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Home , Abiotic stress, Soil, Soil acidification, Soil biodiversity, Soil fertility, Soil functions

Summary for policy makers 2020

The Global Partnership (GSP) is a globally recognized mechanism STATE of KNOWLEDGE established in 2012. Our mission is to position in the Global Agenda through collective action. Our key objectives are to promote of SOIL Sustainable (SSM) and improve to guarantee healthy and productive soils, and support the provision of essential services towards security and improved , change adaptation and mitigation, and sustainable development.

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ISBN 978-92-5-133583-3 Status, challenges and potentialities

9 789251 335833 CB1929EN/1/11.20 Cover: ©FAO/ Matteo Sala ©FAO/Matteo Sala STATE of KNOWLEDGE of

Status, challenges and potentialities

Summary for policy makers

Food and Organization of the United Nations Rome, 2020 Required citation FAO, ITPS, GSBI, SCBD and EC. 2020. State of knowledge of soil biodiversity – Status, challenges and potentialities, Summary for policy makers. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb1929en

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Cover: ©FAO/Matteo Sala Contents

Foreword VI Introduction 1 Key messages 2 1 Soil drive processes that produce food, purify soil and , and preserve both -being and the health of the 2 What is soil biodiversity? 2 Contributions of soil biodiversity 2 Soil biodiversity and agriculture 4 Soil biodiversity and 4 Soil biodiversity and human health 5 2 Our current understanding of the role of soil organisms in growth and the transformation of has been harnessed to improve agricultural production and reclaim degraded soils 8 Agricultural sector 8 Environmental remediation 12 Challenges to use of soil organisms 12 3 Laboratory and analytical advances in the past decade allow us to move beyond research on individual species to study whole communities of organisms, and hence develop new approaches to address and environmental protection 14 Agricultural industry 14 Food Industry 14 Ecosystem restoration 14 Pharmaceutical industry 16 4 The essential contributions of soil organisms are threatened by soil- degrading practises. Policies that minimise soil degradation and protect soil biodiversity should be a component of biodiversity protection at all levels 18 Invasive alien species 23 Agricultural intensification 23 Assessment of soil biodiversity 23 Policy development 23 The way forward 25

III Foreword at its6 In 2002,theConferenceofParties(COP)toConventiononBiologicalDiversity(CBD)decided processes thatproducefoodorpurifysoilandwater. biodiversity beneathourfeet,soilbiodiversity.Yet,therichdiversityoforganismsdrivesmany above-ground biodiversitysuchasplantsandanimals.However,lessattentionisbeingpaidtothe There isincreasingattentionontheimportanceofbiodiversityforfoodsecurityandnutrition,especially out atransformativeapproachtoachievesocio-economicdevelopmentwhileconservingtheenvironment. malnutrition, climatechange,povertyanddiseases.TheAgenda2030forSustainableDevelopmentsets of biodiversitylossforthevariousglobalchallengeswecurrentlyface,includingfoodinsecurityand ecosystem servicesitprovides.Itisessentialthatweunderstandtheselinksandtheconsequences Our well-beingandthelivelihoodsofhumansocietiesarehighlydependentonbiodiversity threats tosoilsinmanyregionsoftheworld. (FAO,2015)concludedthatthelossofsoilbiodiversityisconsideredonemainglobal sustainable soilmanagementandincreaseattentiontothishiddenresource.TheStatusoftheWorld’sSoil facilitating thisinitiative.In2012,FAOmembersestablishedtheGlobalSoilPartnershiptopromote Biodiversity andsincethen,theFoodAgricultureOrganizationofUnitedNations(FAO)hasbeen ©Andy Murray th meetingtoestablishanInternationalInitiativefortheConservationandSustainableUseofSoil The 14th Conference of the Parties invited FAO, in collaboration with other organizations, to consider the preparation of a report on the state of knowledge on soil biodiversity covering its current status, challenges and potentialities. This report is the result of an inclusive process involving more than 300 scientists from around the world under the auspices of the FAO’s Global Soil Partnership and its Intergovernmental Technical Panel on Soils, the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Global Soil Biodiversity Initiative and the European Commission. The report presents the state of knowledge on soil biodiversity, the threats to it, the solutions that soil biodiversity can provide to problems in different fields, including agriculture, environmental conservation, climate change adaptation and mitigation, nutrition, medicine and pharmaceuticals, remediation of polluted sites, and many others. The report will make a valuable contribution to raising awareness of the importance of soil biodiversity and highlighting its role in finding solutions to today’s global threats; it is a cross- topic at the heart of the alignment of several international policy frameworks, including the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and multilateral environment agreements. Furthermore, soil biodiversity and the ecosystem services it provides will be critical to the success of the recently declared UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021-2030) and the upcoming Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework. Soil biodiversity could constitute, if an enabling environment is built, a real nature-based solution to most of the problems humanity is facing today, from the field to the global scale. Therefore efforts to conserve and protect biodiversity should include the invisible array of that make up more than 25% of the total biodiversity of our planet.

FAO Director-General Executive Secretary of CBD

QU Dongyu Elizabeth Maruma Mrema ©Andy Murray Introduction

A wealth of new scientific, technical and other types of knowledge relevant to soil biodiversity has been released since the establishment of the International Initiative for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Soil Biodiversity in 2002, the establishment of the Global Soil Biodiversity Initiative in 2011, the Global Soil Partnership in 2012, and the publication of the Global Soil Biodiversity Atlas by the European Commission in 2016. This new wave of research is a consequence of improvement in the methods available for the study of soil organisms by the scientific . This research has placed soil biodiversity at the heart of international policy frameworks, including the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Furthermore, soil biodiversity and ecosystem services will be pivotal for the success of the recently declared United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021–2030). This Summary for Policy Makers brings the key messages from the report State of knowledge of soil biodiversity: status, challenges and potentialities prepared by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the Intergovernmental Technical Panel on Soils, the Global Soil Partnership, the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Global Soil Biodiversity Initiative, and the European Commission. The report is a result of the work of over 300 scientists and experts on soil biodiversity from all regions of the world, and it presents the best available knowledge on soil biota and their ecosystem functions and services.

1 These organisms are part of a vast that Key messages ensures the cycling of and from microscopic forms through the soil’s megafauna to 1 Soil organisms drive organisms that live on top of the soil. For the purpose of this summary the terms soil processes that produce biological diversity, and below-ground biodiversity have been used interchangeably, and they include food, purify soil and water, soil microbes and soil fauna. Likewise, the terms and preserve both human microbial diversity, soil microbes, soil microbiome and soil microorganisms are used interchangeably well-being and the health specifically to describe soil microbial diversity. of the biosphere Contributions of soil biodiversity What is soil biodiversity? The contributions of soil organisms can be grouped into three broad categories (Figure 1). We define soil biodiversity as the variety of First, soil microorganisms (i.e., , fungi) belowground, from genes and species to the and microfauna (i.e., and ) communities they form, as well as the ecological transform organic and inorganic compounds complexes to which they contribute and to into accessible forms as part of their which they belong, from soil micro- to through extraordinarily complex biochemical . Soil biodiversity is essential for most processes. These transformations are critical for of the ecosystem services provided by soils, which ecosystem services such as availability benefit soil species and its multiple interactions for the growth of and other organisms, (biotic and abiotic) in the environment. Soil soil and nutrient cycling, and the biodiversity also supports most surface life forms filtration, degradation and immobilization of through the increasingly well understood links contaminants in water and soil. between above and belowground. For , the services provided by soil biodiversity have strong Second, soil organisms are part of a vast food web social, economical, health and environmental that cycles energy and nutrients from microscopic implications. forms through the soil’s megafauna to organisms that live on top of the soil. An important part of Soils are one of the main global reservoirs of the food web is represented by such biodiversity, more than 40% of living organisms mesofauna as and , which accelerate litter in terrestrial are associated during and enhance nutrient cycling and their life-cycle directly with soils (Decaëns et availability (especially ), and predate on ., 2006). Soil organisms can be divided into al smaller soil organisms (Figure 1). different groups: microbes, micro, meso, macro, and megafauna. They include a wide range of Finally, soil macrofauna and megafauna such as organisms, from unicellular and microscopic , , and some mammals act forms, to such as nematodes, as ecosystem engineers that modify soil , larvae and earthworms, and water and , and also bind together soil their larval stages, to mammals, reptiles, and particles into stable aggregates that hold the soil in amphibians that spend considerable parts of their place, reducing soil (Figure 1). below ground. In addition, there is a great diversity of and fungi, as well as a wide variety of symbiotic associations between soil microorganisms and algae, fungi, , , plant , and invertebrates.

2 State of knowledge of soil biodiversity Organization of the

Earthworms Termites Ants ECOSYSTEM ENGINEERS Predatory meso and macroarthropods Saprophagous Saprophagous microarthropodsmacroarthropods meso and

LITTER TRANSFORMERS

Bacteria Fungi Fungal feeding arthropods

Protozoa Bacterial Fungal nematodesfeeding nematodesfeeding

microarthropodsPredatory Predatory nematodes

MICRO-FOOD WEB

Macrofauna Mesofauna Microfauna Microorganisms

Figure 1. Simplified model with the groups of soil organisms: microorganisms, micro, meso and macrofauna grouped into three categories in the food web. First, the micro-food web (dotted lines) includes bacteria and fungi, which are at the of the food web and decompose soil organic matter, which represents the basic of the soil ecosystem, and their direct predators, pro- tozoa and nematodes. Secondly, litter transformers include microarthropods that fragment litter, creating new surfaces for micro- bial attack. Finally, ecosystem engineers, such as termites, earthworms and ants, modify soil by improving the circulation of nutrients, energy, and water.

Summary for policy makers 3 and agriculture and agriculture Soil biodiversity . from theenergy-intensivemanufactureofnitrogen including reducinggreenhousegasemissions soil fertilityandenvironmentalsustainability, nitrogen fertilizersinagriculture,andenhance can minimisecostanddependenceonsynthetic mycorrhizal fungiandnitrogenfixingbacteria For example,soilmicrobiotasuchasarbuscular many beneficialeffectsbeyondplantnutrition. The roleofsoilorganismsinagriculturehas and energyboundupintheplantmaterial. the soilmicroorganismstoliberatenutrients the physicalbreakdownofplantresidues,allowing Soil micro,mesoandmacrofaunaplayakeyrolein these transformationprocesses. temperature, pH,moisturecontent-anddrive and microfaunainteractwithabioticfactors– transfer nutrientsandenergy.Soilmicrobes absorbed fromthesoiltocreatebiomassand they requiremacroandmicronutrientsthatare Plants fixcarbonfromtheatmosphere,but indispensable nutrientsforlife. these microorganismstheprimarysourceof are fargreaterthanthatofallvegetation,making their totalnitrogenandphosphorouscontents is comparabletothatofallplantsonearth,and collective carboncontentofallsoilbacterialcells nutrients thatmakethemavailabletoplants.The for plantgrowthanddrivethetransformationsof Soil organismsbothserveasasourceofnutrients ©Andy Murray

and climatechange Soil biodiversity fix carbonbyusingatmosphericCO , andalsosomebacteriaarchaeacan through thetransformationofplantandanimal driven bysoilconditions.Carbonisfixedintosoils depending theactivityofsoilorganismsand iseitherfixedorreleasedfromsoils, combined. than thatstoredintheatmosphereandvegetation provided bysoils,ahealthysoilstoresmorecarbon of thenaturalfunctionsandecosystemservices carbon intosoilsfromtheatmosphere.Aspart the emissionofgreenhousegasesortoabsorbing community’s activitiescancontributeeitherto climate changecannotbeunderstated:thesoil The roleofsoilbiodiversityinaddressingglobal management. emissions isakeyobjectiveinsustainablesoil and managingthesoilenvironmenttominimise transformations thatyieldthesegreenhousegases, are involvedineverystepofnitrogenandcarbon inricecultivation.Soilmicroorganisms nitrous oxideemissionsand11percentfrom with anestimated38percentresultingfromsoil direct anthropogenicGHGemissionseachyear, ecosystems contribute10to12percentofall emissions fromagriculture.Globally,agricultural efforts toreduceoverallgreenhousegas(GHG) ,soilorganismsarealsocriticalfor energy source.Beyondtheirdirectroleinthe

2 astheir Soil biodiversity Soil biodiversity and and human health environmental protection Soil biodiversity supports human health, both It is well established that preservation of soil directly and indirectly, through disease regulation biodiversity is critical for the maintenance and and food production. enhancement of above-ground biodiversity. The complex food webs that transfer nutrients Since early 1900, many drugs and vaccines have and energy from the organic materials in the come from soil organisms, from well-known soil, through soil-dwelling organisms, to birds, antibiotics like penicillin to bleomycin used mammals, reptiles and amphibians, are central to for treating cancer and amphotericin for fungal life on . infections. In a context of increasing illnesses due to resistant microorganisms, soil biodiversity has Soil biodiversity can attenuate threats to a huge potential to provide new drugs to combat ecosystem services, for instance by acting as a them. powerful tool in of contaminated soils. Biostimulation and bioaugmentation are Soil biodiversity and healthy soils help to mitigate environmentally sound strategies that contribute the risk of foodborne illness by boosting plant to the filtration, degradation and immobilization defenses against opportunistic infections. For of target contaminants (Figure 2). Furthermore, example, the very harmful bacterium Listeria the integral use of organisms such as microbes monocytogenes is found in low concentration (bioaugmentation), plants () and in many agricultural soils, but its pathogenicity worms (vermiremediation) as a bioremediation depends on the richness and diversity of soil strategy in -contaminated soils has microbial communities, as well as , pH and proven to be a viable alternative for increasing other soil-related factors. hydrocarbon removal. On the other hand, soil macrofauna, such as earthworms, termites, and The relationship between plant roots and soil ants, play an important role in improving soil biodiversity enables plants to manufacture structure and aggregation, which can improve chemicals such as antioxidants that protect them resistance to caused by and from pests and other stressors. When we consume water. these plants, these antioxidants benefit us by stimulating our immune system and assist in hormone regulation.

A series of studies and evidences suggests that early exposure to a diverse collection of soil microorganisms might help prevent chronic inflammatory diseases, including allergy, asthma, autoimmune diseases, inflammatory bowel disease and depression. Bioremediation Bioremediation iostimulation: Changes in the ioaugmentation: environmental Addition to the conditions to favor the contaminated soil of growth of local living cells able to microbial populations. degrade the target contaminant.

rifolium praten se Macronutrients

Bioremediation

Indigenous bacteria Exogenous bacteria

Contaminant agent Various forms of essential nutrients

Figure 2. Soil microorganisms as a tool in the management of contaminated soils.

6 State of knowledge of soil biodiversity ©FAO/Matteo Sala 8 reclaim degraded soils agricultural production and harnessed toimprove pollutants hasbeen the transformation of in plantgrowth and role ofsoilorganisms understanding ofthe 2Ourcurrent

©Andy Murray State ofknowledge ofsoilbiodiversity Agricultural sector resistance insoil-dwellingorganisms. soil biodiversityandcreatingantimicrobial andlivestockendsupinthesoil,affecting A significantproportionofantibioticsusedin organisms andagriculturalproductionalsooccur. Negative feedbacksbetweentheuseofsoil the targetorganisms(Figure5). against specificity the increases products marketed range ofdifferentinsects,andstrains control agentwithinsecticidalactivityagainsta from soil.Bacillusthuringiensisisabiological thuringiensis (Bt), a commonbacteriumisolated biological controlagentiswithoutdoubtBacillus Worldwide, thelargestcommercialsuccessofa functioning. generally toincreasebiodiversityandecosystem ecosystem tocounteractthepotentialofpestsand biological controlistofacilitatethenatural measures inagriculture.Thebasicconceptof Soil organismsarealsocurrentlyusedinbiocontrol synthetic (Figure4). is acleanbiotechnologythatavoidstheoveruseof of nitrogenfromtheatmospherebyBradyrhizobium its huge economic advantage, the biological fixation fertilizers, savingbillionsofdollars a year.Besides production totallyreplaced nitrogen(N) Bradyrhizobium strains in Brazilian 35 millionha inBrazil.Inoculationofselected In 2018,soybeanwascultivatedinanareaofabout strains insoybeanisanexampleofamajorsuccess. inoculation of selected Brazil andothercountriesinLatinAmerica,the 3). In (Figure bacteria nitrogen-fixing symbiotic of nutrientcyclingincludemycorrhizalfungiand The commonlyusedorganismsforstimulation Bradyrhizobium

bacterial

maintenance, nutrient cycling and improving plantroot exploration ofthesoil. roots. Mycorrhizae (symbiontfungiinroots) play akey role inproviding ecosystem services suchassoilfertility, soilformation and zobium, anN isms’ interactions. Leguminous plantsreceive nitrogen –alimitingnutrientinmany soils-, intheform ofammonia, thanks torhi- Figure 3.The is the narrow region of soil directly influenced by secretions/exudates and associated microorgan- Nodules The rhizosphere The rhizosphere

2- hizobium fixing bacteriathatforms nodulesintheplants’roots. Inreturn, Bacteria zone Symbiotic Symbiotic

relations Mycorrhizae Arbuscules Hyphae Vesicle Rhizobium receives nutrientsandhabitatfrom the Root hair The rhizosphere rhizosphere

Nodules

Symbiotic relations

Arbuscules

Vesicle Bacteria zone Hyphae

hizobium

Root hair Mycorrhizae

Figure 3.The rhizosphere is the narrow region of soil directly influenced by root secretions/exudates and associated microorgan- isms’ interactions. Leguminous plants receive nitrogen –a limiting nutrient in many soils-, in the form of , thanks to rhi- zobium, an N2-fixing bacteria that forms nodules in the plants’ roots. In return, Rhizobium receives nutrients and from the roots. Mycorrhizae (symbiont fungi in roots) play a key role in providing ecosystem services such as , soil formation and maintenance, nutrient cycling and improving plant root exploration of the soil.

Summary for policy makers 9 CleanImprovement of in agricultural agricultural productionproduction

Crop with microbial inoculum, with higher and less Conventional agricultural inputs with N excessive use N O of fertilizers 2

N

N2O N2O N2O N2O N2O

N2O Emissions N2O N2O Emissions

N2O N2O

N2O

N2O

+ Leaching

NO - 3 zospirillum Bradyrhizobium Plant-growth N - fixing - 2 - NO3 NO3 promoting bacterial

- bacteria strains - NO3 NO3 - NO3 - NO - NO3 3 - NO3 - NO3

- Figure 4. The co-inoculation of N2 fixing efficient bacterial strains (Bradyrhizobium) with other plant-growth promoting bacteria such as Azospirillum in cereals, could replace part of mineral N fertilizers reducing emissions such as N2O, and - diminishing leaching of reactive forms of nitrogen (NO3 ) that contaminate underground water and coastal ecosystems; besides saving investments and capital input.

10 State of knowledge of soil biodiversity BiologicalBiological control control

Corn crop with Corn crop produces Bt caterpillar toxins in its tissues. infestation Caterpillars that eat these tissues die

Genetic engineering to insert Bt genes into plant tissues

Bacillus thuringien si s Bt

Endospore Ribosomes Cell DNA membrane Bt Toxin Crystal

Figure 5. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), a bacterium species isolated from the soil, has been successfully used as a biological control agent against . Bt produces an intracellular toxin that, when ingested by an insect, is released in the insect’s gut, killing it. The genes that produce the Bt toxin are inserted into agricultural crops, particularly , giving the plant the ability to avoid attack by certain pathogenic organisms.

Summary for policy makers 11 Environmental remediation

©Andy Murray after aspillbyupto85 percent. and fungicanreducepetroleumhydrocarbons synthetic chemicalsandpesticides).Soilbacteria and aromatichydrocarbons(forexample,oil, transform differentcontaminantssuchassaturated bioremediation (Figure2).Manysoilbacteriacan toxic compoundsintobenignformsthrough organisms arealsouseddirectlytotransform limits establishedbyregulatoryauthorities.Soil innocuous stateortolevelsbelowconcentration degradation ofatargetcontaminanttoan Bioremediation technologiescanleadtothe organisms Challenges touseofsoil invasive alienpathogenicmicroorganisms. a validstrategyforincreasingbioticresistanceto opposed toallienspecies–asfarminputsmaybe of nativeconsortiaormicrobialspecies–as simple, rapidandaffordabletechniques.Theuse inputs. Tothisend,farmersrelyonrelatively , biocontrolandbiostimulantfarm consortia ofsoilmicroorganismstoassemble with propertrainingattempttoreproducenative In responsetotheselimitations,somefarmers purchasing powerandpooraccesstocredit. farmers, andespeciallybysmallholderswithlittle products alsorestrainstheiradoptionby dependent effect,thehighcostofbiological In additiontotheirtransientandenvironmentally competitive environment. for certainorganismstosurviveinahighly under fieldconditions.Onereasonisthedifficulty conditions, butfailtoprovidereproducibleresults when testedunderlaboratoryandgreenhouse and otherrelatedproductsshowgreateffects Many microbialbiofertilizers,biopesticides ©FAO/Matteo Sala 3 Laboratory and analytical are the determination of which mycorrhizal fungi and nitrogen-fixing bacteria are present in the soil, advances in the past decade and assistance to the field practitioner in assessing allow us to move beyond the efficacy of these organisms. Soil microbiota have been found to influence research on individual the quality and longevity of harvested crops either positively (through beneficial microbial species to study whole interactions) or negatively (through plant pathogens). Thus, the application of screening communities of organisms, methods for associated biota – such as by next and hence develop new generation sequencing – and the subsequent necessary interventions would prove valuable approaches to address food in the post- process. This may enhance security and environmental of the full agricultural value-chain. protection Food Industry

With the advent of novel methods, researchers Several soil bacteria and fungi are being used are now able to move beyond a focus on individual traditionally in the production of soy sauce, species. Scientists have started to discover how the cheese, wine and other fermented food and hugely diverse soil microbiome is tied to pathogen beverages. Lactic bacteria that could control, plant health, increased yield, and an potentially be used to produce heavy metal increased ability to overcome abiotic stress. absorbing probiotic products. Soils provide habitats for a variety of lactic acid bacteria Especially in the last decade, method advances belonging to Lactobacillus, Lactococcus and including molecular sequencing techniques and other genera, opening the possibility to probiotic “big data” analytical tools have helped to identify bacteria useful in food fermentation or other species living in soils and their communities. processes be isolated from soils. Artificial intelligence has great potential in the assembly of data and the aggregation of information from multiple databases. Novel represents a promising approach Ecosystem restoration for the simultaneous study of all DNA-based Field studies conducted at relevant scales for information in soils, including all groups of soil ecosystem restoration (i.e. hectares) have organisms and functional gene information. demonstrated that a whole-soil biota inoculation method representing all soil biodiversity is a powerful tool in the restoration of terrestrial Agricultural industry ecosystems. However, the effectiveness of any soil biodiversity restoration programme depends on New molecular techniques using next generation the appropriate integration into its and molecular sequencing allow for improved the expected interactions within it. When soils knowledge of what organisms are in the soil, and have been extremely degraded, the rehabilitation what effects those organisms are likely to make of the physical and chemical properties of the on associated cropping systems. This knowledge substrate is necessary. Under the influence of provides predictive power to our understanding soil-forming factors, including soil biodiversity, of how the soil systems will respond to changes in the development of new soils may occur (Figures 2 climatic factors, new cropping systems, and soil and 6). management. Other applications for these tools

14 State of knowledge of soil biodiversity Combination of soil rehabilitation strategies Combination of soil rehabilitation strategies Native Organic amendments plants sludge Woodchip

Opencast Quarrying Mine spoil Engineering works Under the influence of soil forming factors, including biodiversity management, may again provide ecosystem services

Soil rehabilitation

Mulching organic amendments Beneficial for restoring degraded soils Stimulate the growth and activity of soil fauna (i .e., microbes, neamtodes, mites, springtails, earthworms, etc.). Increase soil fertility.

Figure 6. Mining activities have drastic negative effects on soils, especially in arid areas. An alternative to restore the biological communities of the soils is the establishment of technosols. Essential actions in the recovery of soil functionality include the addition of organic matter, which together with the action of pioneer plants, promotes the growth and activity of soil biota populations, eventually influencing the improvement of the fertility of degraded soils.

Summary for policy makers 15 Pharmaceutical industry via theskin,gutandlungs. influences humanimmuneandnervousresponse soil andotherindooroutdoorenvironments exploring howcomplexbiologicalcommunitiesin environmental samplehavesparkedaninterestin the metagenome(orcollectivegenome)inan technologies thatmakeitpossibletostudy can bedevelopedintobiotherapeutics,new is focusedonidentifyinguniquemicrobesthat diseases. Whilemostbiopharmaceuticalresearch to developnewantibioticsandtackleinfectious Loss ofsoilbiodiversitycouldlimitourcapacity ©Andy Murray

18 protection atall levels component ofbiodiversity soil biodiversity shouldbea degradation andprotect Policies thatminimisesoil by soil-degrading practises. organisms are threatened contributions ofsoil essential 4The

©Andy Murray State ofknowledge ofsoilbiodiversity on soilbiodiversity. their occurrencewillhaveverybeneficialimpacts policies designedtocontrolandideallyreduce have verynegativeeffectsonsoilbiodiversity,and functions. Deforestationandfiresinparticular particular threattosoilorganismsandecosystem have synergisticeffectsandmaythusposea occurring driversofenvironmentalchangecan erosion andlandslides(Figure7).Theseco- salinization, sodification,,, ,nutrientimbalance,, matter/carbon, soilcompaction,surfacesealing, agricultural intensification,lossofsoilorganic These includedeforestation,, also beinfluencedbyhuman-inducedchanges. well asbynaturaldisasters,thoughthelattermay delivery canbethreatenedbyhumanactivitiesas ecosystem functioningandservice The importantroleofsoilbiodiversityin Major anthropogenic threats to soil biodiversity

Deforestation drivers and effects • use change • Loss of specialist species and on soils • Loss of SOM and nutrients. incre ase in generalist taxa. • Changes in soil ysical Impacts on soil • Decre ase in predator species. properties. biodiversity • Reduced soil and functional • Disruption of suitable diversity. habitat. • Reco v ery could take decades. • Changes in pH.

• Gre ater use of e xternal inputs Agricultural • Decre ase in soil biodiv er sity. (, f ertilizer s) and intensification • Smal ler and less c omple x more soil disturbanc e. drivers and effects belo w ground f ood webs. • Gre ater risk of soil erosion, on soils • Reco v ery of soil , land Impacts on soil communities ma y take degradation, compaction biodiversity y e ar s or decades. and salinization. • Less efficient and functional • A l teration of h y drological and soil f ood webs. biogeochemical cy cles. • Loss of and • of . nutrients through leaching. • Loss of SOM. Cl P Mg Zn Na Cu K Nutrient Mo S B Mn imbalances Fe Si drivers and Ca N effects on soils • Reduces the growth capacity of soil microorganisms. • Change in the availability Impacts • Reduces nutrient flow through of essential nutrients. on soil biodiversity the soil food web. • Excessive use of mineral • Alteration of the nutritional fertilizers. content of primary producers and litter inputs.

Summary for policy makers 19 N

• A l teration of the en vironment where soil organisms thriv e. • Inadequate f ertilization. • Hamper the activity of • Pol lutants. organisms in v ol v ed in • Changes in plant Impacts Acidification on soil nitrogen cy cling. community composition. biodiversity drivers and • A l teration of belo w ground • Changes in solubility of effects on soils food webs. multiple elements in • Changes in nutrient a v ailability soils. and f or microorganisms.

Salinization drivers and effects • Water hampered b y • imbalance and on soils changes in chemical and ph ysical nutrient deficiency Impacts soil properties. on soil decre ase microbial • with brackish w ater. biodiversity functions and . • Sal t w ater intrusion due • Shift in the composition of to aquif er e xhaustion. microbial, micro and • Inadequate irrigation practices. mesofaunal communities.

Pollution drivers and effects on soils • • Acute and chronic toxicity to soil biota. • Fertilizer application. Impacts • Persistent organic on soil • Cascading effects from individual biodiversity pollutants. species to communities and • Biocides and pesticides. ecosystem functions. • Waste disposal. • in the .

20 State of knowledge of soil biodiversity Compaction drivers and • Decre ases macropore v olume. • Loss of habitat and pore effects on soils • Incre ases resistance to root spaces f or soil biota. penetration. Impacts on soil • A ff ects faunal activity. biodiversity • Reduces w ater infil tration and • Decre ase in faunal incre ases runoff. biomass and population • A ff ects oxy gen, and CO flux es 2 . as wel l as redox potential.

Urbanization • Soil se aling, incre asing w ater • Reduced habitat f or soil biota, drivers and effects runoff and reducing and incre ased spatial heterogeneity Impacts on soils infil tration. on soil and fragmentation. biodiversity • Pollution. • A l teration in soil communities • remo v al or and food web dynamics. replacement, and addition • Drastic al teration of the en vironment of anthropogenic materials. where soil organisms liv e.

Surface sealing drivers and effects • Increases water runoff and reduces on soils water . • Changes nutrient and carbon cycling. Impacts on soil • Loss of habitats for • Affects climate and microclimate biodiversity regulation. soil organisms. • Building of and other permanent infrastructures.

Summary for policy makers 21 Fire • Sev ere damage to soil biodiv er sity in the drivers and topsoil. effects on • Recolonization, with shift from •Wildfires. soils bacteria-driv en to w ards fungi-driv en •Anthropogen burning Impacts on soil community. f or land cle aring. biodiversity • Decre ase in soil and in v ertebrate •Remo v al of topsoil , biomass and div er sity. organic matter. • V ery slow recovery of macroinvertebrate div er sity and functional structure (decades).

Erosion and • Detachment, transport and • Inhabitants of upper soil la y er s of soil particles b y ma y be eliminated or drivers and w ater or wind. displaced. effects on soils Impacts • Loss of habitat and decrese in • Loss of organic matter and on soil changes in ysical and biodiversity its quality f or soil biota. chemical properties. • Spre ad of pests and • Cre ation of degraded and pathogens. enriched depositional • Reduced soil biodiv er sity and environments. functioning.

CO CO2 2 CO CO 2 CO 2 CO 2 CO 2 2 CO2 CO2 CO2 CO2 C C Loss of C C C C C C C SOC/SOM C C drivers and effects on • Decrease in: • Lower microbial biomass soils • Formation and Impacts and diversity (especially in stabilization of aggregates. on soil biodiversity extreme environments). • Cation exchange capacity. • Decreased resources to • Water infiltration and retention. belowground food webs. • Soil fertility and C sequestration.

Figure 7. Major anthropogenic threats to soil biodiversity.

22 State of knowledge of soil biodiversity Invasive alien species to host specificity of many of the soil bacteria and fungi and larger soil fauna they attract, facilitating Most of our knowledge of invasive soil species the spread and expression of soil-borne diseases. concerns agricultural pests, of which many contribute to huge economic losses globally. Invasive alien species threaten the integrity of indigenous soil biodiversity. Non-native soil Assessment of soil invertebrates can have dramatic negative impacts biodiversity on native plants, microbial communities, and other soil animals: terrestrial can arise Despite recent studies -using the latest technology from any level of biological organization ranging and artificial intelligence- on the global from and microbes (bacteria and fungi) to distribution of some soil biota orders, the current plants, invertebrates, and mammals. state of soil biodiversity and the distribution of many soil biota remains poorly known in many countries of the world. Agricultural intensification Countries have assessed the status and trends of soil biodiversity in a variety of ways, including the Negative impacts due to agricultural intensification use of scientific knowledge, the latest technologies have consequences for the specific functions and artificial intelligence, farmers’ innovations soil animals perform, including soil structure and practices, indigenous and traditional formation and ecosystem engineering, and knowledge, and mapping. Overall, there is an population regulation by . Human urgent need to continue recent efforts using the management of agricultural and other soils is latest technologies and artificial intelligence, known to significantly alter soil biodiversity: and to coordinate and invest in soil biodiversity : Tillage of the soil causes loss of larger soil assessment at the global level. fauna and disruption of the soil food web.

Misuse of fertilizers: Synthetic fertilization may have a negative impact on soil microbial Policy development communities and fauna. Negative impacts of While above-ground biodiversity is familiar synthetic N fertilization on microbial biomass, to most people, and its protection is managed arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal (AMF) and faunal under national and global laws and regulations, diversity have been observed. there are few comparable activities that focus on application for pH correction: Most the protection of soil biodiversity. Protecting tropical soils are naturally acidic, and above-ground biodiversity is not always sufficient often receive large quantities of lime following to protect soil biodiversity. Above-ground and to neutralize pH, especially with below-ground biodiversity are shaped by different the establishment of more intensive cropping environmental drivers, and are not necessarily systems. Large shifts in pH impose stress on linked to one another. Above and below-ground native microorganisms, affecting their growth and biodiversity requires tailored protection, reducing ecosystem resilience to disturbance. conservation and restoration considerations because they are connected but at the same Misuse of pesticides: Pesticides may cause time very distinct. resistance and bioaccumulation through the food chains. The use of pesticides can have unintended To further promote the conservation and effects on soil organisms, as different sustainable use of soil biodiversity, long-term groups react differently to various chemical monitoring and standardized sampling and analysis substances. protocols must be developed. With worldwide collaboration, this should enable collation of large Monocultures: Monocultures limit the presence datasets, which are critical to amassing scientific of beneficial bacteria, fungi and insects, and evidence for the quantitative and functional contribute to ecosystem degradation. Large-scale significance of soil biodiversity. monocultures also reduces soil biodiversity due

Summary for policy makers 23 • • • • report areasfollows: Some ofthemajorrecommendationsfrom biodiversity enhancement. principles andadoptionofbestpracticesforsoil capacity andresourcestoimplementsoilhealth majority ofcountriesthereisalackknowledge, and monitoringtoolsforsoilbiodiversity,the While somecountrieshaveestablishedindicators ©Andy Murray biodiversity considerations. plans needtoincludesoilhealthand Soil remediationandecosystemrestoration and minimizesoilbiodiversityloss. be adoptedbyfarmersandlanduserstoprevent Sustainable soilmanagementpracticesshould human, plantandsoilhealth. the adoptionofmoleculartoolstocontribute Strengthen educationandcapacitybuildingin Strategies andActionPlans(NBSAPs). National ReportsandBiodiversity Soil biodiversityneedstobereflectedin • • • • urban threatsto/fromsoilbiodiversity. to guaranteehealthysoilspeoplebyreducing management andecosystemsrestorationplans soil biodiversityintosustainable Policies andurbanplanningneedtointegrate Ministries. can beundertheresponsibilityofdifferent duplication orfragmentation,sincesoilpolices collaboration toexploresynergiesandavoid Increase inter-sectoralandinter-institutional of largecomparabledatasets. analysis protocolsworldwidetoenablecollation There isaneedtostandardizesamplingand with physicalandchemical. include biologicalindicatorsofsoilhealthalong There isaneedtopromotethenecessaryshift research centres, networks, universities, and The way forward schools are starting to include soil biodiversity in their programmes. Some of them are also conducting research on technological innovations Despite the clear importance of soil biodiversity as well as on traditional and agroecological in the provision of essential ecosystem services approaches related to soil biodiversity (e.g. (provision of food, fiber and fuel, filtering of research, practical application, assessment, water, source of pharmaceuticals, carbon and indicators, and monitoring). nutrient cycling, soil formation, GHG mitigation, and disease control, decontamination and remediation), its proper use and management We must take advantage of this momentum to: is not up to scale. It is only just over a decade ago that initiatives and research networks were • Advocate for mainstreaming soil biodiversity established to contribute to the knowhow, into the sustainable development agenda, the conservation, use, and sustainable management of Post-2020 biodiversity framework, the UN soil biodiversity. These include the establishment decade on ecosystem restoration, and all areas of the International Initiative for the Conservation where soil biodiversity can contribute; and Sustainable Use of Soil Biodiversity in 2002, the establishment of the Global Soil Biodiversity • Develop standard protocols and procedures for Initiative in 2011 and the Global Soil Partnership assessing soil biodiversity at different scales; in 2012, and the publication of the Global Soil • Promote the establishment of soil information Biodiversity Atlas by the European Commission in and monitoring systems that include soil 2016. biodiversity as a key indicator of ;

Since then, soil biodiversity has started to emerge • Improve knowledge (including local or as an alternative solution to global challenges traditional) of the soil microbiome; and not only as an academic field emerged. Some countries are starting to use soil biodiversity in • Strengthen the knowledge on the different soil different areas such as agriculture, food safety, groups forming soil biodiversity (i.e., microbes, bioremediation, climate change, pest and disease micro, meso, macro and megafauna); control and human health. Some regions, like the European Union, have set up action plans for • Establish a global capacity building programme sustainable production, consumption, and growth for the use and management of soil biodiversity to become the first climate-neutral continent in and the Global Soil Biodiversity Observatory. the world by 2050; soils and soil biodiversity are important components of the European Green A summary for policy makers with a forward looking Deal. In addition, some national institutions, angle is presented in Table 1.

25 Table 1

Summary for policy makers

Theme Challenges/Gaps Specific actions *Cross-cutting actions *Cross-cutting scopes

• Better understanding of • Monitoring tools that • Advocate for the • Guarantee soil health microbiome (or functional include: new analytical implementation of SSM for all ecosystem vitality & groups/) approaches; advanced under the VGSSM at human well-being. networks. computing power; next- national level. • Support agriculture for • Better understanding generation sequencing • Implement the use/ sustainability, productivity, of micro, meso and for the assessment of management and and resource use macrofauna roles in soil microbial SB coupled with conservation of soil efficiency. functions and nutrient traditional techniques; biodiversity as nature- • Support farmers to cycling. increase predictive power based solutions. reduce vulnerability by • More research is needed to changes in climatic • Promote ecosystem- diminishing production to corroborate SB data in factors, new cropping based approaches that costs, increasing yields different ecosystems and systems, and SSM; digital conserve, restore and and strengthening their agroecosystems. soil mapping tools avoid soil degradation and capacity to design and • Small and large-scale in combination with . implement SSM practices. SB studies in many biological information. • Develop partnerships • SB can significantly of the world, • Implement large- that support multi- contribute to tackle especially in the southern scale (watershed and disciplinary approaches, environmental problems. hemisphere. landscape) SB studies. foster synergies and • The knowledge that • Targeted research • Include soil biodiversity ensure a multi-stakeholder soil is alive expands the about the long-term in the Guidelines of perspective regarding SSM possibilities for human- impacts/risks of methods including and SB. soil relationships. of biocontrol in the standard methods for • Implement the • SB must be considered a environment. measurement. combined use of asset from • Long-term continuous • Implement SB models traditional knowledge, which ecosystem services monitoring programs based on big data novel technologies and are produced. are needed in different generated from soil- innovation and ensure that ecosystems, climate water-plant- all relevant stakeholders types and management information. have access to these tools practices to address the • Obtaining or and associated policies. temporal variability of increasing financial • Develop robust and environmental changes. support to implement reliable biological • It is necessary to develop novel technologies indicators, and robust and reliable -metagenomic, monitoring/assessment biological indicators and metabolomic, volatilomic- protocols for SB. measurement methods. in developing countries. • Raise social awareness • Establishment of a on SB loss and recovery; Global Soil Biodiversity threats to SB including Observatory. agricultural intensification • Support the and best practices for development of SB assessment; and community-based management and monitoring and monitoring for all land information systems management activities. (CBMIS). • Simplify methodologies and tools for soil biodiversity assessment that are directly accessible in all regions of the world. Mobilize targeted Understanding soil biodiversity, from cells to vertebrates • participatory research and development, ensuring gender equality, women’s empowerment, youth, gender-responsive approaches and the participation of indigenous people and local communities. • Increase taxonomic *This content applies to all themes addressed in table 1 capacity and address taxonomic assessment needs in different regions. SB: soil biodiversity; Support training in • N: nitrogen; the identification and description of SB at all SOC: soil organic carbon; levels, and particularly for SSM: sustainable soil management. lesser-known taxa.

26 State of knowledge of soil biodiversity Theme Challenges/Gaps Specific actions *Cross-cutting actions *Cross-cutting scopes

• Economic valuations • Support projects focused • Advocate for the • Guarantee soil health of SB functions and on the economic valuation implementation of SSM for all ecosystem vitality & ecosystem services on SB functions and under the VGSSM at human well-being. provided are scarce. services. national level. • Support agriculture for • More attention must • Measure SB contribution • Implement the use/ sustainability, productivity, be paid to the regulation to different management and and resource use services -such as carbon and services at different conservation of soil efficiency. storage- that rely on SB. scales, and under different biodiversity as nature- • Support farmers to • It is highly necessary conditions. based solutions. reduce vulnerability by to develop methods to • Develop baseline data • Promote ecosystem- diminishing production measure SB contribution on SB and make regular based approaches that costs, increasing yields to all ecosystem services small and large-scale conserve, restore and and strengthening their affected, and at different measurements over time. avoid soil degradation and capacity to design and spatial and temporal • Better analyze the biodiversity loss. implement SSM practices. scales. relationship between • Develop partnerships • SB can significantly the structure of SB that support multi- contribute to tackle communities and their disciplinary approaches, environmental problems. role in the ecosystems foster synergies and • The knowledge that and agroecosystems ensure a multi-stakeholder soil is alive expands the functioning. perspective regarding SSM possibilities for human- • Promote the adoption and SB. soil relationships. and feasibility of Payment • Implement the • SB must be considered a for Environmental combined use of natural capital asset from Services based on SB, traditional knowledge, which ecosystem services with appropriate policies novel technologies and are produced. at various governmental innovation and ensure that levels. all relevant stakeholders have access to these tools and associated policies. • Develop robust and reliable biological indicators, and monitoring/assessment protocols for SB. • Raise social awareness on SB loss and recovery; threats to SB including agricultural intensification and best practices for SB assessment; and

Contributions of soil biodiversity to ecosystem services and fu nctions management and monitoring for all activities.

*This content applies to all themes addressed in table 1 SB: soil biodiversity; N: nitrogen; SOC: soil organic carbon; SSM: sustainable soil management. ©Andy Murray

Summary for policy makers 27 Theme Challenges/Gaps Specific actions *Cross-cutting actions *Cross-cutting scopes

• It is crucial to envision • Consider SB and • Advocate for the • Guarantee soil health land-use change and ecosystem services in land implementation of SSM for all ecosystem vitality & management as a trigger use planning. under the VGSSM at human well-being. for other threats to SB. • Foster activities to national level. • Support agriculture for • There are knowledge promote the practical • Implement the use/ sustainability, productivity, gaps in urban SB. application of SB, and management and and resource use • Lack of knowledge integrate it into broader conservation of soil efficiency. of contaminant policy agendas for food biodiversity as nature- • Support farmers to concentrations in soils and security, ecosystem based solutions. reduce vulnerability by exposure thresholds for SB. restoration, climate • Promote ecosystem- diminishing production • Lack of understanding change adaptation based approaches that costs, increasing yields on interactive effects and mitigation, and conserve, restore and and strengthening their among multiple global sustainable development. avoid soil degradation and capacity to design and change drivers on SB. • Promote sustainable biodiversity loss. implement SSM practices. • Poor understanding of planning management of • Develop partnerships • SB can significantly the role and impacts of urbanized environments that support multi- contribute to tackle threats to SB in selected and urban soil disciplinary approaches, environmental problems. ecoregions and global rehabilitation. foster synergies and • The knowledge that region. • Assessment of ensure a multi-stakeholder soil is alive expands the • Inability to adequately vulnerable species and perspective regarding SSM possibilities for human- map the importance of landscapes to prioritize and SB. soil relationships. threats to SB at the global their protection. • Implement the • SB must be considered a level. • Minimise the drivers combined use of natural capital asset from of SB loss and promote traditional knowledge, which ecosystem services the improvement of soil novel technologies and are produced. health. innovation and ensure that • Inclusion of SB into the all relevant stakeholders risk assessment of agro- have access to these tools inputs. and associated policies. • Regular assessment • Develop robust and of soil contaminants and reliable biological Threats to soil biodiversity ecotoxicological test indicators, and experiments with different monitoring/assessment target species. protocols for SB. • Perform detailed threat • Raise social awareness assessments on SB at on SB loss and recovery; various scales and/or for threats to SB including various taxa. agricultural intensification • Perform a regional and best practices for and global synthesis of SB assessment; and the threats to SB, using management and georeferenced and monitoring for all land spatially relevant data. management activities. • Promote Red-listing of endangered SB species at the national and global level.

*This content applies to all themes addressed in table 1 SB: soil biodiversity; N: nitrogen; SOC: soil organic carbon; SSM: sustainable soil management. ©Andy Murray

28 State of knowledge of soil biodiversity Theme Challenges/Gaps Specific actions *Cross-cutting actions *Cross-cutting scopes

• Increase research on the • Promote the prevention, • Advocate for the • Guarantee soil health field-scale performance suppression and control implementation of SSM for all ecosystem vitality & of microbial inoculants of pathogens and invasive under the VGSSM at human well-being. and entomopathogenic species. national level. • Support agriculture for nematodes as biological • Invest on targeted • Implement the use/ sustainability, productivity, control of insect pests. research on soil-borne management and and resource use • Insufficient knowledge diseases and promote conservation of soil efficiency. of the role of direct and integrated pest biodiversity as nature- • Support farmers to indirect management management. based solutions. reduce vulnerability by of micro, meso and • Privilege the • Promote ecosystem- diminishing production macrofauna in soil development of whole based approaches that costs, increasing yields functioning and ecosystem community microbial conserve, restore and and strengthening their service delivery. inoculants over single avoid soil degradation and capacity to design and • The portfolio of microbial isolates. biodiversity loss. implement SSM practices. solutions to environmental • Implement nature- • Develop partnerships • SB can significantly problems is currently based solutions towards that support multi- contribute to tackle microbial-based; micro, the micro, meso and disciplinary approaches, environmental problems. meso and macrofauna are macrofauna, not only in foster synergies and • The knowledge that almost never included. microbes. ensure a multi-stakeholder soil is alive expands the perspective regarding SSM possibilities for human- and SB. soil relationships. • Implement the • SB must be considered a combined use of natural capital asset from traditional knowledge, which ecosystem services novel technologies and are produced. innovation and ensure that all relevant stakeholders have access to these tools and associated policies. • Develop robust and Management of soil biodiversity reliable biological indicators, and monitoring/assessment protocols for SB. • Raise social awareness on SB loss and recovery; threats to SB including agricultural intensification and best practices for SB assessment; and management and monitoring for all land management activities.

*This content applies to all themes addressed in table 1 SB: soil biodiversity; N: nitrogen; SOC: soil organic carbon; SSM: sustainable soil management.

Summary for policy makers 29 ©FAO/Matteo Sala

Summary for policy makers 2020

The Global Soil Partnership (GSP) is a globally recognized mechanism STATE of KNOWLEDGE established in 2012. Our mission is to position soils in the Global Agenda through collective action. Our key objectives are to promote of SOIL BIODIVERSITY Sustainable Soil Management (SSM) and improve soil governance to guarantee healthy and productive soils, and support the provision of essential ecosystem services towards food security and improved nutrition, climate change adaptation and mitigation, and sustainable development.

Thanks to the financial support of

Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation

ISBN 978-92-5-133583-3 Status, challenges and potentialities

9 789251 335833 CB1929EN/1/11.20