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This Thesis Has Been Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirements for a Postgraduate Degree (E.G This thesis has been submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree (e.g. PhD, MPhil, DClinPsychol) at the University of Edinburgh. Please note the following terms and conditions of use: This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, which are retained by the thesis author, unless otherwise stated. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. Erosion, Vegetation and the Evolution of Hillslopes in Upland Landscapes David T. Milodowski B.A. M.Sci. (Hons) Ph.D. Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences University of Edinburgh - 2016 Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Edinburgh 2016 Contents Contents ...................................................................................................................... iii Abstract ....................................................................................................................... ix Lay Summary .............................................................................................................. xi Acknowledgements ................................................................................................... xiii Declaration ................................................................................................................. xv Chapter 1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Overview ....................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Rationale and Motivation .............................................................................. 4 1.3 Hillslope Geomorphology and Eco-geomorphic Coupling ........................... 9 1.3.1 Hillslopes ............................................................................................... 9 1.3.2 Geomorphic controls on ecosystems .................................................... 32 1.3.3 Vegetation as an active geomorphic agent ........................................... 38 1.3.4 Conclusions .......................................................................................... 44 1.4 LiDAR – a Mine of Ecological and Geomorphic Information.................... 46 1.4.1 An Introduction to LiDAR ................................................................... 46 1.4.2 Extraction of Geomorphic Information from LiDAR-derived Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) ................................................................................. 49 1.4.3 Analysis of vegetation .......................................................................... 62 iii Contents Ph.D. D.T. Milodowski 1.4.4 Conclusions .......................................................................................... 65 1.5 Thesis Outline .............................................................................................. 67 Chapter 3 Erosion rates as a potential bottom-up control on forest structural characteristics ..................................................................................................... 67 Chapter 4 Surface roughness as a topographic signature of the emergence of bedrock in eroding landscapes ........................................................................... 67 Chapter 5 Lithology, vegetation and sources of complexity in the coupled geomorphic and ecological response of hillslopes to incision ........................... 68 Chapter 2. Study Site: Feather River, Californian Sierra Nevada .............................. 69 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 69 2.2 Regional Setting: Sierra Nevada Mountains, Western USA ....................... 69 2.3 Middle Fork Feather River, Northern Sierra Nevada .................................. 74 2.3.1 Geology ................................................................................................ 75 2.3.2 Climatology .......................................................................................... 77 2.3.3 Geomorphology and Geochemistry ..................................................... 78 2.3.4 Ecology ................................................................................................. 84 Chapter 3. Erosion Rates as a Potential Bottom-up Control of Forest Structural Characteristics in the Sierra Nevada Mountains ........................................................ 87 Abstract .................................................................................................................. 87 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 88 3.2 Study site ..................................................................................................... 90 iv Contents Ph.D. D.T. Milodowski 3.3 Methods ....................................................................................................... 91 3.4 Results ......................................................................................................... 95 3.5 Discussion ................................................................................................... 98 3.6 Conclusions ............................................................................................... 101 3.7 Appendix - Extended Methods .................................................................. 103 3.7.1 Field Data ........................................................................................... 103 3.7.2 Calculating plot biomass and estimating uncertainty......................... 104 3.7.3 Calculation of LiDAR-derived biomass and uncertainty ................... 106 3.7.4 Topographic analysis ......................................................................... 108 3.7.5 Downscaling PRISM data .................................................................. 109 3.7.6 Basin Lithology .................................................................................. 109 3.7.7 Statistical analysis of controls on AGB ............................................. 110 3.8 Appendix – Summary of Forest Inventory Plot Data ................................ 119 Chapter 4. Topographic Roughness as a Signature of the Emergence of Bedrock in Eroding Landscapes ................................................................................................. 121 Abstract ................................................................................................................ 121 4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 122 4.2 Methods – Quantifying Surface Roughness .............................................. 126 4.3 Validation of the surface roughness algorithm .......................................... 131 4.3.1 Validation sites ................................................................................... 131 v Contents Ph.D. D.T. Milodowski 4.3.2 Objective identification of rock exposure from high resolution orthophotographs .............................................................................................. 132 4.3.3 Validation procedure .......................................................................... 138 4.3.4 Validation Results .............................................................................. 141 4.3.5 Implications for use of topographic roughness in other settings ........ 144 4.4 Application of the roughness algorithm to transient landscapes – investigating the soil-bedrock transition in Bald Rock Basin, California, and Harrington Creek, Idaho ....................................................................................... 149 4.4.1 Study sites .......................................................................................... 149 4.4.2 Topographic analysis .......................................................................... 154 4.4.3 Results ................................................................................................ 154 4.4.4 Discussion .......................................................................................... 156 4.5 Overall Discussion and Conclusions ......................................................... 159 Chapter 5. Lithology, vegetation and sources of complexity in the coupled geomorphic and ecological response of hillslopes to incision ..................................................... 165 Abstract ................................................................................................................ 165 5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 167 5.2 Study Site ................................................................................................... 172 5.3 Methods ..................................................................................................... 176 5.3.1 Overview ............................................................................................ 176 5.3.2 Isolation of Hillslope Domain ...........................................................
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