Hard surfaces, hidden costs Searching for alternatives to land take and soil sealing

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(*) Certain mobile telephone operators do not allow access to 00 800 numbers or these calls may be billed Hard surfaces, hidden costs More information on the European Union is available on the Internet (http://europa.eu). Cataloguing data as well as an abstract can be found at the end of this publication. Searching for alternatives Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2013 to land take and soil sealing ISBN 978-92-79-30550-4 doi:10.2779/16427

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© Cover photo: Thinkstock © Photos (on p. 4): Nicola Dall’Olio (director of the movie Il suolo minacciato – Land under threat). ‘Don’t it always seem to go, © Illustrations (on p. 8): Birgit Georgi; (on p. 19-23): European Commission © Photos (on p. 11-12-18-19-20-25-26-29-30): Thinkstock That you don’t know what you’ve got For any use or reproduction of photos which are not under European Union copyright, permission must be sought directly ‘Till it’s gone from the copyright holder(s). They paved paradise Put up a parking lot’ Printed in Italy

Printed on recycled paper that has been awarded the EU eco-label for graphic paper (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/ecolabel) Joni Mitchell, Big Yellow Taxi, 1970 Table of contents

A problem beneath our feet 5 A trend without end 6 What is so important about soil? 6 Soil is the missing link 7

What drives land take and soil sealing? 9 Growing cities 9 Lifestyle changes 9 Planning decisions 9 The underestimated resource 10 Policy challenge 10

The impacts of land take and soil sealing 13 Pressure on water resources 13 Threat to biodiversity 14 Threat to food security 14 Threat to the global carbon cycle and climate 15 Hotter cities, poorer air quality 17 Impact on well-being 17

Solutions 21 Escaping the concrete jungle 21 Best option: limit soil sealing 21 Second best option: mitigate 23 Third best option: compensate 26 n Reuse of topsoil 26 n Desealing (soil recovery) 26 n Sealing fee 26 n Eco-accounts and trading development certificates 27 Raising awareness 27 Europe working together 28

Further reading on soil, sealing and land take issues 31

Hard surfaces, hidden costs – Searching for alternatives to land take and soil sealing 3 Land take and soil sealing are accepted as A problem beneath necessary for human development, but have our feet serious negative impacts, on food produc- tion, water resources, the climate and nature protection. These important environmental 1999 There is a problem growing right under our impacts bring with them long-term economic 1999 feet. Most of us are barely aware of it, but and social consequences, too. At the current it is a problem that is getting bigger year rate of land take and soil sealing, we can upon year. no longer expect there to be enough land left to satisfy our needs in the future. You may have noticed shiny office develop- ments going up on the edge of town, smart Land take occurs particularly as a result homes being built on fields where wheat of the expansion of cities and spread of grew only last year, or an attractive new urban areas (urban sprawl). Further land out-of-town shopping centre with hundreds take is required to provide services for these of parking spaces. Yet these outward signs new developments, in the shape of shops, of economic prosperity are part of the prob- schools, waste and waste-water treatment lem. They have a hidden cost and a worrying plants, and transport infrastructure. legacy. Soil sealing is the most intense form of land 2008 The problem in question is the combination of take and is essentially irreversible, since the Converting green spaces into built-up areas. two related trends: building on land that was formation of soil is so slow, taking gener­ formerly open soil, known as ‘land take’, and ations to accumulate just a few centimetres. covering it with impermeable layers such as J asphalt and concrete, known as ‘soil sealing’.

4 Hard surfaces, hidden costs – Searching for alternatives to land take and soil sealing 5 A trend without end but this figure soars to around 14 % when Soil is the missing link Alpine areas unsuited to urban or infra- Data collected in recent years have shown Unlike air and water, there is no EU legisla- structure development are excluded. that land take and soil sealing are growing tion designed to protect soil. Some EU poli- problems for the whole of Europe. Accord- Translated into productivity, land take in the cies deal indirectly with soil, such as those ing to land cover surveys in 1990-2006, EU from 1990 to 2006 alone resulted in on water, waste, chemicals, industrial pol- land take has exceeded 1000 km2 per year, a loss of food-production capability equiva- lution, nature protection, pesticides and an area larger than Berlin. Over the same lent to more than 6 million tonnes of wheat. agriculture. However, as the focus of these 16-year period, urban areas increased by policies is not soil protection, there is nothing Among EU Member States with the highest 9 %. Land take was particularly intense in to ensure that all soil in Europe is adequately sealed area, amounting to more than 5 % some countries compared to others. In Ire- protected. of the national territory, are the Nether- land and Cyprus, it increased by 14 % and lands, Belgium, Germany and Luxembourg. An integrated – and binding – approach to in Spain by 15 %, although not all this area In total, the sealed surface area in 2006 tackling the related problems of land take was sealed (as a general rule, half of land was estimated to be around 100 000 km², and soil sealing would guide the EU and take results in soil sealing). or 2.3 % of EU territory, with an average of Member States towards more sustainable It is thought that even these already high fig- 200 m2 per citizen. soil management. In 2006, the European ures seriously underestimate the full dimen- Commission proposed soil legislation for the sions of the land consumption phenomenon What is so important about soil? EU. The proposal has proved controversial – What is sure is that precious and limited soil and has not yet been adopted. Soils fulfil a range of vital functions, from resources continue to be lost to urban sprawl providing the basis for farmland and forests, and transport infrastructure, with no reversal and our food, textile and timber production, or end in sight. to filtering water, reducing the frequency Besides, it is not only the absolute land take and risk of flooding and drought, supporting figure that matters. The spatial distribution biodiversity, and helping to regulate the  Good practice example and the value and availability of the land local and global climate. taken are all-important. For example, settle- Austria, Belgium (Flanders), Germany and Luxem- The trend for urbanisation and the con- ment areas cover 5 % of Austria’s territory, bourg have each defined annual targets for land version of land for development has been identified as a major threat in Europe, one of take. While not binding, these targets have had Citizens’ tip the most urbanised continents in the world. some impact in increasing awareness and limiting If we do not face the problem now, future urban sprawl. Support politicians, mayors and other decision- generations could be dealing with a leg- makers determined to tackle land take and sealing acy of destroyed and seriously degraded problems. soil, and a shortage of open land for agri- cultural, forestry and leisure resources.

6 Hard surfaces, hidden costs – Searching for alternatives to land take and soil sealing 7 Perhaps of more concern, built-up areas What drives land around the edges of cities, known as take and soil sealing? peri-urban areas, have the same amount of built-up land as urban areas, but are only half as densely populated. Growing cities Today, some 75 % of the European popu- Lifestyle changes lation live in urban areas, and by 2020 it The demand for better living standards, is estimated that this figure will increase including larger houses and more sports to 80 %. In seven Member States, the pro- and social facilities, combined with a lack portion could be over 90 %. of attractive and affordable living op- tions in urban areas, drives the pattern of outward expansion towards low-density Citizens’ tip settlements on the outskirts of cities. The use of private cars and insufficient Try to agree on day-night parking regimes with attractive public transport options fuels car-park owners to maximise the use of parking this trend. spaces. Similarly, high land prices in cities have encouraged developers to build on There are many reasons driving the ever- cheaper surrounding land. This generates apparent need to establish new housing, new demands for transport infrastruc- industry, business locations and trans- ture, eating further into the surrounding port infrastructure, particularly in and natural landscape. around towns. Cities are not just growing in response to a growing population. Planning decisions Since the mid-1950s, the surface area of Excessive land consumption and soil seal- cities in the EU has increased by 78 %, ing are the result of poor or uncoordinated even though the population has grown land planning decisions, including a lack of by only 33 %. This is called the paradox incentives to reuse and redevelop existing of ‘decoupled land take’. developed land. J

8 Hard surfaces, hidden costs – Searching for alternatives to land take and soil sealing 9 This reflects a long-established tendency The underestimated resource It is clear that European policies such as to opt for further land take and soil seal- Cohesion Policy, the common agricultural One of the main reasons for poor plan- ing without always considering the long- policy, or transport, industry and energy ning decisions has been a lack of appre- term direct and indirect impacts, such as policies have a role to play. However, it is ciation of the value of soil (and land- the cost of maintaining infrastructure. through regional and local spatial planning scape) as a limited resource and of in the Member States that the principles of It is not unusual to see warehouses and the many essential services it provides. sustainable land use can be implemented business units strung out along motor- This is exacerbated by the dependency of on the ground. ways, with new premises being built not local authorities on income generated by far from where old ones stand aban- urbanisation fees and levies, e.g. through doned. More farmland is being built on, the designation of new industrial areas  yet there is no attempt to return the land often in competition with neighbouring  Good practice to nature where old premises lie derelict. authorities. example Similarly, office workers relocate to new Such blindness over land take can have units in the suburbs or on the edge of unintended and costly consequences: France runs a network of more towns, while city-centre blocks are left sparse new housing zones and over- than 20 public land-development empty and unlet. In many cases, new sized commercial areas come with main­ agencies which, among other development is led more by speculative tenance and repair costs that municipal­ processes than the needs of a growing activities, redevelop brownfield ities can often ill afford to pay, and will population or thriving industry. land for social housing. become an increasing burden on over- It is in our common interest to protect stretched municipal budgets. soil – the sooner we make this a priority in land-use planning the better the leg- Policy challenge Citizens’ tip acy we will leave for future generations. Decisions on land use are long-term commitments, which are difficult or cost- Fancy a new home? Choose an existing, perhaps renovated, building in- stead of new housing built on agricultural land. This protects valuable Citizens’ tip ly to reverse. These decisions are often taken without proper prior analysis of the farmland at the edge of cities and, even if it is initially more expensive, Where possible, participate in your community’s broad and long-term impacts, for exam- it is likely to pay off over time. If you are considering a plot of land or planning activities. Stand up for your right to infor- ple through a strategic environmental new home in a rural area, think about access to local amenities and your assessment. mation and involvement. Express your opinion and future needs as you grow older. A city-based location is likely to be much needs to local decision-makers. better connected.

10 Hard surfaces, hidden costs – Searching for alternatives to land take and soil sealing 11 Instead of filtering through the soil to re- The impacts of land plenish groundwater, aquifers and subter- take and soil sealing ranean watercourses, heavy rain has to find somewhere else to go. In cities with a high proportion of sealed surfaces, it can quickly overwhelm drains, causing sewage systems Although sealing is often a prerequisite for to overflow. infrastructural development, the extent of its negative environmental impacts In places where the demand for water ex- should be of great concern. Covering an ceeds the quantity available, water has to area of land with impermeable artificial be brought in from surrounding regions. material severs the soil from the atmos- Increasing the local extraction rate may phere, reducing its supply of services so cause problems for aquifers, such as per- severely that it amounts to the effective manent subsidence, or salt-water intrusion consumption of soil. in coastal zones.

Soil sealing on flood plains is a further Pressure on water resources problem, reducing the plain’s storage cap­ Water in soil nourishes plants, saves on irri- acity and increasing the risk of flooding. gation and reduces the incidence of drought. The Rhine, one of Europe’s largest rivers, The more water that is stored in soil, the long- has lost four-fifths of its natural flood er it takes for rain to reach rivers, reducing plain. Sealing also affects the capacity peak flow and thus the risk of flooding. A well- of soil to cleanse polluted water, leading structured soil of sufficient depth can hold to contamination of surface waters and a lot of water: up to 300 litres or even more aquifers. in one cubic metre of a porous soil, equivalent Soil sealing can impact on local weather sys- to 300 mm of precipitation. This helps avoid tems, too. A large volume of rainfall on land or reduce the need to build artificial storage depends on the release of water into the facilities, where water retention is an issue. atmosphere from soil and plant transpir­ Covering land with impermeable layers like ation. Sealed soils absorb less rainfall and asphalt and concrete reduces the amount reduce the surface transpiration, contribut- of rain that can be absorbed by the soil. ing to changing local weather patterns. J

12 Hard surfaces, hidden costs – Searching for alternatives to land take and soil sealing 13 Threat to biodiversity insects), or for breeding, nesting or feeding, The loss of land from 1990 to 2006 alone Stripping topsoil during building activ­ities others depend on the vegetation that soil is equivalent to an area required to grow causes it to release part of its organic Land take and soil sealing undermine the supports. wheat to produce over 6 billion loaves carbon stock as greenhouse gases, due 24/7 work going on in soil, the factory of of bread. With an average consumption to mineralisation, and wastes centuries life for plants, animals and microbes1. Land take and sealing are bad news for bio- of 50 kg of bread per person annually, this of work by natural processes to produce diversity for other reasons. Extending cities A healthy soil supports a healthy soil life represents the amount required to feed topsoil. In addition, the carbon stock of and road networks destroys natural habitats, – comprising micro-organisms and larger 120 million Europeans every year. vegetation in open soil will be strongly af- alters the local climate and increases traf- organisms like earthworms and moles, fected. Green spaces, especially in urban fic pollution and noise. Transport infrastruc- Sealing farmland in Europe may be partly as well as plants – which in turn supports areas, play an important role absorbing ture is a particular threat for some species offset by relying on food production in other a solid soil structure, making it more per- carbon and reducing our carbon footprint. as it interrupts migration paths, undermining world regions. However, greater depend- meable to water and gases. It is estimated that three times more car- wildlife populations. If we are serious about ency on imports is not without risk, even bon is lost by extending cities into suburbs Soil micro-organisms break down organic halting biodiversity loss in Europe, a long- before considering the environmental and rather than densifying urban areas. J matter and recycle nutrients, maintaining standing commitment by all EU countries, social implications of increased pressure soil’s vital role in carbon storage. A single we need to urgently address soil sealing and on land abroad. teaspoon of garden soil may contain thou- land take. Rising food prices worldwide in recent years sands of species, millions of individuals are a warning of the dangers for Europe of and 100 metres of fungal networks. Threat to food security not being able to meet our food and energy  Good practice Soil is essential for the survival of above- Historically, towns were set up near the needs in the future. Meanwhile, a growing example ground species, too. Besides the countless most fertile land to ensure food supply to world population is stepping up demand number of organisms that spend part of their the population. Yet, over the last decades, for agricultural products from limited and Planning policy in England pro- life in soil during development (like many urban sprawl has been eating intensively shrinking farmland resources. motes the use of sustainable into such top-grade farmland. Even the drainage systems (SUDs) which remaining unsealed land in these areas Threat to the global carbon cycle Citizens’ tip tends to fall out of cultivation. and climate manage the flow of water run- off from a site by mimicking Reducing available farmland places greater Soils contain more organic carbon than Collect rainwater in a water butt or cistern for natural drainage systems. This watering the garden, washing the car, flushing pressure on agriculture to meet the demand is held in the atmosphere (760 billion for food, energy and other raw materials. tonnes) and in vegetation (560 billion contributes to natural water re- the toilet, watering houseplants, etc. This relieves This will inevitably lead to higher land prices tonnes) together. It is estimated that soil tention and can prevent sewer pressure on the sewer network, reducing flood and more intensive land management, with captures a certain part of the world’s flooding, for example. risks – and will save you some money. 2 the associated negative environmental man-made CO2 emissions annually . impacts.

1) For more information on soil biodiversity, see ‘The factory of life. Why soil biodiversity is so important’: 2) For more information on soil and climate, see ‘Soil – the hidden part of the climate cycle’: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/soil/factory_life.htm http://ec.europa.eu/environment/soil/pdf/soil_and_climate.pdf

14 Hard surfaces, hidden costs – Searching for alternatives to land take and soil sealing 15 1961 air-conditioning, refrigeration and traffic to  Good practice produce the ‘urban heat island effect’. 1961 example Different studies have confirmed the cool- ing effect of various tree species, includ- Slovakia’s Act on Protection ing the fact that the air temperature under The amount of agricultural land and Utilisation of Agricultural a group of trees is 5° C lower than in open available globally will fall from terrain in sun. Meanwhile, suburban areas 0.45 hectares per person in 1961 Soil (2004) protects the best with mature trees are 3° C cooler than newly to 0.2 hectares per person by quality farmland. There are built suburban areas without trees, while 2020, according to UN Food and nine soil quality classes. Any Agriculture Organisation predic- temperatures above grass playing fields are tions. By 2050, the share of avail- building on agricultural land 1 to 2° C lower than in adjacent areas. able land per person will further belonging to the best four decrease to 0.1 hectare. classes incurs a ‘conversion Vegetation, and especially large trees, can also play an important role in capturing fee’ according to the area of airborne particles that harm human health: soil lost and the class of soil. a tree captures on average 100 grams of fine dust per year.

2020 Hotter cities, poorer air quality Impact on well-being Trees, plants and open soil have a cool- Sprawling retail parks and extensive road ing effect on the local environment, both networks may be seen as a sign of high through shading from the sun and the living standards, but at what cost to our 2020 capture and evaporation of water from well-being? It is widely recognised that plants and soil. having access to green spaces improves In contrast, dark asphalted or concrete sur- quality of life. Removing green areas in faces, roofs and stones absorb heat from cities destroys such vital ‘lungs’, while the sun, combining with heat produced by

Citizens’ tip Choose locally produced food when shopping, to reduce the climate and land impact of food miles and support local farmers and businesses.

16 Hard surfaces, hidden costs – Searching for alternatives to land take and soil sealing 17 the quality and quantity of green space Citizens’ tip and green corridors in a city also contrib- ute to water and temperature regulation, Limit your car use, select car-sharing schemes and have a positive effect on humidity. where available, and use public transport to avoid the need for yet more roads and car parks.  Good practice example urban sprawl makes access to wilderness more difficult. We need to find the right bal- The Danish Spatial Planning ance between densification in urban areas and further land consumption in outlying Act puts clear restrictions on districts. Long journey times out of the city the construction of large shops diminish our leisure time and enjoyment, and shopping centres on green- while adding to the cost and envir­onmental field sites outside the largest impact of energy consumed while travelling. cities. It also promotes small Visualisation of the terms ‘settlement area’ Besides the physical and spiritual nour- retailers in small and medium- and ‘soil sealing’. Left is an example of a sub- urban pattern, with houses, gardens, driveways ishment that we gain from spending time sized towns, thereby counter- and yards. This pattern corresponds to the term in green spaces, and the value attached acting dispersed settlement settlement area. The image below shows in black to open spaces for leisure and tourism, where soil sealing occurs in the same settlement structures in rural regions with area, in this case covering about 60 % of the area. a shrinking population.

18 Hard surfaces, hidden costs – Searching for alternatives to land take and soil sealing 19 Solutions 2. Where it is not possible to avoid sealing, the second best option is to mitigate its impacts, reducing the worst effects where possible. Escaping the concrete jungle 3. The third option, a last resort, is to com- So how can we avoid the worst impacts pensate for sealing soil in one location by of land take and soil sealing? Is it possible soil-related remediation activity in another. to roll back the damage already done? Can we halt our tendency to pave over more of Different options for translating these meas- the countryside with every passing year? ures into practice are explored below.

First, we can learn from what is working right now. Many good practice examples Best option: limit soil sealing exist, several of them described in these There are two ways to limit soil sealing: pages. They apply the ‘less and better’ prin- by reducing land take, the rate at which ciple of protecting soil: less sealing and bet- natural areas are converted into de­veloped ter planning. Secondly, society is become areas; or by continuing to seal soil, but only increasingly aware of the need to change on land that has been previously developed. our attitude towards soil. The European One of the surest ways to limit soil sealing Commission has proposed getting on track is by national, regional and local authorities to achieve no net land take by 2050. And setting realistic land-take targets. These thirdly, experts agree on the best way to should take account of their current situ­ protect soil: to improve land-use and urban ation and the likely future demand for land. planning and reduce sealing. To this end, they have agreed a three-step hierarchy of Land-take targets should ideally be bind- measures: limit – mitigate – compensate. ing; otherwise it is likely that the sustain- able use of soil resources will always come 1. The priority solution must be to limit soil second to other interests. However, even in- sealing, as sealing is an almost irreversible dicative targets – like those set in Austria and process.

20 Hard surfaces, hidden costs – Searching for alternatives to land take and soil sealing 21 Germany – can be useful. At the very least, loss of ecosystem services. These indirect  Raise awareness about the value of Second best option: mitigate they focus attention on the importance of costs should be factored into land-use plan- soil among decision-makers, planners Although not all new developments can use using land and soil sustainably, as there is an ning targets and incentives. and residents; brownfield sites, town and land-use planners obligation to monitor land conversion. A broad range of other options will  Use cost-calculator programmes to com- can take steps to ensure that land take and The other way to avoid expanding into help to limit land take and soil sealing. pare the implications of redeveloping soil sealing are conducted in the most sus- green areas is by land recycling, mak- Land planners might want to consider the urban land and new land, taking ac- tainable and resource-efficient way possible. ing maximum use of previously developed following ideas: count of services such as sewerage, One way to limit the impact of a building sites: brownfields. These sites (as opposed roads, schools and day care.  Improve quality of life in urban areas; project is to avoid damaging soils that will to undeveloped or ‘greenfield’ land) have not be sealed after the construction phase, been previously used but have subsequently  Strengthen public transport infrastruc- such as gardens and green spaces around become vacant and derelict. Some may be ture and limit use of private cars;  Good practice the buildings. This allows the soil to retain contaminated. Before any new development  Protect high-quality soils at a national example its full functions as far as possible. Any can go ahead, brownfields typically require level and steer urban development to soil removed, especially topsoil, should also preparatory regenerative work. This is often low-quality soils; Planning-policy guidance in the be reused, not dumped. Building methods seen as a costly option, and it may be so UK includes a national annual and materials can be chosen to do least for developers who have the choice of start-  Better manage the stock of office build- damage to soil, and could include, for exam- ing from scratch on a green space. However, ings in cities to avoid the construction of target of 60 % of new develop- ple, the use of highly permeable materials, planners often fail to consider the long- new offices when ample vacant space ments to be built on previously green infrastructure and water harvesting. term indirect costs of allowing building on already exists; developed land and through con- greenfield sites: further road development Permeable building materials let rainwater  Create incentives to rent unoccupied version of existing buildings. This and other local services (while brownfields filter into the soil, reduce surface-water houses; target successfully contributed are quite often well connected to the sur- to better land recycling. London’s run-off and help to preserve some key soil rounding area), higher fuel consumption and  Strengthen co-operation between neigh- functions, albeit to a limited extent. J Olympic Park is just one example. greater pollution due to longer commuting bouring local authorities on the develop- journeys from suburban areas, as well as ment of commercial areas;

 Create incentives to recycle land rather Citizens’ tip than develop new sites, and highlight the potential of brownfield sites; create If you have a garden, plant trees and shrubs and, inventories of derelict sites to boost if you have space, consider growing your own regeneration; orchard or coppice. Gardening is not only good for  Set restrictions and taxes on second mental and physical health! residences;

Overview of the most common ground surfaces, from most to least permeable.

22 Hard surfaces, hidden costs – Searching for alternatives to land take and soil sealing 23 Parking areas are ideally suited to be Green infrastructure is a term for urban (UK) measured a 20 % reduction in run- helps to reduce tidal peaks and associated covered with permeable surfaces. In Europe, design features that incorporate green off thanks to green roofs. They also offer flooding. Ponds, wet soil and vegetation are the number of cars and parking spaces are spaces, including green roofing. Green habitats for plants and wildlife, have a cool- all means of harvesting rainwater, as are on the increase, and there are always more infrastructure aims to allow rainwater ing effect on hot days and contribute to air household cisterns, where rainwater is col- spaces than parked cars. A 2010 survey to infiltrate the soil, avoiding high run- quality. Overall, they cost about the same lected and used for watering the garden, found that London had lost 12 % of its gar- off and reducing the heat island effect in as conventional roofs considering all related flushing toilets and other purposes. J den surface in a decade, replaced by hard urban areas. costs. surfacing. This results in excess water run- One of the great benefits of green infra- Another option to improve the urban en- ning into sewers and drains, rather than structure is energy saving. On and around vironment is to reintroduce vegetation via  Good practice example soaking into the soil. Flash floods in August buildings it can reduce heating and cooling green walls. A green façade can be achieved 2004 in west London provided a dramatic costs significantly via water evaporation: either with climbing plants or ground cover picture of how the effects might appear, The City of Osnabrück has promoted the installa- green roofs can reduce a building’s energy growing into supporting structures. Plants with major and costly damage to streets tion of green roofs through the introduction of eco- costs by 10-15 %, while an additional 10 % are ideally rooted in open soil beds at the and homes, loss of clean water supply logical principles into land-use planning, as defined of urban tree canopy can save 5-10 %, base of the structure. and the overflow of raw sewage into the thanks to wind protection and shading. in the provisions of the German Building Code. On Thames, with significant consequences for Rainwater harvesting is a way of sup- certain roofs it has become mandatory to estab- the environment and public health. Optimising the design of urban areas, in- porting the natural water cycle rather than lish either a green roof or a solar energy system as corporating parks and green spaces, as channelling water to a sewer. It uses vari- a contribution to fighting climate change. well as preserving unsealed open strips ous means to keep water for as long as Citizens’ tip (‘fresh-air corridors’) to support the venti- possible where it meets the ground. This lation of city centres, is likely to become in- Consider using permeable alternatives to asphalt creasingly important in the future. Shrubs when constructing a car park, driveway, small road and trees planted in urban areas absorb What is a green roof? or trail. This will protect local water sources and dust and pollutants, act as noise and pest reduce surface flooding. barriers, and provide other community A green roof consists of a water­ benefits such as recreational space. proof membrane, topped with Building green infrastructure is best a growing medium such as com- Gravel or grass grids are best-suited for achieved when large projects are being parking areas with occasional or infrequent post and vegetation, commonly prepared, such as business parks or road use. They have less impact on the land- turf or low-growing, hardy plants. and railway infrastructure. scape and do not require a new drainage Underground structures in par­ system. Permeable concrete grids com- Green roofs can help mitigate some of the ticular provide a good opportu- bined with drainage ditches are better for negative effects of sealing, notably by reduc- nity to incorporate green roofing. heavy use, such as supermarket car parks. ing surface run-off – a study in Manchester

24 Hard surfaces, hidden costs – Searching for alternatives to land take and soil sealing 25 n Reuse of topsoil are rarely high enough to discourage land Citizens’ tip Topsoil can be removed from a construction take. Instead, the money collected is used Citizens’ tip site and used, for example, to upgrade agri- to support soil-protection projects. Some Give your house a green makeover! Look into in- cultural sites, or to regenerate contaminat- countries in Europe use sealing fees to pro- Building your own house? Design as compact a stalling a green roof on part or all of your property to ed land and encourage seed germination, on tect the best farmland. home as possible to reduce your land footprint. Try help reduce surface run-off and support the micro­ a golf course, or to improve soil quality in to maintain a reasonably sized ‘green belt’ around climate, or consider the possibility of a green wall. gardens. n Eco-accounts and trading development the house, so that it can fulfill its environmental certificates functions and still be of use to you. n Desealing (soil recovery) In an eco-accounts system, the ecological Third best option: compensate Removing asphalt or concrete and replac- cost of soil sealing is determined and de- The idea behind compensating for soil ing them with topsoil on subsoil can help velopers have to ensure that compensation sealing is to make up for sealing in one renew the soil functions of a previously measures of equal value to sealing are car-  Good practice example place by restoring soil functions elsewhere sealed site, as well as restoring the beauty ried out elsewhere. Official compensation in the same area. As a rule, compensation of the landscape. Desealing is mainly used agencies oversee the system. measures should be equivalent to the in urban regeneration projects, following The German City of Dresden introduced a Soil Com- A development certificates trading sys- ecosystem functions lost. the removal of derelict buildings to create pensation Account in 2002 to finance the removal tem aims to internalise the environmental green spaces, for example. Sadly, this op- of derelict buildings and desealing of soil. New de- For example, sealing farmland at one costs of soil sealing. It raises the cost of tion is not taken up often enough because location might be compensated for by land take, and triggers the implementation velopments on undeveloped land must be matched the costs are perceived to be too high. reclaiming degraded land elsewhere for of all possible instruments to reduce this by desealing or ‘greening’ measures elsewhere in cultivation. Where direct compensation is and soil sealing. the city, which developers may carry out themselves n Sealing fee not possible, sealing soil for one purpose or pay a compensation fee to the city authority, might be offset by enhancing soil func- Authorities can impose fees for land take Raising awareness equivalent to the cost of desealing land. tions in a different situation, for example and soil sealing. This could be used as a One of the biggest challenges to tackling creating an urban park in exchange for tool to limit soil sealing, but in practice fees land take and soil sealing is that soil is be- building a car park on farmland, although neath our feet and, especially when sealed, this sort of compensation should be a last out of sight and out of mind. We refer resort. Overall, it is important to focus Citizens’ tip to soil as ‘dirt’ more often than we recog- on the loss of soil functions instead of nise its contribution to the economy and Demand public green areas from your municipality simply planting trees somewhere in order the environment. This lack of awareness is and make good use of them, to preserve natural to compensate for sealing. one of the biggest obstacles to the adop- habitats and healthy soils, and protect against Environmental impact assessments of tion of more sustainable planning policies encroaching development. large projects and for planning purposes and land use. J can be used to identify the most appropri- ate compensation measure. Examples of compensation schemes include: 26 Hard surfaces, hidden costs – Searching for alternatives to land take and soil sealing 27 Public authorities and town and country Europe working together planners have a crucial influence in effi- Now that we know about the problems of cient use of our limited soil resources. They land take and soil sealing, we stand a bet- will need support from the general public in ter chance of protecting soil if we adopt an their efforts to protect soil. For this reason, integrated approach, maximising research, it is important to make widely available in- data sharing and best practice examples. formation about the impacts of soil sealing and the options to lessen these impacts, In its strategy document ‘Roadmap to a both in major planning decisions and in our Resource Efficient Europe’, the European daily lives. Commission stressed the need to ensure balanced development, enabling economic Measures to raise awareness might in- activities to take place while at the same clude providing information for builders time avoiding or, where this is not possible, and homeowners; educational materials minimising land take and soil sealing. The for schools, colleges and for use in trav- roadmap proposed that by 2020, EU pol­ elling exhibitions; better reporting about icies should take into account their direct land take and soil sealing at a local level; and indirect impact on land use in Europe and information for local decision-makers, and globally, with the aim of achieving no net The objective, it should be remembered, is adopt legislation that will help protect soil the building trade and building advisors land take by 2050. not to stop economic development or freeze efficiently at the local, regional, national about technical measures to mitigate or current land uses forever. It is rather to man- and European level. compensate for soil sealing. age land better, and use natural resources – We need to protect our limited soil resources of which soil is a primary component – more for future generations. Once soil is destroyed efficiently and sustainably. it has gone forever.  Good practice example At the same time, counterproductive pol­ icies need to be abandoned at all levels In Portugal, the Expo 98 district was built on a brownfield area east and legal requirements and incentives in- Citizens’ tip of Lisbon, known today as the Parque das Nações and an important troduced. The hierarchy of ‘limit, mitigate commercial, residential and leisure district with many green spaces. and compensate’ should be incorporated in Avoid sealing your garden space to help pre- binding public policies. serve soil functions. Whether you have a garden A European Soil Framework Directive would or balcony, help it to support a natural environ- answer the need for a binding policy. EU ment. Every piece of unsealed soil will develop its Member States already agree on the need habitat and serve you many times over, supporting to tackle land loss and protect soil and biodiversity and sustaining quality of life. quality local farmland. Now they should

28 Hard surfaces, hidden costs – Searching for alternatives to land take and soil sealing 29 Further reading on soil, sealing and land take issues

European Commission Directorate-General for the Environment Soil website at http://ec.europa.eu/environment/soil/index_en.htm Guidelines on best practice to limit, mitigate or compensate soil sealing: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/soil/sealing_guidelines.htm Report on the study – Overview of best practices for limiting soil sealing or mitigating its effects in EU-27: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/soil/sealing.htm The Roadmap to a Resource Efficient Europe: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/resource_efficiency/about/roadmap/index_en.htm EU Environment Action Programme to 2020: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/newprg/proposal.htm

European Commission Directorate-General Joint Research Centre European Soil Portal at http://eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/

European Commission Directorate-General for Regional and Urban Policy Cities of Tomorrow – Challenges, visions, ways forward : http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/conferences/citiesoftomorrow/index_en.cfm

European Environment Agency Land Use website at http://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/landuse SOER 2010 thematic assessments: http://www.eea.europa.eu/soer/europe/

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations The State of the World’s Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture: http://www.fao.org/nr/solaw/the-book/en/

URBAN Soil Management Strategy – Soil in the City: http://www.urban-sms.eu/

30 Hard surfaces, hidden costs – Searching for alternatives to land take and soil sealing 31 European Commission

Hard surfaces, hidden costs ‑ Searching for alternatives to land take and soil sealing

Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union

2013 — 31 pp. — 21 × 21 cm

ISBN 978-92-79-30550-4 doi:10.2779/16427

To order the publication, which is available free of charge while stocks last:

For a single copy: via the EU Bookshop – the on-line access to European Union publications http://bookshop.europa.eu

For several copies: via the nearest national Europe Direct information centre: http://europa.eu/europedirect/meet_us/index_en.htm KH-01-13-236-EN-C doi:10.2779/16427