19 29 41 30 2 1 150 19 0 Namu Loen 19 25 45 30 2 2 200 19 0 Rongelap Rongelap 12 0 90 20 2 2 200 12 0 Ujae Ujae 54 44 26 30 3 5 400 27 0 Utrik Utrik 72 13 77 20 2 14 800 72 0 Wotho Wotho 23 102 0 20 0 1 50 12 0 Wotje Wormej 22 32 58 30 1 0 50 22 0 Wotje Wotje 114 0 90 30 10 27 1850 114 0 TOTALS 2581 158 121 13950 2245 276

Page | 126 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA 8.6 Operations and Maintenance (RWH and Storage)

The project will support capacity building for all the stakeholders in participatory, community-based water access, distribution, and delivery planning and implementation to ensure gender-targeted, inclusive, and equitable access to safe, year-round drinking water. In support of operations and maintenance of the installed infrastructure the beneficiaries should be responsible for the operations and maintenance of livelihood assets and technologies promoted. It is recommended that GCF finance is used to develop O&M plans and related SOPs during the project implementation. The Feasibility Study has documented acceptance of an operations and maintenance (O&M) system (based on community consultations as well as discussions Mayors and OCS). Tier 1: Beneficiary households and Community Building Owners/Management Tier 2: Community Water Committees (CWC) or equivalent representative Tier 3: Mayors and Community Leaders (Chiefs) – Mayor Council Tier 4: OCS and NDMO/ National Government The regular planned O&M will be led by the household or community building owner (Tier 1 ). Each will be responsible to properly clean and maintain their systems with the frequency detailed in FS Annex 19. The project will initiate and facilitate, through capacity building and peer-to-peer learning activities (like basic carpentry) and continued monitoring of the availability and quality of water using simple O&M needs. The CWC representative (Tier 2), who has been trained in proper operations and maintenance best practices, is mandated by the Community leaders and Mayors to monitor and report the state of the infrastructure including frequency of cleaning back to the Mayor or Community Leader. The Mayor or Community leader will be responsible to encourage and support proper maintenance if an individual household or community building is lagging. The CWC also has a number of other duties and will be the focal point for coordination to complete:  Support and coordinate with EPA for water quality testing and measurement of stored water (both HH and groundwater review) in a programmatic method following SOPs that relate to the Community level Water Safety Plans.  Focal point for coordination with NDMO for supporting disaster preparedness and response for water security.  Become the expert in O/M of basic and minor repair of RWH systems and perform awareness training for the community.  Coordinate with municipal officials to support major and sustenance repairs when needed.  Generate annual condition reports of water infrastructure and water resources to be provided to Tier 3 and 4 stakeholders for each atoll.

Tiers 3 and 4 will support, mandate and hold accountable the CWC representative in performing the duties and ensure coordination with National level stakeholders to monitor and report the asset condition of the water infrastructure.

8.5.1 Maintenance Task for Rainwater Harvesting System

The success of the RWH systems to provide safe drinking water will be dependent on how well the system is maintained. The RWH collection system and tank should be designed to make maintenance as easy as possible to increase the likelihood that those responsible for the systems will follow proper maintenance protocols. Downspout filters should be installed at a location easily seen and accessed by system users to facilitate frequent inspection and cleaning. The treatment filters should be easily accessed and cleaned. Storage tanks should have access ways and drawdown valves should be installed to make tank cleaning and sediment removal easier. Tasks that should be performed regularly include cleaning the catchment surface, gutters, and storage tanks; Cleaning filters, first-flush diverters, and debris screens; and inspecting the system for possible points of entry for mosquitoes and vermin. These tasks are described further in Table 41. The importance of maintenance

Page | 127 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA to the overall success of the rainwater harvesting system should be conveyed to the households (for household-level RWH), and caretakers. Establishing a maintenance contract can reinforce the necessity of timely and through maintenance practices and protect the designer from system problems that arise due to lack of maintenance. Additionally, an owner’s manual or SOP should accompany every rainwater collection system and should include detailed troubleshooting guidance, maintenance tasks and frequency, and replacement part component details. Water safety plans will be developed for effective risk management. The Table 52 outlines the required regular planned maintenance tasks for RWH systems and the recommended frequency. The beneficiary households will be responsible for carrying out the regular planned maintenance tasks for the household. Repairs (both minor and major) are unplanned maintenance tasks and will be additional to the regular maintenance tasks. Repairs will be carried out on an as needed basis and will be monitored and reported by the CWC.

Table 52: Planned Maintenance Tasks for RWH Systems and Recommended Frequency Task Description/Details Frequency Clean roof surface and Manually clean rooftops, gutters and downspouts by A minimum of once per gutters hand, with hand tools, brooms and rakes. If using water month. For sites with to flush rooftops, gutters, or downspouts, be sure to over hanging divert this debris-laden water so that it does not flow into vegetation, after each downspouts, filters or the tank. Inspect gutters for leaks significant rainfall and holes; Repair as needed. This is especially event. important after leaf fall. Inspect and clean Disassemble, clean and replace screens on all inlet After each significant debris filter(s) and first- filters as needed. Disassemble and clean as needed. rainfall event flush diverter(s) Inspect all downspouts, clean any obstructions, inspect all inlets and overflow pipe assemblies to ensure they are unobstructed and working properly. Check screens for holes/tears and repair as needed. Disassemble and clean as needed. Disassemble and clean the first-flush diverter; Ensure the weep hole is open and unclogged. Record operations and It is good practice to keep an operational log-sheet to Daily maintenance tasks record drinking water production flow rates and when cleaning procedures were undertaken. Check all piping and Check all piping and valve for cracks, holes or leaks. Annually valves for leaks; Repair as needed. Inspect all openings in the storage Inspect all openings in tanks for leaks and gaps storage tank Remove tank Remove sediments that have accumulated in the bottom Annually or as needed sediments of the tank. Be sure that all safety regulations are followed with respect to confined space entry. Dispose of sediment in the manner deemed appropriate by the local regulating authority.

For more detailed O/M methodology refer to the FS Annex 19. 9 Technical Design for Water Resilience (Rural Communities)

9.1 Groundwater

The importance of rehabilitating and protecting groundwater wells, as a complementary water source has been demonstrated during previous drought events. While the direct impact on augmented water supplies from these measures is difficult to quantify due to lack of data on groundwater quality and quantity across islands/ atolls, recognizing the importance of groundwater in supplementing minimum drinking water quality requirements for washing, watering of household gardens, during drought events, and the measures and steps to improve knowledge on groundwater have been incorporated in project interventions. The project will install covers and raise sidewalls to protect 2586 groundwater wells identified within the 77 target communities.

Page | 128 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA A list of groundwater wells is provided in FS Annex 8. There is insufficient data available to properly evaluate the physical number of wells, or their condition based on the cumulative review of the UNDP, IFRC and IOM surveys of the residents within the atolls. In addition there are an insufficient number of water quality tests performed at various times of the year (drought and non-drought periods) to confirm that this water source is safe from contamination or high noted in the baseline Section 3, contaminated or highly saline water (approx. 50%) is prevalent in the catchments and wells. The residents consistently experienced stomach aches and diarrhea, which is reflected in the UNDP survey results. Groundwater cannot be considered a water security option to attain the 20 Lcpd of safe water value. If this source is better protected, including the implementation of comprehensive long-term water quality testing, then groundwater may eventually become a more reliable source for consumption or other possible uses.

Considering the limited information, it has been extrapolated that the number of households is equal to the number of groundwater wells (both community and HH wells) for the rural communities therefore the project will rehabilitate up to a maximum of 2,564 priority household and/or community groundwater wells identified within the 78 target rural communities. The FS Annex 8 provides a general understanding of the number of community wells versus household wells where some of the surveys differentiated them. There is approximately 33 percent community wells compared to 67 percent household wells. During the drought the consultations captured that the community shared the wells as common source for drinking water where it was found to provide good quality of water. The community would organize and clean our any contaminated wells as part of their preparation activities for drought. Considering this coordinated effort and willingness to de-contaminate wells and from common ground water sources during times of stress from either HH and community wells they may be considered as a shared resource.

Currently, many of the groundwater wells in the RMI rural communities have concrete rings as support walls, placed up to about 100 mm above ground level and also a concrete apron. A concrete apron cast impedes seepage of mud, debris, and other contaminants into the water that often surrounds the wells. A concrete cover is placed over the well, with an opening for drawing water out with a bucket. However, some wells are unprotected and require rehabilitation. The KiriWATSAN design, for the Republic of Kiribati, created by SPC and UNICEF provides updated guidelines into the design of groundwater wells (Refer to Annex 19 for design details). Note that the KiriWATSAN design requires that the well hole is raised to an elevation of 600mm above the concrete apron. Table 53 provides a list of potential investment options to be considered.

Table 53: Groundwater Wells Investment Options

Current Groundwater Proposed intervention Suitable types of wells and use Possible well condition Costs Cover and Apron are in Requires periodic Household and communities wells for $0 good condition monitoring cooking and washing Cover is Compromised, Provide Plastic / Tin Cover Household wells used for washing $240 concrete apron required and raise concrete opening minor repairs to 0.6m. Cover and concrete apron Provide Plastic / Tin Cover, Readily used community and/or critical $480 require rehabilitation raise concrete opening to household wells used for cooking and/or 0.6m.plus rehabilitation of washing and concrete apron Cover and concrete apron Hand Pump, Concrete Important and readily used community wells > $600 require rehabilitation plus Apron, 0.6m for concrete for drinking, cooking and/or washing and install additional hand opening serves an important water resilience pump function in the community Cover and concrete apron Solar Pump and Concrete Very large and critical community wells > $1000 require rehabilitation plus Apron, 0.6m for concrete used for drinking, cooking and/or washing install additional solar opening. and serves a very important water resilience pump function in the community

The key concern is to ensure protection from inundation. The proposed intervention baseline should include provision of plastic or tin cover and concrete apron assuming the condition of the existing groundwater wells and casings are in good condition. For RMI during the design phase the Community Water Committees

Page | 129 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA (CWC) and engineering teams will determine if the groundwater source warrants the investment for a rehabilitation or construction of the concrete apron, and tin cover (based on KiriWATSAN design). Finally the concrete apron will prevent surface water and contamination to flow into the borehole directly. The apron also provides a solid and clean base for the groundwater well opening or hand pump for the collection of water. The apron is usually 2-3 meter in diameter with a (small) wall around the outside. The general maintenance practice is to ensure that the apron is free of debris and the surface is exposed to sunlight to provide some level of disinfection.

National standards (if available) will influence concrete apron design and the choice may depend on factors such as: type of pump to be installed, price and need for protection against floods (in some areas), etc. A protective fence is also recommended to keep animals away.

For best practice designs UNICEF/SPC have created guidelines suitable for groundwater infrastructure relating to groundwater protection and diagrams are provided in Annex 19.

9.2 Proposed Water Resilience Interventions - Rural

Table 54 describes the proposed water resilience interventions. The locations for the proposed water resilience interventions is shown in the table in Section 9.5.1.

Table 54: Description of proposed water resilience interventions

Water Description Inputs – Target locations resilience structural / intervention equipment Groundwater Number and quality of groundwater Concrete Total number of wells estimated well resources, especially in the rural apron and Up to 1 well per HH in all 77 rehabilitation communities are unknown. However, for plastic/tin target rural communities will be water resilience, better understanding and access cover rehabilitated. (specific wells utilization, wherever possible of groundwater repair or (including HH and community resources is essential for water resilience replacement. wells) to be rehabilitated will be (IWRM, DRM and CCA). identified and agreed upon through the community integrated Community groundwater well mapping & water resource planning process) quality testing (as part of community integrated water resource mapping and planning)

For key groundwater resources (identified through the water resource planning process) implement groundwater quantity modeling (building on R2R and Reimaanlok process)

Page | 130 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA 10. Implementation Strategy

10.1 Partners – Scaling and Stakeholders

This Project extracts and scales good practices and lessons learned from the various water security and resilience initiatives implemented in RMI and in similar small island developing states in the Pacific Region. It is important to identify and partner with successful implementers in up scaling existing initiatives.

10.1.1 Household RWH improvements in the rural communities –IOM and MIRCS WASH HH RWH systems refer to rainwater harvesting (roof, gutter, and downpipes) and storage systems (plastic or concrete tanks, first flush systems, etc.) that are installed, used, and owned by households. Although most households in RMI, in both urban and rural communities, rely almost solely on household rainwater harvesting system as their primary source of freshwater throughout the year, past studies, surveys119 and assessments conducted in selected atolls and islands during the project design process reported significant challenges of household rainwater harvesting systems in terms of their poor quality and quantity of water produced. Typical reasons of failures include: 1) improper placement of tanks (often placed under the roof eaves resulting in poor capture efficiency); 2) improper connections between gutter lengths and between gutter and downspout resulting in leakage; 3) improper slope on gutter; and 4) gutters too small in width resulting in poor capture and retention of rainwater. Furthermore, fostering ownership for proper installation and maintenance for household rainwater harvesting system that have been provided free of charge to residents through grant financing have also been identified as key behavioral and economic challenges.

Understanding these challenges IOM and MIRCS together with the WASH Cluster recent completed a Rainwater Harvesting Improvement Project in Wotho, Ujae and Lae Atolls to repair the household rainwater harvesting systems through provision of dedicated paid carpentry teams to complete the upgrade of the guttering systems and also re-train the residents targeting 50% of the population. These initiatives were coupled with community involvement activities and training as well as an individualized or packaged approach for identifying catchment area and storage sa based on roof area and household size. A number of lessons were learned and are applied to the design of this project including:

a. sensitizing each household of the importance of regular repairs and maintenance of their catchment system, including cleaning the gutter and catchment tank. b. Construction team members were locally sourced and part of the community. c. The team composition worked well and included Team Leader / Foreman / Community Liaison. d. Prior to construction activity reinforcement of expected outcomes were explained in town hall format to local council and other community representatives. e. Upgrading to 150mm diameter guttering and downspouts improved rainwater capture and prevented over spilling during downpours. Ensure sufficient quantities are ordered – validation phase. f. Ensure that all construction materials for staging work is brought to the construction team (ladders, generators, catchment repair kits, power tools etc.) g. Higher quantities of ancillary equipment like adaptors, gutter clips silicone, Clorox cleaning solution etc. should be ordered as part of original supply. This will be supported by the validation phase.

Up scaling and building on this initiative by understanding and working with the staff at IOM or MIRCS would be advantageous due to the field experience already learned and the good will earned through their community driven approach. The Project will upscale the Rainwater Harvesting Improvement Project for improvement of household and community rainwater harvesting systems.

10.1.2 Community RWH improvements and new construction

Community RWH systems will be improved and/or increased in 77 rural communities across the 23 local government jurisdictions. Similar to HH RWH systems, community RWH systems refer to rainwater harvesting (roof, gutter, and downpipes) and storage systems (plastic or concrete tanks, first flush systems, etc.) that are installed in community buildings. Community buildings in RMI, outside of the urban centers normally include schools (primary and high schools), health centers, churches, staff quarters in churches and schools, community halls, police stations, youth centers, airport terminal buildings, copra houses, Marshall Islands Marine Resource Authority (MIMRA) buildings, etc. Suitable community buildings considered for improvement and / or additional storage capacities (i.e. installation of additional tanks) for this project are community buildings that have more than 100 m2 of roof area, which will normally include all community buildings described above except for health centers and staff quarters, which tend to have smaller roof areas. The majority of community buildings other than churches are under the care and responsibility of the Ministry

119 RMI Government. 2004. RMI Statistical Yearbook; WASH Survey. Wallis 2014. RMI Government. 2010. Republic of the Marshall Islands Majuro and Kwajalein Atoll Household Water Survey Report; Wallis. 2014. Republic of the Marshall Islands Drinking Water Disaster Risk Reduction Guidance

Page | 131 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA of Public Works. MPW are responsible for the RWH system upkeep in coordination with Ministry of Public Schools, Ministry of Health and also the Police facilities. MPW will support the lead proposed partners IOM/IFRC as part of up scaling the Marshall Island Rainwater Harvesting Program to construct large scale community RWH systems for community buildings on a number of atolls. Up scaling and building on this initiative by understanding and working with MPW staff will be valuable in supporting and partnering with the GCF project.

10.1.3 Institutional Capacity Building The water investments will be strengthened by the implementation and advancement of RMI’s institutional framework at both national and subnational (local government and community) levels. Key components of this support include:

Enhance institutions at national level:  Strengthen EPA’s capacity for coordination, monitoring, reporting, accountability and sustainability of the National Water and Sanitation Policy.  Strengthen OCS/NDMO’s coordination capacity to manage water related disaster risks  Develop comprehensive National Water Safety Plans in line with the Community Water Safety Plans  Develop a comprehensive National water database that builds on existing information as well as streamline gathering of future information on water  Develop a comprehensive knowledge management and communication strategy  Convene National Water Forums and trainings  Support outstanding national water stakeholders and leaders, both male and female, to participate in effective, strategic, and meaningful workshops, conferences, and training opportunities that will enable RMI to establish critical political and technical networks and acquire information and skills to advance climate-resilient integrated water resources management in RMI.  Nurture next generation of water leaders and experts by supporting the College of Marshall Islands develop and establish a Certificate Course for Water, so that advanced technical training can be accessed in RMI to nurture next generation of water leaders and experts that would lead, sustain, and advance RMI’s climate-resilient water sector development.

Enhance institutions at local government and community levels:  Building on ongoing community-based natural resource planning initiatives, strengthen (and establish only if needed) 77 Community-based Water Committees (CWCs) and enhance their capacities to develop, implement, operate, monitor, and maintain their Community Water Safety Plans, which will be the governing framework for the water investments, in line with the National Water and Sanitation Policy. In line with the National Water and Sanitation Policy, the CWCs will be represented by the area population, landowners, water users, traditional leaders, local government, and national authorities.  Develop and implement various training and awareness raising initiatives for all members of the target rural communities. Topics covered will range from climate change, to disaster risk management, integrated water and natural resource management.  In addition to trainings and awareness raising initiatives designed for the entire members of the target communities, develop and offer a number of targeted technical training programs for leaders and experts within the community. Technical training programs for the community leaders and selected experts will focus on areas of carpentry, water engineering, groundwater monitoring / testing, installation and construction (rainwater harvesting systems, desalination systems), operation, maintenance, financial management and planning, etc.

10.1.4 Training for Building Capacity in Key Stakeholders

To support the sustainability of the proposed interventions at all levels of RMI from National, sub-national government stakeholders to CSO’s, schools etc. Table 55 provides a list of training to infuse capacity within organizations and residents of RMI.

Table 55: Proposed Training for and with Community Stakeholders

Thematic Training activities Stakeholders Frequency Trainers / Area Coordinators Integrated Water Safety Plan development, progress Water Committees; Part of monthly EPA, MOH, Water monitoring, and awareness raising coordinated Women’s group; Water Committee CMI Land Resource between EPA and MOH. (Aspects include Churches; Youth meetings Grant Management analysis of water quantity and quality linkages groups; Farmer’s Program, to health) association; NGOs; NTC MOH, EPA, etc.

Page | 132 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Thematic Training activities Stakeholders Frequency Trainers / Area Coordinators Integrated Support and coordinate with initiatives Youth and primary Once a year Ridge to Reef Natural implemented under RMI’s Ridge to Reef schools, College of Project Resource Program (Output 2.3 and 3.3 Support for Marshall Islands, Course-work Management expansion / continuation of education and Ministry of Education, awareness programs at the local and national Marshall Island levels, e.g., RARE Pride campaign for local Conservation Society. leaders, ‘Just Act Natural’ initiative; complementary awareness programs implemented using various forms of media to mobilize support for conservation and livelihoods; and Output 2.2 Capacity building on integrated approaches for conservation and livelihoods benefitting key national government agencies, community leaders and residents in all 22 outer islands in the entire country ) Disaster Risk Disaster SOP development, progress Water Committees; Part of monthly OSC/NDMO, Reduction monitoring, and awareness raising – including Women’s group; Water Committee Red Cross, drought warning preparedness, water Churches; Youth meetings IOM, conservation awareness and monitoring, etc. groups; Farmer’s Salvation association; NGOs; Army, SPC, etc. SPREP, World Bank Rainwater Skills building for installation, operation, Water Committees and Part of monthly NTC, Ministry Harvesting maintenance, monitoring, and reporting in designated RWH Water Committee of Public System partnership with information that is released manager per meetings Works, IOM, and communicated from the Weather Service community RWH Red Cross, Office (WSO). system Year-round CMI Land Grant, EPA, Awareness raising, training and social Water Committees MOE mobilization, social marketing campaigns, CWC’s); Women’s fund raising for financing for operation and group; Churches; maintenance Youth groups; Teachers; Nurses and Health professionals Groundwater Awareness raising and skills building for Water Committees and Part of monthly NTC, EPA, groundwater protection, testing, condition designated Water Committee CMI Land assessment, maintenance, monitoring, and groundwater manger meetings Grant, reporting per wells; schools Academic / Year-round Research Institution, MOE Gender Awareness raising and community-based Women’s group, youth Year-round Ministry of participatory research on gender- group, Women United Internal differentiated impact of climate change and Together Marshall Affairs, disaster impacts and water insecurity Islands, Marshall WUTMI, EPA, challenges, such as Water and Sanitation, Islands Women’s Cookhouse Menstrual Hygiene Management Research Initiative, Confidential IOM, etc.

10.2 Logistics for Implementation

In defining the rollout of the physical infrastructure improvements there a series of strategic steps necessary to ensure coordinated implementation, with each step building and learning as the project progresses. An detailed Transport & Logistics Strategy and Community Outreach Plan is included in Proposal Annex XIIIc,

10.3 Key Findings

Key Partners for Implementation of Water Security measures.  Household and Community RWH Improvements – The proposed RWH improvements will upscale the 2016 Rainwater Harvesting Improvement Project that was implemented by IOM and MIRCS in

Page | 133 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA three atolls as a pilot. The lessons learned by the pilot 2016 project have been incorporated into the technical design.  Training partners as identified in Table 48. Logistics of Implementation – description of implementation project rollout.  Validation phase will need to determine detailed design parameters to support procurement and final interventions tailored for each community due to limitations and assumptions made during feasibility study phase.  Due to complexity of rollout and distances project shall ensure high quality materials are specified limiting future repairs.  Grouping of Atolls by proximity and number of communities have been determined. Financial Sustainability  Due to the low median household income and the project capital cost residents cannot afford to support or partially finance the investment, therefore this project will need to be grant funded.  Ensure that continuing operating and maintenance costs for supporting the is less than 2.5% of household income or it may not be sustainable for the community.

11 Definitions, Limitations and Assumptions

The Project will promote climate and disaster resilient integrated water resource management systems to be implemented, monitored and sustained at the national and subnational (local government jurisdictions and community) levels. Monitoring the efficacy of the infrastructure investments and plans to sustain the existing and improved capacity of safe water resources to meet the desired goal of 20Lpcd during climate induced droughts (based on 2016 conditions) will require definition of specific indicators of implemented water security and resilience measures.

11.1 Definition of High Level Impacts

From a holistic viewpoint the general objective of increased resilience of health and well-being, and food and water security through year round access to reliable quantity of safe water upon completion of the project can be measured through performing general household surveys or community focus group discussions. The target is realized by all the population (50% Male and Females) having access to 20 liter per person per day. This can be coordinated through the general census surveys or supported by aggregated reporting by community based water committees (CWC’s) as part of an annual report and then compared to historical and current climatic data.

In addition another objective is to strengthen community and residents adaptive capacity by a reduction of their exposure to climate risks. The end results will meet the 20Lpcd and ensure access to good water quality data from both catchments and groundwater. This will help the residents decide on subsequent usage or water employ conservation measures. Surveys or focused group discussions can capture the improvements in addition to review of water quality testing reports that will be compiled in community water profiles. This effort can be supported by the creation of a comprehensive water database consolidating the available information that provides automated reporting to be reviewing at a community and national level.

11.2 Water Security Definitions

Objective – Improving water security through providing access to safe freshwater resources year-round for at least 28% of the 2017 estimated population

For Rural communities annual or more frequent reports for water quality testing and monitoring, improvements reflected in community profiles and the development of a comprehensive water database will provide feedback on performance of investments in water security for the rural communities. In addition the reduction of empty number of household and community tanks during the dry periods should be captured and incorporated into the community profile. Surveys and observations by the CWC within each community can track the residents’ knowledge and activities demonstrated in applying good installation, operating, maintenance and repair practices for their RWH systems for both community building and households.

Page | 134 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA 11.3 Demand Response and Preparedness Definitions

Objective - Expanding demand response/preparedness programs and disaster risk management (DRM) for water security in face of climate change

To ensure water resilience a number of activities need to accomplish through the project and subsequently maintained. The activities include: a. Community water resources are surveyed, mapped, monitored and updates completed yearly. Each resource is tested for water quality and information is shared on a regular basis with community members. CWC’s and support EPA to support next steps actions produce water quality reports for review by community leaders. b. Asset management condition assessment is performed yearly for water security infrastructure, which is captured for analysis within a database, of all water resources rehabilitated or newly created. This includes capturing of operations and maintenance costs in relation to life cycle of the asset. The measures reported include number of rehabilitated water resources and percentage improved for water source quantity and/or quality. c. Community members are engaged in water resilience practices (SOP’s training) and awareness training program of best practice for water and sanitation. d. In the event of disaster risk management is needed in preparation for a drought / low precipitation year, the weather information systems have provide detailed information that has been analyzed to formulate appropriate response plan to apply water conservation methods or provide emergency water supply at least 3 days ahead of need. Production of accurate situation reports from the WASH cluster. e. The engagement of CWC’s that are reporting on status of infrastructure, providing analysis on needs and long term trends within the community, reviewing weather forecasts both daily and seasonal to implement timely community tailored water safety plans. Annual report CWC report reflecting update community or atoll profile.

11.4 Capacity Development Definitions

In support of the water security and resilience improvements the institutional capacity building will ensure sustainable support for the improvements made within infrastructure (security) and resiliency programs recommended by this Feasibility Study. These initiatives need to inclusive to ensure participation by women (49%) and youth groups to be informed and become equal partners in water security and resilience programs.

Key Components of Improvements within capacity building include establishment of:

a. Creation of Community based Water Committees – empowered and trained to provide guidance to the community to support water condition infrastructure assessments, water quality data gathering and management, utilize the water safety plans120 for executing water conservation practices and disaster response preparations. In addition to support understanding of weather forecasts and ensure that the community is preparing and informed on next steps to support water security and resilience. Inclusion of women to participate equally (at least make-up 49% of CWC organizations) to ensure equity in representation for decision making. b. Creation of community and National Water Safety plans have been formalized, communicated and awareness training provided on regular basis to the community. This will ensure coordinated approach for funding and resources in support if disaster preparation and response. c. Creation of Data Management System that incorporates asset conditions and inventory of water resources within RMI. Training and support will be necessary to create, operate and maintain the system at the National, institutional and community levels. d. Financing mechanisms that have community acceptance in support of the increased operation, maintenance and monitoring costs in ensuring the improved water security and resilience is sustainable.

120 This approach can be expanded to a Drinking Water Saefty and Security Planning (DWSSP) approach upon discussion with stakeholders during project implementation.

Page | 135 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA 11.5 Limitations and Assumptions

For the GCF Feasibility study general limitations and assumptions made within this process include:

1. Planned community and household RWH interventions by other partners (Ministry of Public Works, WASH Cluster / OCS, NDMO, MWSC, IOM, and Red Cross, GIZ, Government of Japan / JICA, etc.) will be implemented as planned preceding and/or in parallel to the proposed GCF financed interventions. The planned works have been factored into the design calculations for investment and determination of gaps for intervention. 2. Dry season rainfall values will be equal to or more than that of modelled information provided in Annex RMI Climate Projections Report. 3. Rainfall values available in the nearest functioning stations (7) are relevant to surrounding communities without functioning weather stations with rainfall records. 4. Rate of population change will be consistent across local government jurisdictions with the national rate projected in 2016 by SPREP. 5. Through effective planning, partnership, and cooperation with air and sea transport companies, access to target sites will be made possible with minimal delays and change of schedule due to adverse weathers and other emergencies beyond the control of the project stakeholders. 6. Majuro’s MWSC Master Plan will be completed, financed and implemented. 7. Other planned initiatives for IWRM, such as the Ridge to Reef Project (GEF-5) are implemented as planned. 8. Levels of migration from rural communities to urban communities, as well as from RMI to abroad is not extreme to the level that institutional stakeholders, policies and plans may become ineffective after few years. 9. Political context of RMI is stable without any drastic changes that will completely overturn national priorities. 10. Disputes over Community and land ownership related to placement of new infrastructure is properly vetted. 11. Empowerment of CWC within the community is accepted to support the monitoring, evaluation and enforce needed operations and maintenance activities to ensure water security and demand response practices defined in the SOP’s are carried out. 12. Changes and introduction of enhanced institutional frameworks are supported both Nationally and sub-nationally and specifically by the affected communities.

This will need to be tracked and reported to the government of RMI and Project Board to ensure that any changes will be addressed during the project implementation phase with limited impact.

During the Implementation phase and initial roll out the project will need to gather more detailed information to address the limitation and assumptions listed in the following subsections to ensure they mitigate the impact during later stages of the project related to procurement and implementation.

11.5.1 Limitations for Rural Communities Water Security Intervention Design - Technical

As stated earlier, uncertainties are inherent in all models and rainwater harvesting modeling has uncertainties associated with both the supply (capacity of the rainwater harvesting system to capture and store water) and the demand (which is influenced by water use behavior, household occupancy etc.). The aim is to minimize uncertainties where possible and adopt a conservative approach. The key uncertainties and the potential limitations of the water security intervention design are shown in Table 56, along with the proposed action to reduce the impact of the limitation.

Table 56: Limitations of Water Security Design and Maintenance

Page | 136 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Limitation Description of impact of limitation Proposed action to reduce impact

Household rainwater There will be variation in rainwater capture No action required. The adopted harvesting and demands on tank at a household level. In design approach is conservative and performance is based reality, not all household tanks will empty at the actual volume of water in the on typical household the same time, which would result in lower community storage tanks would be RWH systems demands than modeled from the community expected to be higher than modeled (if tank. the roof area and rainwater harvesting system efficiency was at least as high as assumed). Some households The water supply gap has been estimated Confirm the existing available may have no RWH assuming that 100% of the estimated 2017 household rainwater tanks (including storage tank households have the median sized tank. This those not attached to buildings) during is conservative as growth between 2011 and the validation phase of implementation. 2017 may have been less than forecast plus The water resource committees will the household count may include unoccupied allocate budgets to priority houses (which would not require RWH improvement areas in the target improvements if the houses have been communities. abandoned). Where there are households without tanks (or with smaller than median sized tanks), the design effectively assumes that these households share water with neighbors with larger tanks than the median. The adopted design approach is reasonable as some households have larger storage volumes than the median value. In addition there are other programs that install household tanks in rural communities, for example the IFRC tank installations in Namu, Likiep and Mejit after the 2013 drought. If a household does not have a rainwater tank there would be no benefit improving the RWH system (guttering and downpipes). The number of household RWH improvements used in the cost curve analysis was based on assuming that 100% of household RWH systems are connected to rainwater storage tanks and would be improved in the target communities. Some households The count of households for rainwater Confirm the status quo for suitable have thatched rooves harvesting improvements is based on the total household rooves during the validation that are unsuitable for estimated 2017 households in each phase of implementation. The water rainwater harvesting community, regardless of roof type. This is resource committees will allocate conservative as growth between 2011 and budgets to priority improvement areas, 2017 may have been less than forecast plus for example some households may the household count may include unoccupied require a metal roof area for rainwater houses (which would not require RWH harvesting. improvements if the houses have been abandoned). Design of the Design of the required community storage is Survey the condition and sizing of all required community based on community aggregated data rather existing community building RWH storage is based on than individual community buildings (which systems and tanks during the validation community may vary significantly in roof area, RWH phase of implementation (including aggregated data efficiency and existing tank volume, leading to confirmation of the number of suitable variation in RWH performance). community buildings in each community. Run a rainwater-harvesting model for the updated infrastructure data for each community building.

Page | 137 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Limitation Description of impact of limitation Proposed action to reduce impact

The planned water The RMI wide assumptions at a household Confirm the existing conditions for security level may be different from the actual existing household rainwater harvesting improvements for status quo conditions. improvements based on site surveys communities with no The RMI wide assumptions at a community during the validation phase of infrastructure survey building level (for example number of suitable implementation. data are based on a community buildings available, roof area etc.) Survey the condition and sizing of all RWH model using may be different from the actual existing existing community building RWH RMI wide conditions. systems and tanks during the validation assumptions phase of implementation (including confirmation of the number of suitable community buildings in each community). Run a rainwater-harvesting model for the updated infrastructure data for each community building to confirm the performance of the new storage tanks. Current (status quo) Most of the infrastructure survey data is from Confirm the current condition for condition may have surveys undertaken during the 2013 drought, household rainwater harvesting changed from the with the remaining data from 2016. improvements based on site surveys condition recorded The survey data at a household level may be during the validation phase of during the different from the current conditions (for implementation. infrastructure example due to rainwater harvesting Survey the condition and sizing of all surveys improvement program by other organizations existing community building RWH since the infrastructure survey). systems and tanks during the validation The survey data at a community building level phase of implementation (including may be different from the current conditions confirmation of the number of suitable (for example, improvement or deterioration in community buildings in each the RWH system condition since the community). infrastructure survey). Run a rainwater harvesting model for There could also be errors in the survey data. the updated infrastructure data for each community building to confirm the performance of the new storage tanks. Larger community The current design shows the total proposed The required storage volumes for each buildings may require new community storage volume based on 50 community building will need to be larger tanks m³ per existing building or new roof. Very confirmed during the validation phase large buildings may be able to have more than of implementation based on a building one tank installed if there is sufficient space specific design that takes into account (and to effectively utilize the available roof current and planned storage by others area). and the available roof area. No allowance for The constant demand assumption of 20 Lpcd No action required, this allows for a rationing of demand does not take into account likely behavioral more conservative design. adaptations, such as rationing, which may improve the performance of the rainwater harvesting systems. Estimation of the The number of suitable community buildings in As above, survey the condition and number of communities without infrastructure survey data sizing of all existing community building Community buildings was estimated based on the RMI wide RWH and tanks during the validation in communities assumptions. If there are less suitable existing phase of implementation. The without infrastructure buildings than estimated, additional roof estimated additional roof catchments survey data catchments may be required to be are essentially a contingency amount constructed. that should be sufficient over the atolls. Community buildings that have a smaller roof area than the suitable threshold may still have functioning RWH systems with storage (e.g. health centers are below the suitable threshold but typically have significant storage).

Page | 138 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA Limitation Description of impact of limitation Proposed action to reduce impact

Operations and The community accepts and utilized the SOPs SOPS for operation and maintenance Maintenance developed to ensure water quality . Cleaning developed with community member and maintenance of guttering (quarterly) and participation. CWC is empowered to tanks (annually) will be performed. motivate the community to monitor and ensure necessary actions defined in the SOP are taken.

Existing fleet of stationary and mobile RO IOM to coordinate with College of units maintain their firm capacity to deliver Marshall Islands to develop sustainable water. program for RO Operations and Maintenance

The table below shows the model assumptions for the volumetric benefit calculations are shown in the “improved (after intervention)” column in the table 57. The table also shows the status quo model assumptions for comparison.

Table 57: Model assumptions for the volumetric benefit calculations

Rural water Status quo Improved (after intervention) security options assumptions Household RWH The status quo household RWH system Household RWH system catchment improvements catchment efficiency was based on available efficiency is improved to 70% based on: infrastructure data or the RMI wide • Replacing existing gutters and assumption. downpipes with new 150mm diameter The RMI wide assumption for the household pipes to ensure that 100% of the RWH system catchment efficiency was 20% household roof area is connected to the based on typical (median) values: RWH system • 50% of the household roof area connected to Installation of first flush to improve water the RWH system quality • RWH system (household guttering and downspouts) in poor condition Household RWH improvements have recently been installed in 50% of households in Wotho, Ujae and Lae (pilot project)121 Community The status quo community building RWH Community RWH system catchment building RWH system catchment efficiency was based on efficiency is improved to 80% based on: improvements and available infrastructure data or the RMI wide • Replacing existing gutters and tanks assumption. downpipes with new 150mm diameter The RMI wide assumption for the community pipes to ensure that 100% of the RWH system catchment efficiency was 35% community building roof area is connected based on typical (median) values: to the RWH system • 50% of the community building roof area Installation of first flush to improve water connected to the RWH system quality • RWH system (community building guttering New community storage tanks to increase and downspouts) in good condition community storage volume to meet the rural water security target under climate change additionality Installation of new 200m² roof catchments with tanks as required where there are insufficient existing community buildings of a suitable size.

121 This assumption is made with information from the WASH Cluster / IOM in 2016 on household RWH improvement initiatives as implemented through the Rainwater Harvesting Improvement Program.

Page | 139 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA The maximum household RWH catchment efficiency was set at 70%, lower than the maximum community RWH catchment efficiency of 80%, based on the likelihood of less preventative maintenance quality expected at the household level.

11.5.2 Limitations and Assumptions for Rural Water Resiliency Intervention Design – Technical

Table 58 provides a list of limitations and assumptions that added to the uncertainty of design related to the ground water interventions. The table also includes proposed actions to reduce the impact of the limitation or assumption.

Table 58: Limitations or Assumptions of Ground Water and Concrete Tank Design

Asset Limitation/ Description of impact of limitation Proposed action to reduce Assumption impact Groundwater Determination of Due to the limited survey data from As part of the validation phase Wells number of previous information provided by RMI, an complete inventory of groundwater wells IOM, IFRC and developed by UNDP groundwater wells will be taken. on the number of groundwater wells it could not be definitely determined. Estimates needed to be made to equate the number of groundwater wells to number of households. Determination of Data for the physical condition As part of the validation phase condition of assessment of each well was an complete inventory of groundwater wells unavailable in addition to the above. groundwater wells condition and Intervention will need to be assessed proposed intervention will be based on condition of groundwater well taken. – to identify what intervention is needed to limit potential contamination. Water Quantity Limited understanding of the As part of groundwater testing groundwater lens is available for the program water lens shall be rural communities. Unsure the measured and information will capacity of volume available for use of be assist in developing long how quickly it replenishes based on term models. rainfall. Water Quality Limited understanding of the Expand the capacity of CWC or groundwater quality due to possible designate to programmatically contamination or increase in salinity is test water quality and ensure available for the rural communities. information is tracked on regular Unsure the quality of water available basis. for use of how quickly it replenishes based on rainfall. Limits understanding of water conservation methods and DRM approach. Currently regular water testing is completed in Majuro and Kwajalein atolls.

12 Exit Strategy

Strengthening integrated water resilience is an urgent climate change adaptation priority for the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Building on lessons learned and good practices from the past, as well as aligning with ongoing and planned initiatives, a transformational change in the water sector in RMI would require a three- pronged approach of: • Improving water security through providing access to safe freshwater resources year-round for at least 15,562 people (28% of 2017 estimated population), including 7,730 (49%) women;

Page | 140 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA • Protecting ground water resource from possible inundation and supported smart water demand response to reduce reliance on RWH supplied water during periods of water stress. • Empowering national and subnational institutions & stakeholders to champion capacity building for efforts to be coordinated, effective, participatory, equitable, and sustainable

The project will provide financial support to bolster climate adaptation, in the form of additional equipment for climate-resilient livelihoods and drinking water supply, as well as training and capacity building for targeted beneficiaries and organisations. Providing skills development of vulnerable women and youth, in areas highly vulnerable to future increases in drought, enables them to take climate smart decisions and, in the course of their lifetimes, pass on climate smart practices to their children and grandchildren. Utilising locally-based NGOs further provides opportunities for sustained follow-up of livelihood support. The work to promote climate-resilient freshwater solutions has been designed in consultation with local communities, NGOs/CBOs, traders’ associations and government agencies.. This will promote the integration of climate-adaptive practices into water-based traditional and non-traditional livelihoods, facilitating adoption of such practices in the long-term. Targeted capacity-building and training will inform planning, design, and implementation of adaptation measures based on the local socio-economic and environmental contexts. Development of community water committees . To ensure continuation beyond the project lifetime, the project will ensure a management structure enabling them to provide sustainable O&M of all technologies and equipment. Establishing links between the beneficiaries, committees, local and national governments to ensure continued technical back-up and support. Introduction of new technologies. The project will need to introduce new technologies like the household based RWH option should be implemented in collaboration with the CWC through the implementation design phase. The institution-based RWH should be implemented in collaboration with the communities, with direct involvement of institution based management committees. After successful implementation of the water provision infrastructure, the implementing agency will hand over the installed facilities to the the respective committees and the households selected, and will withdraw from the intervention process. However, before withdrawing it will be necessary to implement O&M guidelines, including WSP for the households, water user groups, water management committees and third-party service providers and provide necessary training and orientation, water management committee members, and caretakers. Contingency planning community water committees. Support will be needed in the case of loss and damage, due to either excessive droughts or a damaging cyclone. Technical and financial support will need to be provided to the groups for developing/revising contingency plans, as well as developing recovery plans which enable livelihoods to recover with minimal disruption and cost.

Page | 141 | FEASIBILITY STUDY | ACWA