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MICRONESIAN JOURNAL OF THE HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

Vol. 5, nº 1/2 Combined Issue November 2006

CATCHING THE DRIFT: Impacts of Oceanic Drift Material in the

Nancy Vander Velde and Brian Vander Velde , Marshall Islands

The Marshall Islands, situated in the Central Pacific, are far from any major landmass. However, by means of oceanic drift, they are connected with virtually all the Pacific. This paper reviews how the types of drift from various areas have impacted the lives of people on the Marshall Islands. The local language, canoe construction, tools, food, agriculture and other aspects of the culture have been influenced by oceanic drift, with the effects continuing to the present

The Marshall Islands, located from between with the help of . All other plants likely 160º to 173º east and 4º to 14º north, lie thou- came by traveling the waves. sands kilometers in all directions from any ma- The proportion of plant species which likely jor mass of land. Geologically the 29 and came through oceanic drift is quite high when 5 solitary coral islands1, which constitute this compared with other islands. After Krakatau country, are figured to be quite young, prob- was devastated in 1883, the restoration process ably only coming to a point where they could began a little over a year later with a “few be colonized by land species three- to four- blades of grass.” Although the nearest unaffec- thousand years ago. Furthermore, it was likely ted land was comparatively near, being only only about two-thousand years ago when hu- about 40 km away, early plant recolonization mans were able to colonize the land (NBTRMI consisted of many species which spread via 2000, pp. 8, 19). oceanic drift. Within fifteen years of the cata- Although it is very difficult to be com- clysm, 44% of land plants likely came from the pletely certain as to what vascular plant species sea. One hundred years later, this proportion are native, as best as can be figured, only about had shrunk to only 18% (www.geog.ox.ac.uk/ seventy species arrived without assist- research/bie/krakatau/intro). ance. As many as 80% of these have fruit, seed, The flora of Christmas Island in the Indian some other part capable of spreading through , it is estimated that 30 to 40% of native oceanic drift. A limited number of species, plants would have arrived by sea; figures for such as ferns and sedges spread via the air cur- the various islands of range from 20 rents; “kañal” or great lettuce tree (Pisonia gran- to 64% (Clausen 2005; p. 132). Hawaiian vege- dis) becomes established in new locations by its tation is said to consist of only 14.3% of spe- sticky fruit attaching themselves to the feathers cies capable of regular sea dispersal, with of sea birds. Later on, crops and weeds came another 8.5% which possibly came “by rare or freak flotation event” (Carlquist 1980, p. 102).

This is a peer reviewed contribution. Received: 29 Mar 2006 Accepted: 1 Oct 2006 ā Micronesian Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences ISSN 1449-7336 HeritageFutures™ International, PO Box 3440, Albury NSW 2640, 431 Persistent identifier: http://www.nla.gov.au/nla.arc-65664 432 Catching the Drift: Impacts of Oceanic Drift Material in the Marshall Islands

Terrestrial fauna could also have arrived via which way, moving things across the normal oceanic drift, although probably to a much courses of currents, tradewinds and doldrums. lesser extent. Small reptiles and some insects They also can scour the land, jettisoning trees, and other arthropods are known to spread vessels, buildings and other potential jetsam— when they—or their eggs—are lodged in the including people—into the water. So under roots or other sufficiently protected sections of those circumstances, objects originating any- floating logs or rafts, be they natural or man- where potentially can cast ashore on any beach made (Thornton 1996, pp. 101, 103, 104). The (Erdland 1914 [trans. Neuse 1961], p. 18; fact that there are so few native reptiles, no na- Kramer & Nevermann 1938 [trans. Brant & tive amphibians and no native terrestrial Armstrong 1942], pp. 34, 55). mammals in the Marshall Islands would reflect But beyond where an object may have or- the difficulties and hazards involved in this iginated and then where it made landfall, the form of dispersal.2 route it may have come is often another mat- Once enough vegetation had become estab- ter. Not everything necessarily came a direct lished on the atolls of the Marshalls, humans route, riding one of the major known cur- could settle the land. Much information has rents—things could have just as well taken a been written about the extraordinary naviga- zig-zagging ‘scenic detour,’ having been carried tional skills and advanced canoe designs of the it hundreds, if not thousands of kilometers out early settlers and there is no reason to dispute of its way. that much of the arrivals were well-planned and intentional (Carter 1963, p. 18). But From the East and South accidental arrival by people who were washed Since the major current which flows through ashore after drifting in the currents for various the Marshall Islands is the North Equatorial lengths of time has also been documented and Current, part of the giant northern gyre that continues until today (see below). encircles the North Pacific in a clockwise direc- tion, it is easy to assume that there would be LIKELY PLACES OF ORIGIN considerable drift from west coast of the After presenting both historical accounts of Americas. Driftwood is to be found in abun- drift material and his own field work, Spenne- dance along the shore of northern California to mann (1997, p. 6) concluded that “material Alaska (Alix & Koester 2001). from all areas of the Pacific…has arrived in the Kotzebue (1821 [comp. Levesque 2001, p. Marshall Islands.” For some of that material, 240]) describes “wood which is drifted from the origin can be determined, with others, it is the east, from distant islands, or from the coast little more than educated guesswork. of America.” Chamisso (1821 [comp. Levesque The major oceanic currents that effect the 2001, p. 364]), mentions “the trunks of north- Marshalls are the westward moving North ern firs.” In the report by Schischmareff, the Equatorial Current and the eastward moving landing party encountered “large trees which Equatorial Countercurrent, with the southern had been drifted there by the sea, and resem- atolls effected to a degree by the South Equa- bled our oaks” (Kotzebue 1821 [comp. torial Current. During June through Septem- Levesque 2001, p. 221]). ber, the southern portion of the North Whether on account of these statements or Equatorial Current shifts a bit more to the for other reasons which could not be ascer- north, then back south the opposite months of tained, more recent researchers have concluded the year. Sea areas with permanent small eddies that such drift logs are “flotsam pine logs are known to exist near the individual atolls [which] came from the west coast of North (Atkinson 1987, p. 57; Spennemann 1996, pp. America,” “cut fir logs” from California and 23-25; Taylor 1950, p. 5). that: “Stranded trunks from North America are Winds also play their part. Periodic tropical actually not uncommon on Arno beaches” storms become ‘giant egg-beaters’ over the sea, (Levesque 1992, p 523; Spennemann 1997, pp. twisting the course of drifting material every 2, 3; Wells 1951, p. 3). Catching the Drift: Impacts of Oceanic Drift Material in the Marshall Islands 433

However, the historic accounts are quite comes via the Equatorial Counter Current, a sketchy and not sufficently conclusive to try to narrow band of water of relatively swift water. use them to pinpoint any particular launching Likely, the recent saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus spot. And while some of the early explorers, porosus) came this mid-Pacific express freeway. such as Chamisso, did have quite a bit of bo- It would be harder to say, though, whether a tanical knowledge, even he admitted during piece of obsidian and pumice found on Nadik- their sojourn to California that the flora “offers dik which originated in the Bismarck Archi- the botanist much that is new. Known Ameri- pelago of Papua traveled this route or went the can genera associate with those strange to us, entire gyre of the Southern Equatorial Current and most species are still undescribed” and for at least part of its route (Spennemann 1996, whatever collections had been made had “yet 1997). to be presented to the world” (Chamisso Early on, the naturalist Chamisso recorded [trans. Kratz 1986, p. 242]). species of drift seeds/fruit during his visit to So considering these tremendous limitations the Marshalls that he felt came from the west. to the knowledge those early explorers would These included “fruits of pandanus species, have had—and not had—they could have just which are only met with in the larger countries as likely compared what they observed to lying to the west [= Nypa fruticans]…the Aleu- Eurasian species rather than North America. riles triloba [Aleurites moluccana or candlenut], and (See further below regarding “kāmeej,” “jelaar” other trees belonging to the general Flora of and “aik”). Polynesia, and which we afterwards saw in the But drift material does definitely come from west…” (Chamisso [trans. Kratz 1986, p. 242; the east. When surveying Bokak , the Kramer & Nevermann 1938 [trans. Brant & most northerly in the current Marshall Islands, Armstrong 1942], p. 289). Thomas et al.. (1989, p. 33) discovered the re- These two particular species continue to be mains of a 5 meter skiff that had gone missing found regularly in the material which drifts off of Maui in February 1979. ashore in the Marshalls. We have found them Canoes and people from were— on all the beaches of all the atolls we have been and continue to be—regular occurrences, espe- able to examine. Nypa often arrives in a viable cially to the southern atolls such as Mili and state and we and other persons have sprouted Ebon (Erdland 1914 [trans. Neuse 1961], pp. some of these. Candlenut is always quite dead 14, 18). A most recent drifting in the region and putrid smelling. occurred when the engine failed on a couple’s Other small seeds clearly indicate a western small craft in Kiribati. They ended up spending origin. We have found numerous non-viable over the next month at sea, eventually being tropical acorns from the genus Lithocarpus, rescued near Kapingamarangi (Mar. Is. Journ. which would have come from Papua New 2006, p. 4). Guinea, Indonesia, the Philippines or possibly And certain small driftseeds, such as the even Asia (pers. comm. C. Connor). The little- rare Mary’s bean (Merremia discoidesperma) and known tree genus Gigasiphon ranges from prickly palms (Acrocomia spp.) are known to Indonesia to Africa; we have collected dozens only grow in Central America and have been of these attractive seeds, several of which were found on a few instances in the Marshalls viable and are still surviving on Majuro. (Gunn & Dennis 1999, pp. 94, 172; Vander A very battered specimen of the umbilicate Velde & Vander Velde 2004, pp. 7-8; Vander nautilus (Nautils scrobiculatus) was found in 2005 Velde & Vander Velde in press). on Majuro. Living animals occur only around New Guinea and the Solomons (Abbott & From the West Dance 1997, p. 377), and are easily distin- Drift material to the Marshalls from the Papua guished from the more common species, the New Guinea, Indonesia and Philippine region chambered nautilus (Nautilus pompilius). While of the Pacific has actually proved to be easier the latter is what is normally thought of as “lo- to document. Probably the majority of this jilñin jourur” (or just “jourur”) in Marshallese 434 Catching the Drift: Impacts of Oceanic Drift Material in the Marshall Islands

(Abo et al... 1976, p. 105), both would undoub- names, such as the Enewetak name “lait” for tedly be called by that name. Portuguese-man-of-war which in other areas is Many of the records of human drift arrivals “aolōk.” So far, no match has been made for have also come from the west (Spennemann “luomuuj,” which was defined by Kramer & 1997, p. 4). Because of their frequency, Erd- Nevermann 1938 ([trans. Brant & Armstrong land reasoned that the mythical land of Ep 1942] p. 292) as “driftwood species” nor must be the literal in the Carolines. On ac- “kānōno” which was said to be ‘soft, useless count of this as well, he also felt that “popula- driftwood’ (Erdland 1914, p. 152). tion of the Marshall Islands stems from the Furthermore, many of these terms have also Carolines” (1914 [trans. Neuse 1961], p. 11). been incorporated into place names on various atolls (see Table 2). IMPACT ON PEOPLE As mentioned elsewhere in this discussion, With so much oceanic drift from just about people would periodically get off course and anywhere and everywhere across the Pacific end up somewhere other than where they were arriving on the extensive beaches of atolls intending to go. Sometimes these people were which otherwise have limited ecosystems and welcomed and could stay; at other times, they little variety of plants, it is expected that this were not (see below). The term “pejpetok” lit- material would long be of interest people living erally means a discarded pandanus key, often in the Marshalls. Far beyond just a subject of one that drifted and then washed ashore— importance to biogeographers and others something totally worthless. Outsiders to this studying currents and dispersal, drift has had day are sometimes called “pejpetok” especially impact on the lives of people. In other parts of when being spoken against. This is a deroga- the world, oceanic drift has been known to ef- tory term for a foreigner (Carucci 1997a, p. fect the culture for centuries, ranging from fan- 146; Kelin 2003, p. 157). ciful legends as to origins to supposedly changing the course of history.3 In the Marshall Drift logs, Driftwood and Canoes Islands, drift can be said to have effected the One of the earliest accounts of drift material in life—and death—of the people. the Marshall Islands was given by Antonio Galvāo, the Portuguese governor of the Mollu- Language4 cas. Among other voyages, he recounted the Vernacular names in themselves can offer hints travels of the Spanish vessel Florida, captained as the general knowledge of people of a certain by Alvaro de Saavedra in 1527 during a visit to subject. There are a number of terms in Mar- “Los Jardines,” which was likely either Ujelang, shallese used to describe various drift objects. Enewetak or (Hezel 1983, p. 16; Le- “Jokwā” and its variations of “addijokwā” quesque 1992, p. 523). In his 1563 work, and “kājokwā” in some applications may refer Galvāo told of canoes, “Paroas, que faziam de driftwood in general. Abo et al... (1976, p. 114) madiera de pinho, que ail venha ter em certo explain it as small driftwood, while Carucci tempo, sem saber dondo…” (comp. Levesque (1997a, p. 128) defines it as driftwood at sea. 1992, p. 520), or as was translated a few years But many other people use these terms to later by Hakluyt (1601 [comp. Levesque 1992, when speaking of hard, jetsam of the high p. 524) “…a kinde of boate called a parao, water mark. which they make of pine wood, which is driven When something drifts away, it is said to thither at certain times of the yeere, they know “pelok,” if it drifts ashore, it is “petok” or not how, nor from whence.” “eotok.” Over twenty additional terms for drift When Kotzebue reports on drifted wood, material were identified (see Table 1; for dis- he also comments that the use in canoes was cussion of some of the individual objects, see something the people were “obliged to content below). Most of these are well-established tra- themselves with” (1821 [comp. Levesque 2001, ditional terms, but a couple of them are more p. 240]). modern colloquialisms. Some are regional Catching the Drift: Impacts of Oceanic Drift Material in the Marshall Islands 435

Table 1— Marshallese Names for Oceanic Drift Material Marshallese identity (if known) range of possible origin aik scented driftwood; sandalwood?, Pacific Islands, Malesia, Asia, Pacific North- cedar? west? ajet Atuna racemosa Borneo and Philippines, to , , , Micronesian high islands, aolōk Portuguese-man-of-war open ocean bae () bamboo Old World tropics bok-allōñlōñ sea sawdust? tropical ? bok-in-Ep caked mud rafted in tree roots buiabui sago palm? Malesia, Southeast Asia deka-lal basalt rock volcanic islands, rafted in tree roots dile goose barnacle open ocean, attached to other drift ejor hot bean both Old and New World tropics eloñwa goose barnacle open ocean, attached to other drift er cuttlebone tropical Indo-Pacific ijur aromatic resin; ? Malesia; sperm ? jelaar driftwood—light colored Malesia, Asia, Pacific Northwest? jourur chambered nautilus Philippines, , also deep waters of the Indo- Pacific umbiculate nautilus , New Guinea kāmeej driftwood—dark colored Malesia, Asia, Pacific Northwest? kānōno? driftwood—soft uncertain ken iit (modern) hot bean both Old World and New World tropics ken kabwil (modern) hot bean both Old World and New World tropics koba (Rālik) bamboo Old World tropics kūbwe in raj ? sperm whales? kūor ‘bitumen’; ambergris? Malesia?; sperm whales? lait (Enewetak) Portuguese-man-of-war open ocean lojilñin jourur nautilus Philippines, Palau, also deep waters of the Indo- Pacific luomuuj? driftwood uncertain tilaan pumice worldwide, volcanoes wūj (wōj) lightweight driftwood; family Apo- tropical floodplains? cyaceae

Such would imply that such logs were used German term Erdland uses, “pechtanne,” is simply because no other suitable wood was to the name for Norway spruce (P. abies) be found. However, the opposite seems to be (http://www.uochb.cas.cz/~natur/cerambyx/l the case. Drift logs are often highly prized in p.htm) the manufacture of canoes. They are often lar- But coastal redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), is ger and hence provide greater amounts of a distinct wood and there is no reason to feel wood than what could be obtained locally. that at least some of the “kāmeej” is this spe- , a typical alternative can have high cies. “Kāmeej” is said to be dark colored wood value as a food crop making driftwood a far and supposedly was used in the construction of more practical use of resources (Kiste 1968, p. canoes. It is said to be resistant to termites and 75). other wood borers, making it particularly valu- The Marshallese word “kāmeej” has nowa- able (Erdland 1914 [trans. Neuse 1961], p. days been translated “redwood” (Abo et al... 152). 1976, p. 138), but other places render it “pine,” “Jelaar” is often translated as pine drift- and Erdland (1914 [trans. Neuse 1961], 265 wood5 (Abo et al. 1976, p. 95). It was also used footnote) has it as “spruce.” Actually, the 436 Catching the Drift: Impacts of Oceanic Drift Material in the Marshall Islands in canoe building, being light colored and But even small drift logs or other driftwood workable, but not regarded as highly as too small or otherwise unsuitable for canoes “kāmeej.” It could potentially include trees has value in other construction and wood- from many species, originating in all directions. working. A notably long, narrow log that For instance, one species from the West, erima washed onto the beach of Delap recently was (Octomeles sumatrana), is used in its native range used as posts for a cookhouse. And driftwood for long dug-out canoes (Croft 1978, pp. 117- of all sorts was—and still is—a valuable source 119). A canoe fitting the description of one of firewood. (The Papuan-style canoe men- from recently drifted tioned above that washed ashore in late 2005 in ashore on Majuro [pers. comm. J. Pagolu). Rita, although parts did serve for a while as slides for children, eventually all ended up in Table 2—Drift Material Place Names the fire pit.) Often drift logs, as well as other drift ma- WŪJ (WŌJ) terial, come ashore with short-stalked goose Arōn-wōj ( beach of “wūj”)—Kwajalein tract barnacles (Lepas anseriform and related species) Lo-wūj (amid “wūj” )—Namdrik household; Ail- inglaplap tract attached, a good indicator of their having been Lo-wūj-kan (amid those “wūj”) Arno tract some time at sea (Coleman 1991, p. 86). Called Lukwōn-wōj (in the middle of “wūj”)—Majuro “eloñwa” in Marshallese (although the term tract “dile” which more accurately describes ship- Na-wōj (shoal of “wūj”)—Maloelap worms, is often also used), these crustaceans Wūj-kan (those “wūj”)—Mili tract are said to have served as the artistic basis of one of the more popular tattoo designs (Erd- Ā K MEEJ land 1914 [trans. Neuse 1961], p. 20; Spenne- Batin-kāmeej (hill of “kāmeej”)—Jaluit tract mann 1992, p. 39). Bokwan-kāmeej (sandspit of “kāmeej”)—Rongerik islet Abo et al... (1976, p. 283, 286) define the ul- Mōn-kāmeej (house of “kāmeej”)—Ailinglaplap tra-light wood “wūj” (according to kajin Rālik, tract or “wōj” in kajin Ratak), as “balsa driftwood” Naan-kāmeej (shoal of “kāmeej”)—Jaluit islet and anecdotal accounts have said it comes Wūntōn-kāmeej (cluster of “kāmeej”)—Lae tract from South America. But despite its relative abundance, its place of origin remains a mys- JELAAR tery at this time. Specimens sent for analysis Āne-jelaar (island of “jelaar”)—Ailuk islet have shown it to be a member of the dogbane TILAAN family, Apocynaceae. So far, its “wood ana- Mwi-tilaan (house of pumice)—Maloelap tract tomical patterns” are most consistent with AOLŌK buoywood or palo de boya, (Molongum laxum), a Bokwan-aolōk (sandspit of Portuguese-man-of- tree found in the Venezuelan flood plains. war)—Ailinglaplap tract Since this source seems rather unlikely, espe- cially in view of the volume of wood that ar- Another potential impact drift had on ca- rives in good condition, a more reasonable noes that can be speculated was the inadvertent origin is still being sought (pers. comm. A. trade and exchange when drift canoes from Wiedenhoeff ). elsewhere came ashore—either manned or as “Wūj” was utilized extensively in the Mar- derelicts. Drift canoes that have arrived here, shalls in former times. It was made into plugs, when in good shape, have been known to be being used, for example, to stop up the used ‘as is’ as would have been done in the openings of shell containers (“bōkā”) when Marshallese canoes came ashore else- as well as the orifices of prepared corpses where. Perhaps such wayward drift canoes (Kramer & Nevermann 1938 [trans. Brant & could have served as potential design innova- Armstrong 1942], pp. 206, 252; pers. com- tions where they were found (pers. comm. D. munication W. Mwekto). Its natural low den- Alessio; Spennemann 1996, p. 50-54). sity also made an ideal material for the hulls Catching the Drift: Impacts of Oceanic Drift Material in the Marshall Islands 437 and outriggers of “riwut ko” or model canoes up on Lae. (Kramer & Nevermann 1938 [trans. (Erdland 1914, p. 127; Kramer & Nevermann Brant & Armstrong 1942], p. 12) 1938 [trans. Brant & Armstrong 1942], p. 214) Such a fate was all too typical of cast- and today it will sometimes be used in handi- aways—often persons who drifted ashore from crafts. other areas were killed upon arrival or soon Larger pieces of “wūj” were soft enough for thereafter (Erdland 1914 [trans. Neuse 1961, p. pillows on which to rest one’s head. They were 199). also practical surfaces upon which to roll co- A rather intriguing account of people drift- conut husk fibers into “eokkwal” or sennit, as ing within the Marshalls’ atolls appears several an alternative to a rope-maker’s thigh (Erdland times in Kramer & Nevermann (1938, pp.32, 1914 p. 33; Kramer & Nevermann 1938 p. 293; 33, 47). They speak of what was called in Mar- pers. comm. M. Peter). shallese a “tōptōp” or in German, “kiste” and Nowadays, though, styrofoam has nigh-on can be translated into English as a chest, crate, usurped the word “wūj” in the vocabulary of trunk or box. It was described as “two hol- many people. lowed out tree trunks tied together with cord.” This “tōptōp” supposedly originated in Nam- People from Elsewhere drik, drifted to Kili, eventually ending up on When people are involved, they often can tell Ebon. Upon opening it was discovered that where they are from and often how they ar- many people had been inside. Most died of rived, which can help in establishing their place hunger, but only one, a man named ‘Leke- of origin. That is, if they arrived alive and were mukij’ (spelling uncertain) survived, going on allowed to subsequently survive in their land- to marry and evidently lived out his days there. fall. Probably the most famous account of drift- Tools and Trade ing to the Marshalls was that of Kadu, the If a ship built with spikes, nails, and bands Woleian which befriended Kotzebue and crew is lost at sea, and even if just pieces of such a of the Rurik (Chamisso [trans. Kratz 1986, pp. vessel washes ashore, its metal parts can pro- 263-274]; Kramer & Nevermann 1938, p. 86). vide tools that would otherwise be unattainable But other people from that area were known to on coral atolls. An account of Alvaro de arrive on various areas to the west (Spenne- Mendaña 1568 visit to told of mann 2005, p. 43). “their strangest discovery” being “a chisel, As mentioned above, persons drifting in made of an iron nail, from which they con- from Kiribati was a fairly regular occurrence. cluded a ship from the Philippines had either One “weto” on Ebon is named “Lōkōba,” visited the island or had been wrecked supposed after a Kiribatese man who drifted in there…” (Anonymous 1876 [comp. Levesque and resided there (Abo et al... 1976, p. 552). 1992, p. 412]). Kramer & Nevermann (1938 [trans. Brant & While this is possible, it is more likely that Armstrong 1942], pp. 199, 203) state that men this nail-chisel was similar to that described from Kiribati were not only tolerated but also over two centuries later by the crew the Rurik. welcomed as they had a reputation for being Choris (1822 [trans. Mason 1960, comp. strong, fierce warriors. Today the “jowi” or Levesque 2001, p. 443]) commented that when matrilineal line “Ri-Pit” is said to descendents they “asked [the islanders] how they procured of people who drifted in from the Kiribati6 [iron], they answered that the sea often cast (Tobin 2002, p. 134). iron upon the shore fixed to pieces of drift- Details are sketchy, but Erdland (1914 wood.” He later encountered “a block of wood [trans. Neuse 1961], p. 12) tells of “four Japa- which appeared to belong to a ship [and] still nese fishermen were cast ashore on Ujae.” retained some iron, and the waves had thrown Sometime before that, a Japanese vessel de- it on shore.” scribed as a “junk” went off course and ended Other non-coralline material from drift proved useful to the early Marshallese. “Tilaan” 438 Catching the Drift: Impacts of Oceanic Drift Material in the Marshall Islands or pumice from volcanic eruptions floats well Inside the -like cuttlefish (Sepia spp.) is at sea but it tougher than coral rock, making it formed what is called a cuttlebone or “er” in valuable as a hard abrasive (Kramer & Never- Marshallese. In many parts of the world, this is mann 1938 [trans. Brant & Armstrong 1942], given to caged parakeets. Traditionally in the p. 145). Marshalls, though, “er” was used as a shuttle Even non-organic objects that on their own for weaving pandanus thatch, a tool called “raj” sink “like rocks” (because they are rocks) can (a term which also means ). float into the Marshalls when they have be- Newly coined words known by younger come embedded in the root system of trees. people are “ken iit” or “thing of heat” or ‘heat- Chamisso (1821 [comp. Levesque 2001, p. ing tool’ and “ken kabwil” or “thing to make 364]), tells of “hard stones fit for whetting” be- hot”—modern colloquialisms for large, ing “sought in the roots and hollows of the smooth Entada drift seeds which more tradi- trees which the sea throws up.” Years later, in tionally was called “ejor.” When rubbed the roots of one presumed redwood that was rapidly, their smooth surface gets hot, and then examined on Arno in 1950, “several sizable are mischievously pressed against a compan- chucks of a tough quartzitic grey-green sand- ion’s flesh, causing a painful although not seri- stone” were found (Wells 1951, p. 3). ous burning sensation. Many of these root-transported hard rocks “Bok-in-Ep” (or ‘sand-of-Ep’) appears to were basaltic stones, possibly from as close as mud that is caked in the roots of drift logs and Kosrae and Pohnpei and were called “deka-lal” other objects. It is rare and is highly prized for or “earth rocks”. Erdland (1914 [trans. Neuse use in local medicine (pers. comm. A. deBrum). 1961], p. 93), noted that the Marshallese sling Analysis would prove interesting as to origin, was not a particularly dangerous weapon since although of course there could be multiple the coral rocks available for use did not have sources. much strength. However, if a “deka-lal” was For many years, glass balls were manufac- used instead, all of a sudden they became for- tured as fishing floats. Now plastic has replaced midable instruments of battle. them, but from time to time, the old glass ones No wonder that any of such hard rocks, still wash ashore in good condition. These have and any drift metal, was to be delivered to the become popular as decorations in some circles, “irooj,” under punishment of death! (Kramer and are also valuable commodities of trade. & Nevermann 1938 [trans. Brant & Armstrong Even the less charming plastic fishing floats are 1942], p. 145). used to decorate porches, often with openings Bamboo is known by either “bai”or “koba” cut in them so as to plant flowers. (On outer depending on the dialect (Abo et al... 1976, pp. islands, children will carve make-shift baseballs 27, 151). Chamisso (1821 [comp. Levesque from bright yellow foam fishing floats.) 2001, p. 364]), mentioned that it was among the objects ‘thrown up by the sea.’ Uncut Fragrance pieces of what seems to be various species of “Aik” driftwood is known for its pleasant fra- this grass family as well as cut sections are not grance. The knots in particular are said to pro- infrequently found washed ashore. Kramer & vide the highest degree of scent when scraped Nevermann (1938 [trans. Brant & Armstrong and added to coconut oil. 1942], pp. 153, 158, 199) describe the use of The word “aik” is often used for cedar be- drift bamboo in the manufacture of small cause of its characteristic highly fragrant wood boxes for storing needles, tinder and other little (Abo et al... 1976, p. 6, Jeje ko Rekojarjar [old objects, while less often, longer pieces being translation] 1 Kings chap. 67). However, Erd- uncommonly used for the shafts of spears. land (1914 p. 276) and Kramer & Neverman Long, thin pieces would have been useful as (1938, p. 89) give the German definitions for fishing poles. In more recent times, bamboo “aik” as “Kampfer” or “Sandelhotz” (or in rafts have floated ashore, at least one of which English “camphor” or “sandalwood”)—not is still in use as fencing. “Zeder,” “cedar.” Catching the Drift: Impacts of Oceanic Drift Material in the Marshall Islands 439

People nowadays remark about how rare ascertain. Neuse translated “ijur” as “aromatic “aik” has become, which could lend credence tree resin” and “kūor” as “bitumen”, while to the idea that it was sandalwood. While the Brant & Armstrong render these words as Hawaiian sandalwood industry experienced a “aromatic resin” and “very aromatic earth crash by 1840, about another two-dozen spe- resin.” cies of this aromatic wood of the genus Santa- There are several ‘aromatic tree resins’ that lum are known to range from Indomalaysia to are found in areas where drift to the Marshalls Australia. Some of these are harvested com- is known to originate. There is a type of copal mercially, although not to the extent than in resin that occurs in the East Indies and Malay- times past (Mabberly 1998, p. 637). sia. Damar resins come from a number of tree However, the only contemporary persons species in Malaysia, and elemi resins are who actually put a description to the scent of formed by species of Canarium trees known “aik” said it smelled like pencil shavings—a from the Philippines, Mauritius to the East large proportion of which are made of incense Indies. (Canarium drift fruit occur fairly com- cedar (Libocedrus decurrens)! (Schery 1972, p. 82). monly on Majuro beaches.) Any and all of But regardless of its origin (of which there these might have been “ijur.” could very easily be several), it was prized for And/or it might have included the non- its aroma and was often use to perfume botanically derived, but quite fragrant, sperma- women’s clothing mats and head garlands ceti “the white, waxy substance from the oil in (Erdland 1914 [trans. Neuse 1961], p. 27, 29, the head of the ” (Charton et al... 30; Kramer & Nevermann [trans. Brant & 1988, p. 271). Armstrong 1942], pp. 89, 156). There would be reason to conclude this way “Ajet” (Atuna racemosa = Parinari laurina) is since “kūor” does seem to fall within what one also renown for its value in making perfume would expect of ambergris. Also produced by (Abo et al.. 1976 p. 8). Just about everyone who the sperm whale, it is said to be extremely fra- knows “ajet” knows that it does not grow on grant, and only a small amount yielding a great these atolls. The tree that produces these large, amount of scent. When fresh, it is often corky fruit ranges from Borneo and the Philip- brownish in color, but when it ages, it becomes pines, through much of , and also blackish—like bitumen? And it is known to into Tonga, Samoa and Fiji (Fosberg et al.. drift ashore, as “kūor” was said to have done, 1979, p. 89; Smith 1999, p. 29). And while it is again something that it was imperative to hand interesting that the Marshallese name is linguis- over to the “irooj” if found. Just a small tically identical with the Kosraean, “aset” amount was added to coconut oil to make a (Falanruw et al... 1990, p. 22), its wide range sweet-smelling ointment9 (Carwardine et al... means that the fruit that commonly wash 1998, p. 37; Charton et al... 1988, p. 8; Erdland ashore on Marshalls= beaches potentially could 1914 [trans. Neuse 1961] p. 30, 276; Mawer come from most of the Pacific.8 1999, pp. 24-25). One—or both—of the above been the Recent informants, who were unfamiliar “aromatic sawdust” could have been the sub- with the word “kūor” gave descriptions of a stance to which ‘coconut oil, bitumen and substance which floated ashore and would pos- flowers’ were added to make a perfume used sibly better fit that of ambergris. They knew it for the puberty rites of the daughters of the as “kūbwe-in-raj” (or whale or waste), chiefs (Erdland 1914 [trans. Neuse 1961] p. was said to be gray in color and highly fragrant. 134; Kramer & Nevermann (1938 [trans. Brant While never common, they said it has become & Armstrong 1942], p. 89) extremely rare these days, which would corres- Erdland (1914, p. 276) and Kramer & pond with the decline in the sperm whale Nevermann (1938, p. 292), also speaks of population. “wohlriechendes Harz” and “Erdhardz” using What sort of odor would have been con- the Marshallese names “ijur” and “kūor”— veyed to mats after they were rubbed by ‘small however again definite identification is hard to birds that washed ashore’ is hard to imagine. 440 Catching the Drift: Impacts of Oceanic Drift Material in the Marshall Islands

Kramer & Nevermann (1938 [trans. Brant & • Along the east of Ebon there was the Armstrong 1942], p. 89) in their account call marine manifestation of Lebokjeb, half of this bird an “annañ. According to Abo et al... one end of a palm frond (Erdland 1914 (1979, p. 16), “annañ,” is a “shadow” or any [trans. Neuse 1961], p. 362). sort of representation of something else, but • Other coconut fronds were markers of also, as a separate entry “a bird, small, about Kwajalein and Wotje (Carucci 1992a, p. 76; the size of a butterfly, lives in rocks around the Abo et al.. 1976, p. 263). shores of the Northwest Marshalls, smells • Lipātwa at sea was said to be an upright sweet.” The early accounts do explain that the tree trunk near Namu; Kineen was another bird “annañ” became extinct about 1880, tree trunk, but this one of the lagoonside probably because it was hunted to the brink by of Ujae supposedly had a branch stuck to introduction of cats. Possibly this could be a the sand (Erdland 1914 [trans. Neuse 1961, sketchy recounting of the extirpation of the p. 359, 355). white-browed rail (Porzana cinereus), a shy, secre- Although not an actual sea marker, a legend tive bird which was recorded only once from was told of a wife who was abducted. While the Marshalls but is known in other areas in being taken at sea, she chewed pandanus, dis- Micronesia (Engbring 1988, p. 34; Pratt et al... carding the old keys or sections. The fragrance 1987, p. 126). Nevertheless, even if this bird that emitted from those keys was such that her species was the “annañ”, it does not explain rescuers were able to follow her trail and find why it was described as being “washed her (Erdland 1914 [trans. Neuse 1961], p. 271). ashore”—or what type of residue from dead Drift logs have long been known to serve as birds was desired to have exuding from mats. fish aggregators and local fishermen know that driftlogs at sea are a good place to find fish Sea Markers and Fishing (Carucci 1992a, p. 124). When the convergence of currents and other A periodic drift event is the arrival of conditions are right, drift material will accumu- “aolōko” or Portuguese-men-of-war (Physalia late at sea in a fairly predictable manner. Mod- physalis). These colonial siphonophores spend ern seafarers speak of “open ocean drift lines” their entire existence on the high-seas where where, unfortunately, waste flotsam tends to be their high powered tentacles prey on unwary to be found (www.pacificwhale.org). fish, although they in turn are preyed upon by Traditional Marshallese seafarers were also hawksbill turtles and specialized snails (Vander aware of drift’s propensity to gather in certain Velde 1999, p. 3-4). However, under certain areas. Many “kak∩llal ko” or navigational wind conditions, these powerful stingers will markers which indicate the way-points or prox- come ashore, to the woe of any person who imity to a certain atoll or island are based on gets entangled by the long blue strings trailing where particular types of drift material typically below their bubble-like floats. Any fishing that converge.. As Kramer & Nevermann (1938 requires the fisherman to enter areas where [trans. Brant & Armstrong 1942], p. 220) ex- these cnidarians are in is not too practical. plained “drifting objects are taken into con- sideration as signs of the nearness and Food locations of land.” These objects supposedly Many who study oceanic drift toss about the would “stay a certain distance from the atoll question as to whether or not “ni” or coconut and always on a certain side of the atoll” (Erd- palm (Cocos nucifera) is native to a certain area or land 1914 [trans. Neuse 1961], p. 346). was introduced through human activity. Usu- As some examples: ally the factors that are considered are how • Lōkdonornor, off of Bikini, was a hollow long it can remain viable at sea, the speed of tree trunk which had numerous old panda- currents, distances between land, rainfall, etc. nus sections around it (Erdland 1914 (Gunn & Dennis 1971). In whatever case, there [trans. Neuse 1961], p. 347). is little argument that once “ni” is established in an area, trees leaning over a beach can and Catching the Drift: Impacts of Oceanic Drift Material in the Marshall Islands 441 will drop their fruit which will survive some tious substance, it is likely the somewhat palat- time in the salt water. able famine-food described by Wendler (1911, The beaches of the Marshalls where coco- p. 275). The account repeated by Kramer & nut trees have long been planted for Nevermann (1938 [trans. Brant & Armstrong production, as well as other utilitarian pur- 1942], p. 140). What evidently was called “bu- poses, are often littered with nuts. It is easy to iabui” (a name, however, which could was not assume that most of these are of local origin confirmed and hence modern spelling uncer- and likely this is correct. However, some fruit tain) was said to be the “inner part of a type of does arrive with evidence of having been at driftwood…similar to the trunk of a coconut sea—goose barnacles, bryozoa and/or other palm [which] was beaten and mixed with encrustation. While many of these nuts are arrowroot flour.” clearly dead and useful for only firewood, not infrequently, they are alive and could grow. Gardening and Horticulture These “ that drift to that land” have Some of the plants which are figured to have long been used for food and are often gathered arrived on their own, through drift or other for such even today (Carucci 1997a, pp. 122; means, are edible to some extent, but aside 386; Kelin 2003, p. 157) from the possibility of the above mentioned Another tree which is said to have been coconut, none are such to qualify as a staple. brought to the Marshalls by people is “kot∩l” So the evidence points to the early inhabitants or tropical almond (Terminalia catappa). The tree bringing “iaraj” swamp (Cyrtosperma chamis- grows relatively well in the atoll environment sonis) and “mā” breadfruit (Artocarpus spp.) with and produces edible seeds and is still promoted them when they settled (NBTRMI 2000, p. 21). as a food crop. In our searching of the beaches, “Tilaan” or pumice, which came through drift, “kotōl” driftseeds are among the most abun- traditionally was used as a fertilizer (Sachet dant of those we encounter (although these 1955, pp. 12, 19). may also include more than one species). Due Most reports that have discussed man- to their large number, plus the fact that the groves in the Marshalls have concluded that species is known throughout the country, we they must have been introduced by humans. usually do not give them much heed. However The main reason presented was that these trees it does appears that other people actively seek were found in the interior of the islands, not out “kot∩l” seeds. At times we have found along the coast. Chamisso (1821 [comp. rocks covered by fruits that have been cracked Levesque 2001, p. 364]), included “Rhizophora open, evidently to consume the nut inside. The gymnorhiza” [= Bruguiera gymnorrhiza] among cul- fact that many of these drift fruit clearly were tivated plants. Fosberg (1953, p. 17) agreed at sea for a while in that they have marine with this conclusion, stating “mangroves, at growth on them, it would also call into ques- least Bruguiera, found in landlocked pools and tion whether this species is actually of aborigi- muddy depressions have been deliberately nal origin or is perhaps native. introduced and planted by the Marshallese.” Also often encountered are the trunks of Others writers have tended to go along with what are probably sago palms (Metroxylon sagu this assumption (NBTRMI 2000, p. 21, Spen- and other species) that have drifted ashore. nemann 1993, pp. 107, 108). Chamisso (1821 [comp. Levesque 2001, p. However, when Spennemann (1997, p. 6) 364]), observed that ‘palms of the torrid zone’ took a better look at the drift patterns he en- were often deposited on Ratak reefs. In their countered, he remarked that this might “have a native range of Indonesia, Malaysia and other bearing on the interpretation of the distribution parts of Southeast Asia, an edible starch has of mangrove species in Eastern Micronesia.” long been obtained from the pith within their During our beachcombing for drift ma- trunks (Gibbons 1993, p. 54; Schery 1972, p. terial, we have found many hypocotyls (the 381). While currently it does not appear that dangling seed-like seedling which develop anyone in the Marshalls is extracting this nutri- while still attached to mangrove trees) of “joñ” 442 Catching the Drift: Impacts of Oceanic Drift Material in the Marshall Islands oriental mangrove (Bruguiera gymnorrhiza) and considered it to be ephemeral in that it was “eoeak” stilt mangrove (Rhizophora apiculata and “never seen to persist.” However, since it R. mucronata). While these species are known forms such horribly, spiny pestiferous bram- from various atolls in the Marshalls, with “joñ” bles, it is very likely that its low level of survival being relatively common, even on Majuro, the is on account of diligent weeding programs ra- hypocotyls found were on Majuro beaches far ther than any delicate nature of the plant. One from where any trees were growing. Moreover, particular plant has been observed growing in many of the hypocotyls had growth of barna- the thickets the across the road by the runway cles and/or bryozoas, good indicators of time of Majuro has remained for years, likely be- at sea. cause it is in an area no one is trying to culti- Hypocotyls which appeared viable were vate. placed in small containers of freshwater. While “Kōjbar” Indo-Pacific yellowwood (Neiso- no exact inventory was kept, a large number of sperma oppostifolium) spreads through drifting the “joñ” did both root and sprout, many still fruit. It is considered to be a climax species in growing to this day despite the fact that they the Marshall Islands (Fosberg 1953, p. 7; have yet to be transferred to suitable wetlands. NBTRMI 2000, p. 15, Vander Velde 2001). “Eoeak” is not known from anywhere on Theoretically, many of the islands should there- Majuro and is a much rarer anywhere in the fore be dominated by this species, yet it actu- country. Of the limited number of hypocotyls ality, it is relatively rare, evidently being kept found, only a few have proved viable. So far, under control through land clearing for copra only four of what is tentatively identified as R. farming and other agriculture. apiculata are still alive, and three of the much larger but of what have proved to be much Drifting Away slower growing R. mucronata. Even the best of sailors recognize the constant Of course, the fact that so many drift hypo- danger of somehow getting off course and cotyls proved to be viable does not answer the drifting away. So it was not just persons from question as to whether their establishment in other areas who inadvertantly drifted into the the Marshall Islands was through human inter- Marshalls, many a Marshallese seafarer ended vention or not. The seaward mangroves of up making an unplanned landfall on a distant Nadikdik certainly could have become estab- land—if they were that fortunate. The well- lished on their own; some of the completely known Marshallese saying “Mōkajkaj ijaljal landlocked stand, however, more likely were ibōtbōt, ekadu tōllok, aetok pelok” is a warn- planted. Anecdotal accounts from Jaluit, which ing: ‘watch out—you may be being too hasty’ has extensive inland mangroves, tell of how (although meaning more along the lines of ‘you one man brought “joñ” from Namdrik and really need to spend time in the bathroom, the planted all around the atoll, instructing people way is short, drift on the open ocean is long’), on how to best use the hypocotyl in making and demonstrates the constant threat of going canoes and mats. adrift (pers. comm. W. Mwekto). Some plants which spread through drift are Kramer & Nevermann (1938 [trans. Brant not considered desirable and in this way, would & Armstrong 1942], p. 174) speculate that, have an impact on agriculture by requiring con- among other reasons, “decline in the popula- stansy in their removal. “Kālõklõk” wait-a-bit tion was caused by…being lost at sea during or nickernut (Caesalpinia bonduc and related spe- journeys.” In fact, they considered it “common cies), is a famous driftseed in its worldwide for ships to go off course.” range. Chamisso (1821 [comp. Levesque 2001, They cite an incidence about the year 1860 p. 365]), mentioned finding seeds among the where supposedly 50 boats from Majuro drift they encountered, but only once actually drifted off course from their intended destina- finding a growing plant. Fosberg et al.. (1979, tion in the Rālik chain and ended up drifting all pp. 96. 97) reported that it had been found on the way to Kapingamarangi, conquering the seven atolls. Fosberg (1953, p. 4), nevertheless, people and establishing a population of Mar- Catching the Drift: Impacts of Oceanic Drift Material in the Marshall Islands 443 shallese there. They, however, questioned the retold by Kramer & Nevermann (1938 [trans. validity of this claim since, as they commented Brant & Armstrong 1942], p. 208), describes “language alone is enough to refute this” how the rolled mat was not weighted down by (Kramer & Nevermann 1938 [trans. Brant & any rocks that would have caused the corpse to Armstrong 1942], p. 11). sink; instead the parcel was equipped with a Erdland (1914 [trans. Neuse 1961], p. 61) small mast and sail to facilitate its departure, said that canoes tended to travel together in transported away out to sea and then let on its order to help prevent their being going off own. No one was permitted to look back at the course. deceased. Arrival alive at a new location was no guar- Having a corpse wash ashore was not antee of survival. Even when just being driven something to be desired. One story related by from one atoll to another, survivors were often Tobin (2002, pp. 184-188) tells of how the executed. The reason was often for the practi- people of Ujae suffered after the dead body of cal reason of insufficient food (Erdland 1914 a woman drifted in and turned out to be an evil [trans. Neuse 1961], p.18). spirit, “mejenkwaad.” Evidently though, certain But many persons were also spared, particu- areas were known to have the wind, currents larly women (Kramer & Neverman 1938 [trans. and other conditions that would make it likely trans. Brant & Armstrong 1942], p. 203). Ca- that the bodies those departed would actually rucci (1992a, pp. 40, 41, 145) records the oral depart—and not just return to shore again. histories of ones now from Kwajalein but had Certain island and “weto” or landgrant names ancestor who drifted from other atolls. Other reflect these properties. For example, on both Marshallese people spoke of this happening in Kwajalein and Maloelap atolls, there are their family—for example, one family from called Āne-bōn, which are defined as “place for Namu had an ancestor drift there from Mejit. floating corpses away” (Abo et al.. 1979, p. 508; While none of the ones alive have ever seen Carucci 1997a, pp. 97, 332). On , Mejit, they still hold ties to that island. there is the “weto” called Toon-kūtim, mean- Drift did add to the toll on the population ing ‘channel or passage of mat used to cover during hardship. In times of famine, Kramer & corpses’ or as explained in Abo et al... (1976, p. Nevermann (1938 [trans. Brant & Armstrong 583): “There is a small passage at this tract 1942], p. 190) said that, at least according the from which corpses were floated away.” earlier account of A. Brandeis, children were set to sea after being tied to floats. But it seems UNANTICIPATED INTRODUCTIONS that if per chance the little one survived the or- It appears that two notorious venereal diseases, deal and was found on another shore, it was syphilis and gonorrhea were likely brought to allowed to stay there. the Marshalls upon the return of persons who (This acceptance of a drift baby harmonizes had gone off course and made landfall on Kos- with the tale of the lost boy of Ailinglaplap. rae (Kramer & Nevermann 1938 [trans. Brant The story goes that his mother set him in a & Armstrong 1942], p. 233). basket or basin, and when she wasn’t watching, Beyond what drifting people may have he was washed away to another part of the brought with them, drift material in itself is island—or land, depending upon the version. completely free from any quarantine—and im- He was taken in by another couple, but later port duty. And while the understanding of in- sought his real parents [Downing et al... 1992, vasive species is unfolding, it does seem that at pp. 121-124; Kelin 2003, pp. 170-177]). least some of these undesired plants and ani- In times past, only “irooj” and other per- mals can travel via drift. Sachet (1955, p. 12) sons of high stature and rank were considered realized that pumice could contribute to the worthy of burial on land. Upon the death of “dissemination of animals from one shore to others, their bodies were wrapped in mats and another” and Jokiel (1989) later actually doc- set adrift10 (Erdland 1914 [trans. Neuse 1961], umented marine organisms regularly rafting on pp. 241, 326). An old account by Steinbach, as pumice, driftwood and other drift material 444 Catching the Drift: Impacts of Oceanic Drift Material in the Marshall Islands which was found on Kwajalein. This method “kānōno” stood for his underlings undoubtedly would work for both ‘wanted’ and (Erdland 1914, p. 152). ‘unwanted’ species. • A “kāmeej” and a “lo” beach hibiscus (Hibiscus tileaceus) were said to have battled LEGENDS AND SUPERSTITIONS on shore of . The fact that the Material which mysteriously appears on the “lo” won the contest was shown because beaches from some unknown place of origin the “kāmeej” was delegated to the outer would understandable illicit the imagination of shore (Erdland 1914 [trans. Neuse 1961], those who find it. The world’s largest seed, the p. 348). coco-de-mer (Ladoicea maldivica), was for centu- • A tree trunk supposedly washed up on the ries known only from drift. The magical cura- beach of Wollet island, . It tive powers attributed to it, along with tales was called “lañeta” and was said to cause told that grew underwater or in the real Garden people who already had their hunger of Eden, naturally helped inflate its value to satisfied to become hungry again (Kramer traders11 (Gunn & Dennis 1999, p. 22, 23, 186). & Nevermann 1938 [trans. Brant & There were also quite a few Marshallese le- Armstrong 1942], p. 78). gends and superstitions also connected with • Magical property of “bok-in-Ep” (sand-of- drift. Some of these were: Ep) is told in some legends. Wūllep • One superstition was that heavy sheet advised Bōraan to take “sand from Eb” lighting was a sign that a canoe had drifted along with old coconut meat in order to off course (Erdland 1914, pp. 14, 340). travel. The same combination was told to • Evidently if such a drifted canoe did the adoptive sister of the lost boy from survive, the vessel was to taken apart and Ailinglaplap (Erdland 1914 [trans. Neuse then reassembled to ensure—along with 1961], p. 207; 279). “Bok-in-Ep” was also the aid of an appropriate “spell” that it did magically used by Wōdejebato’s sister to not drift away again (Erdland 1914, p. 340) raise a sunken, watersoaked log on which

• At least on one area of Ailinglaplap, there they had traveled (Tobin 2002, p. 257). was a stretch of beach where no person • Another supposedly powerful substance was to walk, and if anything drifted ashore, was “bok-allōñlōñ.” Information a light rain called “lañ-in-jiarel” would fall concerning it is quite sketchy, but it seems (Erdland 1914, p. 212). to be accumilations of a marine blue-green • An accumulation of material in a certain bacteria called “sea sawdust” or whirlpool near Kwajalein was said to Trichodesmium. Even today when conditions indicate that something of importance was are right, great concentrations and form, to occur, as was said to have happened and such blooms have been reported in with the death of an “iroojlaplap” (Carucci Majuro as well as much of the Pacific (per. 1997a, p. 124). comm. D. Jacobson, W. Mwekto; • Also in relation to the death of a high www.marine.uq.au/marbot/significantfindi person, if a dead whale drifted ashore on ngs/trichodesium) an eastern shore, it would signify an • The famous story of the girl who ran away impending death of an irooj; however if on from her parents on Mili through the help a western shore, the birth of an “irooj’s” of her grandmother Lijebake, the hawksbill child (Erdland 1914 [trans. Neuse 1961], p. turtle, involves knowledge of drift. 339). Depending on the version, the girl urges • Because of being considered imperious to her grandmother to swim on because there damage and the finest of the driftwoods, was still “the pandanus leaf of the Gilbert ā “k meej,” was used to represent an “irooj;” Islands, which drifts westward” (Erdland in contrast, the soft, essentially useless, 1914 [trans. Neuse 1961], p. 297; Tobin often shipworm infested driftwood 2002, p. 160) “chewed pandanus floating,” Catching the Drift: Impacts of Oceanic Drift Material in the Marshall Islands 445

(almost certainly meaning “pejpetok” inconsolable.(Erdland 1914 [trans. Neuse discussed above) (Kelin 2003, pp. 4, 5) or 1961], 256) “ri-Pit” meaning Kiribatese people • Another wife whose identity was mistaken (Downing et al.. 1992, p. 38), who were for a wicked being was speared and thrown known to regularly drift to Mili and other into the sea. In this case, she was said to atolls of the Marshalls. survive and floated to (Erdland • Another well-known story is from Ujae 1914, [trans. Neuse 1961], 286). about the kraken (or giant cephalopod) that • When one pregnant woman was late in attempted to defy being cooked. It told its delivering her offspring, she too was captures to use “tilaan” for their cooking speared by her husband and set adrift (and stone, but because “tilaan” does not deliver she too survived) (Erdland 1914 [trans. much heat, the kraken easily escaped. It Neuse 1961], 299). was only its captures later decided to instead use “deka lal” that the kraken was CONCLUSION cooked and eaten (Erdland 1914, pp. 247- While drift dispersal has proved to occur 248; Kelin 2003, pp. 156-161). commonly to and from the Marshalls, it is far • Two men who shunned seeing Jebro from a foolproof way for any living thing—be depart were punished by being set adrift by it plants, animals or humans—to expand their a storm when they instead when fishing ranges. This serendipitous mode of coloniza- (Erdland 1914, p. 221). tion is terribly wrought with dangers and un- • On Enewetak, when “lait” Portuguese- certainties, but it never fails to stir excitement men-of-war (Physalia physalis) come ashore, and wonder. this is understood to be as an indication The numerous islands, beaches and reefs of that: “A direct transfer of substance takes the Marshall Islands have been ‘catching the place between the underside of the earth drift’ since time immemorial. What was stated and the back side of Jebro” (Carucci about the sea surrounding Krakatau being 1997b, p. 143). “highways for species that are well adapted to • According to one legend, when an irooj dispersal on the sea surface” can be said just as worried feared that his expectant wife was well for the Marshalls B albeit the ‘commute’ is becoming a fear-inspiring “mejankwaad,” considerably longer (Thornton 1996, p. 97). he set her to sea with minimal provisions. While drift in the Pacific has captured the She drifted to Mejit, survived, gave birth attention of many casual beachcombers and (to a dozen children) and later her husband serious researchers over the centuries, so many rediscovered her and was reunited with her questions remain unanswered. (Kelin 2003, pp. 73-80). • Why do some species drift in a arrive viable • In a story about a “lōrro” (a woman who state but never become established outside was so distraught she would fly), when their native range? resting on a sandbar, two men who • Are species which have long been discovered her at first mistook her to be a considered to be of aboriginal introduction drift log, but then as dead person who had actually indigenous? drifted ashore (Tobin 2002, p. 259). • Or vise versa? In fact, a large proportion of the tales deal- • Based on what Spennemann and Ambrose ing with drift, reflect the custom of burial at (1997, p. 192), concluded regarding the sea. Often the stories tell husbands killing—or piece of obsidian and pumice from at least attempting to kill—their wives and dis- Nadikdik, (that the presence of non-local posing of their bodies this way. materials need not imply import through • A chief with two wives killed one and travel and trade), how many non-atoll wrapped up her body and sent her to drift historic objects may have arrived through to the west, leaving her son utterly natural drifting and rafting? • Or technologies? 446 Catching the Drift: Impacts of Oceanic Drift Material in the Marshall Islands

• Might not the Marshall Islands, with its And we especially want to thank Paula isolation, simple environment and trade Creech for the offering us the opportunity to history, be a location that could well serve present some of this material to the Pacific as a control for assessing the likelihood of Preservation Symposium in Majuro, January drift versus other means of dispersal? 17-19, 2006, as well as those who attended the • From where does what appears to be symposium for letting us share some of our amber come? findings with them. • How will the proliferation of non-organic flotsam and jetsam that now plague the EDNOTES

seas and shore effect the normal cycle of 1 For the purpose of this discussion, the term plants dependent of drift distribution? “atoll” will also include the five solitary islands. • How will climate change affect the 2 The beleaguered salt-water crocodile which incidence and range of drift? showed up on in October • Can the history of drift provide insight into 2005 very likely arrived by rafting on logs from this phenomenon? Papua New Guinea or some other area of the As with the drift, such questions will un- Western Pacific (pers. comm. M. McCoy ). doubtedly continue to flow, with the more in- 3 Oceanic drift is said to have played major roles in vestigation generating even further mysteries. the Christopher Columbus’ discovery of the But regardless of these or further questions New World. During time on the Azores and other Atlantic islands, Columbus supposedly and answers that arise, taking note of what encountered drift material of distant origins – washes ashore certainly can give a different pieces of bamboo and worked wood, hot beans perspective to the Marshall Islands. Many peo- and even a couple of dead human bodies. The ple when they first come to these atolls feel tale is that these objects helped convince him that they are so isolated, just in the middle of that there was land out yonder. Later, after his nowhere. However when the impact of drift is actual search for such land dragged on longer considered, instead it becomes apparent that than his crew anticipated and mutiny appeared they are in the middle of everywhere! imminent, an encounter with flotsam provided the needed assurance that land was in fact near ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (Phillips & Phillips 1992, Young 2004,). The We would like to thank those who have helped above mentioned rare Mary’s bean was a prized talisman in many parts of Europe. It was us in our pursuit to understand the drift that thought to help women during childbirth, often we have been catching over the years—Ed being passed down from mother to daughter for Perry, Paul Mikkelson, Jeremy Smith, Izumi generations. (Gunn & Dennis 1999, p. 19; Nel- Hanno, Norm Duke, Art Whistler, Corine son 2000, p. 101). Vreisendorp, Dana Lee Ling, David Lorence, 4 For as much as possible, the spelling used in this Alex Wiedenhoeff, Shirley Graham, Lynn report is from the current Marshallese-English Raulerson, Peter Green, Curtis Ebbesmeyer— Dictionary of Abo et al... (1976). However, some and especially the numerous people of Majuro words from older sources have fallen into disuse and the other atolls who have been intrigued and a few words which were given anecdotally by and supportive of our beachcombing. from local informants and the spelling of these We greatly appreciate the help of Carmen is not certain. They were thus written according to the best approximation that could be made. Petrosian-Husa with translating some of the 5 While there are no instances of the use of the old German documents, and Frank Thomas of words “jelaar” nor pine in the older translation the RMI Historic Preservation Office and John of the Bible (Jeje ko Rekojajar undtd.), the new Pagolu and the staff of the Library of the Col- translation (United Bible Societies undtd.) does lege of the Marshall Islands for allowing access have pine as an untranslated loanword. Where to many of their references. We also thank the new translation uses “pine,” and in a couple Frank, as well as former CMI librarian Maxine instances “cypress,” once “cedar” and once Becker for their proofreading of this paper. “fir,” the older translation instead uses a modi- fied spelling of fir, “fōr” throughout (1 King Catching the Drift: Impacts of Oceanic Drift Material in the Marshall Islands 447

chapt. 5, 1 Chron. 2:8; 2 Chron. 2:5; Cant. 1:17; 9 Chamisso did record the sighting of a sperm whale (Erdland 1914 [trans. Neuse 1961], p. 152). near Wotje in 1817 (Chamisso 1817 [comp. 6 The “Repith-urur” whom Chamisso (1817 [trans. Levesque 2001, p. 365], [trans. Kratz 1986, p. Levesque 2001, p. 375]) describe as people cast 195]). ashore from another “group of islands,” detail- 10 According to Erdland (1914[trans. Neuse 1961], ing their “constant wars,” seem to have been pp. 241, 326) however, at least some persons of “ri-Pit uror” or “murderous Kiribatese.” high rank were also buried at sea, but their fu- (Kramer & Nevermann 1938 [trans. Brant & nerary bundles were weighted down so that they Armstrong 1942], 217). sank rather than drifted. 7 The older translation of the Bible uses “aik” for 11 It is now known to grow only on one area of the cedar throughout. However, the new translation Seychelles and now only command a few dollars (United Bible Societies undtd.) simply uses the as a tourist curio (Camerapix 1991, p. 141). English loanword “cedar.” 8 Legend tells of the sister of Wōdejebato named Luajet – or Miss Ajet – who stayed on an open stretch of Bikini reef because she “smelled bad” (Erdland 1914[trans. Neuse 1961], p. 266). Carwardine, M., Hoyt, E., Fordyce, R. W., and Gill, BIBLIOGRAPHY P.(1998). Whales, Dolphins & Porpoises. The Na- Abbott, R. T. and Dance, S. P. (1990). Compendium of ture Company/Time Life Books. Seashells, forth edition. American Malacologists, Carter, G. F. (1963). Movement of People and Ideas Inc., Melbourne, Florida. Across the Pacific, pp. 7-22. in Barrau, J. Plants Abo, T., Bender, B. W., Capelle, A. & DeBrum, T. and the Migration of Pacific Peoples. Bishop Museum (1976). Marshallese-English Dictionary, third edi- Press, , . tion. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, Chamisso, A. v. (1821) Remarks and Opinions. in Hawaii. Kotzebue, O. v. A Voyage of Discovery into the Alix, C. and Koester, D. (2001). Driftwood in the South Sea and Beering's Straits, for the Purpose of Ex- North Pacific. Internet accessed December 2005. ploring a North-East Passage, undertaken in the years anonymous, account of the voyage of Col. de 1815-1818…in the ship Rurick. Longman, Hurst, Indias, Vol. 5, pp. 210-212. Compiled and edited Beens, Orme, and Brown, Paternoster-Row, by Levesque, R. (1995). History of Micronesia: a London, Vol. 2 & 3; Compiled and edited by Collection of Source Documents; Vol. 2—Prelude to Levesque, R. (2001) History of Micronesia: a Collec- Conquest 1561-1595. Levesque Publication, tion of Source Documents; Vol. 18—Russian Expedi- Gatineau, Quebec, . tions, 1808-1827. Levesque Publication, Atkinson, M. J. (1987). Oceanography of Enewetak Gatineau, Quebec, Canada. Atoll. pp. 57-70. in Devaney, Dennis M., Ernst Chamisso, A. v. A Voyage Around the World with the S. Reese, Beatrice L. Burch, and Philip Helfrich Romanzov Exploring Expedition in the Years 1815- (eds.) The Natural History of , Vol- 18 in the Brig Rurik, Capt. Kotzebue. Translated by ume I, The Ecosystems: Environments, Biotas, and Pro- Kratz, H. (1986). University of Hawaii Press, cesses. Department of Energy, Honolulu, Hawaii. Washington, D.C. Charton, B. (1988). The Facts On File Dictionary of Camerapix (1991). Spectrum Guide to Seychelles. Cam- Marine Science. Facts On File. New York. erapix Publishers International, Nairobi, Kenya. Choris, L. (1822). Voyage pittoresque autour du monde, Carlquist, S. (1980). Hawaii: A Natural History. aves des portaits de sauvages d’Amerique, d’Afrique, et National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, des iles du Gran Ocean: des payages, des vues maritimes, Hawaii et plusierus objets d’histoire naturelle. Translated by Carucci, L. M. (1997a). In Anxious Anticipation of the Mason, L. (1960). Pacific Collection of the Uni- Uneven Fruits of . prepared for The versity of Hawaii. Compiled and edited by Space and Missile Defense Levesque, R. (2001) History of Micronesia: a Collec- Command and The United States Army Kwajal- tion of Source Documents; Vol. 18—Russian Expedi- ein Atoll, The Republic of the Marshall Islands. tions, 1808-1827. Levesque Publication, Carucci, L. M. (1997b). Nuclear Nativity. Northern Gatineau, Quebec, Canada. Illinois University Press. Dekalb, Illinois. Claussen, J. (2005). Native Plants of Christmas Island. Australian Biological Resources Study, Depart- 448 Catching the Drift: Impacts of Oceanic Drift Material in the Marshall Islands

ment of the Environment and Heritage and Source Documents; Vol. 1—European Discov- Christmas Island National History Association ery, 1521-1560. Levesque Publication, Gatineau, Coleman, N. (1991). Encyclopedia of Marine Animals. Quebec, Canada. Angus & Robertson, Pymble, Australia Hezel, F. X. (1983). The First Taint of Civilization: Croft, J. R. (1978). Datiscaceae pp. 114-122, in A History of the Caroline and Marshall Islands Womersley, J. S. Handbooks of the Flora of Papua in Pre-Colonial Days, 1521-1885. University of New Guinea, Volume I, Melbourne University Hawaii Press, Honolulu, Hawaii. Press. Jeje ko Rekojarjar [Holy Scriptures] (undated). Dennis, J. V. and Gunn, C. R. (1971). Case Against [Older Marshallese translation of the Bible]. Trans-Pacific Dispersal of the Coconut by Jokiel, P. L. (1989). Rafting of reef corals and other Ocean Currents. Economic Botany, Vol 25: 4, pp. organisms at Kwajalein Atoll. Marine Biology 407-413. 101:4 (abstract only via internet) Downing, J., Spennemann, D. H. R. and Bennett, Kelin, D. A. (2003). Marshall Islands Legends and M. (1992). Bwebwenatoon Etto. Republic of the Stories. Bess Press, Honolulu, Hawaii. Marshall Islands Ministry of Internal Affairs, Kennan, S. C., Sprintall, J. and Niller, P. P. (2004). Historic Preservation Office. Seasonal Cycle of the North Equatorial Engbring, J. (1988). Field Guide to the Birds of Palau. Countercurrent in the Eastern Tropical Pacific. Conservation Office, Bureau of Education, Internet accessed December 7, 2005 Koror, Palau. Kiste, R. C.(1968). Kili Island: A Study of the Relo- Erdland, A. (1914). Die Marshall Insulanur. Leben cation of the Ex-Bikini Marshallese. The De- und Sitte, Sinn und Religion eines Sudsee- partment of Anthropology, University of volkes. Antropos Bibliothek. Vol. II, No. 1. in Oregon, Eugene, Oregon. Spennemann, D. H. R. (1999). An Annotated Kramer, A. and Nevermann, H. (1938). -Ratak Compendium of German Language Sources on the (Marschall Inseln). Ergebnisse der Sudsee- German Protectorate of the Marshall Islands, Vol. VI. Expedition 1908-1910. II. Ethnographie, B. Albury, NSW. Mikronesian. Vol. 11, Hamburg. Erdland, A. (1914). Die Marshall Insulanur. Leben Kramer, A. and Nevermann, H. (1938). Ralik-Ratak. und Sitte, Sinn und Religion eines Sudsee- (Marshall Islands). Translated by Brant, C. and volkes. Antropos Bibliothek. Vol. II, No. 1. Trans- Armstrong J. M. (1942), photocopy only avail- lated able. Fosberg, F. R. (1953). Vegetation of Central Pacific Kotzebue, O. v. (1821). A Voyage of Discovery into Atolls, A Brief Summary. Atoll Research Bulletin the South Sea and Beering's Straits, for the Pur- 23:1- 26. pose of Exploring a North-East Passage, under- Fosberg, F. R., M.-H. Sachet and R. Oliver (1979) A taken in the years 1815-1818…in the ship Geographical Checklist of Micronesian Dicoty- Rurick. Longman, Hurst, Beens, Orme, and ledonae. Micronesica 15 (1-2): 41-295. Brown, Paternoster-Row, London. Compiled Galvāo, A. (1563). Tradao dos Descobrimentos and edited by Levesque, R. (2001). History of antigos e modernos. Compiled and edited by Micronesia: a Collection of Source Documents; Levesque, R. (1992). History of Micronesia: a Vol. 18—Russian Expeditions, 1808-1827. Collection of Source Documents; Vol. 1— Levesque Publication, Gatineau, Quebec, European Discovery, 1521-1560. Levesque Pub- Canada. lication, Gatineau, Quebec, Canada. Levesque, R. (1992). History of Micronesia: a Col- Gibbons, M. (1993). Identifying Palms. Cartwell lection of Source Documents; Vol. 1— Books, Inc., Edison, New Jersey. European Discovery, 1521-1560. Levesque Pub- Gunn, C. R. (1977). Merremia discoidesperma: Its lication, Gatineau, Quebec, Canada. Taxonomy and Capacity of its Seeds for Ocean Mabberley, D. J. (1997). The Plant-book, second Drifting. Economic Botany, 31: 2, pp. 237-252. edition. Cambridge University Press, Cam- Gunn, C. R., and Dennis,J. V. (1999). World Guide bridge, UK. to Tropical Drift Seeds and Fruits. Krieger Pub- Marshall Islands Journal (2006). Kiribati couple ad- lishing Company, Malabar, Florida rift for a month. Vol. 37: 9, p. 4. Hakluyt, R. (1601). The Discoveries of the World, Mawer, G. A.(1999). Ahab's Trade: The Saga of from their First Original unto the Year of Our South Seas . St. Martin's Press, New Lord 1555, by Antonio Galvāo, governor of York. Terate. Compiled and edited by Levesque, R. National Biodiversity Team of the Republic of the (1992). History of Micronesia: a Collection of Marshall Islands (NBTRMI) (2000). The Mar- Catching the Drift: Impacts of Oceanic Drift Material in the Marshall Islands 449

shall Islands Living Atolls Amidst the Living Taylor, W. R. (1950). Plants of Bikini and other Sea: The National Biodiversity Report of the Northern Marshall Islands. University of Michi- Republic of the Marshall Islands. RMI Biodi- gan Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan. versity Project, Majuro. United Bible Societies. (undated). Jeje ko Rekkwo- Nelson, E. C. (2000) Sea Beans and Nicker Nuts. jarjar. [Newer Marshallese translation of the Botanical Society of the British Isles, London, Bible]. England. Vander Velde, N. (1999). This Creature Is Bane to Perry, E. and Dennis, J. V. (2003). Sea-Beans from Swimmer. , March/April, pp.3- the Tropics. Krieger Publishing Company, Mala- 4. bar, Florida Vander Velde, N. (2001). Trees of the Marshall Phillips, W. D. Jr. and C. R. Phillips (1992) Voyage Islands. RMI Agriculture Division. US Depart- of Destiny. in American History Illustrated, pp. ment of Agriculture, Forest Service (awaiting 29-70 printing). Pratt, H. D., Bruner, P. L., and Berrett, D. G. Vander Velde, N. and Vander Velde, B. (2004). A (1987). A Field Guide to The Birds of Hawaii New Record for the Mary=s Bean. The Drifting and the Tropical Pacific. Princeton University Seed, 10:2, pp. 7-8. Press, Princeton, New Jersey. Vander Velde, N. and Vander Velde, B. (in press). Sachet, M.-H. (1955). Pumice and other extraneous A Mary’s Bean and Other Small Drift Material volcanic materials on coral atolls. Atoll Research of Plant Origin Found on Bikini Atoll. Plant Bulletin 37, pp. 1-21. Species Biology, Vol. 21: 1 Smith, J. (1999). Australian Driftseeds: A Wells, J. W. (1951). The Coral Reefs of , Compedium of Seeds and Fruits Commonly Marshall Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin, 9, pp. Found on Australian Beaches. School of Human 1-56. and Environmental Studies, University of New Wendler, J. (1911). Zur Feuer- und Nahrungs- England, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia. bereitung der Marschall-Insulander (Sudsee). Spennemann, D. H. R. (1992). Marshallese Tattoos. Baessler-Archiv 1: 269-276. in Spennemann, D. Republic of the Marshall Islands Ministry of In- H. R. (1999). An Annotated Compendium of ternal Affairs Historic Preservation Office, Ma- German Language Sources on the German Pro- juro, Marshall Islands. tectorate of the Marshall Islands, Vol. XIX. Spennemann, D. H. R. (1993). Ennaanin Etto: A Albury, NSW. Collection of Essays on the Marshallese Past. Republic of the Marshall Islands Ministry of In- AUTHOR BIOGRAPHY AND CONTACT ternal Affairs Historic Preservation Office, Ma- The Vander Veldes moved to the Marshall Islands juro, Marshall Islands. almost twenty years ago. Previous to this, Nancy Spennemann, D. H. R. (1996). Gifts from the worked in marine biology, providing educational waves. A case of marine transport of obsidian to material to schools. She has written over 300 arti- Nadikdik Atolland the occurrence of other drift cles for various publications around the world, pri- materials in the Marshall Islands. Johnstone marily illustrated stories about but also Centre of Parks, Recreation and Heritage Re- about other aspects of the natural world. She did port 23, Charles Sturt University, Albury, New the research, writing and illustrating for the RMI South Wales. internet access PDF. National Biodiversity report, in the course of which Spennemann, D. H. R. (1997). On the Origin of and afterwards, has investigated extensively the ter- Drift Materials in the Marshall Islands. Atoll Re- restrial botany of the country. She has also written search Bulletin 445: 1-8. school level science books in Marshallese and scien- Spennemann, D. H. R. (2005). Traditional and tific papers on the Marshall Islands. Brian came to Nineteenth Century Communication Patterns in Micronesia as a toddler, with his father who as an the Marshall Islands. Micronesian Journal of the ecologist and science educator. He early on became Humanities and Social Sciences, 4:1, pp. 25-52. familiar with the plants of the region and observed internet access PDF. dramatic ecological changes over the decades. He Spennemann, D. H. and Ambrose, W. R. (1997). has co-authored scientific papers with Nancy. To- Floating obsidian and its implications for the in- gether they continue to observe the fascinating en- terpretation of Pacific prehistory. Antiquity 71: vironment of the atolls of the Marshalls. 188-93. CONTACT: Nancy Vander Velde and Brian Vander Velde, P. O. Box 1603, Majuro, MH 96960, Marshall Islands. E- mail: [email protected]