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Gift of Shyam Chandra SPRINGFIELD COLLEGE LIBRARY MANUSCRIPT THESES

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PHYSICAl. EDUCATION IN INDIA

be accepted as fulfilling the research requirement for the degree of

MAST"fi'll of EDTICATION

Approved by: ZlJa.LbA ~~ (Advisor) -----_.. _------._------_._------\------

THE DEVELOPIvr~l\TT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN INDIA

A Project Presented to the Faculty of Springfield College Corporate ;ritle International Young Men's Christian Association College

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Education

by Shyam Chandra, M.A. June, -1949

i ___.--; __ .______~._. _____ ... ____.. _... ______~ ___.. ______.~_L __ .__ ~ ______. , I I I I i I 43599 To all those vtho vlish that East and Vest should mingle in a brotherhood of culture, for each has its peculiar and particular contributions to make, this project is htLsbly dedicated. PREFACE

In order to understand India, one must under­ stand the world. India is at once unbelievably old and incredibly young. Out of this medley of old and new, a great nation is struggling to come into being - a nation "!l/hich, not forgetting her ancient past is rene-wing her greatness along modern lines. Vii th the dawn of independence, old problems have been solved, but rnany neiN problems still. have to be grapl)led with. Along with the economic problem, there are the issues of education, health, vitality, and whole­ some living of the nation. To find out hOV1 far phYSical ed\?-cation can help India it is necessary to knovl its history in that country. The 'Vlri ter claims no. originali ty but has merely endeavoured to compile the t1Physico..l Education story" into a continuous narrative from antiquity to the present. For their assistru1ce in accomplishing this task the writer vJishes to acknowledge his deep gratitude to l::rofessor Vlal ter A. Cox fu"'1d l=rofessor Clayton T. Shay, whose constructive criticism, helpful suggestions, ru1d sJ71J1pathic encouragement have contributed much to the eventual form and content of the study. l.,,:y deep appre- iii

-----~---- ciation also goes to Dr. Harrison H. Clarke for guidance, assistance, and active cooperation in this study. I am also indebted to I.:rs. Jennie Cournoyer,

Secretary in the Alurnni O~fice, who has helped me to ascertain details about the Alurnni connected y;i th India -

and finally I am grateful to Dr. Robert J. Conklin and I~:rs. G. Hickox, l:-rofessors of English, for reading the manuscript.

June, 1949 s.c. Springfield, Massachusetts. (U.S.A.) TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION PREFACE CHAPTER PAGE

I. INTRODUCTION ••••• • • • • • • • • • • • 1

II. INDIA'S OWN HERITAGE. • • • • • • • • • • • 6 1. Training and Massage • • • • • • • • • 11

2. Personal Hygiene • • • • • • • • • • • 13

3. yoga •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 15 III. PHYSICAL EDUCATION DURING DIFFERENT

AGES ••••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 21 1. Vedic Age •••••••••••••• 21 2. Epic Age • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• 23

3. Philosophical Age • • • • • • • • • • 24

4. Buddhist Age • • • • • • • • • • • • • 25 5. Jatakafs Age ••••••••••••• 27

6. Moslem Period • • • • • • • • • • • • 31 IV. THE BRITISH INFLUENCE • • • • • • • • • • • 39 v. THE AMERICAN INFLUENCE • • • • • • • • • • • 47 VI. THE PRESENT POSITION • • • • • • • • • • • • 56 VII. THE FACTORS WHICH AFFECTED TEE GROWTH

OF PHYSICAL. EDUCATION IN INDIA. • • • • • 65

1. Economic • . . • • • • • • • • • • • • 66

2. Social. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 67 CHAPTER PAGE

3. Religious • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 69 4. Education and General • • • • • • •• 71

VITI. SPRINGFIELD COLLEGE ALUMNI AND ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS OF QUESTIONNAIRE • • • •• 76

IX. SUMMARY • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• 84 BIBLIOGRAPHY • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• 92 APPENDIX • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 96 ABSTRACT CFf..APrER ONE INTRODUCTION CHAPrER I INTRODUCTION

India is vast. It has a great variety of people. It is a land of contrasts, of the old and new. One will find an aeroplane roaring over the village where the spinning wheel is still in use. He will find an Indian girl smartly dressed in slacks driving her sport car past old places and. palaces v.;here her veiled sisters live in seclusion. While Gandhi, Tagore, and Nehru are honoured by the whole civilized vlorld, the illiterate Indian villager still hangs his charm round

his bullockts neck to ave~t disease and believes in his

fa~e and destiny. It is this variety, perhaps, that makes the country so interesting, though at times confusing. One cannot understand this history of phYSical education by just ignoring or divorcing all other aS2ects connected with the land. Fhysical education, after all, is fundamentally the study of a hurn.an being \,li th his individual characteristics, interests, and needs. It is hoped that this study of Indian renaissance will be of interest to one and all. 2

The story of the development of physical 1- education in India is as old and long as the history of India, both recorded and mythical. The literature of ancients abounds in records of the physical exploi~s of the heroes of Hinduism. Then came the age when physical education dwindled almost into extinction. In the age of Moslem invasions, physical education was connected with the practice of war; then again, physical education took a new turn with the contact with the West; and finally it was reshaped under the American influence and under the inter-mingled philosophies of East and West. The nationalistic ambition of India to put herself along side other nations in all phases of life has lead to a nation-wide awakening and to the promotion of a great movement for physical education. Physical education in India is in a process of transition particularly since the achieving of independ­ ence. A continuous story of the development of Indian physical education should prove valuable. A more scientific and adequate physical education program is needed to prepare the country for a nat ion-wide.. ,:",program , and to achieve this, knowledge of background and history is necessary. 3

The purposes of this study are: to present an overall historical survey of physical education in India; . to review the present position and some factors affecting the growth of physical education in India; and finally to indicate the contributions made by the Young Men's Christian Association and particularly the part played by the Alumni of Springfield College (Massachusetts) in influencing the program of physical education in India. Since India is a country of many languages, it has been impossible to secure and understand all histor­ ical facts in all languages. The original sources of ancient India (the Vedas, Puranas, Upanishads, Epics, treatises ·on Medicine and Physiology of Charaks and Sushruta) are in Sanskrit Language. Since the writer is not a student of Sanskrit, he has had to depend upon the literature translated into English. The paucity of historical records makes it difficult to present a continuous narrative of physical education in India. Fictitious and mythological accounts of physical exploits and of the physical training related thereto are very much confused, which fact renders the task still more difficult. __1,- 4 However, a careful study of literature on general education, health; sports, and physical educa­ tion available from the Springfield College Library, Springfield (Mass.) Public Library, Smith College (Northampton) Library and the Government of India Information Services Library, (Washington 8, D.C.), forms a basis of research. A 'questionnaire to Springfield College Alumni who were connected with physical education of India was prepared, an analysis of which is presented in Chapter VIII. CHAFfER THO

INDI.A f S ovmJ HE:t(I'l11~GE CHAPrER II

II{DIA'S mTI{ ~~ITAGE

The history of physical education in India from very early times dovm to the present is a thrilling story of enthusiastic and conscientious effort on the part of many noble" pioneers. It is also a story of many colossal blunders. Perhaps the greatest mistake of all has been the failure to regard man as a whole, the mistake of dealing with him purely as a physical being, the failure to realize the necessity for a psychological approach, the mistake of putting the person into a pro­ gram of standardized activities instead of providing activities according to the characteristics and interest of those who are to participate in them. Such mistakes have led to a narrow' conception of physical education, too rigidly formalised and standardized artificial exercises and systems of physical training for mere body building and posture training. Such mistakes have delayed too long the development of a desirable broad conception of educatio of the whole man by means of comprehensive programs of 6

meaningful physical activities catering to and influenc­ ing mall IJhysically, mentally, morally, and. socially.

Much valuc~ble time and effort have been ·vJ8.sted in quarreling over systems, asanas, activities, and exercises. Illiterate drill-masters, subjective exercise mass drills, laclc of status for IJhysical education, and misunderstanding of the right apl)roach to Yoe;ic culture are some of the landmarks of the ilEtr:covr ConC81Jtion in this field. Every period in the history of the world has witnessed changes, and such has been the case in India. The physical education of this country has been influ­ enced by three main factors: ---

1. Indian Physical Culture 2. British Physica.l Training

3. American Physicl:.~l Education.

The object of life, according to a~cient Indian teaching is threefold, consisting of Dharma, Artha, and Karma, i.e., virtue, poneI' and enjoyInent. 7

The attainment of these objectives depends on the healthy conditions of the body, the chief instrument for attaining them. It therefore behooves every man to keep his body in a healthy condition. Ferfect health is an ideal nowhere to be found in nature. But by careful regulation of food, exercise, cleanliness, and habits one can approximate the aim.

Indians knev~ full well that living tissues depend on use for grovnh, and they made exercise a part of their daily routine. Freedom from superfluous fat, lightness of the body, hardness and suppleness of the muscle, agility of the lilllbs, resistance to infection of the skin, improve- ment of the digestive function, and enhancement of beauty of form were recognized to be the result of exercise, which was looked upon vii th great veneration. There is even at the present day a temple at. Benares (Holy city of India) dedicated to the deity Hanuman to whom the most 1 pleasing offer is exercise VIi tIl Indian Clubs. In olden times vvhen the very existence of man depended to a very large extent on his physical strength

1. Renort of the Conference on P.E. 1927, (i.ladras: Superintendent:--Goverrunent l~inting Press, 1928) p •.71. 8

and skill in fighting, education consisted mainly of learning to use one's limbs for def'ensi ve and offensive purposes. Archery (Dhanur Veda), fighting with clubs and mace (Gada Yudh) , swordsmanship, thro'wing the javelin, v.rrestling, riding, running, sViim.nlirug, clirabing, and chariot-racing (Hath Siksha) comprised the education of youth, and a man f s ¥lorth was calculated in terms of his skill in these accomplishments. A youth who was ambitious of 'winning a wif'e had to prove his worth before the bride's father in an open assembly by hard physical tests (swayamvra). Thus it was necessary for Rmua, the hero of Ramayru1a Epic, to string the mighty bow of Lord Siva before he Vlon the most talented and most beautiful woman of the age Sita, as his vJife. A similar test (the shooting of an arrow into the left eye of the vJhirling fish in the ring -- by looking from the reflection of the vlatel" belovl the ring)

\1aS passed by Arjuna, the great hero of the I~Iahabharata, before Droupadi would accept him as her husband. Lord 9

Srilcrishna fought ,with and overpovvered the gigantic Jambavan before the latter gave him his daughter Jamba­ vati, and on another occasion he proved his slcill in driving the chariot and led the Pandavas to victory in the Mahabharata war. With such ideals and the necessity of the times there vvas no danger of exercise being neglected. The only real danger was of overdoing it. Stric rules regulated against over-indulgence. The hottest part of the year was set a)art for rest vlhen no exercise or only a mild form of it was taken. All severe forms of exercise were reserved for to: l_e coldest part of the year. Ho formal or set system of gyrll1astics vIas presented for a boy till he was in his teens, and hard exercise vias not thought beneficial for a man past sixty years of age. Exercises were stopped before a man beCeJ11e completely exhausted. Ordinarily a man was thought to have sufficient exercise when perspiration was seen between the nipples, on the nose, at the joints, or in the pits of the arms.

------10

It is to be remembered that although in the case of e.. man of sedentary and idle habits perspiration and other signs of exhaustion appear rather soon, these are con­ siderably delayed in a man hardened by exercise. As a precaution against L1uscular pain and other rheunlatic affections ancient Indians alvlays anointed their bodies with oil before any perspiration appeared~ After the exercise, and supplementary to it, the body was subjecte to gentle massage. This VIas thought necessary to pacify whatever hur.10urs might have been disturbed by the exer­ cise. A regular bath followed the period of physical activity. Whatever games Indians engaged in during olden times VTere of martial type and resembled the tournar.a.ents of medieval Europe. Skill in the use of different types of weapons and dexterity in all skills of fighting Viere exhi bi ted and rev,rarded. There were exhi bi tions of anothe

kind, sOl1lev1lhat resembling the Roman amphitheatre, in which gladiatorial fights took place and not infrequent­ ly man VIas pitted against vlild anir!lals. Most commonly 11

the tiger was the beast used for this purpose. Elephants were sometimes used, and the weapons perlllitted a man were a sword and buckler or a spear. Examples ·of such fights are given in the Classics and on the Llalabar Coast One of the most popular s»orts was hunting. This was considered to be manly because it gave exercise to the body and opportunity for exhibiting skill in the use of all l\:inds of weapons as well as 'wholesome excitement to the spirit. Boating was another exciting activity 'which 1 has been beautifully described in the Harivamsa. 1. Training and I,:assage. Training has been prevalent in India at all times, so much so that it has not died out to the present day. Vestiges of old .Akharas, Kalaries, Vyayam Shales, garadies, and exercises sheds are still to be Dlet Vii thin many parts of India. All these were gymnasia for training rrhe trainers Vlere called Gurus and ,",vere hereditary practitioners of training. They had many professional secrets which passed from generation to generation; these

1. Report of the Conference Q£ P.E. 1927, (Idadras: Superintendent, Government Printing Fress 1928), p. 72. 12

distinguished the gymnasia one from another. A regulated system of exercise, massage, and diet was the main subject taught by the gurus. Generally exercises required no apparatus but consisted of various postures and balancings of the body, stretchings, turn­ ings, and twisting of the trunk and limbs and so on until the whole body perspired profusely. This was followed by massage over the entire body. The art of massage was developed to such a state of perfection that many ailment and pains have been found to disappear in the course of training.-Many deformities of the body have also been known to disappear totally by virtue of the massage­ system. To a Westerner, massage with oil may seem strange particularly in the hot climate of India, but the massage system is still very popular with many of our vvrestlers and other athletes. In summer it is done in the morning before sunrise, and in winter it is done in the morning and evening but indoors. The massage is followed by a hot bath then a plunge into cold water, a procedure considered to be very beneficial to the whole system.

------4------13

Not much restriction is placed upon diet in the ordinary course of training, except the requirement that it be nutritious and that the stomach be not over­ loaded. The training for special purposes differs con­ siderably in detail. Thus the regimen for the training of the acrobat will not be the sartle as the regimen prescribed for a pugilist, ~~d this latter again differs considerably from the regimen prescribed for a histri­ onic aspirant. 2. Personal Hygiene Vlestern VITi ters on physical education eml)hasize proper clothing and uniforms as important to health, but in the tropical country of India a covering for the body is a matter of decorum rather than a necessity for J:+ealth The Indian hygienist had little to say about it eJccept that it should be clean and simple in order to prevent any contagion of dise,ases. The ordinary man VIore a piece of cloth from his vTaist dOVJn -- suprisingly like a Scotch Highlander's kilt. Vvealthier men wore an upper garment 1,'Ji th trefoil decorations, or a coat over his shirt and pajamas or dhoti. During physical exercises only langhoti (siI:lilar to underwear) vias used. The body

---f------14

was kept clean internally and externally. People in the old days like to live on the banks of rivers, as the daily bath (ishnan) was empha- sized by religious teachers. Eany farailies in India do not eat until they have finished their bath. This custom rilore than anything else explains the formation of great towns and villages in India. After the bath the body was disinfected with such fragrant ointment as sandal-

vlood paste, saffron, musk, and camphor. Garlands COLl- posed of strong-scented leaves and flovrers VIere worn on the head and around the .neck. The kitchens of ancient days were models of cleanliness ana. simplicity, and this is still the most guarded room in an Indian house. A thing much stressed was that the mind must

always' be kept on the WOI'1\:: it/hi ch was being done. If it was exercise, the whole mind should be on the exercise so that one may feel the muscular tension. If it was eating, the food should be 'well chewed 'and enj oyed. If it was a bath, that also IflUst be v;ell enj oyed. The last iml)ortant thing Vfas that a person v.]ho wanted to be in good health must always make it a point to lead a moral life.

---+------_. ------_._--_._------.-.- 15

India, being a land of villages, has changed little. Young and old still rise in the morning and walle through the woods to canals, tan.ks and rivers close by, Vlash themselves, and after ablutions and consecration, gather around a temple or place of vlorship before return­ ing home to m.ake plans for the day's v}orl<;: after breal<;:fast. Those that "iHant intensive physical training or exercise visit Aldlaras and Kalaris to play or practi-ce feats. Morning or evening, according to the daily plans, are spent at Al(haras and Kalaris. These are clliefly publicly sponsored or comraunity gJ~ill1asia, having no connection v.,i th the goverrullent or schools. 3. Yoga The Yoga system is a very delicate issue, yet a very interesting and absorbing study; its practice is very useful, yet it needs concentration and discipline; it is much misunderstood, yet one of the richest heritage of Ancient India. There is a misconception commonly prevalent that Yoga is ascetism pure and simple; others call it 16

something old, curious, or mystical. It is not. Yo~a is one of the several Hindu systems of thought that deve­ loped from the ancient philosophical concepts contained in the Vedas (Holy booles of Hindus). The Yogi c Culture is a kind of training for physical and mental self­ development.

The alll of education in India has been 1'or ages to illa.-'ke the pupil an all-round man. Health vias made an important branch of training. For this the science of Yoga was devised. It also o.oes include certain forms of mental and spiritual practices e.g. meditation, the hunan life-cycle, the relation of soul, mind and body, and so forth, but to -go into these details livould Il1ean another research entirely. The vr.riter is cuncerned here with the Yoga system of health and asanas (exercises) which is still held high in esteem by the people at large in India. Patanjali, a great scholar of the second centurJ B. C., codif\ied the ancient systems and knoYlledge of Yoga into a book known as uIvlaha bashya 11; Vyas was another great sage and scholar who wrote a comm.entary on this 17

culture , and both of them lay great stress on mental attitude while practicing Yoga. The discipline of Yoga, 1 comprises eight angas (parts) as follows: ----- 1. Yama ------moral virtue 2. Niyama ------observance 3. Asana ------pose or exercise 4. Pranayama ----- regulation of breath 5. Pratyahara ---- withdrawal of senses from external objects 6. Dharana ------steadying of the mind 7. Dhyana ------contemplation 8. Smadhi ------meditation. The aim of this discipline is to assist man in an ascent from -the narrow view congenital to him to the larger vision which brings freedom vlith it. 1'he yogin doe not go mechanically progressing from one stage to the next but progresses according to his capacity, needs, and training. The third of the eight parts of yogic disciplin deals 'wi th the series of gymnastic exercises (which talee the form of poses) and is meant to improve the various IJarts of the organism. There are many sets of exeroises

1. Sri Rama Krishna, The Cultural Heritage of India ( IVlernorial Committee, Belur Math, Calcutta) Vol.· I, p. 325. 18

but the following seventeen yogic asanas are popularly 1 practiced allover India : ----- Shrishasana -- the topsy turvey posture; Sarvan­ gas ana -- the Ban-physical pose; Halasana -- the plough pose; Iviatsyasana -- the fish pose; Bhujangasana -- the cobra pose; Shalbhasana -­ lie prone and raise the legs pose; Dhanurasana­ - the bow pose; Ardha-IvIatsyendrasana -- the twist; Mayurasana -- the peacock pose; Yoga Mudra -- the lotus posture; Baddha Padmasana -­ the anas crossed behind the back grasping the toes by opposite hand.s; Simhasana -- the lion pose; Supta Vajrasana-- the pelvic pose; Bas­ chimotanasana -- the posterior stretching pose; Uddyana Bandha and Nauli are abdomen exercises and Shavasana --- complete relaxation pose. These exercises are to be done in the open air or in a room with .plent~r of fresh air. There should be Cluietness and an environIuent l)romoting tranCluili ty. The books recomuend the loin cloth be used as the uniform. These exercises should be practiced early in the morning 2 before sunrise or in the evening at sunset. All these poses are practiced not at one time but gradually and progressively according to the needs, ca~acity, and. agility of the pupils. They are performed individually as well as collectively in small groups. The length of .

1. Parekh, Vithal Das Yogi, Yogic Physical Culture (Prefect Press Lahore, 1941) p. 5-24. 2. P.G. Krishnayya, HThe Yoga Asanas", The Journal of Health & Physical Education, J?eb.1933 IV,No.2 pp. 13-16. 19

time for the concentration of a pose varies with the individual's capacity and the kind of asana he is under- going. One simple rule on which the yogi insists is the regulation of breathing and alv'Jays through the nose. This covers all the rules about the length of inspiration, retention, and expiration. It will not be out of place to mention here some of the opinions expressed on Yoga by western writers: The aim of Yoga on the physical side is to avoid disease and ensure health by establishing and maintaining physiological harmony in the human body. The physical exercises are called asanas. They are really held positions or poses and a discussion of them fits neatly into our con­ sideration of exercises to improve tonus of raus cles. 1 Cleanliness, self-discipline of the body and mind, and resignation to life \'lere some of the features of Yoga. The impression most '}esterners have gained that Yoga means self-mortification and torture of the body is not true. Such aberrations are not countenanced by Yoga. The immediate goal of the youth of yogin is self­ control and not self-torture. 2 The consensus of opinion muong p:hysi c8.1 educa- tors in India today, quite apart from religious beliers, is that yogic exercises (asanas) are excellent keep-fit

1. J.L. Rathbone, Corrective Physical Education (London, Philadelphia: VI. B. Saunders Company, 1949 ) ,p. 204. 2. Behanan T. Kavore, Yoga, A-Scientific Eva1uation,{New York: Eacmillan Company, 1937), p. 120. 20

exercises for all ages and sexes and that they have a place in the physical education program. From Yoga have come the Indian garnes of Chedugudu, Kho-Kho, Hut-tu-tu or Kabaddi played allover India under different names. Nearly all of these games are inexpensive and require no equipm:ent. CHAPrER THREE ffiYSIC.AL EDUCATION DUHING DIFFER1Il'TT

AGES CHAPrER III

PHYSICAL EDUCATION DURING DIFFER~2fT AGES

1. VEDIC AGE 1 During the Vedic Age, which according to Dutt was from 2000 to 1400 B.C., the Aryans who had migrated into the northern plains of India from Central Asia possessed an outstanding physique and intellect. These Aryans composed hymns, cultivated their fields, and performed sacrifices. Fighting against enemies kept alive their martial spirit for a long time. Swordsmw1ship, riding, jumping, running, and vlrestling, use of the bow and arrow, and spear hunting vITere common practices. Ball 2 games were considered to be ladies' occuations. But life on the fertile plains of India, with a mild climate and freedom from constant warfare and the fear of conquest, made the struggle for existence an easy one.

R.C. Dutt, History of Civilization ig Ancient India ( London: K. Paul Trench Tubuer Company, 1916) Vol. II, p. 24. 2. N.H. Muzumdar, History of Education in India (Calcutta: University Press, 19p2), p. 2. 22

Although training of the will was in those days by far the most important objective, yet the moral and physical welfare of the boy vvas also cared for. From birth to his fifth year was regarded as a time for play. After that, or at any rate from the eighth year onward, Vlas a tim.e for study.

An initiation ceremony at this age (his eighth year in the case of a Brahulan, the eleventh in the case of a Kshatriya, and the twelfth year in the case of a 1 Vaisya) marked the beginning of the period of student- ship which might be for 12, 24, 36, or 48 years depending upon the vvish to master one, two, three, or four Vedas (the holy books of Hindus). The life was one of discipline. A Brabmchari (a genuine bachelor) had duties incUDlbent on himself for his ovm growth and development as viell as the Guru(Teacher; It was mostly a practical life, along with theory and the individual attention to every pupil from the teacher. After completion of the period of study, having lived all this time in the home of the teacher (Guru), the boy

could go bacl~ home. Here he married and settled down as a

1. R. C. Dutt, History of Civilization in iUlcient India (London: K. Baul: Trench Tubuer Co., 1916), Vol II p. 27. 23

householder, practicing arts, physical, marital, and spiritual, which vfould enable him to live as a vlorthy member of the society.

2. EPIC AGE ----1 The Epic Age provided a continuation of this type of education. The period 1400-1000 B.C. may be called the "Golden Age" of physical education in ancient India, comparable to the days of King Arthur and his knights of the Round Table. Military training and the need of a military class dominated whatever physical education there was. Sports, displays, amusements, singing, and dancing seem to have been common and largely in evidence during festivals and on marriage occasions. Tournaments in archery, wrestling, sYJimming, diving, and use of mace, Indian clubs, sVJord, spear and chariot racing Vlere popular.

1tSwayamvarall vias at its height. It was a system of ceremonies where the bride selected the bridegroom in open assembly through a simple custom·or ge.rlanding the person of her choice 'who had Vlon her ravour by performing some outstanding feat of strength, skill, or agility.

1. The Age of.' Ramayana and J!Iahabharata 24

All these activi ties v{ere practised principally by the Kshatriyas and less by the other classes of society. Pranayamas and Surya-Namaskarsseemed to be more and more used by Brahraans and Vaisyas, while the toil of the land furnished the necessary activities of Sudras. Music, dancing (classical and folk dances), and the art flourished along with general education among all classes.

3. PHILOSOPrlIC}~ AGE (1000-262 B.C.) During this period nothing much was done beyond the daily routine mentioned as a part of a student's duties in the Vedic period, but the people Vlere apparentl I in possession of sound health. It was IJerhaps during this period that the ascetic ideal with its philosophy of the body and soul as antangonistic entities, the body being regarded as a hindrance to the development of the soul, came into existence. The peace and security of the period and a life of ease may have pressed in the phrase tr To/lind, body, and soul f1 was lacking.

1. R.H. Shenai, The History of Physical Educa­ tion and Its Future in Schools (Kappur: Handboolc of the Fifth Conference of all India, Federation Teacher's Association, 1929), 28 pp. 25

4. BUDDHIST AGE (B.C.'242-A.D. 500) The natural reaction to the ascetic ideal was sponsored by Buddhism. The teaching or this group em­ phasized that Nirvana (self-realization) could be at­ tained only by action and not by mo~tirication or the body. The history or the Buddhist system of education is practically that of the Buddhist order (Samgha). Buddhist education and learning centered in the monas- teries. The Buddhist world 'did not ofrer any educational opportunities apart from or independent of its monas- teries. All education, sacred or secular, was in the hands of monks. They had a monopoly or learning and the leisure to iml)art it. They Vlere the custodians and I bearers of the Buddhist culture. Some practices forbidden by the Buddhist 111ere: injuring plants and vegetables; storing up property; wit- nessing public spectacles (like theatrical representa- tions, recitations, concerts, musters, and reviews of troops); engaging in games detrimental to progress in

1. R.K. Mookerji, Ancient Indian Education (London: Macmillan and Company), p. 394. 26

virtue; adoring bodies; indulging in mean talk (Including fortune-telling); wrangling and acting as li2.son betvleen kings, ministers, and so forth. Despite this discipline and the restrictions of monastic-life, room was left for games and sports v1hich have their own appeal to human nature • .A list of such permissible games and sports is given in the Chullavagga

(i, 13, 2.) which even mentions dancing with ladies, as 2 well as the following.

If Games played with eight or ten pieces; tossing up; holding and hopping' over diagrams dral.-':n on the ground; removing substances from a heap without shaking the remainder; games of dice and trap ball; sketching; matches with mimic ploughs; tumbling; tossing balls; blowing trumpets; forming mimic wind-mills; guessing at measures; chariot-racing; archery matches; shooting marbles with fingers; guessing other peoples' thoughts; mimicking other people's acts; riding elephants; ~Testling; boxing 'wi th fists; and spreading robes out as a stage on 'which girls might dance." Perhaps the most siGnificant items in this list are those relating to dancing and acting, sugges- tive of the art of the stage. As regards the admissi- bility of gambling, I must recall its Vedic origin

2. Ibict., pp. 447-48.' 27

indicating that in India it has figured in all ages as a national indoor-game, even finding its way into the severe and serious atmosphere of Nalanda ,ilhere archae- ological excavations have revealed a garilbling-die and gaming dice in monasteries Nos. I and la and at other 3 Buddhist sites. 5. JATAI(AS AGE (A.D. 500-1100) The Jatakas are sources of historical in for- mation giving the educational and social backgroliUd and reflecting the contemporary conditions of life during this period. During this age, youth of all types and con- ditions of life, of all different classes and castes, merged their divisions and distinctions in tIle democracy of learning. Princes and nobles, merchants and tailors, and poor students (vlho were maintained by charity) all rubbed their shoulders with one another as felloVJ disciples of a common school and teacher. The poor \ - student had to do extra labor but recognition of the dignity of all honest labor secured for him a status

3. Ibid., p. 490. 28

of equality v;i th the aristocratic group. The food allowed to the student 'was ri ce, sugar cane, molasses, curd, and milk. The life was simple and vIell disciplined. This age is lmo'\''ln for the growth of many univer sities including Texila, Benares, Nalanda, and Vikrama- 4 sila • It also influenoed Chinese and Tibetans, and thus the Indian culture crossed beyond the Himalayan borders. Different kinds of courses were taught in these univer- sities, and training in elephant lore, archery, hunting, and understanding cries of all animals were regarded as Arts and Crafts subjects. Physical Education is not mentioned as a separate subject; it is included in the study of medicine discipline, and military education. The teachers of Texila Viere famous for their kno'\!vledge of the arts of' peace as well as the arts of war. In thiS' connection, we may refer to the story of a Brahman boy of Benares nanled Jotipala 'who was sent at the King's expenses for educa- tion in archery at Texila. Vlhen he had completed his training, his teacher presented him with his ovm sVlord,

4. Ibid., 1'p. 482-3. 29

a bow and arrovl, a coat of mail, and a diamond, and asked him to take his place as the head of 500 pupils to be trained by him in the military arts, as he himself was old and wanted to retire. In those days the Veda-of-the­ boy; (the science of Archery) claimed almost as Dlany 5 students as the sacred triple Veda •

Benares became' kno~~ for its music, its dance, and its drama. Students were encouraged to undertake ex- tensive foreign travel to give a practical turn to their theoretical studies and to qualify them for life in the vvorld by broadening their range of experiences and deepening their insight into human affairs. by a first­ hand study of the diverse manners and customs in the different parts of the country. The physique or the physical constitution of the student Vias developed to inure him to the hardships of traveling. In these centres of learning there was a happy correlation of physical, intellectual, and aesthe- tic training. Swimrning, wrestling, hunting, archery, hill and mountain climbing, and breathing exercises Vlere

5. Ibid., p. 448. 30

considered essential. The Chela (pupil) rendered every kind of service to the Guru (teacher), including drav'Jing water from wells, hevfing 'wood and collecting holy twigs and tulsi leaves for the rites. These acti- 1 vities gave ample scope for bodily exercises • The monasteries or schools, strange as it may seem, Vlere not unmindful of the need of physical health and prescribed regular exercises. I-tsing, a famous Chinese scholar, says that :

fT In India both priests and laylllan are generally in the habit of taking walks going backwards and forVlards along a path at suitable hours and at their pleasure •••••••••• The walking hours are in the forenoon and late in the afternoon. They either go aVJay from their monasteries (for a walle) or stroll quietly along the corridors." 2 This physical exercise Vias expressly undergone for the salce of keeping oneself in good health or to cure disease. Buddha himself engaged in this type of exercise. There are cloisters where he walked, on the Vulture-l'eak, under the Bo-tree, in the Deer Park, at Rajagriha, fu~d in other holy places, which were two cubits in vlidth and fifteen in length. The Vinaya often speaks of monks

1. R.H. Shenai, QEo cit., pp.29-30 2. R.K. Mookerji, ~. cit., .D. 489. 31

1 preferring long walks up and dovvn as an aid to meditation.

6. THE 1'10SL:Erv1 PERIOD (1100-1757 A.D.) Towards the end of the tenth century India vias split up into a number of independent states,. From the eleventh century onward a series of Arab, Turlcish, and Afghan invasions finally resulted in the establishment of the I\Ioslem Empire in India. The southern part of India, until the coming of Ivioghuls, had followed its course undisturbed by the happenings beyond the Vindhya mountains. With the arrival of the 1ioslems -- the social, religious, and economic life was disrupted; the old universities lost ground, and the outlook on life became varied. During the Moslem rule no attention was paid to physical education in the maktaos and madrassaha (the schools and training centres). The Parishads and the Fatashalas of the Hindus lost the outlook of Sylvan universities like Texila, Nalanda, and Benares and 2 became mere centres of learning in arts and letters •

1. R.G. Moolcerji, .9.E. cit., pp. 550-51.

2. N.N. Law, Learning in ~~Ioslem India, JLondon:' Longman Green Company, Ltd. 1915), p. 159. ' ,I 32

1,'!hile schools ceased to provide any physical education the private garadies, talirru(hanas and alcharas did provide facilities for the few inclined tb the development of bodily strength and skill. The Yogic culture and other activities of semi-religious nature still survived but they had no serious outlook. Wrestling, a national sport of ancient India and therefore occupying an honourable place, was handed dovm from generation to generation by the Gurus and Ustad3 (coaches), but developed into l)rofessionalism. Exercise, such as Dundahls, the Baitaks, and stone-lifting for training the vJrestlers 'was popular, and. various l)rinces and rulers took wrestling under their own patronage. There was little stability or peace until P.J(bar came to the thI'one. During the Hoghul Age painting, scullJture, music, and dancing v.,rere prominent. The princes encouraged elephant fighting, bull fighting, riding­ competition, sVlimmin.g, archery, sillord play, fencing with sticks, and many other indigenous games. Traveling acrobats, jugglers, and musicians were also popular. Pul)pet shows Vlere given at fairs in market towns, also 33

performances by trained and truned tigers and bears. In those days every householder was a proficient hunter and kept arms for protection from bandits and vlild 1 animals. Hoclcey was also a popular sport. rTealthy citizens indulged in fencing, polo, horse-racing, dog- racing, ruld cock-fighting. For indoor pastimes they played card games, chess and backgammon, and gambled 2 VJith dice. The Idoghuls were very fond of amusement and recreation. The foundations of many gardens, palatial buildings, and open parks were laid at this time, in­ cluding the Taj -Ivlahal, which today is considered one of the seven wonders of the world.

1. Perhaps not hockey in the same form as it is played today. The same trhockeytr is of French origin, 'Hoquet', meaning a shephard's crook; but it was played in ancient Greece, and in India (under the name flHoogy"). It VIas played at night with the crooked head of a stick (like a golf club head) but instead of a ball, a burning stick of wood of the sarile vleight as the present field-hockey ball was used. The rules 'were simple. Rival sides played against one another each striving not to allow the ball to cross its goal. The English systematized the rules. 2. Goshel Kumar, The People of India. (NeVI York: Sheridan House, 1944)~p. 31-32:- ----4------.------4------34

After the Eoghuls an easy-going-era set in. Ad..rninistration bec8l11e 'weak, and princes grevv like mush­ rooms. They spent their time in harems, and the people indulged in cheap recreation and pleasures instead of engaging in outdoor life. A few Hindu sections, ( as a reaction to Moslem rule) practised a hard life, indul­ ging in riding, sword play, lathi play, Leizim exercises, guerella tactics of fighting and felt proud of possessing a good physique and physical proi,vess. These people Vlere the Rajputs, the Marhattas, and the Sikhs, but their form of education was develmped because of patriotism, tradi­ tion, and love of country rather than for love of educa­ tion-as a whole. Sivaji, Rana Prtap, Rani Durga Vati, end Guru' Gobind Singh created a stir in the country, and. one will find pictures of all these heroes in schools, colleges, and in private gymnasia along with that of the deity lianwnan. The illlcient Gurukula course of education from the very outset prescribed physical education by Tf Prana­ yama ff and other breath-control exercises and served as a foundation stone of the later mental, moral, and spiritual culture at the gurkula for v{hich the modern 35

residential hostel system is but a poor apology and faint imitation; although this system remained in vogue, it attracted the attention of ver-;l feY! people. The gradua~es of Gurukulas preached the philosophy of life and system of I-Iatha Yoga. Among these preachers were Swami Dayanand, Swami Vivekanand, Ram Tirath and Rama Krihna, all of whom in1'luenced the people of India very much. Sometime in the past the religions philosophy of India succeeded in turning away from the ideal of the perfection of the body in relation to mind and spirit to the ideal of asceticism, with its negation of the senses and distrust of the physical side of life •• But those who followed the ascetic path were but the few and not the many.

n The obj ect of ancient Hindu education vias threefold - the acquistion of YJlovlledge; the inc~lcation of social duties andrelig­ ious rites; and, above all, the formation of cha.racter, Tf and that India's "education system, internally, made her fit for a free and full self-expression, 'while externally, she was enabled to impress her thOUGht effectively upon her neighbors, vlho turned to her as the head of the highest learning and culture in those days. 1

1. S.K. Das, The Educational System of P~cient Hindus, (HovV'rah: 152 Panchanontola Road, 1930) p. 452. 36

----~------+------

It is true that physical education was not • properly,systematically and highly organized on a large scale except in the days of the Aryans and the Epic Age. It remained more or less individualistic and necessary to the incidences of the times when called for. But there is evidence throughout all ages that physical education was not entirely neglected. The impressions which the West has gained from the philosophy of India or from Yogic culture; such as ------" The people of India vlho believed in subju­ gating the body as a means of elevating the 1 soul, discouraged enjoyable physical activity; ", and

tr The surest way to attLin that (Brabma) vias to refrain from activity and the enjo~~ent of life," " Hinduism is inimical to procress, individuality, sanitation and physical edu­ cation, n and n Deleterious philosophy was undisturbed until recent times n 2 do not seem to be v/arranted.

1. Voltmer and Esslinger, The Orsanization and Administration of Physical Educationmew York: Appleton Century Crofts Inc., 1938) p. 1

2. E.A. Rice, A Brief History of Pllvsical Education ( NeVI Yorlc: A.S. Barnes and company) ,1926. 37

Lord Krishna advised Arjuna: -----

n Perforra thine action, for action is superior to inaction, even the maintenance of the body is imposEible. tr (Gita III, 5,6) In another place he vrrote •••••••••••

" He ~hose food and activity or exercise are properly adjusted in all vJorks, and i,llhose sleeping and waking hours are properly determined, to such a one does the highest benefit nome. n (Gita VI, 17) 1 The philosophy of life eXl)ressed in these lines indicates t~at in ancient India activity or exercise was highly valued. India has a rich heritage of rhythmic activities in the j:~orm of classical and folk-dances. These dances and the songs th.;.:·,t aCcomlJany them represent the soul of India's ancient culture.

In a scheme of l)hysicE.~l education adequately planned for India the activities that are native to the soil of the couT1try must find their rightf'Jl place.

1. G.F. Andrev.Js, Blysical . ~ducation for Boys in Indian Schools (NevI Yorlc: C01lli:lbia University Thesis, 1934) p. 19. 38

because these exercises, ge~les, and dances are peculiarly Indian, and through them the children of the country can express themselves naturally and thereby interpret the 1 culture of India to the rest of the TIorld.

1. C.C. Abraham, Physical Education and Health for India (l.ladras: Bureau of Hesearch fUblicatiol1s, 1945) p. 2.

-----~------Cf.tIAPrER FOUR

THE BRITISH I1J]~UENCE CHAPrER IV

India was under the British yoke for about two hundred years, until August 15, 1947, and it is natural that a subject race should be affected by the character- istics of its masters. It ,']ould require a separate thesis to discuss how far English statemen l-cept Indians at bay and checked and censored their activities politically, economically, and educationally in line with the practice of other imperialistic nations of the 1'Vlentieth Century. The English people had come to India mainly because of colonial and c'InFi.erical interests, and conseQuently general education, health, and social uplift were not their first love. 1 Dr. J. Henry Gray vlri tes, ....

n with the IJassing away of Yogic exercise and the abandoning of Sivaji type of ~rork, "(He come to what is perhaps the darlcest spot in the story, the almost complete collapse of any spirited or agressive Vlork in the period just preceding the early contacts with the West. The causes were possibly to be found in famine, poverty, disease, viars , defective diet, early marriage, purdha, ascetic ideals

1. J.R. Gray, 1t The Development of Physical Education,tf The Young Hen of India, Burma and Ceylon, Vol. XLV, No. 10;86, October 1933. 40

and associated social and religious customs. At any rate there appears to bea period in which the physical condition of the peol)le was such that they v/ere ':said to have been the poorest race physically of any people on earth. And for proof one need only turn to the vital statistics of those and subsequent days which have been compiled by the govern­ ment of India." It was only after a full century's rule that the East India Company thought of education. '.1ood' s dispatch of 1854 became the Educational Charter of 1 India. Basu does not find that the East India Company paid any attention to physical education. The only silver lining to the darlc clouds vias the compulsory introduction of English in the Indian schools and colleges. The ~ord Llacaulay Act of 1835 sm? the beginning of a new period with western methods of education introduced into Indian schools and colleges Almost another qu.::rter of a century elapsed before any attempt was made to introduce physical training in the schools. The earliest report of physical training in a school curriculunl is that of the Director of PUblic

1. B.D. Basu, History of Education in India under the East India Company, (Calcutta: The Modern HevievV'),p. 208. 41

Instruction of Madras for the year 1875. This says, ,,·that no public funds were then available for physical education, that the organi­ zation of athletic sports and cricket was the result of private effort, and that I.:ac­ Larents system of g}Tll1astics was then i11- troduced. tf 1

From then on until the ~irst decade of the TvV'entieth Century physical education in schools vias a sorry failure. Report after report of the Directors of Public Education in the several provinces and states

confirmed this. 1.1dcLaren t s gymnastics were not suitable because v'1hile one performed on the apparatus the others

merely loolced on, and it was rarely thCLt each boy in the class had more than one turn. A few who showed great interest in apparatus v.;orlc Vlere attended to at the expense of many. Drill, calisthenics, and marching seem , to have also been included in the syllabi of physical training. But because it VIas not possible to provide more than one period of forty-five to fifty minutes a

vleel~ for this vlork and because of the artificiality of the movement, the results Vlere not impressive. students would avail themselves of any excuse to get free from

1. G.]I. Andrews, QQ. cit., p. 13. 42

these drill classes. Apart from the nature of activities provided, the cause of the failure lay in the calibre of the teachers in charge of these activities. These were calledl

"Drill and Gynmastic Instructors. tt Little or no educa- tional qualifications were expected of them. Their train- ing consisted in the mastery of fe,\:7 e::ercises on such gY'.2l1astic appartus 8.S the parallel bars, the horizontal bar, the trapeze, the rings, and so forth, and a fevv of the drill movements of the Swedish type borrowed from the military books. The instructors had no idea of psychology, anatomy, physiology, or the educational principles of teaching. In consequence physical training became a subject disliked and hated in the schools, openly mutinied against by the boys, and merely tolerated 1 by the headmasters and other teachers in the schools • The proper subject matter of physical educa- tion remained almost neglected. Instructors Viere mo:::~tly drawn from retired military 1)2rsonnel 'who had no interest or knowledge of child study. It is true that physical instruction was provided in schools but vlhat a mockeryl

1. G.F. Andrews, QE. cit., p. 14. While the mind-hunger was gratified vli th some twenty­ nine periods of cramming per vleel<, the bodily needs 'were met by a paltry allowance of one period. per 'week grudg- . ingly granted. This solitary period set apart for physical training or instruction was the period dreaded by even the headmasters. It was the hour when pupil after pupil invaded his room armed with applica.tions for leave to go to.the hospital, for leave to meet grandmother at the railway station, for leave to do cooking at home, for leave to do shopping that must be done, for headache, for stamachache, or some one or the other of the host of the aches that escaped from the precious 'casket of Pandora! The education imlJarted during those days was not educa­ tion of the vihole man, but just a passport for getting into government service. With increasing contacts with the West, a change has slowly but steadily come about. India might almost be said to have passed through another incar­ nation. Observation of proper physical education has gradually arouse interest, participation has revived the natural instincts for play found in every race or nation, improved skill in execution and success in competition have set new standards and encouraged wider 44

participation. India savi how an Englishm8.n l')layed cricket, football (.soccer), tennis, -and golf and parti cipated in track anG field competition. Indian schools also adopted German and Swedish systems and military marching, and the Boy-scout*movement becam.e popular with school-boys. It is a characteristic of the Englishman that "vJherever he goes, he makes a little England around him,fr whether in the United States, in Australia, in Canada, or in

India. He is fond of outdoor Sl)o:rts ancl. lil~es si,";irrl.!:~i nG, rowing, and boating. He is also a believer in having a

ff night-club " after the late supper. He also takes a

part~in such indoor recreational activities as billiard, table-tennis, and card games. In India' English had an excellent opportunity plus fine facilities for pursuing

their activities and hobbies. Haturall;;r the Indian IJeople were affected by these activities. From the Indians in turn, the Englishman learned the techniques of hockey,

polo, and various hunting ga~mes. After the first Ylorlcl-V:ar, the English intro­ duced these gEJneS to India, first in the Army slowly in schools, colleges and universities. Finally many public sponsored clubs grew up_ Indians began by watching the 45

gaJl1es, and then realized that they too might participate. One has but to coml)are that time with the present, vfhen India sends her athletes to the Vrorld '.s Olympics and the

Far~Eastern games. She has sent championship teruas in hockey around the world to return undefeated. Cricket teanls visit England and Australia; tennis players parti- cipate in the Davis Cup matches; and polo teams sponsored by princes, (I)art:J.cularly by the J-aipur I,lallarajah) 'win championships at Hurlingham, England, and other places in Europe. An attempt to revive indigenous Unative exer- cises and games fT (Desi-Kasrat) JlIaS made, but failed l)al"'t- ly because of lack of good coaches, partly because these garnes VJere derided as fold f, and partly because they were not suited to groups of boys. India has gained throughout the country. These games he.ve come to stay in India. rrhey have their exercise and health values, and they provide opportunities for all classes of people to come together for recreation. IJ.1hey promote te8111-,\,10rk, tecuu-spirit, co-operation, fair play, and a feeling of conITadeship andTespirit-de-corpsT. Besides this they 1 develop the qualities for leadership.

1. C.C. Abraham, QE. cit., p. 2. 46

Britain has also brought into India gymnastics as adapted by MacLaren from the German system; S\'J'edish drill adapted from the Ling system, and boy-scout (Baden Powell) movements. 1.7e have seen hereafter the introduction of teGlll grunes follovJing World VJar I. 'rhey became immensely popular but this good feature was diBLled by the fact that only n first elevens u 'were catered to; the interests of the rest of the population were unheeded. A feature 'v.Jorth mentioned is the grovling interest in sports fu"1d gaInes which developed among the princes 'who becarne l)atrons of Sl)ort. In consequence native states made more appreciable progress in physical activities than even the provinces under the British rule. The old tradition of having display and demon­ stration of physical feats at the time of festivals, or of a marriage or other social occasion, with dancing, music, and other 81l1UsE3!'i1ents waf; continued. lEuch still remains to be done since most of the l)rogress took place in urban centers and has not yet reached the villages where the majority of the popu­ lation of the country resides. CIIA.PrER FIVE

TIIE }..Iv.IERI C...DJ.\f Il'JFLUEN CE CTrlAPrER V

m AI~lERICAl~ INFLUENCE

The advent of the Young Ments Christian Association inaugurated a new era in the history of physical education. In India, Burma, and Ceylon, it was the Y11CA which took the initiative in giving physical education its rightful place in the scheme of general education. The need for such education has been long felt. 1 As early as the year 1890 an informal group interested in athletics met to discuss plans for physic&l activities at the If Y H. After this meeting a cycle-run took place, and three cyclists rode off in the moonlight, the first athletic event in the life of the Association. The members then decided to organize athletics ff section by section n as the demand for various sports greiN. In Cal- cutta tLte Y1vlCA promoted a campaign for the pI'oviding of swimming pools and parks for the public; in IJladras the association secured a triangle space from the government for use as a playing field. It is interesting to note that the first }l1ysical Director, Mr. A.F. Stockwell, arrived in

1. Worlnan, E.C., ffBrief History of YllICA in India," ~ Young ~ 2£ India, Vol. XXA\r, 9: sept. 24. 48

Calcutta in 1895. He was diverted from that vlork to become the first Secretary of the Chowringhee Branch. Towards the close of 1899, Dr. L.E. Beals arrived in

I\~Iadras expecting to become a member of the student settlement and physical director of the Association. But he VIaE) forced to return to America because of a serious operation soon after his arrival.

In 1908 the International Corumi ttee of the Yl:.ICA sent Dr. J.R. Gray to Calcutta as Physical Director to pioneer this work in India. To carry out the lliICA l)olicy

of n all sports for all f1 and the program of body buildin~~ and character building by means of iNholesome garnes and physical activities for everybody, Dr. Gray had to Sl)end the first year demonstrating just what was meant by physical education. A realization of the value of scienti

fic physical training was then brought home by YI~ICA workers to other parts of I~dia, so that by 1914 the Imperial Government and the 1.Iadras and bengal Governments sanctioned substantial grants for the extension of the type work which the YIECA P.hysical Education Department had been demonstrating. At the end of 1913, Dr. Gray made National Blysical Education Director and also Advisor to the 49

Government of Bengal fo~ I-hysical Education. In 1914, Bombay engaged the full time servi ces of Donald hlunro; C.R. Webster was posted in Mysore; J.S. Robson at Lahore:

A.G. Noehran at l.~adras and II.G. Beall at Hyderabad 1 (Deccan) • By December, 1916, quite a staff of Physical

Dire·ctors vias at \'vork at ILadras, Bangolore, J'ubblepur, Hyderabad, Oalcutta, Allahabad, Lahore, Bombay, North Calcutta, Trivandrum, and Colombo. The list of personnel given in Appendix A represents the high-water mark of

Assoication ~nysical Education during this period. In September 1919, II.C. Buck, E.C. Earl, and V:.D. Healy arrived and '\'lere s ont to Liladras ,Lahore, and Rangoon respectively. The Burma goverruuent sanctioned the grant to Rangoon. The governments of Baroda, C.P., Bihar, and Orrisa requested the 11JCA to provide a staff under con- ditions similar to those supplied to other governments. The staff situation of the department was genuinely perilous and could be met only by the speedy securing of more men from abroad --- a very difficult matter. The need of adequate tJ;aining of Indians, Burmese, and

2:1 1. H. C. Bucl(, The Physical Education in India. Unpublished Report, (Ivladras: February 1922), (Some parts of this report have been published in Young II.'len of Inclia and Burma, August, 1921. ----+---~-=~-~-~..~-~~--~--~------.--~~------50

Ceylonese was most apparent. What was done is thus described in Gray· s ovm 'words;

tt seeds sown in pOl)ular gYl1masium classes, in organized school sports, in Tevising and re­ wri ting textbooks, in conclucting Leagues and rrournaments in all forms of g81nes, inagita­ ting for publi9 playgrounds, in pioneering controlling lectures given from rostrum, soon began to bear fruit, and year by year there has been a steady yield that has increased in quality as \yell as in quantity; or to change the metaphor like a stone thrown into a tanlc of iNater the riPl)les have widened and widened until today they have included all of India. Sports are nationally recognized and indulged in by Indians as well as ~uropeans and by Vlomen as 'well as men. Compulsory physical education in schools and colleges is being called for in every province. Governmen Cornmi ttees are vying with one c:.nother to put their provinc~ ahead of an adjoining one. All India Tournaments are l)erhal)S too frequent1:)T held. India has sent her representatives to the highest contests with credit and the H day of drill-masters ft is rapidly fading away 'V,1hi1e the day of trained Thysi cal Directors is here." 1

The TI·JCA Physical Directors, many of them graduates of the Springfield College (list given in Appendix B), realized that the eXisting conditions needed to be changed if the physical welfare of the people was to be improved. Through a program of training, activities,

1. J".H. Gray; "'Is Physical Education a Profession", Vyayam, Vol. I, NO.2. p. 2., October, 1929. 51

and sports at the Association, through short courses, demonstrations of physical activities, and lectures, they tried to create nevI interest in physical educc:.tion and to

interpret it as understood in the ~est, especially in America. They introduced free play, hygienic exercises,

and games like vo~ley ball and bas}cetball to mal(e physi- cal education more interesting, attractive, and useful, and they evolved a method for combining the indigenous exercises like the Dundhals and Bhaskis and indigenous games li1\:e Chal-Bhai-du-du, Kho-Yillo, Atya I-atya, etc ._, 1 with the exercises and g8.Lles. The organization of short-term courses of instruction proved ell)ful only to a limited extent, and the men villo handled these short courses begccn to realize that the method was only a temporary one and that no permanent and far-reaching results could be achieved thr,ough it. The old drill-masters 'were already set in

their '\i'Jays. It becarne imJJerative to t~;~c~:le the problem in a different way. }eople with proper educational back- ground had to be given a more thorough training if

1. G.F. P...ndrev!s, It The Physical Education in India", The American Journal of Health and ::tb.ysical Educati°U:-Vol. IV. No.2, pp. 10-13, Feb. 1933.

-----~------~--.------+------52

2 modern phJTsical education was to tal~e root.

11he starting of the "'Yi.'lCA College of l-'l1ysical Education at Madras in 1920 had its origin in a vivid realization of iml)ortance of trained leaders. ,rrhere 'uere many 1'lho laughed at the idea of an educated (;-rill-master. Everyone thought that one of the least desired qualifica- tion for a drill-master was education. Hovfever, the foun-

dations VJere laid, and 11~. Il.C. Bucle, the founder, became

the first Principal o~ the College. The first year he attracted five properly educated men. A start with a

class of five students was a great e~courage~ent to the organizers and a matter of sUrl)rise to those 'who diel not

believe in an educated drili-master. ~,;Then the first group had rinished the one-year course, they were soon placed

in different parts of India. ~he second and third yea~s were not too encouraging, but soon afterwards young men began to pour in from different l)arts of the country including Punjab and Burma.

Seelcing better facili ties for the gro'wing student body, in 1924 the school moved to the Hoya l=ettah

:LJ\iCA compound in Eadras. Here the 'Work continued for abou seven years under thatched roofs. It was placed there and

2. :P.M. Joseph, f'"Yl:ICA College of Physical Education Ea

it "Vvas a period of improvement and development, and

physical education soon began to ta}~e its 1)laoe in the schem.e of general education. Hadras University made physical training a compulsory activity in the colleges. Other universities and l)rovinces "began to move in the same direction. TEllis school also had a share in it.

In April, 1932, the Eadras Goverrunent presented sixty-t]:lree acres of land to the :::::'hysical Education College. JTunds vvere limited but that did not danlpen the

spirit. The College went on iE~roving year by year and now become an all-India Institution for training youth in

the cause of physic~l education. As a pioneering institu- tion it has to make studies of various phases and subject

peculiar to India. The faculty working at the College has been mostly drm;n from graduates in physical educa- tion from luuerican universities. The guiding principles 1 upon which the l)rogram has been built are as follows (1). The inherent interests and desires of the participant

(2). 'l'he needs of the participants

1. II.C. Buck, nPhysical Education it place and value in ILodern Life", The Young hI en of India, Burma, and Ceylon, Vol. XL"'VIII, No.3., IVlarch 1936. 54

(3). The physiological or health values of activities (4). The social values (5). The carry-over values of the progranls.

The establishment of the :ijational Yl'ilCA School of. Fhysical Education in 1920 (College of Blysical

Education since July, 1931), a replica of Springfield College, for the prupose of training educated men of hiGh character as physical directors was of the utmost signi-

ficance and 112.S been one of the main factors in further- ing the progress of physical education in India. Every year a group of about seventy-five men and 'women, marty of them College graduates, assemble for

t~aining to go forth as physical directors to schools, colleges, and universities allover India. The contri- butions made by men like Gray, Berry, Noehren, and l.x. and I';Irs. Eucle are, really worth mentioning • The names of

. Mr. and. :tLrs. Buck, who served this cause :tor t\venty years will long be remembered in the annals of Indi811 physical education. Truly a great -change has taken place, the sig- nificance of ,\711ich ror India is mom.entous. A right-about- face has occurred in ideals. A realization that for the abundant life of the individual, the needs of the body 55

must be considered, and the discovery of a satisfying sphere of service to one f s fellovmlen and one t s eountry

has become ·widespread. i~nd in all of this the IT1CA and particularly the Alul1mi of Springfield College have had the privilege of leading the VJay ----- a great service of untold value. OHAPrER SIX

THE ffiESEl'IT roSITION CHP..PrER VI

THE PRESEl\fT l=OSITION From the foregoing brief historical sketch, it will readily be seen that India has a rich treasure of physical ed~cation and recreational activities, both in- digenous a...1'1d YTestern, sui table for both urban and rural conditions and for men and t/omen, for young and old. In 1 1929 Gray sUl11111ed up the situation as follows ~ -

It The statement that India, nationally is keenly interested in the physical life of her students - both boys and girls, goes unchal­ lenged today. Offi cial action, follovving a popular demand, has been taken in province after province until a province or native stat.e that has not acted on this matter is thought of as distinctly bacl0.vard and is looked at askance by adjoining territories. The reports of the Beasley Oomnuttee in IJadras, rrhe Burnett Committee in Hyderabad, the M:unshi Committee in Bombay, the ~'·iork and future plans of the Student V!elfare Committee of Calcutta University in Bengal, the reso­ lutions passed in Legislative Council of the Government of India and the Assemblies and Councils of other governments are sufficient references to prove this point." This does not mean th;"::t there is a uniform system of physical education allover the country. A vast country like Indi"a, \Nith a rich tradition and a system of

1. G.F ....4..ndrevJs, "The Physical Education in Indian, The .fullerican Journal of Health and Physical Education, Vol. IV, No.2. p. 11, Feb. 1933. 57

of physical culture peculiarly her own, but exposed to influences from outside, cannot fail to have different .~ system.s of physical culture, education, or training. The outstanding systems are as follo'VIS: . (1). The indigenous system eml)hasizing the Yoga asanas, breathing exercises, Indian Clubs, Lathi, Gatl\:a, Llall\:hamb, Lezim and other· indigenous games 1i1:e l .. tya, Patya, Kho-Kho, Kabacldi, etc.

(2). The Physict.l Culture-Cults of HGlla Hurthi.

K. V. Lyer, Krishma Rao and othel's, similar to those of Sandow, LeiderrJ.fu'1, Atlas, Matick, Hercules and others of the Vlest.

(3). The ~estern systens of physical education as existing in Europe, including Ling's

Sv}edish, Neil's Bukh's Danish, and JaI1..l1's German 'systems of l)hysical training and marching, also Anglo-Saxon g81nes and SpOl... tS.

(4). The syste:m of physical training 2S given to Boy-S cout Organizations, Sev.Ja-Sarni ti- ASEociations or other National Organiza- tions; or Rashrtriya SVJyruIl-Sevlak-Sangh (a youth movement in India); or by the military groups through University 58

Training Corps Unit or National Cadet Corps

( Juniors and Seniors and also for girls).

(5). The rlECA system, mostly an ...4111e1'ica11 system of physical education along 'vli th

modern games and SlJorts.

Nationalism presses in India, and the influence of the times is seen in the demand for inclusion of the indigenous systems in the schele of physical education in the country. The Hanuman fursarak Shiksha L18.11.d2l,

Junroati; Jumadada and Krida Vyayarn Shalas, Barod8..; liiaha- rashtra I.Iandal, 1"-'oona; Gujrat VyaY2lll Vidyala, Ahmadabad and scores of others Vyayam Landals and Akharas and 1 native gynnasia are at viorlc besides seven Colleges of

I-hysical Education -- very much along the lines or :;:.:adras

Y1~'ICA College of Physical Education. There are also insti- tutions like l:Jetti t Institute of Bombay and the Central

G~masia of Calcutta and IJenares 1;111ich offers training on apparatus along the lines of the Swedish and Danish

Gymnasia.

A system of Yogic physic&l culture is being worked at various ashrams (centres) and Kaivalyadhama in

1 •. Colleges are at Calcutta, I-Iyderabad, Luclc­ nov], Bombay, Allahabad, f.,Iuzaffarpore and Am.roati. The:>:e is one at Lahore (l'aldstan) ° __ _ 1 59

------_._--

Bombay (founded by SV}arni Kuvalyananda, President, Bombay

Physical Ed.ucation Board); Sri Aurobindo r s Ashram at

Pono.ichery and Sri Parkash Dev's centre in the North are vlorhh mentioning. The Kaive..lyadhalila publishes a quarter­ ly journal too, knovJn as f yoga mimansa r vvherein the results of tile le.boratory researchers and. descril=,tipns of vC;'.rious yogic l;ostures and othel'" exercises are given.

The native l)rinces too have plc::.yed their part very well in furthering the cause of popularizing modern sports and g817~es. The State of Patiala has all along been the home of cricket a~-ld athletics, and she l)OSSeSses one of the finest tracl{ StadiLillls, sVfimraing pools, and l)laying fields in the country. The Prince himself is lTesid.ent of the All India Olympic Association. '11he princes of Eana­ vadar, Kurvai, and Indore he.ve ',';on re cogni tions in hockey. U:allavadar sent his teanl to Australia and l'fe\v Zealand in

1935. Ranji, Daleep, ~ataudi and Vijaynagranl are house­ hold nc:u:nes in the c1'i cket vlorld. The princes of Ne:\,Janagar,

Bhavnaga1', Bikaller, and Porbunder are patrons of cricket in their OVin states. The princes of Pi thapuram, Baroda, and Jaipur have encoura:,Sed tennis; the prince of G'Vvaliar has introduced military training, and the ruler of

Oundh has enforced Yogic asanas to be taught in all 60

------r---- schools of the state. Kohlapur ancL Baroda have tracli tions in ihTestling. The Jail)ur prince has l)roduced the best l)olo-te81il in the VJPI'ld. Irravancore and Co chin have Ine..de physical education compulsory in their schools. The princes are very much interested in Sl)Orts and ga"1es, particularly in crj.cket, hockey, 1)010, tennis, horse-racing and. hunting gfu'nes. :.J:any princely states have their O1']n Gymkhanas, Clubs, Sports meets and y;iell-kept playing fields at central pl&ces. It may also be pointed. out that the Indian

cycling, boxing, and v1:restling. The games, each entrusted to a separate All-India ASSOCiation, include also foot- ball, basketball, volleyball, and baduinton. India nov: participates in various international contests, including the VIorld f s OlY·~l1lpics, the j?ar EasteJ:'n Garaes, the British

Empire Games, and the ~Hest Asiatic Games. The services of the late Sir Dorabji Tata, the late Dr. Noehren , and l'llr. G.D. Sondhi have been of untold value in this connec- tion.

The game of hocl;,:ey has come to streY in India and is popul~rly pleyed in all parts of the country. It 61

-----r------4------

is as much a national game to her as cricket is to Australia, as basketball and b2.seoal1 are to the United States, or as rugby is to Britain.

Cricket h8.S its own board of control. rr1he All-

India Lar~n Tennis Association looks after the interest of tennis. Both these sports have sent representative teams on visits to the di:Cferent countries of tile wOl"'ld.

India is ambitious to put herself on a par \,'Ji th the other nations of the vlorld in all phases of life. This nationalistic feeling has led to a nation-Vlic1e awakening and the development of a great movement for phjrstcal culture.

A gr

VyaYElIU lTusarak Landal of ...t\.lnroati visited Berlin in 1936 in connection with the International Sports Students Congress, held in conjunction -with the Olympic Games, to demonstrate such Indian g8J.nes as Tiu-tu-tu, Eall{amb,

Lezim, Kho-rillo, Kabaddi 8.ild also Yogic feats. An exhi- bition of Indian Club-drill and old-time-fencing and wrestling was also given and very much appreciated by 1 the Weste:;-.:'ners. A tefu'TI from India is also likely to

1. H.C. Thal'Cur, "Indian Games-at V!orld Ol;r::llJics t The Youn€£ j:,Ien of India, Burma and CeyloJ;l._, Yol. XLVIII, Oct. 1936. 62

participate in the Vvorld Sports Exhibition arranged under the auspices of the Lingiad Gymnastic Association to be held in Stockholm, Sweden, during the Summer of

1949. The schemes for setting up new institutions to teach physical education along up-to-date lines are going ahead in different parts of the country and 8I!long

the universities.' An Inter-University -Sports Board

control sports and g~les mlong the universities of India. There are also an Army Sports Board and an Inter-Railway Sports Association. Eadras University has recently approved a diploma course in physical education. The ,latest and most ruabitious of such proposal is that the Federal Goverlunent of India establish a Central College

of Physical Education. The Expert Committee of ~nysical Education a};pointed by the . Goverrunent of India has

submitted its report, ~rom 1'711ich it apIJearS that the proposed Central College would be uniQue. It would not be a mere duplication of existing institutions, but ·would be essentially a centre of research offering a four-years course devoted to the training of leaders for human engineering. It is also gratifying to note that an All- 63

~ndia Physical Education Conference met for the first time at Armoati during October, 1946, and that a

n National Association of Rlysical Education," India 1 (Akhil Bharatiya Sharirik Sniksha l!1ohamandal) has been founded to bring together various schools of thoughts on physical education and to formulate some uniform program along national lines for the country_ The picture that has been laid before the reader might be taken to indicate that India is on its

"'Nay with full stride tovlard a ff national physical educa-

tion n but this is not true. A great many prejudices are working against it, and the area of physical education

ha not ye,t been recognized by the universi ties. The status and salary of a physical educator in schools and colleges is so poor that it is impossible to carry on this noble work with dignity. No attempt has been made as yet to reach the masses or the COnID10n man in the street, as has been done in England, in Russia and in the

United states. k~ysical education is not yet fully under-

stood in India. Some of its IJeople look dovm upon physical, things, and physical education is thought of as

1. Report of the }j'irst All-India Fhysi cal Education Conference, VyaY81u, Feb. 1947, Iiladras. 64

an undignified subject. This coldness is due to many factors which 1.:vill be discussed in th~ coming Chapter. --~------

THE FACTORS VmICH HAVE AFJ?ECTED TIill GR01'!TH OF IfIYSICAL EDUCATION IN INDIA CHAPrER VII

THE FACTORS ~HHICH IL.-'\.VE AF]lECTED fJ.1flE

GROY!TH OF B:fYSIC.AL EDUCACJ.lION IN ...... ;..;.....~- - INDIA

A little over half the size of the United

States, yet crowded vIi th a fifth of the Vlorld' s popula­ tion, India is made up of various features and many dif- ferent geoGraphic regions. ~ visitor would notice the weather, a muggy heat so completely e:':hausting that it smothers all energy. In some parts of the sections the heat is 120 degrees in the shade, but in some parts of the North one will find cool retreats and the best winters. Extreme poverty contrasts with the fabulously rich. The world t s second richest country in raVJ materials, yet industrially India is still a baby. No country is vli thout problerl1s, but India has her OvVll l)eculiar probleLls which cannot be easily solved on the basis of the experiences of other countries, because many other factors enter in and complicate the problems. Economic, social, religious, and educational f'actors are some of the issues which h811J.per tIle growth of physical education in India. 66

Economic Situation. The economic poverty of India is 'well knov'ffi. It is a basic problem. Here is a land blessed with abun- dant natural resources and great potential 'water power, yet its people are today araong the poorest on earth. Nearly 87% of the population live in villages, trying to eke out a meagre living from tiny strips of land. An Inciian earns on an average of fl'om 40 to 60 rupees ( tV'lel ve to eighteen dollars) a year, and has an average 1 life expectancy of a fraction over twenty-three years • In schools the effect of this poverty is seen in the undernourished children. Foverty and hunger render many ~of the children unfit for any physical activity. Anyone 'who is in earnest about promoting the l)hysical welfare of the children must face the problem of their food. By and large many of the schools are unable to budget the cost of a physical education program. ResourceJ are limited, grants for physical education are far from liberal, and the fees collected from students for physical activities are too meagre to provide the funds

1. Goshel Kumar, The People in India, (New York: Sheridan House Publishers, 1944), P.9.-- 67

----;------

necessary for the operation of a sound program. Physical education is already a neglected subject in the curricu­ lum, and the poverty of the students and the lack of endoYllUent funds or public benefactions for physical education make the situation Vlorse. All this affects equipment, facilities, and finances for the qualified coaches. The Social System. The caste system grew out of the agrarian economy of India. Originally Aryan society 'was divided into four classes: the Braruaans, or priests and teachers; the Kshattryas, or soldiers and. adrilinistrators; the Vaisyas, or merchants, artisans, traders, and peasants; and the Sudras, the menial or servants. This was a division of society like that of feudal Europe, with its three estates. rrhe Brahman corresponded to the first­ estate - the clergy, who were also teachers; the Kshattryas to the second estate, the nobility; and the Vaisyas to the third estate, the Connnoners. In India, a fourth class was added - the Sudras - composed of members of the primitive tribes. The caste system vvent on for many hundred of years. Oue did not move from one caste to another; marriage could only take place vli thin 68

the caste; members of different castes did not dine to­ gether; and professions Volere handed dOVTn from father to son. Each was confined to his ovm social group, despite the teachings of' Buddha, Chaitanya, Hanak, and Arya and Brahmo Samajas. But with the impact of modern teachings and influences, and still more of the changes in economic structure, these caste groups are breaking up. In olden days physical education vIas practiced chiefly by Kshattriyas or vlarriors fu'1.d not by the general masses. NOVI that the class-system is broken, a general education is open to all.

During British days, a separate bogie of tf un­ touchables tf {estimated to be from forty to sixt·y millions of population} was recognized; but with the magic 'work of Ghandi and the Congress Party, this condition was eliminated. Last year the barriers were removed legally, and "untouchability" has been banned by an Act of the Central Legislature. It is here that physical education teachers will have a field to 'work vii the They can certainly bring understanding between people of' different races, colors, and religions through a well planIled program. The custom of purdha (veil), though not unl:nown 69

------

among Hindu families before the Islamie period, spread 'wi th the coming of Islam. It is a factor that militates against the progress of woman. It affects her health and posture as she is to move on lil{e moving-tent • Although the scene is rapidly changing, ;)!et it vall take some time to eliminate the purdha completely. In India there are still many taboos, -social customs and prejudices which stand in the way of giving girls needed exercise, free play, and outdoor life. The Religious Situation. The existence of several religions - Hindu, I'/Ioslem, Christian, Sikh, .Farsee, etc. side by side creates problems for the teacher of physical education. Activities which have a peculiarly background, like the Surya-Namaskars, the Yoga Asanas, or the pranayamas of the Hindu have to be introduced with care in schools vlhose student population is comprised principally of Hindus, Moslems, 01' Christians. As one passes from the mythical eras to the

recorded times of Indian history, one of course \~]onders exactly how and when the religious philosophy of India succeeded in turning India away from an ideal/for the body and mind to the one of asceticism, with it"s

----4------~------70

negations of the senses and its destruction of the physical and worldly side of life. This philosophy has left its mark on the people who take to the life of Sanyasis Fakirs and Sadhus. One 'V.Jill fiond thousands of such men in India attaining salvation through religious meditation with its negation of everything else in .the world. These people do not ~o to school, nor do they care for their physical well being, nor do they have any ties ·wi th vlorldly affairs; they roam in their own world from place to place. In ancient India Traditionally the Rishis were learned Bandits and Gurus (teachers) educa­ tionally, physically, and religiously, who acted as guides in times of peace and war. The Sadhu type of class is vanishing day by day with the impact of modern influences, and general educa­ tion can further broaden their philosophy of life. Another factor that does not come rigidly under the religious influence but which has a bearing on the health and physical condition of a man is the matter of nutrition. I,~oslems, Christians, and Sikhs do not hesitate to eat meat and meat products; but some Hindus do not take meat at all, maybe on account of their taste or tradition. It is not planned to discuss the merits and 71

demerits of vegetable or meat diet, but the fact remains that the unbalanced diet and malnutrition act vii th disease in a vicious circle to cause inefficiency and thus a retardation of physlcal education. The Educational Situation. The nature and tYj)e of the present day ed.ucatio itself, with its emphasis on intellectual attainments, the accuLlul&tion of knowledge, the memorizind of facts, the passing of exmainations and so forth neglect the physical basis of life and its significance to health, grovnh, and developI!lent. This is e..nother cause of the backwardness of physical education in India. The lack of a sufficient number of v'Jell equiPJ)e and adequatley staffed physical education colleges to train the large number of leaders required in this area of education and the further lack of apl~,reciation and attractive service conditions, salary, status, and so forth are a few reasons why really capable men and 'domen are not attracted to physicul education. The British tradition of putting outdoor games and sports under the charge of an art and science teacher and having. physiual training conducted by a ph:'.7sical training instructor is also perhaps a factor in bringing 72

dyarchy in the administration of physical education. ~~ uninterested teacher .i:.llerely blaiNs a vvhistle and leaves the fate of the game in the hands of the children, thus losing the moral, social, and character lessons of the experience. Thus the physical educators rem.ains physical instructors having nothing to do but with the tfmuscles". The slowness of the state and educational leaders and authorities to recognize the values of physical education and its legitinlate and rightful place in the total education of the child is another factor.

The heavy academic curriculQ~ in schools has deflected attention from physical education so that there is still many provinces and states which have not yet made physical education compulsory. Passing examinations is the supreme goal for the student as well as for the parent, and unless physical education is amde a core requirement and equally as important as a subject as any other academic-examination-subject, the students are likely to run away from it. It is important for the administration and parents to realize the fact that physic~l education is an all round education in itself. Time allotment, facilities, and m.aterials are very meagre :eor a sound program of physical education. 73

The Government of India spends eighteen cents (10 annas) per capita on education, as compared vli th about ~fo6 .50 (Rs 20) in Britain and about $20.00 (about Rs 70) in the 1 United States • Very few schools have gynmasia or proper playgrounds, and in case of inclement weather little or no physical training is possible. Our program is mostly outdoors. There is still confusion in the use of termi- nology: physical training, physical culture, or physical instruction instead of physical education. Physical educa- tion in elementary schools is not considered here although it is most needed. Health education is still regarded as uithin the scope of physical education as far as schools and colleges are concerned. In general the health situation, as regards sanitation and enviro~mental conditions, is so poor that it is a problem for the governnlent to reckon with. Another pressing problem is concerning the nature of activities to be used in physical education.

1. Goshal Kuman, The People of India, (Nevi York: Sheridan House Publishers, 1944), p. 335. 74

------~----.------,------

Should they be tfformal tT or ttnatural tT aIld then ~Nhi ch system? (I have already mentioneo. about five systems in Chapter VI). Should nationalistic desires t;e satisfied and only inc1igenous systeEls be adopted? These querries press for an answer.

So far I have been considering the school­ going pOljulat i 011 , but vlhat about the non-schaol-going persons who form -the great maj ori ty? They are poor, ill­ clad, and ill-fed and give impression of a physically degenerated people.

These are some of the features and pro bIens vlhich face physical educators, as well as the fGctors which are peculiar to the country. One may ask how a physical educator can meet the gigantic problems of starvation, sickness, ignorance, illiteracy, and malnu­ tri tiol1. The only "magic-WGJld ff vl11ich can solve these 1)1'0 blems is a national a\va1::ening, a national econony, and lastly (and most iml)Ortant) a thorough re-orientation of education.

Then there 'will come a re-adjust~J.ent and bal­ ancing of the curriculum of studies to provide a legiti­ mate place for physic€ll education, v;hich is that part of general education concerned VIi th the gro\\]th, development, ,75

and education of children through big-muscle activities. It is an education of the vIThole child by means of physical activities. Physical activities are tools. They are so selected and conducted as to influence every aspect of the child's life - physically, mentally, socially, and emotionally. Physical Education and Recreation are nation - building activities. India has the resources and poten- tiEtlities, but public opinion has to be created. The examples of large countries like the United States 'and U.S.S.R. a re before us. As the Late L. Lajpat Rai has said,

If A nation that is physically V'Jeak and degenerat- ed can never achieve true freedom and if I freedom comes to such--allation, it will never be able to preserve and maintain it.n 1

1. L. Lajpat Rai, The Problem of National Education in India, (London: Allen and Uninu &. Company, 1920), p. 255. CRAPl'ER EIGHT SffiINGFIELD :COLLEGE ALUMNI AND .AN'ALYSIS OF THE RESULT OF QUESTIONNAIRE C:rfAPrER VIII

SPR.IEGFIELD COLLEGE ALll.'J>TI AND J~.NALYSIS

OF THE R~SULTS OF QUESTIOl~~~~RE

A - Springfield College Alumni. In the field of physical education the United States, though a young country, yet has influenced prac­ tically the vIhole vlorld. Students from. far and vTide come to the United States to obtain training in this profes­ sion to exchange views on their problems and particularly to study the organization and administration of physical education in schools, which is one of the salient fea­ tures of the Araerican education system. This influence has been widened and Llaintained by the Young Ivlen' s Christian Association and Springfield College a t Springfield , Massachusetts. In the space of five decades, A.TIlerica has sent out to India several graduates of the Springfield College as pioneers in the cause of physical education and recreation. ~rhe most out­ standing contribution to India has been the pioneering services of Almillli like Dr. J.R. Gray, Dr. ElLler Berry and Mr. and LIrs. Buck. The last named gentleman (Late

Mr. H. C. Buck) founded the ]lirst Physical ~ducation College in India at Madras in 1920, on the concept of 77

----~------t------

physical education as understood at S~ringfield College.

The establishment of this Y .1\1. C.A. College of Physical Education in India for training educated young men as leaders in physical education was the beginning of the scientific era in physical education in India. It

may also be pointed out that through the various YMCA~s scattered allover India (whose personnel vIas mostly draiNn from Springfield College; Appendicies A and B ); organized athletics and sports were encouraged thus paving the way for national and international COl1l1)eti tion. This list of Springfield College AluITilli con­ nected with India with the class-year and latest ad­ dresses is given in Appendix B. 78

B•. Analysis of Q.uestionnaire Replies.

In order to obt~in a clearer picture of the contribution Springfield College has made, a questionnaire 'Vilas l)repared and sent to .44..lumni of the College vlho either

are novl. engaged or have been engaged in physical education vlork in India. The types of information desired included:

pro~essional positions held; amount of subsequent study and research and publications; offices in professional organizations; expressed beliefs of the contributions Springfield College has made to Indian Pnysical education; and suggestions for improved training of Indian students studying at the College. A covering letter from Dr.

Harri~on Clarke, Director of Graduate stUdies, accompanied the questionnaire. Copies of the questionnaire and covering letter appears in Appendix c. According to Springfield College Altunni office records, there 'were thirty-four SI)ringfield College Alumni betvleen 1901 and 1949 -, y]ho have 1/Jorl<:ed or are still 1 vlorking in India • Sixteen of thi s nUIllber are Indians; seventeen are Arnericans; and one is English. Furthernlore, of this group, four are deceased and addresses of seven

1. No record of .A.lumni connected VIi th India exists prior to 1901. 79

are unknO'rm. As a result, questionnaire 'were sent to twenty-titlO AlUITl.ni. In addition to the Altunni group, five Spring­ field College AluIJmi and former faculty members and one present faculty member, not an Alunillus, visited India

betvleen 1935 and 1939 in the interests of stimulating / 1 Indian students towards lives of greater usefulness • Four Indian students pursued graduate study in physical

education during the pastacader]li c ;)rear 19'18-49; and tltlO other Indian students studied as special students for shorter lengths of time. Of questionnaires sent out, replies VIere re- ceived from only eight of the tVlenty-t'vfO Alumni, a return of only 36 percent; three of the present graduates also

~ replied. As a result of this rather sketchy and in- adequate return from the questionnaire, only rather brief and sUllllnarized statement vrill be dravm from the study. The ansvvers reveal the follovling facts: - 1. Fositions Held: The maj ori ty of t.llose ansvlering the

1. The nrunes appear in Appendix B.

----~------~------80

questionnaire are holding good social and administrative positions: four Vlorked or are 'vlorking as Frincipals of Physical ed­ ucation Colleges at various centres; seven were engaged as Secretaries of Y.M.C.A's;

one is a University Physical Director; Tv'fO are advisors to Goverrunent and Education Departments of their states; one is a Ivlinister in the church; another is a Labor TIelfare Officer; four are engaged in busi- ness. Several of the Alumni are retired now but are still taking a keen interest in Physical and 7.Jelfare 'vlork. 1 2. Researches and PUblications • Andre'ws, G.F. 'Physical Education For Boys in the Secondary Schools in India'. Abrahrun, C.C. rA Study of Physical Education, Recreation and Health Education for India'. Beall, E.G. a. t Standard Physical Efficiency Tests For Indian Boys. (speed, agility, strength and endurance). 81

b. study of Parks and Playgrounds of the City of Calcutta. c. Fhysical Education in Calcutta University. (Recommendations and Scheme). d. Bengal Olympic Association. (Constitution and Procedure). Berry , Elmer a. 'A Philosophy of Athletics'. b. 'Laboratory Nanual of Physiology'.

c. tFo~vard Pass in Football'. d. 'The Blysical Effects of Smoking'. e. 'Baseball Notes For Coaches and Players' • Buck, H.C. a. Syllabus of knysical Education Activities For Secondary Schools and J..lanual Instruction For Teachers in India. b. Rules of Games and Sports.

Joseph, P.lvI. (with joint authors Patvv-ardhan and Haja) 'Health, Nutrition and Physical Education l~oblems of India'.

1. Numerous articles, reports, Committee 'works, and papers have been published by various Alumni in magazines and journals and partic­ ularly in 'Vyayam', Young t::en of India, Burma t and Ceylon • A complete list of these are not available. 82

3. l~ofessional Organizations (a). Allliimi are motivating force or orgrulizing secretaries in the

districts or Provincial OlJ~pic Associations. (b). They are also members of the Physical education Syllabus

Con~ittees and on their provincial Boards. ( c). T'ao of thi s group are DJ.embers of the Central Board of l=hysical Education for Government of India.

4:. Importance of Sl)ringfi eld College Training The replies reveal that this training has been: - (a). valuable for guiding physical education progrrua (b). helpful in keeping contact with the latest professional developments) and (c). has been instrwnental in bringing encouragenent and inspiration for doing service in the cause of humanity. 83

5. - Expressed Contribution of Springfield College to Indian Ph?sigal Education: (a). By providing personnel for train­ ing the leaders of the youth at

various YLICA Centres and at training Colleges. (b). By introducing scientific idea of

;:Jhysical education and making it

pOllular and interesting through­

out the country, and by various activities. (c). By encouraging pl2.yground moveHent and organizinG 8.thletics tllrough­ out the country. The alphabetic list of persons connected with physical education i:.Jork in India, vIllo have graduated from

Arn.erican Universities, besides S~)ringfield ColleGe, is given in Appendix D. ---.-----.------1r------

CIiA.PrER NINE CHAPrl1~ IX

The story of the develol)ment of physical educa­ tion in India is as old as the history of India, both re­ corded and mythical • The literatur~ of ancients abounds in records of the physical exploits of the heroes of

Rinduiam • A careful study of India culturo reveals that 1'or many centuries, the 1)e01)le of India from the Vedic Era onward lived in such a iNay that adequate physical grovrth and development were the normal outcoInes of a natural vlay. The Aryans fought tj:leir wars and l)lotlghed their fields, but soon settled dOVID to a life of ease which IJrovided aIlll)le time or leisure for meditation a.nd philoS01)hy. The vigorous pl.lysical activities, once l)rovided by normal

~natural outdoor life, gave place to e.. systeIll of indoor exercises and individual practices. The Yoga asanas (exercises) were taught in the schools and seats of learning in India from time ia~e­ lilorial and apart from religious beliefs; yoga asanas are still consideres as excellent keep-fit and corrective exercises for all ages and sexes and are considered to be 'vJorthy of a place in the physical education progr8.I:l. Fronl 85

Yoga have come the Indian ganes of CheCtu[:udu, Iillo-Kho, Hut-tu-tu or Kabaddi played allover India under different names. l'Jearly all of these g2Ja.es are ineXl)ensi ve and require no equipment.

India has received a rich heritage of rhythm.ic activities in the form of classical and 1'0111: dancing. These dances and the songs that accompany these activities along with music represent the soul of India's ancient culture. Wrestling and archery were other national sports of ancient India. It is also true that Kshatriyas ("warrior class) received a system&tic physical training but Brahman a.nd Yaish VIere not excluded from talcing part in military activities.

During the period of Boslerll inv2.sions cLYld. later in their settlement in India, IJhysical education became

connected vIi th the practice of v/ar, and little attention was paid in Maktabs or hladrassas (schools and training centres). The private garadies or almaras (gynmasia) did

·provide facilities for the feVf inclined to the develolxJ.ent of bodily stre:i.1gth and skill. Games like wrestling, YJeight

lifting, sVlord play, archery, dancing entered into arena of professionalism. The rulers and princes encouraged

elephant fighting, riding, fencing, polo, and trayeling ~----.-.-~ 86

acrobats or circuses. The lvIoghuls Vlere fond of aYausements and recre­ ation, and they laid the foundations of parks, play fields and gardens. After this came an Ueasy-going-era,tf during vlhich the administration became Yleak at tb.e centre and several princes gre~.': Ul) lil(e rllushrooms.

There were a fe,,"! sections amongst Hindus 'w110 practiced a hard life and indulged in riding, s'I.'}ord play,

Lathi and Gatka play, Lezim and vIand exercise, guerrilla tactics of fighting and felt proud of possessing a good physique and physical prowess. These people i/Jere the Rajputs (in Rajasthan and in Central India), the Earhattas

(in D~ccara states), and the SildlS (Pal1jab), but their form of training was developed because of patriotism and love of country (as a reaction against Moslem rulers) rather than for love of education as a v;11ole. Sivaji, Partap, and Guru Gobund Singh -- the heroes of the above sections created a stir in the country, and one v;ill find the pictures of these heroes in schools, colleges, public places, and private g;yrnnasia along 'with that deity of

HanU.TIlan.

SVlem, Dayanand, Ram Tirath, ReJlla Kri shna, and

Vivekana.n(l tried to revive the ancient Gurul~ula and Yogic. 87

______-r ______

culture but their movements influenced a few and not many. It is true that physical education VIas not

properly, systematically, and hi€~:hly organized on a large scale except in the days of the Aryans and the Epic Age. It remained more or less individualistic and necessary to the incidences of the times 'when called for. But there is evidence throughout all ages that physical education was not entirely neglected. The ascetic impression which the West has gained from the philosophy of India or from Yogic culture does not seem to be warranted. During the seventeenth century, the English people came and became masters of the SUb-continent . through their East India Company .. The English had come to India mainly because of colonial and com.merical interests, and consequently general education, health, and social up­ liftment were not their first concern. Things went on, and it was only after a centuryfs rule that the Britishers thought of education.

Vfoo'd t s dispatch of 1854 becarne the ed.ucational

charter of· India. Lord Macaulayfs Act of 1835 for intro­ ducing English language in schools and colleges as a

compulsory subj ect Sa1l1 the beginning of a ne·~·.l l)eriod. The subject of physical instruction remained almost neglected, 88

and the personnel required for this was mostly dravm from I the retired-military-Sepoys (Jarnadar or drill masters) who had neither the interest nor the background of child study. With the increasing contacts with the West, a change has slowly but steadily come c,.bout. Observation of proper physical educetion gradually aroused interest, and participation revived natural instincts for play. India's association with the British people brought cricket, foot­ ball (soccer), tennis, golf, and track and field. Indian

schools also adopted German and Sr~~edish sys"tren1s and the

Baden Powell BoY-Scout-ltEovement. From the Indians the British, in turn, learned the techniques of hockey, polo, and hunting games. After the first World War the team gaz2es became ;popular throughout the country. These games provided op- portunities for all classes and con@unities to come to-

gether and promoted a feeling of » esprit-de-corps," besides developing the qualities of leadership. Britain

has also brought into India n :gymnastics n as adopted by

i'1facLaran from the German system, tt Swedish Drill n adopted from the Ling system, military marching tactics and rhythmic exercises adopted from the Danish system. The Indian princes also ii:elcomed the team sports and they

------.------89

becfu~e patrons of sports associations in their various states. Still m.uch remains to be done since most of the progress has taken place in urban centres and has not yet reached the villages where a majority of' the population of the country resides. In the field of physical education, the United States, though a young country, has influenced practically the vIhole Vlorld. This influence has been widened and maintained by Young ELen f s Christian Association and its Sl)ringfield College at Springfield, ldass. In India, it was the Y.M.C.A. which took the initi2tive in giving l)hysical education its rightful place in the scheme of general education. Through the various Y.M.C.Afs scattered all ,over India and particularly through the Yl.ICA College of Physical Education at Mad:ras, the modern concept of physical education gradually j)ermeated the \'}1101e country. The schools and colleges in particular in every province have been benefited by this. To them. should be given the

credit of introducing free I)lay, hygiene e=:eI'ci 8GS, and garnes like Volley ball and Basl:;:etball. The contributions made by Late Er. H.C. Buck and other Alumni of Springfield I College are really worth mentioning. 90

The nationalistic &lbition of India to put her­ self along side other nations in all phases of life has led to a nation-y,ride an al<:nninr:; end the deyelopment of a great movement for physical improvement. India being Ch::::111)ion in hockey during the last rour viorld OlYlilpiac1s

did attract ti~e fE~ncy of tile children, ano_ India is -;Oillg to adopt hockey as her national ga:1e. The schemes for setting up new institutions to teach physical education along up to date lines are also going ahead in different parts of the country, and the universities are also thinking of giving physi cel education its due 1)lac8 in the educational curricullu"1l.

Yfi th the davln of independence (August, 19~7) old problems have been solved, but there are still many , neVI ones yet to be graPIJled VJi th. Np country is Yli thout

problems -- but India has he~ peculiar problems. The main issue is the ecol1omic poverty, but leaders of lJhysical education have to struggle against inertia, prejudices, malnutrition, and physical illiteracy. The Oriental is usually slow and India has to face these odds but the s.!cruggle, hO\,Jever, continues. India has also the resources and potentialities;

only the national a iaal:ening is required. The eZ8I;llJles of 91

big countries lilce the United States a11d Hussia are. before us. Late L. Lajpat Rai said,

tt A nation that is l)hysi cally 'vJeak and degenerate C211 never achieve true freedom and if that fredoIa comes to such a nation, it y!ill never be able to pres8rve and 111aintain it. n 1

1. LajDat Rai, Lala, The P['oblem. of National Education in India, (Lond.on: Allen &:. Unwin 2:. Co.) ,1920, p. 255. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. BOOKS 1. Andrews, George F., Physioa1 Education for Boys in the Seoondary Sohoo1s in India. The Little Flower Company, P. Box 99, Madras, India. 1934; P. 219. 2. Basu, Major E. D., History of Education in India under the East IndIa Company, Modern Review otfice, Calcutta, India (N.D.) P. 209. 3. Behanan, K. T., Yoga - A Scientific Evaluation, 1937; The Macmi11ian Company, New York. 4. Buck, H. e., Syllabus of Physical EdUcation Activities for Secondary Schools and Nanual Instruction for Teachers, Government Press, Madras 1935. P. 198.

5. eoomara Sw~my, The Dance of Siva, The Sunrise Turn Inc., 51 East'~44th St., New York. 1924; P. 139. 6. Cumming, Sir John, Modern India - a Co-operative Survey, Oxford university Press, London. 1932. P. 304.

7. Doggett, Lawrence L., Man and a School, ~ssociation Press, New York. 1934, P. 309. 8. Gosha1, Kumar, The People of India, Sheridan House, Publishers New York. 1944, P. 375 9. Lajpat, Rai La1a, The Problem of National Education in India, Allan and Unwen, London. 1920, P. 258. 10. Manshardt, Clifford, The Child in India, D. B. Taiporevala Sons and Company, Hormley Road, Bombay 11. Masani, Minoo, Our India, Humphrey Milford, Oxford Press, Mount Road, Madras. 1945, P. 166. 12. Mookerji, Radhak, Ancient Indian Education, Macmi11ian & Company, Lts. St. Martin's st., London. 1947, P. 655.

------93

13. Munshi, K. M., A New Outlook, Indian Book Company, Ltd., Nisbet Road, Lahore. 1946, P. 161

14. Parekh Vittal Das, YO~iO Physical Culture, Perfect Press, Lahore. 1 41, P. 25. 15. Raja, Patwardhan, Joseph, Health, Nutrition and Physical Education Problems of India, New Delhi; Indian CouncIl of World Affairs. P. 53. 16. Ramakrlhua Sri, Centenary Memorial; The Cultural Heritage of India, Ramakrishua. Centenary Com­ mittee, Belur Math, Calcutta. Vol. 1. P. 608. 17. Rathbone, J. L., Corrective Physioal Education, London & Philaaelphia. W. B. Saunders Company. 1944, P. 140. 18. Rice, E. A., A Brief History of Physical Education A. S. Barnes & Company,New York. 1932, P. 289.

B. REPORTS, RESEARCH AND PERIODICAL ARTICLES

19. Abraham, C. C., A Study of Physical EdUcation, . Recreation, and Health Education for India, Bureau of Research and Publications, Y.M.C.A. College of Physical Education, Madras, 1945. P. 35. 20. Andrews, G. F., "The Training of Leaders in Physical Education and Health Education," Vyayam, Volumn XIX May 1948,Madras.

21. Buck, H. C., n Phys 1.oal Educe tionln India," February 1922. Unpublished report, Y.M.C.A. College Madras, India. 22. Buck, H. e., "our Contribution to the National Vitality of India,tt The Young Men of India, Y.M.C. A., Vo1umn XXXII 390-95, July 1921. Calcutta. 23. Buck, H. e., "The Nature of Physioal Eduoation in India," The Young Men of India, Burma and Ceylon, Volumn XLI September 1929. Calcutta. 94

24. Buck, H. C., "Looking Forward in Physical Education,tt Vysl!, Vo1umn XIII, 4 - 9 February 1942, Madras. 25. Callen, Joseph, "Physical Illiteracy," The Young Man of India, Burma and Ceylon, Volumn XLIX, July 1937, Calcutta. . 26. Dyal, Rameshwar, "Physical Education of the Nation," Vyayam, ~umn XIV, 2 - 9 May 1943, Madras. 27. Gray, J. H., "The status of Modern Physical Education in the Far East,n The Young Men of Indis, Burma and Ceylon, Volumn XLI, April 1929. Calcutta. 28. Gray, J. H., "The Development of Physical Education in India,tt The Young Men of India, Burma and Ceylon, Vo~umn XVV, Ootober 1933. Calcutta. 29. Hogg, L. A., "The Y.M.C.A. in India," centenary Number of Young Men of India, Burma and Ceylon. Volumn LVI June 1924, Caloutta. 30. Joseph, P. M., nY.M.C.A. College of Physical Educa­ tion," The Young Men of India, Burma and Ceylon. Volumn XVV. October 1933. Calcutta. 31. Noehren, A. G., ttOlympie Meeting at Delhi," 'l'he Young Men of India, Burma and Ceylon. Volumn XXXV. Maroh 1924. Caloutta. '32. Tha.kur, H. e., "Indian Games at World 01ympics,lt The Young Men of Ind~Burma and Ceylon. VOlumn XLVIII. October 1936. Calcutta. . 33. Worman, E. e., "Brief History of Y.M.C.A. in India," The Young Men of India, Burma and Ceylon, Volumn XXXV. September 1924, Calcutta. \ 34. Report of the Conference of PhYSical Education of 1927, Madras superintendent, Government Printing ~8, Madras 1928.

35. Report of the Physical Educat:i.on Commi ttee 1945-46, Bomoay, Government central Printing Press, Bombay. 95

36. Report of the Bhore Committee, Vyeyam, November 1946, Y.M.C.A. College of Physical Education, Madras. P. 3 - 7. 37. Report of the first All India Physical Education Conference, Vyayam, November 1946, Y.M.C.A. College of Physical Education, Madras. P. 7 - 12. APPENDIX I-a

APPENDIX A Year Name Place and Position 1913 J. H. Gray National Physical Director, Calcutta and Bengal Govern- ment. 1913 C. P. Segard Physical Director, Calcutta 1914 Donald Munro Bombay Association 1915 J. s. Robson Lahore 1915 A. G. Noehren Madras 1915 H. G. Beall Hyderabad and Nizma's Government 1916 J. H. Gray National Director, Calcutta 1916 J. Alexander Madras 1916 P. A. Bassinger Jubbu1pore 1916 H. G. Beall Hyderabad 1916 P. K. B1swes College street, Calcutta ; 1916 R. w. Commack Colombo 1916 L. Hoxsey Banga10re 1916 G. Law Allahahad 1916 D. Munro Bombay 1916 J. L. Muthiah Lahore 1916 A. G. Noehren Madras and Madras Government 1916 J. s. Robson Lahore and Punjab Government 1916 w. Seroka North Calcutta 2-a

1916 E. E. Saunders Trivandrum

1916 C. P. Segard Calcutta Associ~tion Of these Messrs. Ca.nnnack, Hoxsey, Lawy, Sarcka and Saunders were short service men who came in connection

with army work. They were,therefore J able to give only brief periods to the Physical work. Within the next two years Alexander and Bassinger left the Association. Gray went on furlough. Mr. Sarcka was succeeded by P. B.

Means who returned to America in 1918. Dr. Segard went back home not to return, and Mr. Robson was forced to return to America on account of the death of his wife. In September, 1919, H. C. Buck, E. C. Earl, and W. D. Healy arrived and were assigned respectively to 1fudras, Lahore and Rangoon. The following Physic&l Directors were on the staff (September 30, 1920)t

1 Buck, H. C., "The Physical Education in India" ff Unpublished Report ~dras, February 1922. (Some parts of the above re­ port have been published in Young Men of India, Burma and Ceylon, Calcutta in August 1921). 3-a --

Year l~ame Place and Position 1920 A. G. Noehren National Physical Director and Advisor to Ma.dras Government

H. G. Bea.ll Hyderabad and Nizam Government. :P. K. Biswas College Street, Calcutta H. C. Buck Madras Associa.tion

.lli.'"~ C. Earl Lahore w. D. Healy Rangoon J. L. Muthia.h Bangalore

W. M. Zaccheus Assist?nt to :rwradras 1921 E. E. Saunders Hyderabad P. Constable Bombay R. Vi. Cammack Colombo 4-a

______~------~------r

APPENDIX B

SPRI}TGFTELD COLLEGE ALll£:JI CCNNECT"ED WITH INDIA From 1885 to 1901 no record of anyone from or to India

Class Name Address

1901-02 Elmer Berry - Vida, Oregon 1903-04 James A. Rath - Madras (deceased) 1903-04 J. H. Gray - 21 Lenox Avenue, Bro~~ville, N. Y. 1905-06 C. H. Goodwin - Hyderabad, Deccan (deceased) 1908-09 Alfred Fieldbrave - (Address unknown) 1909-10 H. C. Buck - Principal, YlvICA College of Physical Education, Saidapet, Madras (deceased) 1910-11 H. G. Beall - Physical Director, Hyderabad, Deccan. 2137 Belmont Ave., Victoria, B. C. 1913-14 T. F. \Villmore - Bombay (Present address unknown) 1914-15 E. P. Hillier - Secretary, Y1!CA, 5 Russel Street, Calcutta (deceased) 1915-16 Felix Rossetti - Secretary, YMCA, Chowra.ngee Road, Calcutta 1917-18 J. N. Singh - Secretary, YMCA Branch(City) Poona. 1919-20 Fred Weber - Ex-Principal, P. E. College, Hyderabad, Deccan, Whittier College, Vrni ttier, Ca.1 f . 1923-24 .A. J. Davidson - General Secretary, Yl\lCA, I Norwich, Connecticut I 1925-26 s. K. Mukerji - Welfare Officer, J. K. Industries I,ts. Kanpur, (U.P.) 1930-31 P. M. Joseph - Principal, P.E. College, Kandivli, Bombay 1931-32 T. D. Santwan - General Secretary, National Council YMCA, Calcutta 1931-32 G. F. Andrews - Physical Director to tl~e Government of Madras 1931-32 p. C. Ma thew - c/o Cheryan I\ff:anj ori, Malabar Dist. " 1932-33 G. W. La1l - Standard Vacuum Oil Co. N.W. India 1932-33 E. H. Goodwin - (Calcutta) 294 Hopkins Place, LOllf;meadow, Mass. 1934-35 B. K. Naik - Pratap Gunj, Residency, Baroda 1935-36 O. V. Alexander - Thalavady, Tiruvelle, Travancore (YMCA, Calcutta) 1935-36 A. C. Da.s - Physical Director, YMCA, Bangalore 1936-37 P. I. Alexander - Physical Director, University of Trivendrum, Travancore 1937-38 Lester Finley - Methodist Church, Residency, Baroda 5-a

Class Name Address

1938-39 Smith Oliver - YMCA I Newton, Massachusetts 1938-39 G. G. Abraham - Principal, YMCA College of Physical Education, Saidapet, Madras 1944-45 Alfred \f{ilson - Pan American Airways I Dum Dum, Ca.lcutta 1947-48 N. P. Menon - Mandapam View, Poojapura, Trivandrum, Travencore

Present Graduate Students 1948-49 H. V. Barpute - Vidya Bhavan, Udaipur 1948-49 R. G. Bhusari - Power House ~uarters, Dombivali, Thana, Bombay 1948-49 VasB.n t Captan - Palace Road) Baroda. 1948-49 Shyam Chandra - The Sadul Public School, Bikaner

Visitors to India Year of Visit 1935 Dr. Hartley Cross (deceased) 1935 Mr. Ralph L. Cheney - c/o George Williams College, 5315 Drexel Ave.) Chicago, Illinois. 1937 Iill:r. Edgar lJI. Robinson - 708 Alden Street, Springfield, Massachusetts 1937 Dr. La.urence L. Doggett - 616 S. Carolina Avenue, Wa.shington, S.E., D. C. 1938 Dr. Elmer Berry - Vida, Oregon 1939 ~~Dr. Josephine Ra thbone - Springfield College, Springfield, l~ssachusetts

Special Students at Springfield College 1949 Jal D. Pardivala - Cabinet Cottage, Tardeo, Bombay 7 1949 Jayanti S. Rousseau - 138 Gandhi Bazar, Basvangudi, Bangalore City

~. Not an alumnus but a. member of the present faculty of the College 6-a

APPENDIX C

SPRINGFIELD COLLEGE Corporate Name Interns.tional Young Men's Christia.n Association College Springfield 9, Mass.

lVIarch 28, 1949:

SPRINGFIE I~ COla~JTIGE ALU1JilJI IN IIIDIA Dear Alumnus:

Shyam Chandra, a graduate student from India, believe1 that Springfield Collage has made an important contribu­ tion to Pnysical Education in India. He believes that this has happened in three ways, as follows:- I (1) By training Indian students at this college who have returned to their country to occupy important positions of leadership; (2) By sending Americans to India who have been trained at this College and who have devoted pa.rt or a.ll of their lives to youth leadership there; (3) Through visits of such great men as Dr. L.L. Doggett, Dr. Elmer Berry and othe~s who have served to stimUlate Indian lea.ders toward lives of greater usefulness. For a Master's Degree thesis Mr. Chandra has decided to investigate this problem: to determine how great has been the contribution of Springfield College to Physical Education in India. One phase of this study is to discover what Indian Alumni have accomplished professionally in the country since graduation. The· enclosed questionnaire has been prepared for this purpose.

I am interested in Mr. Chandra's study, not only as Director of Graduate studies at the College, but as an al­ umnus as well. I hope you will answer it as soon a.s pos­ sible and return it to Mr. Chandra as Mr. Chandra's time to complete his study is very limited. Many thanks and best wishes, Sincerely yours, H. Harrison Clarke Director of Graduate Studies 7-a

APPENDIX C QuESTIONNAIRE 1. Name------Class----- Address~ ______

2. Major Field of Study at Springfield______

3. In the space below, indicate the positions you have held since graduation from Springfield College, be­ ginning with your present position and working back­ ward to the first. Position Years

4. Have you done additiona.l formal study since graduation from Springfield College? Yes No~ ______~ If so, p~ease indicate wh·ere such study was done and other degrees earned. Institutions Date Degree

5. Have you completed research studies? Yes No __~ Have you published professional arti·cles, courses of study or Text books? Yes____ No ______Will you please attach a list of your publications, ~iving complete bibliographical references of each. (If you could send the College copies of this material, it would be greatly appreciated.) 6. What offices have you held in professional organiza­ tions (including committee work). Give in the space below the title of position held, name of organiza­ tion and dates. Ofr ices held Name of orga.niza tion Da te 8-a

7. Have you taken an active interest in social agencies, sports associations, youth work or any other allied or welfare work? If so, please mention Posi tion held Name of organiza.tion Date

8. In the following space, please indicate the import­ ance you attach to the training you received at Springfield College.

9. Do you believe that Springfield College has made a worthwhile contribution to P.E. in India? Yes__ No __ If so, in what ways: ______

·10. As you remember it, how do you believe the program of study at Springfield College could be changed to meet more nearly the needs of Indian students studying at that Institution.

11. Enclosed is a list of Springfield College alu~ni be­ lieved to be connected with India. (a) If you know that certain of these individuals. are no longer in India, could you give in their present address. (b) If you know of individuals who graduated from Springfield and whose names do not appear on the list, please add and give their addresses. 12. Do you know of any other Indian or American (grad­ uated from an American University) who has worked or still is working in P~ysical Education in India. Name University Attended Present address 9-a

With sincere thanks, please return to Shyam Chandra Springfield College Springfield, Mass.

Please write below if you wish to add anything elee:- 10-a

APPENDIX D Alphabetical list ot Indians and Americans (gradu­ ated from different Universities of the United States, othen than Springfield College) who have worked or are working in various eapacities in the cause of phYSical education in India. 1. G. F •. Andrews - Columbia University (Madras) 2. Mrs. M. Buck - (Madras) 3. Seth J. Edwards - New York Univereity (Central Province) 4. Arthur W. Howard - University of Michigan (United . Province) 5. T. P. Joseph - George Williams College, Chioago (Madra )

6. P. G. K.rishnayya - Columbia University (Indian Army) 7. Cody S. Moffat - George Williams College, Chicago. (Madras) 8. Ted Mumby.- (United Province) 9. Miss Flora Nelson - Ph.D. student New York University (Bengal)

10. A. G. Noebren - (YMCA India) 11. Miss Leala Ray - University of Utah, Salt Lake City, (Bengal) 12. A. K. Singh - George Williams College, Chicago (Madras 13. B. P. Sinha - Kansas State Teacher's College, Emporia, Kansas. (Bihar Province) 14. K. V. Varkey - Ph.D. student Columbia UniverSity. (Madras) THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN INDIA

I

An Abstract of a Project Present ed to the Faculty of Springfield College Corporate Title International Young Men's Christian Association College

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Education

by Shyam Chandra, M.A. June, 1949 1

ABSTRACT Statement of the Problem The study was undertaken for the following purposes: 1. To present an over-all historical survey of physical education in India. 2. To review the present position and some factors

affect~ng the growth of Physical Education in India. ' 3. Iro indicate the contributions made by the Young Men's Christian Association and particular­ ly the part played by the Alumni of Springfield College, Springfield, Massachusetts in in­ fluencing this program of physical education in India. Limitations of the Problem Since India is a country of many languages, it has been impossible to secure and understand all historical facts in all languages. The original sources of ancient India (the Vedas, Puranas, Upanishads, Epics, treatises on Medicine and Physiology of Charaks and Sushruta) are in Sanskrit, he has had to depend upon the literature trans­ lated into English. The paucity of historical records makes it difficult to present a continuous narrative of ,~L, physical education in India. Fictitious and mythological­ accounts of physical exploits and of the physical train- ing related thereto are very much confused, which fact renders the task still more difficult. Methods and Procedure A careful study of literature on general education, health, sports and physical education available from Springfield College Library, Springfield (Massachusetts) Public Library, Smith College (Northampton Library and the Government of India Information Services Library, Washington, D.C.,' formed a basis of research. A questionnaire to Springfield College Alumni who were'connected with physical education work in India was prepared and analysed. , The data was organized into five main classifications: a. Ancient heritage b. Physical education during diff'erent ages c. The British influence d. The American influence e. The factors which affected the growth of physical education in India

----~------.------~------I i I 3

--+------,------Significance of the problem The nationalistic ambition of India to put herself along side other nations in all phases of life has lead to a nation-wide awakening and to the promotion of a great movement for physical development. Physical education in India is in a process of transition particularly since the achieving of independ­ ence. A continuous story of the development of Indian physical education should prove valuable. A more scientific and adequate physical education program is needed to prepare the country for a nation-wide-program, and to achieve this, knowledge of background and history is necessary. Summary-of the Findings The following conclusions have been formulated: 1. The study reveals that for many centuries, the people of India from the Vedic Era onward, lived in such a way that adequate physical

gro\~h and development were the normal outcomes of a natural way. 2. Yoga asanas are considered as excellent keeD­ fit and corrective exercises for all ages and sexes and are considered to be worthy of a place in the physical education program. 4

-----t------3. The study reveals that physical education work in India was not properly, systematically, and highly organized on a large scale except in the days of the Aryans and the Epic Age. It re­ mained more or less a broken story of indivi­ dualistic effort and necessary to the incidences of the time when called for. However, there are evidences throughout all ages that physical ed­ ucation was not entirely neglected. 4. With the increasing contacts with the West, a change has slowly but steadily come about. After the first world war the team games became popula.r throughout the Country. 5. The United States has influenced the field of physical education in India through the programs carried and maintained by the Young Men's Christian Association at different centres. 6. With the dawn of independence, India has started setting up new schemes to teach physical educa­ tion along up-to-date lines of East and West. • A22901 130481 GV 293 C5 T.V. ~---~)