Volume 1

Another World is Possible: Advancing feminist economic alternatives to secure rights, justice and autonomy for women and a fair, green, gender equal world. Acknowledgements Contents

This report series was authored by Rachel Noble, The examples included in the report series could Glossary...... 4 Rachel Walker, Lila Caballero and Asha Herten, not have been included without collaborating with: drawing extensively from a literature review and Margarita Percovich, Isabel Perez & Emiliano Lembo concepts developed for ActionAid by Amanda Shaw, Giménez, Red Pro Cuidados; Soledad Salvador; 1. Introduction...... 6 Nastaran Moossavi, Fatimah Kelleher and Victoria Rabéa Naciri, l’Association Démocratique des Feminist economic alternatives: an urgent agenda for change...... 7 Agosto. We are grateful to Prof. Jayati Ghosh for peer Femmes du Maroc (ADFM); Professor Rosemary reviewing the final draft. Hunter, Feminist Judgement Project UK; Jhuma Sen, Report aim, scope and structure...... 8 Feminist Judgement Project India; Zo Randriamaro Throughout the planning, research and write up of the and Samantha Hargreaves, WoMin; Eva Alfama, Elia report, valuable inputs and feedback were received Gran and Laura Roth, Barcelona En Comú; Sostine 2. Defining feminist economic alternatives and their transformative power...... 9 from the following ActionAid colleagues: Baishali Namanya, NAPE; Kyohairwe Sylvia Bohibwa, NAWAD; Chatterjee; Wangari Kinoti; David Archer; Emmanuel Chidi King, ITUC; Sutha Anita, RUWFAG; Hawa Ali Feminist economic alternatives: a contested term...... 9 Ponte; Abul Kalam Azad and Jawad Ahmed; Massiami Traoré, APROFEM; Mamadou Danfakha, Fahamu; Nathaly Soumahoro; Kate Carroll; Neha Kagal; Amiera Mariama Sonko, NSS/We are the Solution; Rachel Recognising longstanding feminist economic critique & activism...... 9 Sawas; Christina Kwangwari; Linda Fokkema; Kasia Moussie, WIEGO; Mirai Chatterjee, SEWA; Jean Feminist economic alternatives: strategies for systemic transformation...... 11 Szienawska; Katherine Robinson; Patricia Castillo; Kemitare, Urgent Action Fund Africa. Ruchi Tripathi; Rachel Sharpe; Isabelle Brachet; Niki Ignatiou; Jillian Popkins; Lee Webster; Lis Cunha; Illustrations by: Susana Castro 3. Feminist economic alternatives: some examples...... 16 Michelle Higelin; Sally Henderson; Isabelle Younane; Sophie Hardefeldt; Kumkum Kumar; Maria van der 2020 Heide; Kelly Groen; Sophie Kwizera; Pontus Korsgren. Theme 1: Centring economies around care...... 16 1. Investing in the care economy...... 17 The authors are equally grateful to Roos Saalbrink, Womankind Worldwide; Caroline Othim, Global 2. Ensuring decent jobs...... 20 Alliance for Tax Justice; Emma Burgisser and Ella Hopkins, Bretton Woods Project; Sophie Efange, Gender and Development Network; Marion Sharples, Theme 2: Ensuring a just transition...... 23 Women’s Budget Group; Felogene Anumo and Inna 1. Women’s land rights, food sovereignty and self-sufficiency...... 24 Michaeli, AWID; Silke Staab, UN Women; Gea Meijers and Claudia Thallmeiyer, WIDE+; Verónica 2. Resisting extractivism for a just transition...... 26 Montúfar and Kate Lappin, PSI for their inputs and feedback throughout. Theme 3: Building the conditions for feminist economic alternatives to flourish...... 28 This report was inspired in and informed by our 1. Reclaiming public goods and services from privatisation...... 30 collaborations on the theme with: Inna Michaeli, AWID; Dzodzi Tsikata, University of Ghana; Jayati Ghosh, 2. Women’s leadership...... 33 Jawaharlal Nehru University; Naila Kabeer, LSE; Radhika Balakrishnan, Rutgers University; Crystal 3. Corporate accountability...... 35 Simeoni, Nawi; Kate Lappin, PSI; Suluck Fai Lamubol, APWLD; Dewy Puspa, Solidaritas Perenpuam; Jenny 4. Maximising public financing...... 37 Ricks, Fight Inequality Alliance. Conclusion and recommendations...... 41

References...... 45

2 3 Glossary

Agroecology is a sustainable approach to farming Global South refers broadly to the regions of Latin Low Income Country (LIC) describes Unpaid Care & Domestic Work is non- to produce healthy food and preserve natural resources, America, Asia, Africa, and Oceania. It is one of a family countries with a Gross National Income (GNI) per capita remunerated work carried out to sustain the well-being, applying social, biological and agricultural sciences and of terms, including “Third World” and “Periphery,” that of $1,035 or less (World Bank calculation for 2019). health and maintenance of other individuals integrating these with traditional, indigenous and farmers’ denote regions outside Europe and North America, in a household or the community, including domestic knowledge and cultures. mostly (though not all) low-income and often politically Macro-economics the economy as a whole on a work (meal preparation, cleaning, washing clothes, or culturally marginalised. national or international level. water and fuel collection) and direct care of persons Austerity refers to government policies that are (including children, older persons and persons with implemented to reduce gaps between money coming Heteronormativity is the belief that disabilities, as well as able-bodied adults) carried out in Multinational Corporations (MNCs) homes and communities. into the government (revenue) and money going out heterosexuality is the default, preferred, or “normal” are large companies producing or selling goods and (spending). Austerity policies typically cut government mode of sexual orientation. It is predicated on use of services in several countries across the world. Also spending and increase taxes. the gender binary, classifying gender into two distinct, known as transnational corporate organisations, they Violence against women and girls opposite forms of male and female, masculine and are characterised by large budgets and centralised (VAWG) refers to any act of violence that results in Ecofeminism is both a philosophy and a movement feminine, and assumes sexual and marital relations are control in a parent country. or is likely to result in physical, sexual, mental or that sees a connection between the exploitation of and most fitting between opposite sexes. It aligns biological economic harm to women, including threats of such sex, sexuality, gender identity and gender roles. degradation of the natural world and the subordination Patriarchy is a system of power influencing acts, coercion, or arbitrary depravation of liberty, and oppression of women through patriarchal structures. everything that we do. It encourages a dominant form of whether occurring in public or private life. Just Transition is a framework of principles, ‘masculinity’ and ‘femininity’ which affects how men and Extractivism describes an economic and political processes and practices that build economic and women are expected to behave and offers advantages Water, Sanitation and Hygiene model based on the exploitation and commodification of political power in order to shift economies from to all things ‘male,’ creating societies characterised by (WASH) often refers to policies and programmes nature by removing large amounts of a nation’s natural exploitative and extractive paradigms towards unequal hierarchical power. Within this universal system, aimed at providing universal access to safe drinking commons for sale on the world market. sustainable production. The term is used by the men dominate women. Patriarchy plays out in the water, sanitation and adequate hygiene services trade union movement to secure workers’ rights and economy, society, government, community, and family, that are essential to a population’s health, welfare, livelihoods, and by climate justice advocates to combat and gives rise to accepted discriminatory behaviours, Food sovereignty is the right of peoples to healthy and development. climate change and protect biodiversity. attitudes, and practices (‘patriarchal norms’). and culturally appropriate food produced through ecologically sound and sustainable methods, and their Womxn is an alternative spelling of “woman/women” right to define their own food and agriculture systems. Fiscal Justice is people having the space, voice Public Private Partnerships (PPPs) that attempts to move away from patriarchal language and agency to exercise their rights and using this to are (often) long-term contracts between a private (the suffix “man/men”), inviting greater inclusivity influence and monitor fiscal systems (tax, budget cycles party and a government agency for providing a public Gender based violence (GBV) is violence that especially of transgender people, nonbinary people and and public spending) to mobilize greater revenue and service or asset. other marginalized people identifying as women. is directed at an individual based on their biological sex increase spending for quality public services. or gender identity. It includes physical, sexual, verbal, emotional, and psychological abuse, threats, coercion, Sexual and Reproductive Health and describes a conceptual and economic or educational deprivation, whether in Instrumentalism means the right for everyone, approach that sees and adopts women’s rights Rights (SRHR) public or private life. regardless of age, ethnicity, sexual orientation, HIV and empowerment primarily through the lens of status or other aspects, to make informed choices contributions to wider societal and economic outcomes regarding their own sexuality and reproduction and have Gender Responsive Public Services such as GDP growth. It is sometimes referred to as the access to quality, accessible healthcare including to (GRPS) describes essential, rights-based services “business case” for women’s rights. materialise their choices. such as education, health, transport, water and sanitation, childcare, agricultural extension and street lighting which are publicly funded, universal, and publicly International Financial Institutions Social and Solidarity Economy (SSE) is (not privately) delivered, gender equitable and inclusive, (IFIs) are financial institutions that have been a values-based approach to economic development focused on quality, and in line with human rights established or chartered by more than one country to with explicit social (and often environmental) objectives. frameworks. provide loans and other forms of financial support to It envisions facilitation of the economy through various countries. They include the Bretton Woods institutions – solidarity relations such as cooperatives, mutual the World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), and associations, and the protection of commons. Global North refers to the societies of Europe and the International Finance Corporation (IFC) – as well as North America, which are largely characterised by wealth, multilateral and regional development banks. technological advancement, relative political stability, Time poverty is when an individual does not aging population, zero population growth and dominance have enough time for rest, personal development and of world trade and politics. Not strictly geographical, Intersectionality is the concept that different leisure after taking into account the time spent working, the definition can also broadly include Australia, New forms of structural oppression overlap. Gender is one both on paid labour (both formal and informal), and on Zealand, Japan and South Korea. of the bases of discrimination. Others include class, unpaid care & domestic work (including activities such caste, race, age, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity, as fetching wood and water). work, health, HIV status, educational levels, physical abilities and so on. None of these oppressions operate independently of the other, they are interlinked.

4 5 experience the secondary impacts of the virus, including some way to address women’s position of structural Introduction its psychosocial effects, increased levels of gender- disadvantage, resist mainstream economic norms, 1 based violence (GBV), and economic insecurity due to a and seek to challenge and transform gendered and higher likelihood of working in the informal sector.13 other oppressive power relations and the systems and structures in which they manifest themselves. FEAs are Research by ActionAid found that at least six countries, rooted variously in principles and values of care for all It has long been argued that the prevailing economic have committed to achieving under numerous global including Ghana, Zambia and Sierra Leone, are life forms, the promotion of women’s autonomy and system serves to both exploit and exacerbate women’s and regional human rights conventions as well as the spending more on debt servicing than they are on leadership, cooperation and solidarity, democracy and relative position of economic, social and political Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Governments health and education combined, massively depleting pluralism, valuing of local knowledge, and freedom from exclusion. Feminist economists and academics, feminist have equally made commitments to climate justice urgently needed resources for quality, universal gender gender-based violence. They offer principles as well as activists, women’s rights organisations (WROs) and under the Paris Agreement, however aim to fulfil these responsive public services, infrastructure and social concrete policy frameworks, ways of decision-making, labour movements working at local, national, regional commitments through superficial measures as carbon protection.14 Such spending is now needed more than distribution and allocation of resources, strategies and international levels have demonstrated how this offsetting and technofixes rather than transforming ever given the devasting impacts of Covid-19 on already and approaches – from local to global level – that can intersects with systems of patriarchy, racism, (neo) extractive approaches to the environment, which means struggling healthcare systems, as well as the livelihoods support the re-forging of our economic system to one colonialism and heteronormativity,1 resulting in the two Earths a year are required to satisfy demand.6 Yet of women in the Global South. that serves and sustains people and planet. exploitation of the majority of the world’s women and it is precisely the overreliance on women’s underpaid the environment, with those in the Global South hit labour, their unpaid care and domestic work and the Business-as-usual by governments, the private hardest.2 While the period from 1945 to 1980 saw the exploitation of natural resources that sustains the sector and International Financial Institutions (IFIs) “At the economic level it means unravelling of colonial empires, challenges to the idea exploitative neoliberal economic model. will not deliver secure, decent, dignified work and going beyond the artificial and livelihoods, social protection, quality public services, of limitless growth, the rise of global social movements even false categories of perpetual including women’s movements, expansive policies Immediately prior to the Covid-19 outbreak and and the protection of the natural environment that are of the welfare and developmental states, and greater the fiscal and economic support measures aimed needed to redress gender and other injustices based economic growth, so-called free trade, monitoring of the activities of transnational corporations, at mitigating its crippling impacts, austerity was on intersecting oppressions and ensure a dignified consumerism and competitiveness. the period from 1980 to 2008 saw the breaking of already becoming ‘the new normal’. In 2019, standard of living for all. Human rights, especially the these beliefs and related institutions.3 For four decades, Some 93 developing countries and 37 high-income rights of women in the Global South, as well as the It means shifting to a focus on under the powerful steer of the International Monetary countries were projected to cut public spending by environment and climate, have been readily sacrificed planetary and human well-being… Fund (IMF), the World Bank, G20, the Organisation for 2021, affecting around three quarters of the global in the name of economic growth – particularly for to living well, to not having more, Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) , population.7 When gaps in services exist or fees make countries, corporates and elites based in the Global the World Trade Organisation (WTO) and other major them prohibitive, the burden of caring for the sick, North, based on the persistent belief that if enough to valuing cooperation rather than architects of the international economy, the world children and the elderly is transferred onto women,8 wealth is generated at the top through private sector competitiveness”. has pursued a neoliberal economic model centred as has predictably happened during the Covid-19 enterprise, it will trickle down to benefit the majority and on privatisation, deregulation and trade liberalisation. epidemic.9 The 1994 Mexico crisis, 1997 Asian Financial pay for technical fixes to our damaged climate. This Vandana Shiva in Mies and Shiva’s This has led, for instance, to the privatisation of public Crash, and the global financial crisis that began in assumption has now been repeatedly and unequivocally “Ecofeminism” goods or public owned enterprises; to the deregulation 2008, the burgeoning climate crisis and now Covid-19, proven wrong. of labour and to relaxing laws and regulations for have repeatedly laid bare the startling volatilities These FEAs need to be recognised, supported and the benefit of the private sector, including those that and gendered inequities of the current financialised taken-up by decision-makers as part of an urgent protect the environment; and to the liberalisation of economic system, in which money can move freely Feminist economic change agenda, even more so in the context of trade through the removal of export tariffs, thereby across borders. This system has enabled rapidly responding to Covid-19, grounded in an understanding leading to deindustrialisation, the creation of low skilled, increasing accumulation of wealth in the hands of a few, alternatives: an urgent that the economy, economic policies and the ways exploitative jobs that promote a race to the bottom in fuelling the inequalities across the world. agenda for change these are experienced by women and men are deeply wages and the privatisation of public services through gendered as well as shaped by colonialism and its It is estimated 150 million people will be pushed into The time for a complete overhaul of thinking and inescapable legacies like racism and other unequal trade agreements. All of the above have gendered 10 impacts and perpetuate the power imbalances between poverty as a result of Covid-19. Given that women are approach to economic development as well as our power differentials rooted in interlocking systems of the Global North and the Global South, as well as already overrepresented amongst those facing poverty understanding of the economy and its role to society oppression (such as homophobia, transphobia, the and exclusion, and as with previous crises, these fall- and nature has never been more urgent. As the world discounting of indigenous communities’ knowledge within countries of the Global South, which intensify 15 gender inequalities. Through the prevailing economic outs will disproportionately be borne by them, especially emerges from the Covid-19 pandemic it is crucial that etc.). Despite being rooted in the lived experiences system, Global North actors both directly exploit those already facing intersecting forms of discrimination human rights and climate and social justice drive social and practices of diverse communities of women, as women’s relative position of economic disadvantage based on, for instance, their class, race, caste, age, reform. This must redress gender inequalities at the well as the analysis and economic modelling of feminist and perpetuate the inequalities women face within their sexual orientation and gender identity, religion, ethnicity, national level as well as power imbalances between academics, FEAs – along with anything that falls outside migrant status, physical ability or geographical location, the Global North and Global South, which intensify current economic orthodoxy – have been largely ignored respective countries and communities. 11 etc. The Covid-19 pandemic has brought under- gender inequalities. within economic decision-making, both at country- Endless rounds of austerity, often implemented as funded national health systems – in which 70% of level and within global institutions. Especially since the a condition to access IMF and World Bank loans workers globally are women - to the brink of collapse, Feminist economists and activists and women’s rise of the prevailing economic system’s push towards or issued as influential – and often coercive4 – IMF whilst greatly increasing women’s unpaid care work and rights organisations (WROs) and movements have privatisation, deregulation and liberalisation since the policy advice, have hollowed out the role of the state laying bare the startling precarity endured by millions been imagining, developing, advocating for and 1980s. Instead, feminist advocates are typically met through deep, enduring cuts to public services and of informal sector workers across the world, especially implementing economic models, frameworks, strategies with perpetual calls for more evidence, a strategy that social protection systems.5 These regressive fiscal women from poor and marginalised communities in the and approaches as ways of organising economies serves to de-value and discount their practices and policy measures are persistently pursued despite the Global South.12 Because women represent the majority and engaging in economic activity as alternatives diverse systems and forms of knowledge.16 In addition fact that progressive taxing and spending are integral of carers, and frontline professionals in the health and to mainstream, orthodox approaches for decades. to our principal call for states to meaningfully implement to the progressive realisation of human rights and the social sectors, they are more likely to be exposed Although extremely varied and context-specific, their international commitments to upholding human achievement of gender equality, which governments to Covid-19. Women may also be more likely to these feminist economic alternatives (FEAs) all tend in rights and advancing gender equality and institute

6 7 gender transformative policies and frameworks rooted exemplary legislative or policy frameworks at the macro in feminist principles, states can support FEAs through or sub-national level. These are organised around our Defining feminist economic alternatives building the conditions for them to flourish. These three key interrelated themes: centring economies 2 conditions can only be constructed through fiscal, around care, ensuring a just transition and building the monetary, trade and investment policies and national conditions for FEAs to flourish. According to ActionAid’s and their transformative power development strategies that rein in corporate power analysis these three themes form the key areas where and impunity, and respect and expand civic space, efforts towards achieving transformative changes should ensuring decision-making processes are transparent, be focused, seizing the opportunity for transformation democratic and participatory, and by urgently instituting presented by Covid-19 and the disposition of IFIs – measures to eliminate all forms of violence against even if temporary – to advise countries to increase Feminist economic Recognising longstanding women and girls. public spending.17 Each theme is in turn split into sub-themes, each of which represent the critical alternatives: feminist economic This compendium of examples shines a light on just issues around which feminists and WROs have been a contested term critique & activism some of the vast multitude of feminist economic organising and seeking to implement alternatives. alternatives that exist, demonstrating their huge value Not all the approaches and strategies described in what Feminist economists and theorists, such as Vandana and providing inspiration and practical examples Violence against women and girls is a cross-cutting follows are the result of explicitly feminist perspectives. Shiva,21 Bina Argawal, Tithi Battacharya, Lebohang for policy-makers. We argue that their uptake is issue, core to developing and expressing FEAs. As Some, including the renowned development economist Liepello Pheko, Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Nancy essential if commitments under the Beijing Agenda well as being one of the most egregious assaults Jayati Ghosh, have challenged the idea that it should Fraser, Maria Mies and Silvia Federici, show how the and Platform for Action, the Sustainable Development on the rights of women and girls, its prevalence in be up to women to come up with alternatives to prevailing neoliberal economic system is predicated on Goals, the Convention on All Forms of Discrimination every socio-economic sphere (from the household the current damaging economic system, noting that an artificial, cis-heteronormative, gendered separation Against Women (CEDAW), International Covenant on upwards) and the ways in which it is used to oppress where they have, their ideas and approaches have of the productive and social reproductive spheres. Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESR), the women and their communities in support of a reckless sometimes been implemented so badly as to be Unpaid care and domestic work and subsistence work Right to Development and other regional and global pursuit of economic growth mandates an agenda rendered meaningless. Ghosh has highlighted the actual (such as subsistence farming for home or community commitments to women’s rights are to be met, and a with freedom from violence at its heart. Eliminating all practice of gender budgeting in India as one such consumption), which is predominantly undertaken by climate crisis averted. The horrifying lessons from the forms of violence against women and girls, protecting example (see more on page 19, volume 4).18 ActionAid women, is counted as non-productive and therefore Covid-19 crisis must be heeded. and preserving their bodily integrity, sexual autonomy also recognises that feminist economic alternatives excluded from calculations of GDP, rendering it invisible and productive and reproductive labour, and holding typically emerge in response to particular contexts and and undervalued. This gendered division of labour and perpetrators to account – whether individuals, forms of oppression experienced by specific groups the non-valuing of women’s labour translates into the Report aim, scope institutions, states or multinationals – are vital to the of women. Certain community level initiatives featured world of paid work, which is why women predominate fostering of feminist economies, where women can live in this report are therefore very localised. There are in social care roles such as nursing and teaching, and structure in genuine peace. obvious questions around scalability or adaptability, or in jobs deemed ‘low-skilled,’ such as garment The compendium is spread across four volumes. which is why the specific initiatives featured in this manufacturing. Similar to unpaid care and domestic We recognise that the scope of this report is by no Volume 1 collates and shines light on an important report are highlighted as examples to learn from and work within the home, these roles are notoriously means exhaustive – in an agenda as broad as this, there pool of feminist economic alternatives. It shows how not necessarily as one-size-fits-all models.19 We also undervalued and therefore often poorly paid and are many issues, areas, countries and examples we they secure rights, justice and autonomy for women note that the term ‘alternatives’ could imply we see exploitative. The closer a paid role in the health and were not able to cover. Rather than give an exhaustive and girls, while working for a fairer, gender-equal and FEAs as secondary options to current approaches, education professions is to delivering care, the worst it treatment of the issue, our aim is to highlight a varied green future, and gives selected examples from existing and as therefore somehow lesser. We do not mean is paid.22 Indeed, the male breadwinner model can be range of practices, policies and approaches that policies, systems and initiatives around the world that to suggest this with our use of the term and fully challenged not only on the basis that many women from governments, donors, IFIs and multilateral development demonstrate another world is possible. Volumes 2, acknowledge that many aspects of FEAs are based in poor communities have always had no choice other agencies should use as a basis for the much needed 3 and 4 showcase further examples of FEAs around pre-colonial, centuries-old forms of economic organising than to work even when caring and so are working a shifting of our economy towards one that cares for, the world organised by one of the following themes: that were replaced by neoliberal policies as countries double shift, but also because of women’s essential role nourishes and sustains human life and the environment. centring economies around care, ensuring a just were forced to engage with the international financial in reproducing the labour force, which is neither visible Faced by the imminent global economic depression transition and building the conditions for FEAs architecture – e.g. when accessing loans from the nor valued. through the Covid-19 pandemic and climate breakdown to flourish. IMF or trading under WTO rules. We do not mean to within generations, we call for as rapid and far reaching imply that there is any one definitive feminist economic Intersectional feminist thinkers, activists and Following this introduction, Section 2 of this volume change as possible to make this economic shift a reality. alternative. Rather, we argue squarely that the idea of movements, including AWID, APWLD, DAWN, FEMNET, (Volume 1) shares some of the broader frameworks A great deal of what is in this report is not new, but ‘one economic’ system must be challenged and that The African Women’s Development Fund and JASS and thinking developed by WROs, feminist networks the initiatives featured demonstrate that the solutions feminist economic alternatives should be pursued as Associates, build on these theories to further offer rich and economists. We offer a working definition of for a swift change in policy are available. To this end, an urgent priority, recognising that it is not ActionAid’s and varied critiques of prevailing economic systems, and framework for thinking about feminist economic we conclude by offering a range of recommendations legitimate place to decide on these and that this report which go hand-in-hand with activism to push policy alternatives – noting that there is no single definitive for governments and IFIs to embark on a process builds on the work of many feminist economists and demands and propositions for feminist alternatives. version of these, that context matters greatly, and that of incremental change, recognising that truly activists and WROs and groups. As AWID’s work on They point out how the logic of the prevailing economic the term itself is contested. transformational change does not happen overnight. feminist economic realities demonstrates: there are system dictates that, in order for anything to have many economies possible.20 Our modest contribution to perceived economic value, it needs to be commodified. Section 3 showcases eight examples of feminist this area of work is to help shine a light on the diversity Common lands, forests, seeds and natural resources economic alternatives from across the world – selected of economic approaches and strategies, as a way to are all privatised. Communities currently engaged in from a bigger pool of examples which are available challenge the perpetual undervaluing and denial of this subsistence and solidarity economies are pushed by in volumes 2, 3 and 4. The featured initiatives draw thinking, practice and evidence by decision-makers at IFIs to engage in waged labour for the production of from the practices, strategies and thinking of women’s the national and global level. cash crops and exportable commodities. This notion of rights organisations, women at the community level, ‘economic progress’ and development was feminist economists, as well as promising examples of

8 9 violently imposed upon countries across the Global Mainstream economics South under colonialism, destroying local systems The social and solidarity Elsewhere too, despite women playing a large role of subsistence (recognising that many of them were in SSE, the increasing attention being paid to SSE missing the mark deeply patriarchal). These racist, imperialistic systems economy by policy-makers remains largely gender blind. 41 of oppression shaped exploitative relations and enabled As argued by the Women’s SSE Working Group Agenjo‐Calderón and Gálvez‐Muñoz23 drawing on The social and solidarity economy (SSE) is wealth extraction that continues today by countries of the Intercontinental Network for the Promotion Elson, Young and Bakker have identified some of about developing economies that are not profit- in the Global North and which are preserved and of Social Solidarity Economy (RIPESS), SSE does the inherent conceptual issues and biases within driven, but are based instead on the principles institutionalised in global development and financial not automatically challenge or transform gendered the prevailing economic system. These include: institutions and processes. In the context of economic of solidarity, common good, social reproduction, self-management and collective well-being.30 power relations or the patriarchal systems that globalisation and the expansion of global supply chains, underpin these.42 They argue that a gender ‹ A focus on individuals and individualism Federici points out that the “distancing of production The social and solidarity economy is often and a belief in the primacy of rational self- perspective must be incorporated into SSE if its from reproduction and consumption leads us to embedded within cooperative movements 43 interest as the determining force of and other traditional and modern systems of feminist emancipatory potential is to be realised. ignore the conditions under which what we eat, wear, Nonetheless, SSE is increasingly being seen by human behaviour. or work with have been produced, their social and cooperation, as well as community-based mutual ownership and exchange, such as many as a window through which to advance environmental cost, and the fate of the population on feminist alternatives given the strong existing ‹ The artificial separation of economic whom the waste we produce is unloaded.”26 barter and timebanks. By enhancing community life from nature and social relationships. access to and control over economic resources overlaps. As reflected by Dr Bernadette Wanjala of the University of Nairobi, “women have long been The notable progress that has been made to date and services, SSE approaches serve to key players in the construction of transformative, ‹ The subordination of all other goals to in advancing women’s economic rights and building challenge or find ways to be resilient against the pursuit of economic growth. solidarity economy solutions to respond to market- recognition of how they are linked to macroeconomic the social and economic exclusion caused by 44 31 based/capitalist crises.” Through a focus on policy is down to women documenting, analysing and mainstream economic approaches. ‹ The deflationary bias. When market activity solidarity driven initiatives – such as the extension collectively mobilising around sets of progressive policy is kept below its potential, the first ones to of social protection through cooperatives (see alternatives at national, regional and global levels. At a global level the United Nations Inter-Agency be expelled from it are women, who are then the discussion of childcare cooperatives on page Collective action has historically been key to secure Task Force on SSE, created in 2013 as part of consigned to unpaid work. 32 20), the promotion of decent work (see page lasting and transformative change.27 In contrast to the Post-2015 Agenda, is putting SSE forward 20) collective financing, and the provision of When the private mainstream economics, alternative feminist perspectives as a possible alternative model of production, ‹ The privatising bias. basic services – SSE approaches offer a means sector is promoted over the public sector, strive for holistic understandings of the processes that financing and consumption that can deliver on 33 to address core feminist concerns around, for the amount of unpaid or ill-paid care work support life and social provisioning, paying attention sustainability and social justice. This Task Force instance, unpaid care burdens and debt.45 increases and property rights tend to be to dynamics of power, exclusion and gender and how and the International Labour Organisation (ILO) primarily held by men. these play out in economic analysis and decision- are also highlighting the important role SSE making.28 Reflecting a growing recognition of the failures organisations are playing globally in the Covid-19 34 ‹ The male breadwinner bias. Neoliberal of the prevailing economic system to address poverty, response, including in the care sector. At a policies reinforce the traditional distribution inequality and environmental degradation, there is also national level however very few countries have Feminist economic of roles of male breadwinner and female growing interest amongst policy-makers in alternative dedicated, integrated policies to support the caregiver. economic approaches.29 Two such approaches are promotion of SSE. Several Latin American alternatives: the well-being economy and the social and solidarity countries have passed laws and constitutional ‹ The risk bias. The individualisation of risk economy (SSE). There are overlaps between these and articles and have created Secretariats dedicated strategies for systemic 35 36 affects women in a particularly negative way by FEAs and feminists are active within these approaches, to SSE. In Africa, Uganda and South Africa transformation reducing social support in case of accidents or however they do not necessarily make use of an both have policies aimed at supporting misfortune, or – ActionAid would add – other explicitly feminist lens and can still exclude women from cooperatives as components of SSE, whilst Women’s collective action is central in pushing the harmful events, including those perpetuated the economy (as is the case in Mali, see box Morocco and Mali both have ministries for SSE. transformation of the prevailing economic system. by mainstream economic models. on page 11). Mali also formally recognised SSE with a national Although incredibly diverse and often context-specific, policy37 and five-year action plan (2014-2018).38 feminist economic alternatives recognise and reckon . Financialisation, the ‹ The credit bias with the biases in the prevailing economic system, increasing size of the financial sector, However, Mali’s policies do not go beyond while demanding and putting into practice steps exacerbates the asymmetry between debtors acknowledging women and women’s towards the systemic transformation of the rules of and creditors, which has a markedly negative organisations as important actors within SSE. the economy. Systemic transformation entails calling impact on women. Strategies to support SSE in Mali are much out and dismantling unequal power relations that are needed given that some 90% of Malians are rooted in interlocking systems of oppression (patriarchy, ‹ The knowledge bias. When economic engaged in non-agricultural employment work interests determine the forms of knowledge racism, neo-colonialism, extractivism, ableism, cis- in the informal economy, including around 94% heteronormativity, classism etc.) and a reconstruction taught in universities, neoliberal policies are 39 of women. Hawa Traoré, Executive Director of the economic systems, structures, policies and legitimised, feminist history is silenced and the of APROFEM (Association for the Promotion predominant language represents men.24 institutions that both perpetuate and benefit from them, of Women and Children in Mali) notes that so that economic systems are instead focused on women largely remain excluded from SSE To these biases can be added the ensuring the democratic and accountable attainment of cis- governance and decision-making bodies, which , whereby it is assumed human rights for all and environmental preservation. heteronormative bias limits their ability to influence policy processes. that the majority of households, as economic The particular barriers and issues women face ‘units of production’ reflect the cis-heterosexual While the aim of feminist economic transformation is in terms of access to land, social protection, nuclear family, with policies developed urgent systemic transformation, the sheer scale of the markets and training are also commonly accordingly.25 task means that many strategies seek to achieve this overlooked by SSE institutions and policies.40 through incremental steps. These changes will not just

10 11 require incremental steps, but also take place at different expanded public service provision) can lead to changes Underlying transformative commitments: economic decision-making that is accountable, levels – from the very local to the global – and take in the material realities in the lives of women, who may incorporating an intersectional analysis of how different forms. To make what this means more tangible have more time to engage in decent work, as well as • Re-centring and re-valuing unpaid care and domestic economic policies impact differently on different we will describe two forms of change that contribute fostering changes to relations and structures of power work linked to a centring of human and environmental groups of women based on overlapping systems towards systematic transformation: changes to the by challenging gendered norms around care-giving and well-being over economic growth, capital accumulation of oppression. material realities in the lives of women and changes to allowing new forms of organising care-giving to emerge. and profit. Challenging categories of productive and relations and structures of power. When such material The example of the Uruguay Care Act is case in point non-productive work, and the heteronormative male • Decolonising global systems of power away from and relational forms of change are pursued together, the (page 19).47 breadwinner-female caregiver household model. an extractivist economy dominated by economic transformative potential of the strategy or approach is Challenging narrow measures of progress and growth elites in the Global North, towards a feminist enhanced, leading to increased opportunities for systemic Many of the propositions and frameworks for feminist that focus solely on GDP and economic productivity, solidarity-based economic multilateralism and the transformation. 46 FEAs exist from the grassroots to the economic alternatives featured as examples in this thereby perpetuating the invisibility of the social restorations of social contracts between governments global levels and in most cases these forms of change report contribute to systemic transformation. They reproductive systems that sustain capitalism. and their people. are pursued simultaneously. all share a number of key underlying transformative commitments.48 • Emphasising solidarity economies based on mutual These underlying transformative commitments For example, an initiative that socialises care-giving at the cooperation, democracy, accountability, pluralism, underpin the incremental changes that lead to systemic community level (such as through a care cooperative or environmental sustainability and cooperation. transformation through FEAs. Analysis carried out in order to identify FEAs to feature in this report51 found • Fostering caring relationships with the natural that FEAs had a number of crosscutting demands52 and environment and valuing place-based local, 53 49 a number of unmet demands which can be grouped Two forms of change contributing to systemic transformation. community, indigenous forms of and women’s under the following three key interrelated themes that knowledge in addition to widely recognised forms of make up the goals of FEAs: knowledge, including scientific evidence. Changes to the These include changes to large-scale social patterns of 1. Centring economies around care; provisioning; policies and public services aimed at redistributing • Creating an environment conducive to and supportive 2. Ensuring a just transition; material realities in of women’s collective autonomy and leadership, the lives of women wealth, work and unpaid care responsibilities, or which otherwise 3. Building the conditions for FEAs to flourish. address inequalities; actions aimed at the prevention of harm in feminist leadership and the democratisation of at the local, regional, contexts where agency is seriously constrained; strategies to protect national and/or bodily integrity and the prevention of harm to specific persons. global level. These changes are generally visible or embodied in specific policy instruments and social and political actions.

Results of these material reality changes can be that wealth, work and care responsibilities are more fairly redistributed, women and marginalised groups gain greater control over resources and have increased access to decision-making and a fair and decent income.50

Changes to relations These include changes to and the creation of new forms of and structures of power in the internal personal and/or external social spheres which power at the local, may be subtle, as well as new relationships and shifts in norms or worldviews. regional, national and/or global level. These changes may be small scale and require care to observe or be difficult to observe.

Results from these changes may include new and different ways of being that challenge prevailing gender stereotypes, such as new forms of masculinity, as well as changes to gender and social norms, for instance, assigning greater value to qualities associated with women or femininity. It can entail new relationships, the relinquishing of privilege, new forms of individual or collective agency, such as increased bargaining power for domestic or informal workers, and changes to worldviews that encompass a revaluing of traditional, place-based knowledges.

12 13 Women’s collective action Women’s rights organisations have offered broader Feminist economic words, if early feminist conceptualisations of WEE frameworks and principles for feminist economic entailed agendas for transforming social, economic central in pushing for and development alternatives. The Association for alternatives as a counter to and political power relations at local and global transformation Women’s Rights in Development (AWID) and the mainstream approaches levels, the mainstreaming of WEE emptied it of this Centre for Women’s Global Leadership coordinated potential. A focus on women’s entrepreneurialism The notable progress that has been made to the development of a set of Feminist Propositions for to WEE and improved market access as a panacea for date in advancing women’s economic rights and a Just Economy.60 More recently, AWID launched Co- poverty alleviation, do not address the systems that ‘Women’s economic empowerment’ (WEE) 73 Creating Feminist Realities, an initiative which aims create and sustain women’s economic struggles. building recognition of the links between women’s has been a development buzz-phrase for rights and macroeconomic policy is down to to “go beyond resisting oppressive systems to show several years. The World Trade Organisation, Just as many approaches to WEE have been women documenting, analysing, and collectively us what a world without domination, exploitation and the International Monetary Fund, the World appropriated by actors for instrumentalist ends mobilising around sets of progressive policy supremacy look like.”61 APWLD coordinated the first Bank, G20 and OECD – not to mention through depoliticisation, ‘feminist approaches’ are alternatives at national, regional and global levels. Global Women’s Strike in 2020.62 FEMNET and GADN numerous bilateral donors – are increasingly also at risk of this, especially when there is a push For example, research and advocacy by feminist launched their introduction to a feminist analysis of talking it up and launching related initiatives. to make them mainstream. This indicates a lack of networks such as Development Alternatives macro-level economics to increase feminists’ capacity The WTO’s Ministerial Declaration on Trade as accountability and isn’t true feminist leadership. As with Women of a New Era (DAWN) led to the to influence macroeconomic policies on the African Tool for Women’s Economic Empowerment reflected by Inna Michaeli of AWID, the mainstream Beijing World Conference on Women in 1995 continent, and globally.63 Womankind Worldwide (WEE) is one such example.68 However, whilst uptake of ‘feminism’ should be viewed cautiously, calling for unpaid care work to be factored into has outlined what a just feminist economy would attention to this long-neglected issue is much whilst building strong and ambitious agendas and national accounts. Twenty years later, again due look like,64 while the Women’s Budget Group is needed, very often these institutions apply an collective understanding of what an economy that largely to women’s evidence-based activism, a gathering evidence of progressive economic policies instrumentalist framing to women’s economic works for the people and for the environment ground-breaking target on recognising, valuing under its Commission for Gender Equal Economy.65 empowerment, seeing it ultimately as a tool to looks like.74 At European level, the European Women’s Lobby and redistributing women’s unpaid care work was increase economic growth. For example, there is 54 released its Purple Pact in 2019, whilst WIDE+ has included in the Sustainable Development Goals. typically a focus on encouraging policies aimed 55 developed a body of work around feminist economic Sustained advocacy by feminists has led the at increasing women’s labour-force participation literacy.66 WIEGO has been working to bring informal IMF to accept that the impacts of macroeconomic and financial inclusion, with little or no attention 56 workers’ concerns to the forefront.67 These are only policies can be gendered, along with other to rights and conditions. Such approaches are a number of the many instances of women and members of the UN Secretary General’s 2016- not rights based and largely continue to ignore feminists organising for systemic transformation 2017 High Level Panel on Women’s Economic the contributions of women’s unpaid labour 57 and we recognise that we have mainly referenced Empowerment. These included the World Bank to the global economy and their time poverty, international women’s organisations, while this takes and government ministers from the UK, United further exploit women’s paid and underpaid Arab Emirates, the President of Costa Rica and places in local, national, regional and global levels. 58 labour and fail to address fundamental questions a range of private sector representatives. And around redistributing unfairly accumulated at the regional level, African women’s rights wealth through progressive taxation, provision organisations were critical to the formation of of quality public services, decent work for all the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and corporate accountability. And all while and People’s Rights on the Rights of Women in doing nothing to redress the unequal share of Africa, which includes strong provisions around 59 power and wealth wielded by corporations and economic rights. capitalists in the Global North.69

This critique applies more broadly to WEE initiatives that seek to engage with and partially reform economic policy, focusing primarily on very limited equality of opportunity while avoiding fundamentally challenging the socio-cultural gendered, racialised and class- based inequalities or the patriarchal structure of the market-economy at large.70 Such initiatives – like those focused on women’s entrepreneurship – encompass, for instance a focus on individualism, competitiveness, profitability and economic purchasing power, paradoxically placing the emphasis on women to pull themselves out of poverty by incorporating themselves into the very economic system that is oppressing them. In this way, all too often, gender and WEE are used as “tools” to reinvent the status quo,71 meaning that the “power has been taken out of empowerment.”72 In other

14 15 right to education, to participate in community decision- We have grouped FEAs looking to centre economies Feminist economic alternatives: making, as well as to rest and leisure. If they choose around care under two subthemes: those focused on 3 to be full time carers, appropriate public provisions for investments in the care economy and those ensuring pensions and other types of funding ought to be part decent jobs and we discuss them below. some examples of economic and social policy planning. Alternative measures of progress and development – no suitable solution yet. 1. Investing in the care economy Many feminist economists have shown how investing Following on from the introduction and section 2 on decisions on and design infrastructure, women and in the care sectors redistributes women’s unpaid care defining FEAs and their transformative power, in this girls are often expected to manage farms, homes and Alternative measures of load, but also yields returns to the economy and society section we will showcase eight examples of feminist resources like water as part of their broader unpaid progress and development – well into the future in the form of a better educated, economic alternatives from across the world that are care burden. When environmental shocks and stressors healthier and better cared for population.96 As such, reflective of the framework we have developed above. occur, it is women and girls who clean up and get their no suitable solution yet allocating scarce public resources in this way should The featured initiatives range from the macro level to homes and communities back on track, often dropping be seen as an investment in social infrastructure, rather 77 Mainstream economic principles determine that the community level. Many of these examples show out of school or paid work to do so. than as ‘expenditure’ or ‘consumption,’ as is currently progress and development ought to be measured how feminist agendas and movements for economic seen around the world. alternatives overlap with, and in many cases form part Feminist economic alternatives place a huge emphasis purely in terms of economic growth through of, wider economic as well as social and environmental on valuing women’s work, both paid and unpaid, GDP. Feminist economists almost unanimously A recent UN Women study found that investing in care 78 justice movements. These include, for instance, and on recognising that care and well-being are agree that this is a narrow approach which fails sectors is worthwhile. “Although the total annual cost of movements around agroecology, quality public services, critical to sustaining societies and economies. As to acknowledge and address inequalities and such investment can go up to 3 to 4% of GDP, the net land rights, decent work, as well as movements for such, they should be equally or more important than perpetuates the invisibility and undervaluing of cost can be halved thanks to significant fiscal returns climate, trade, fiscal and tax justice. These examples economic growth. women’s reproductive role. Whilst some feminist stemming from increased employment and earnings, are organised around the three key themes of centring economists have called for unpaid care work without changing the tax structure itself (rates and Diane Elson coined the now-famous ‘Recognise, economies around care, ensuring a just transition and to be counted in GDP, others have argued for bands).”97 The study looked at the costs of providing Reduce and Redistribute’ framework for how this a fundamental shift away from its use, pointing building the conditions for FEAs to flourish. In this 79 free universal early quality childcare and education in volume, each theme will feature two or three examples. should be achieved. By calling for the recognition out that it is a patriarchal construct in the way it For additional examples of FEAs organised per theme of unpaid care work, (some) feminist economists are discounts unpaid care work, devalues low-paid not necessarily advocating for it to be counted as part and unpaid work which is not considered to be we encourage the reader to refer to volumes 2, 3 and 4. 80 of GDP, but for economic systems to be founded productive, as well as externalises and renders gender (in)equality has caused some experts to push on care’s inherent value and the valuing of all those invisible the exploitation and environmental for Ardern, who has globally become an icon of good 81 who undertake such work, whether unpaid or paid. destruction necessary for its achievement.85 women’s leadership, to make many more systemic Theme 1: Centring 91 Reduction does not only imply lower amounts of Moreover, GDP is focused on economic growth changes. economies around care unpaid care or domestic work, but also a reduction and is no measure for well-being, gender equality, Under women-led administrations, Scotland92 in its drudgery, such as the 40 billion hours women or for how growth is being (re)distributed across As Tithi Bhattacharya, from Purdue University explains, and Iceland93 have also developed well-being and girls in Africa spend each year walking to collect a population. In recognition of GDP’s detachment “The best way to define social reproduction is the 82 policy alternatives to a pure focus on GDP, which water. Finally, redistribution of unpaid care work from well-being, an increasing number of countries activities and institutions that are required for making aim to redress gender and other inequalities by means not only a shift from women to men within the are now measuring wellbeing. life, maintaining life, and generationally replacing life. household, but also redistribution from households promoting family-friendly policies and tackling 75 I call it “life-making” activities.” Social reproduction and communities to the state in the form of universal, Bhutan has been measuring ‘Gross National wider social inequities. Other countries and entities 94 95 systems, or the creation of people, workers, societies well-financed and high quality gender responsive public Happiness’ (GNH) as an alternative to GDP as now monitoring well-being include the UK, EU, 76 and maintenance of social bonds, as well as social services and infrastructure (see page 30 on reclaiming far back as 1972. Its Gross National Happiness and even the global auditing company KPMG has reproduction institutions, as public education, health, public services).83 Centring economies around care also Index86 covers a range of issues, including living developed an Africa Goodlife Index. Some of these, care, water, transport, housing etc., are essential requires that both paid and unpaid work, within and standards, health and education, as well as such as the EU and KPMG examples, are still rooted to societies and critical to sustaining the prevailing outside of the care sector, are decent and free from time-use and psychological wellbeing, all of in the primacy of economic growth and perhaps capitalist model. Yet they are taken for granted as violence. Towards this purpose, two more elements which can be scrutinised according to gender even instrumentalise well-being as a way to increase mostly free and infinitely available provisions. But they were recently added to Elson’s RRR framework by and geographical region.87 However, although GDP. Others may not explicitly address issues from are not. They are gendered, carried out predominantly the UN High-Level Panel on Women’s Economic the gendered differences uncovered by the a gendered perspective or recognise other forms of by women and girls and those whose physical and Empowerment (UNHLP): Reward, referring to the GNH index have led to some positive policy systematic exclusion that impacts negatively upon emotional labour is finite. For instance, women’s unpaid need for adequate wages and proper working measures, the transformative impacts of these the well-being of marginalised and excluded groups. labour is assumed to fill the gaps when state provision conditions for paid care workers, and Representation, remains contested.88 Certainly, the growing uptake of such approaches of public services are lacking or poor quality due to to ensure that such women workers are included at reflects the feminist concern with well-being and financing shortfalls and austerity, resulting in many decision-making tables.84 In 2019, under the leadership of Jacinda Ardern, an increasing recognition that a focus on economic women facing time poverty (not to mention physical New Zealand designed its entire budget based growth alone is not a measure of human progress. and emotional exhaustion) as they try to balance the Reducing and redistributing women’s unpaid care on well-being priorities, wherein its ministries are However, so far, there is no single measure of demands of paid and unpaid work and reducing the and domestic work should not be done with the sole mandated to design policies to improve well- progress and development that is widely accepted quality of such provision. When care work is paid, it purpose of forcing women into the labour market so being.89 Budget priorities include addressing child across feminist macroeconomic alternatives or that remains undervalued and poorly remunerated, as is the they can contribute to economic growth as narrowly poverty, mental health, a green transition and guarantees a holistic, intersectional understanding case with domestic workers, care workers, cleaners, measured by GDP. Instead, the objective should be domestic violence.90 The budget is not without its of societal relations and therefore that does not social workers, teachers and nurses – the majority of to protect and advance women’s rights, including by criticism, however. Its lack of explicit reference to perpetuate power imbalances. whom are women. Women and girls are also largely ensuring women and men have the option to earn a seen as virtuous environmental carers. While men make living through decent work opportunities and equally the

16 17 South Africa, Turkey and Uruguay. It found that, whilst women, an increase of 5.3 percentage points in the Development Assistance (ODA), as well as renewed – which is clearly positioned as principal rights duty- the initial costs for all children from 0-6 years old may female employment rate. These jobs would generate efforts to eliminate tax evasion and avoidance, which bearer – and the community, the market, families, and be 3-4% of GDP, the employment-generating effects more than US $2 million in new tax and social security cost developing countries up to 200 billion dollars women and men. It seeks to challenge the gendered – especially for women, who form the large majority revenue.99 UN Women also show that state provision every year.100 division of labour within households and promoting of early education professionals – and the long term of a package of family-friendly policies that includes the social (re)valuation of paid care work. The SNIC fiscal return on the investment would outstrip all costs income support across the life-course and healthcare is Research by the ILO in 2018 found that a doubling of helps facilitate the improvement and availability of due to mothers closing their lifetime employment affordable for most countries. A quarter of countries (41 investment in the care economy could lead to a total of public services, the regulation of private care givers, and earnings gaps following such a comprehensive out of 155 studied) could implement these policies for 475 million jobs by 2030, meaning 269 million new jobs guaranteeing quality standards and the provision of childcare offer, and therefore contributing more through less than 3% of GDP, and just over half (79 countries) globally.101 Research by the UK Women’s Budget Group training to caregivers.110 taxes.98 For example, in South Africa, a modest gross could do so for less than 5% of GDP. For one fifth of for the International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC) annual investment of 1.8% of GDP into early childhood countries (35) included in their study, these policies in 2016 showed that investing public funds in childcare The SNIC and its strong rights-based framing and care would create more than 1.2 million new jobs, would cost more than 10% of GDP, which would require and elder care services is more effective in reducing approach was the result of years of activism by an and assuming that most of these jobs would go to additional external support to achieve, including Official public deficits and debt than austerity policies.102 A alliance of women’s movements, social movements, follow up study from June 2020 showed that post- female politicians and feminist academics, who Covid-19, in the UK, investing in both child and adult successfully politicised the issue of care so it is social care would create 2.7 times as many jobs as the framed as a societal, human rights and women’s same investment in construction, resulting in 6.3 times rights issue.111 112 as many jobs for women and 10% more jobs for men. 2 million jobs would be created by increasing the number How it works: A National Care Secretariat sits within the of care workers to 10% of the employed population.103 Ministry of Social Development and coordinates with other ministries, representatives from which make up The Integrated National Care the SNIC ‘board.’ The board establishes broad policies and priorities.113 Women’s organisations participate in System - Uruguay the monitoring and implementation largely through their Uruguay is one of several countries in Latin America104 membership of Red Pro Cuidados (Pro Care Network), – and one of very few in the world – that has worked a civil society network set up to monitor and advocate to develop a coherent policy framework on care.105 The for the effective implementation of the SNIC. Red Pro care agenda in the Latin American region has sought Cuidados is a member of an Advisory Committee, to go beyond making visible and recognising women’s designed to help ensure accountable implementation unpaid contributions to the economy to proposing of the care system by engaging with the SNIC board concrete policies for redistributing care both between and secretariat along with others from civil society, 114 men and women as well as between households and academia, care service providers and care workers. society.106 The Advisory Committee enjoys a good relationship with the authorities, who have been receptive to feedback The Uruguay Integrated National Care System (Sistema and proposals.115 Nacional Integrado de Cuidados – SNIC) aims to implement and coordinate care policies for all those Although, to date, there has been no systematic with care needs, notably young children, the elderly gathering of data to evaluate the care system’s 116 and people living with disabilities. In line with the rights- effectiveness, there is evidence that the expansion of based approaches to care that have been progressively services has helped address care needs in areas where enshrined through the Regional Conferences on Women early education quotas were full and by increasing in Latin America and the Caribbean, the SNIC is set accessibility to day centres for the elderly, which many within a strong rights framework. This recognises both women attend. Furthermore, as a result of training, the right to receive quality care and rights of paid carers personal care assistants are showing increased levels of to perform their work in decent working conditions. 107 professionalism and are able to deliver better 117 The SNIC and its unique feminist framing is enshrined in quality care. a legal document that explicitly states the urgent need A few challenges with the SNIC should be noted, to redistribute unpaid care and domestic work between however. One criticism relates to the early closing hours women and men.108 of the childcare centres, which can create challenges 118 Launched in 2016, the SNIC aims to complement for working parents. Another argued by Valeria existing policies on health, education and social security Esquivel is that, although the Care Act integrates a with new policies for those with particular care needs. strong gender perspective, women’s groups such as For example, the SNIC aims to provide universal care the National Women’s Institute must strengthen their services for children aged three to five and increased position on the SNIC board to ensure that gender coverage for children from birth to two years. This mainstreaming takes place in the policy design and includes the extension of paid parental leave and the implementation phases. Its gradual approach to option of part-time work for parents during their child’s implementation also means universality of access will 119 first six months.109 not be immediately achieved. In terms of sustainable financing, fiscal pressures could emerge in respect to The SNIC is based on a principle of co-responsibility for Uruguay’s demographic trends, which see an aging the provision of quality care that is shared by the State 18 19 population and lower fertility rates.120 The recently Photo: Fabeha Monir/ActionAid elected government has also made reducing the fiscal deficit a key priority and seems much less interested Cooperatives as an in further advancing the SNIC’s coverage beyond what important tool has already been rolled out, which could pose risks to future funding and future expansion of the services Women and their wider communities in many and packages offered121 – a risk that could increase countries and regions have long been organising given the economic impacts of Covid-19. Indeed, Red themselves into cooperatives. These are Pro Cuidados has criticised the siphoning of funds enterprises controlled by and run for the benefit from the SNIC budget to pay for Covid-19-related of their members, where profits are used to equipment at a time when care needs due to the develop the business or are returned to the pandemic were intensifying dramatically.122 members. They are typically based on principles of self-help, self-responsibility, democracy, equality, equity and solidarity,126 and engaging in 2. Ensuring decent jobs forms of solidarity-based exchange and mutual support to promote sustainable livelihoods and The four pillars of decent work, as defined by the access to decent work.127 International Labour Organisation, encompass opportunities for work and job creation; protection Women’s cooperatives can help create and and promotion of rights at work; access to social preserve employment in traditional sectors and protection; and freedom of association and social promote decent work by providing quality and dialogue, with gender equality as a cross-cutting stable jobs, facilitating women’s entry into the issue.123 Feminist advocacy on decent work overlaps labour force, building solidarity and collective with the labour movement and in some contexts voice, integrating disadvantaged workers and includes collaborations with trade union and worker helping the transition from informal to formal organisations. Demands and strategies promoting employment.128 The ILO also argues that by feminist economic alternatives to advance decent bringing workers together under a collective, work put forth by groups such as APWLD, FEMNET, cooperatives can help guard against the precarity Nasima Akhter, manages Kalyanpur Café, Safety and Rights Society in Dhaka, which supports garment Womankind, PSI and ITUC, include the redistribution of jobs in emerging sectors such as paid care workers, mainly women, to understand labour law and their rights. The cafés, supported by ActionAid of women’s unpaid care work;124 full implementation work managed through the gig economy.129 Bangladesh, provide advice, training and support on a range of issues, such as being paid the minimum of relevant ILO Conventions and labour standards, As such, they are hailed as helping to address wage, unfair dismissal and sexual violence and harassment. She says she hears about incidents of sexual including for women working in the informal economy gender gaps in employment and in women’s violence and harassment about once or twice a month. “I would assume there are more such incidents, but and those working in the care economy; ambitious leadership,130 including through their frequent women are not talking about it,” she says. “I have spoken with around 600 workers, mostly women. I would gender-transformative industrial strategies that foster provision of childcare and other public services say I have heard stories of violence from around 150.” decent jobs for women; no trade-offs between job that shift women’s burden of unpaid care work creation and job quality, including with respect to trade and promote access to finance and credit. In deals and expansion of global value chains; robust this report series we showcase seven examples supported by wider civil society advocacy, including “[It is] the first time that we’ve had social protection systems; and effective regulation of cooperatives around the world as feminist by ActionAid.133 Approved by a two-thirds majority at of the corporate sector to end rights violations and economic alternatives. the International Labour Conference in June 2019, the [an] International Labour instrument 125 ensure accountability. historic C190 and accompanying Recommendation that’s this clear in the fact that it However, cooperatives face challenges that put No. 206134 recognise for the first time the pervasive Feminist analysis also shows us how patriarchal and their viability and sustainability at risk, including a covers anybody regardless of your levels of violence and harassment faced by women in racist norms mean that women’s work – especially the lack of knowledge of cooperative management the world of work and provide a concrete framework contractual status, and it covers work of women of colour, working class and migrant and legal systems and limited access to funds, for addressing it. It recognises public and private women – is fundamentally undervalued, unrecognised particularly for new and developing cooperatives. apprentices, interns, trainings, job spaces as sites of violence, including the journey to and unsupported. As such, as highlighted on page These challenges can be overcome through applicants, job seekers, retirees, and from work. Working conditions are acknowledged 17, women’s rights organisations, feminist economists information sharing, training programmes and as a risk factor of violence along with other underlying racialised Indigenous workers, and trade unions have argued for investing in social developing networks and alliances across the causes, such as gender stereotypes, multiple and care as a key strategy to both foster decent jobs for cooperative movement.131 migrant workers, LGBTI workers, intersecting forms of discrimination and unequal women whilst redistributing the care workload to gender-based power relations, which states are pregnant women, young woman. the State. required to take actions to address. The fact that it marries the two worlds As discussed in the introduction, women around the Ending violence in the world of work of human rights, and occupational The progressive content and inclusive scope of C190, world, particularly in countries in the Global South, – the transformative potential of ILO covering both formal and informal sector workers health and safety and labour rights, face barriers with respect to every one of the decent Convention 190 around the world as well as public and private sectors, means it holds work pillars. Violence and harassment of women in I think is where the real transformative The conventions of the ILO provide a critical set of significant transformative potential for women workers their homes, on the streets and in the places where power resides.” global labour standards that have been mutually agreed if ratified by states and implemented effectively. C190 they work is also a major barrier to decent work. to by states, trade unions and employers. The recently outlines a universal legal definition of what is meant by Without collective bargaining, freedom of association Chidi King, Director of the International passed Convention 190 on Violence and Harassment violence and harassment and gender-based violence and the widespread knowledge among workers of Trade Union Confederation (ITUC) (C190)132 is the direct result of trade unions and global in the world of work, making it visible and challenging their rights, prevention and redress of violence and Equality Department feminist organising (within and outside of trade unions), its normalisation.135 harassment in the world of work cannot be possible. 20 21 Member states are required to take appropriate “just transition” does not only describe what the new measures to monitor and enforce national laws and reporting, the actual number is likely to be higher. system will look like, but also how that transformation The justice deficit for women regulations regarding violence and harassment in the A clear trend emerged that the more informal should be carried out. To be truly just, transitions world of work, and ensure access to appropriate, in Jordan: a case study of the work, the higher the risk of violence and must: address – and not exacerbate – inequalities; safe and effective remedies and reporting and dispute harassment. The groups facing the biggest rates transform systems to work for people, nature and the violence and harassment in resolution mechanisms, so that perpetrators can of violence at work were interns (25%) and daily climate; ensure inclusiveness and participation; and be held to account. C190 also acknowledges the 143 the workplace wage workers (21%) (see Figure 3). It is important develop comprehensive policy frameworks. Feminist ramifications of domestic violence in the world of work, to underscore that most working women in Jordan, academics are deeply involved in current global debates In 2018 ActionAid carried out research in Ghana with states required to take measures to mitigate its especially from poor and marginalised groups, on natural resource management and the case is being and Jordan on the main barriers for women and impacts. States are also re-committed to respecting tend to be found in such informal roles. Further, made by feminist movements and women’s rights girls’ access to justice. Our research in Jordan and promoting the fundamental rights to freedom of according to the latest UN calculations, in 2011 organisations (as JASS and WoMin) for a just transition found that Violence Against Women and Girls association and collective bargaining, which is crucial (even before the largest arrival of Syrian refugees), that goes beyond an energy transition. A just transition (VAWG), or fear of VAWG at work, is a key factor in to ensuring women have a voice and can engage with approximately 44% of the Jordanian economy is needed to replace the global extractive economy, preventing women from joining the workplace in a employers to advocate for their rights. As Chidi King was comprised of informal work (almost 500,000 which is based on the concentration of power over and sustainable way. highlights, C190 and Recommendation 206 recognise people). This highlights the significant scale of exploitation of resources and human labour – especially that the world of work “is not operating in a vacuum”: women and girls at risk. This research found that of women’s bodies and work. With a regenerative In a survey with 2,323 workers (85% of whom there are societal factors that states also need to be – in the largest pool of women at work in Jordan economy, based on community resilience, social equity were women) in eight industrial zones across addressing. It is not exclusively the role of employers to 144 – 21-25% have experienced one or more forms of and ecological & social care and wellbeing. Moreover, Jordan we found that one in five women have address and implement the commitments in C190.136 violence. On the other hand, where women were they are demanding that the externalisation of the costs experienced one or more forms of VAWG in the of the prevailing extractive neoliberal system, through for workplace. We learned that women have to face found in more formal roles, such as those with Now the work of pushing countries to ratify and fully permanent contracts and in management, only instance the impending natural disasters caused by the a wide range of violence at work, particularly i) implement Convention 190 has begun.137 Uruguay climate crisis, on women and the environment is ended. unwanted staring (20%); ii) verbal sexual harassment 3-4% reported experiencing violence at work. A and Fiji were first to ratify C190 in June 2020,138 while further key finding is that there is a serious risk of There are many different ideas on what a just transition (17%); iii) unwanted messages (16%); iv) unwanted Namibia, Argentina, Finland, and Spain had formally should look like (see more in Volume 3), but the Asia touching (15%); v) unwanted gestures (15%); vi) VAWG outside of the official place of work. Women committed to do so.139 To be transformative and answered that 40% of the time, violence and Pacific Forum on Women, Law and Development stalking (10%) and vii) unwanted invitations of a foster a world of work free from violence for women (APWLD) speaks about a universal basic income, sexual or romantic nature (10%). Even in the lowest harassment occurred on the way to and from work. and girls, implementation of C190 must go hand-in- This finding is relevant to the ILO Convention, which energy democracy and the redistribution of land as key percentage categories, the figures are deeply hand with wider actions at national level to promote components of a just transition.145 worrying. For example, twenty women shared emphasises that governments and organisations equality and non-discrimination and prevent and that they had experienced rape in the workplace. should take steps to ensure protection from VAWG respond to violence, as well as ratification of other There can be no just transition without addressing Given the deep sensitivities and hesitancies around on the commute to and from work. important conventions aimed at advancing women’s the barriers and exclusions that women face in the right to decent work These include Convention prevailing economic system. Patriarchy is one of the 100 on Equal Remuneration,140 Convention 111 on key pillars of the extractive economy that is causing Discrimination, Convention 156 on Workers with the climate crisis. As the WRO Just Associates Family Responsibilities, Convention 183 on Maternity (JASS) explain in their framework for a just transition Protection, as well as the equally ground-breaking “Patriarchy together with racism and colonialism Convention 189 on Domestic Workers (discussed constitute the interconnected and pre-capitalist further below).141 Moreover, urgent global action is structures of domination that are the foundation of needed to redress the governance gaps that allow the extractive economy.”146 A just transition must violence and other rights violations in global supply recognise that women’s unpaid work sustains societies chains and linked to corporate activities to go and that women’s work commonly is in low emission, unchecked. States must support the development of a yet insecure and informal employment, including UN Binding Treaty on business and human rights (see subsistence farming, service industries, domestic and page 35) as one important strategy for pursuing this. care work.147 In a just transition towards ‘green jobs’ it is crucial that jobs are also created in the care sector. Some ecological feminists - including feminist economists) have Theme 2: Ensuring a adopted or refer to the term ‘ecofeminism’, explaining this as challenging both the patriarchal and neo-colonial just transition structures for women’s communal ownership and control over land, seeds, and the valuing of associated indigenous

Photo: Marah Khalid/ActionAid Women are more impacted by the ways that the climate crisis is changing their living environment and are at the knowledge. In their seminal book ‘Ecofeminism’ Maria forefront of the struggle for climate justice, yet women Mies and Vandana Shiva explain how “everywhere, initiative focused on are less likely to take part in meetings where decisions women were the first to protest against environmental ”كوين اآلمان“ ”The “Be Safe addressing GBV, early marriage and violence issues are made that affect how we deal with the climate crisis. destruction. As activists in the ecology movements, using interactive theatre. Women learned crafts Confronted by the effects of human-induced climate it became clear to us that science and technology (crochet, cup design, soup and candle making) change, accelerated by extractivist and exploitative were not gender neutral; and in common with many while sharing their views on these issues. economic methods, the case for transitioning from our other women, we began to see that the relationship current agriculture, food and energy systems which of exploitative dominance between man and nature, cause the massive depletion of natural resources (shaped by reductionist modern science since the and biological diversity is an urgent one.142 The term 16th century) and the exploitative and oppressive relationship between men and women and prevails

22 23 in most patriarchal societies, even modern industrial half of the world’s agricultural producers,152 women everyday land, seed and business management.162 As Mariama Sonko, who has been part of the WAS ones, were closely connected.”148 Gender, race and have access to and control less than 20% of the land Ultimately the WAS campaign’s aim is: to promote movement since 1990, explains: “The focus on class inequalities are of importance in intersectional globally.153 Their weak land rights and limited access good agricultural practices and knowledge that have conventional agriculture, an agro-industrial policy ecofeminism. 149 Ecofeminism is understood by others and control over land makes them extremely vulnerable been known and handed down for generations in Africa imposed on us by multinationals, which is based on as a ‘feminist political ecology’ (FPE). Central to FPE is to land grabbing by investors or even by the men and have sustained food sovereignty on the continent; seductive theories but in reality is fragile, dangerous the notion of the commons (which are not reducible to in their communities and families. Measures as the to influence decision-makers and promote better and even destructive in its socio-economic and mere “resources,” care work for instance is included) Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance agricultural governance; and to value family agricultural environmental impacts. This works to the detriment of and the recognition that commons reflect gender and of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests (VGGTs)154 production.163 As a result of WAS efforts, Senegal is family farming or agroecology that has always sustained other relationships in society that are inseparable from and Free Prior and Informed Consent (FPIC) or the right about to start its agricultural transition to agroecology. food sovereignty in Africa... We practice agroecology relations to nature. Attention must be paid to how to say ‘No’ are weakly applied, if applied at all. Land The agroecological transition, which has the support of and family farming; we encourage food sovereignty, gender and other power dynamics shape access to rights affect women’s livelihoods in many ways and the President, is one of the five major initiatives of the farmer seeds, biodiversity and the demand for equitable and control over resources (as land, seeds, water etc.) determine their access to affordable nutritious food, priority action plan for the second phase of the Plan access to resources.” Sonko explains how the aim of in a specific place and that commons are the product their economic, educational and healthcare options Sénégal Emergent (2019-2024). Increasingly severe the movement is ‘One Africa’ where, in solidarity, small and site of communal acts of care and responsibility. Or and their resilience in the face of climate change.155 climate hazards, strong population growth and the scale farmers are involved in decision-making, and as academics Sato and Alarcón explain: there can be “no Poorly designed trade policies and a system of rules adverse environmental consequences of the Green cultivate, process, consume and sell the products of commons without a community.”150 that privilege the interests of wealthy countries and Revolution164 mean that it is necessary to take a fresh African family farming while preserving the environment corporates over women’s rights, human rights and the look at agricultural development strategies and foster for a harmonious development.168 Ruth Nyambura of the African Eco Feminist environment have been deeply harmful to women. Trade more sustainable practices.165 Collective, explains further: policies often undermine the livelihoods and land rights, When reviewing agroecological movements elsewhere including of small-scale women farmers, producers and it is important to remain aware of the risk of patriarchal “In a very narrow scope, an informal economy workers, who struggle to compete bias within agroecology and food sovereignty unless ecofeminist movement to me is with multinational companies and commonly face What is agroecology? specifically addressed, even though feminism is often displacement and the fall-out of environmental harm.156 seen as inherent to the agroecological movement. concerned with transforming the ways This is repeated in ODA disbursements, through donors Agroecology is the science of sustainable Moreover, moving beyond binary conceptions of gender in which economic, intellectual and promoting industrial agriculture for export by MNCs, agricultural ecosystems, a set of farming and considering multiple axes of differences remain critical tasks for many agroecological initiatives. As ecological resources are accessed such as the G8’s New Alliance for Food Security and practices, and a social movement. The Nutrition in Africa157 from which countries such as agroecology movement is part of the struggle Nyambura explains: a technologically different way of by women, especially those most France and the US have been withdrawing.158 Food for the right to produce healthy food and farming, away from industrial agriculture, is useless vulnerable and often on the frontlines sovereignty allows communities control over the way to preserve natural resources: land, water, unless questions of power are not constructively food is produced, traded and consumed, so that food seeds, plants and all the teeming life that is addressed. “Patriarchal relations of power do not of ecological devastation and climate systems are created for people and the environment biodiversity.166 Agroecology draws on social, disappear just because people are farming using change. It also means constantly rather than to make a profit.159 Peasant organisations biological and agricultural sciences and agroecological methods and it is dangerous to assume working to re-claim and re-imagine (for which the struggle against the oppression and integrates these with traditional, indigenous this.(…) Agroecology and family farming are limited exploitation of women is often fundamental160) are and farmers’ knowledge and cultures. in their revolutionary potential if womxn continue to much more just and egalitarian calling for food self-sufficiency, to ‘take the neoliberalism It focuses on the interactions between face the violence of patriarchy in their immediate ways of being with one another and out of agriculture,’ focusing on trade, localisation and microorganisms, plants, animals, humans and surroundings and especially with relation to access fundamentally for me that means shorter food supply chains in addition to reclaiming the the environment. and control over the ecological resources and the sovereignty of southern governents. Moving the focus exploitation of their reproductive and productive destroying patriarchy and reclaiming from just national self-sufficiency in food production Highly knowledge-intensive, context specific labour.”169 Agroecology can form part of efforts to ideas of the commons.”151 (‘the right of nations’) to local self-sufficiency (‘the rights and locally adaptive, its technologies are address gender inequalities and create alternative of peoples’).161 developed based on farmers’ knowledge economies, especially when changes are made to the and participatory on-farm experimentation. There are two types of FEA within this theme: the first material realities in the lives of women and to relations Adopted by millions worldwide, and an example of the feminist demand for women’s land and structures of power (see ‘Defining FEAs’ on page Food justice through feminist increasingly as a strategy to mitigate the effects rights, food sovereignty and self-sufficiency within a just 9). Such as the challenging and changing of gender and agroecology – Senegal of climate change, agroecology knowledge and transition from extractive food systems. This is followed social norms within food production and access and skills are ‘scaled out’ or transmitted horizontally by two examples of the alternatives that are created A strong feminist movement for food justice and control over resources (as land and seeds), as well as most powerfully through ‘peasant protagonism’ while resisting extractivism for a just transition away resource rights in the West African region has the recognising, valuing, redistributing and collectivising and social movement-driven ‘farmer-to-farmer’ of women’s work, including their unpaid care work, to from extractive and destructive energy systems. caused an important shift in Senegalese policy. methods. Agroecology’s key principles include 170 We Are the Solution (WAS), a women-farmer-led end the triple shift (see page 24). Moreover, feminist recycling nutrients and energy on farm, rather organisation based on agroecological practices and agroecology could be the result of a just transition, as than introducing external chemical inputs; food sovereignty, directly challenged agro-industrial it addresses inequalities, is inclusive, good for nature 1. Women’s land rights, food integrating crops and livestock; diversifying policies and commercialised agriculture to propose and people, and as a comprehensive framework was species and genetic resources; and focusing sovereignty and self-sufficiency alternative mechanisms for food sovereignty across developed to address the current issues caused by on interactions and productivity across the West Africa, including in Senegal. WAS is made up largescale agro-industry Working a triple shift is a burden most women farmers agroecosystem, rather than focusing on of 800 rural women’s associations across seven face. In addition to farming, women do most of the individual species. Highly people-centred, countries and is a pan African campaign born of African household labour, collecting water and firewood, the main agroecology approaches include farmer platforms mobilising to fight against corporate cooking, cleaning and washing, as well as caring for integrated pest and nutrient management, agricultural policies. The movement seeks to build the family and community members. Women have always conservation tillage, agroforestry, aquaculture, capacity of women leaders on a number of aspects been active in producing food crops, processing food water harvesting and livestock integration.167 and marketing. However, despite comprising almost related to gender-aware agroecological practice and

24 25 Resisting extractivism while building lost your identity. We also believe that it is our right to live in a healthy environment, an environment which is

Photo: Noore Jannat Proma/ActionAid the alternative – South Africa & Brazil Climate Resilient Sustainable not harmful to us, that has clean air with no air pollution, Agriculture In the Eastern Cape region of South Africa, the iconic no pollution of the land and no contamination of the case of the Amadiba Crisis Committee of Pondoland water. To make all these things happen, we believe Agroecology-based Climate Resilient Sustainable provides a powerful testimony of the effective realisation that women must be a part of decision making.”176 Agriculture (CRSA) prioritises the right to food, of the ‘Right to say No’. This community rejected Demonstrating that the right to say ‘No’ to mining is environmental conservation, and long-term extractivism and came up with its own development also the right to say ‘Yes’ to self-determined living and community resilience, and is on the key pillars of alternatives, namely ecotourism and renewable energy giving communities a concrete instrument to come up ActionAid’s POWER project. Women participants projects. As community activist Nonhle Mbutuma with their own development model through grassroots received training on homestead vegetable gardening explains “We know who we are because of the land. processes and law from below. The promotion of the through agricultural extension service providers We believe that once you have lost the land, you have ‘Right to say No’ concept builds on the FPIC concept from the government’s Department of Agricultural Extension in Bangladesh. Jamila is a participant who learned about homestead vegetable gardening and CRSA techniques along with her group. She is applying her learning in her vegetable garden.

Jamila works as a day labourer in other people’s crop fields to generate income during cultivation and harvesting seasons. Now she is earning from selling the vegetables that she produces. From vegetable gardening, she thinks she can earn more as there are different vegetables to be cultivated in different seasons. Her family members, especially her Ms. Jamila Khatun – member of `Amrao Pari husband, support her to do the household chores at Women Group’, Kakiya village, Mogolhat home, she can manage extra time for gardening, and Union, Lalmonirhat in Bangladesh. producing vegetable and selling them into market.

Food sovereignty and agroecology offer powerful 2. Resisting extractivism alternatives to the unequal and gendered power relations in rural and urban communities and are for a just transition themselves tools and pathways to overcoming the Alternatives are often born from women’s collective oppressive structures in which women are embedded resistance. In resisting extractivism, women are (involving race, caste, class, gender, sexuality, age, actively saying ‘Yes’ to an alternative for the future. ethnicity and (dis)ability).171 For instance, a mid-term As Samantha Hargreaves from WoMin explains: “As evaluation of ActionAid’s Agroecology and Resilience people say ‘No’ they are saying ‘Yes’ to what they (AER) project in Senegal and The Gambia highlighted are defending: their land, their own decision-making that it had led to increased solidarity and joint action processes, their way of living, resources they are between women at community level, reporting a depending from etc. We can look at resistance and see shift in power relations at family, community and what the alternatives are that people are defending. government level and having greater access to land, Women are often clear in their defense of their resources tools, seed, small ruminants, finance and knowledge. as they know what is necessary.”174 This is where Women farmers participating in the project have also the spaces for collective co-creation and imagination begun producing cash crops that have traditionally are once again of importance. “Often women at the been grown by men, such as groundnut, maize community level do not have the opportunity to move and cassava, and tools such as milling and de- towards a space that is imaginative and offer more hulling machines and water saving techniques, have propositional ideas, away from what corporates and reduced their physical burdens, freeing up hours the government make possible. Going to the ‘Yes’ [and and days of their time.172 Women-led agroecological what women are actively defending] more thoughtfully practice, grounded in women’s collective and self- is how we can support the ideas needed for an organisational power, can be a feminist subversion ecofeminist just transition.” 175 to the extractivism (not just mining but also agri- business, industrialised fishing etc.) that dominates mainstream policy. Ensuring equal spaces of shared power, participation and income, combined with ending gender-based violence and sexism are critical components of feminist agroecology. 173

26 27 (Free Prior and Informed Consent), which goes further to affirm the rights of affected communities to say ‘No’ Theme 3: Building the to proposals from TNCs when they are not satisfied with conditions for FEAs negotiation outcomes. As such, the ‘Right to say No’ gives communities a greater voice and puts them in a to flourish more equitable position in the negotiating processes, while putting pressure on TNCs to respect indigenous The feminist strategies and initiatives for systemic and customary rights.177 Similarly, the Movimento dos transformation are not enacted within a vacuum. Atingidos por Barragens or ‘Movement of People DAWN’s “Remaking of Social Contracts: Feminists in a Affected by Dams’ (MAB), is a national grassroots social Fierce New World” describes the overall dynamics that movement in Brazil that rose out of popular protests shape the contexts for FEAs. The period from 1945 to against the construction of hydroelectric dams across 1980 saw post-war economic growth, the unravelling the country. These mega-infrastructure projects led of colonial empires, belief in the possibility of a New to the displacement of thousands of communities International Economic Order, challenges to the idea and over a million people, in order to generate cheap of limitless growth, the rise of global social movements electricity for electro-intensive industries. MAB fights for including women’s movements, expansive policies environmental sustainability and peoples’ rights to land, of the welfare and developmental states, and greater housing and community life. They believe that access monitoring of the activities of transnational corporations. to energy should not be a commodity but a common Then the period from 1980 to 2008 saw the breaking public good, available to all without speculation and of these beliefs and related institutions, and the profit. The movement is proposing an alternative energy emergence of more conservative social contracts and model that puts women and oppressed peoples at the start of an era of financial globalisation driven by the the centre and gives them a voice in the decision- pressure to remove all barriers to free flows of money making process. In line with this, MAB demands and capital, as well as the shrinking of the state, which was caricatured as inevitably bloated and corrupt.179 national legal reform to secure equal compensation for 180 men and women workers in cases of displacement, During this second period, social contracts between retrenchments and ecological damage. They are calling governments and their people, especially in the Global for an entire overhaul of the energy system (production, South became fractured. transmission, distribution and commercialisation) in In fact, as can be seen throughout the report, many Brazil with a sharp reduction in electricity prices by FEAs are born from, and are themselves, acts of promoting equal energy tariffs for the general resistance due to the oppressive external environment population and large corporations, free electricity and the erosion of the social contract. Increasing for rural households below a minimum energy restrictions on civil society space, exploitative trade threshold and the application of a low-wage tariff policies, privatisation of and cuts to public services, for low-income households. unbridled corporate power, rising authoritarianism, the The ways in which the resistance to Brazil’s current erosion of democratic accountability, along with violence energy system is offering a more democratic alternative and threats against women human rights defenders, are can be seen also from MAB’s movement-building work. posing serious risks to any fragile gains and women’s The movement-building work reflects the alternative ability to collectively advocate for and implement model through its emphasis on popular political feminist economic alternatives. education and leadership trainings for women and Indeed the contexts for feminist economic alternatives, oppressed groups. All MAB local grassroots groups premised as they are on women’s autonomy, collective must have an equal number of women and men in action, and state responsiveness and accountability, the group’s leadership. In order to address gender is becoming increasingly restrictive and disabling. discrimination within the movement, MAB also created Nonetheless, as this report series shows, women autonomous spaces for women to meet and strategise continue to develop creative strategies for surviving, about their demands and actions. MAB is trying thriving and resisting in often extremely challenging through its advocacy to address gender discrimination contexts. And there are numerous encouraging in the labour market and recognise women’s unequal examples of states and municipalities implementing role in social reproduction. Policy changes can take progressive policy frameworks that serve to support time, so the movement also works to secure concrete women’s rights. achievements that improve women’s lives, such as access to electricity, incentives for the production Central to this is the the reversion of the power of healthy food through organic gardens, and water imbalance of the Global North and South and the storage and heating technologies. This also frees restoration of sovereignty and self-determination up women’s time to participate in mobilisations and of global south governments. The struggle for the decision-making processes at all levels within reclamation of the social contract between people and the movement.178 their governments in the global south cannot happen without this power reversion.

28 29 Post-independence, developmental states in the way in which states acknowledge and ensure the enterprises run by the local governments or the Photo: ActionAid Global South made alternative policy, embarked on redistribution of social reproductive work and women’s return of privatised enterprises to municipal hands. economy-restructuring as well as making geopolitical care work as integral to our economies.182 Good quality, This trend has taken place across 2400 localities choices (South-South cooperation/solidarity/collective gender-responsive public services (GRPS)183 are key in 58 countries.193 As with other feminist economic negotiations in intergovernmental spaces). While they to redressing the historical gendered division of labour alternatives, there is no singular solution or approach were largely patriarchal in nature they were the contexts that places the burden of unpaid care predominantly that should be pursued with respect to gender- women lived in and have lost. These alternative political on women and girls as well the intersectional nature responsive (re)municipalisation. Rather, similar to choices have been systematically dismantled through of discrimination. GRPS are vital to ensuring the what is argued by energy democracy advocates, a the weakening of multilateralism and the promotion progressive realisation of women’s economic and range of collective and collaborative alternatives to instead of elite club governance through the G8, G7 wider human rights, as well as to tackling social privatisation are needed, including autonomous citizen and the G20. As well as, of course, the imposition of exclusion based on other intersecting aspects of associations, worker cooperatives, (re)municipalisation Washington Consensus-style structural adjustment women’s identities. and nationalisation, as well as national-level public programmes and wider neoliberal policies across the planning.194 As well as frameworks such as the Abidjan Global South. These include poorly designed trade To ensure their universality of access, quality and Principles on the obligations of States to finance public policies, tax evasion and avoidance schemes that break coverage, along with accountability of the State as education, developed in 2019 with human rights the social contract and a system of rules that privilege principal rights duty-bearer, public services should experts to resist privatisation in education.195 Within the interests of wealthy countries and corporates over be publicly financed and publicly delivered. However, these, women’s collective voice and agency should women’s rights and which exacerbate and exploit since the 1980s, waves of commercialisation (where for play a lead role in determining how public services women’s historical position of social and economic instance user fees were introduced) leading to a wave are managed, designed and delivered, recognising Maria Alaides Alves de Sousa is the general disadvantage.181 Feminist struggle is taking place within of privatisation often linked to IMF and World Bank that women are not a homogenous group and have coordinator of the Babassu Coconut-breakers the context of extreme power differentials between the loan conditionalities, have taken things in the opposite distinct needs and priorities based on the particular Interstate Movement (MIQCB). Maria actively North and the South. direction. According to the IMF, as of 2019, privatisation intersecting forms of identity-based oppression they participated in the development of the Free of public assets and services is being considered may face. Babassu Law project. And was the coconut Therefore, in addition to our principal call for states to by 59 governments in 39 developing and 20 high- breakers’ representative in the National Food Security and Food Sovereignty Council (directed institute gender transformative policies and frameworks income countries. Meanwhile, 60 IMF country reports Reclaiming access to Brazil’s rooted in feminist principles, states can support suggested strengthening public-private-partnerships connected to the Presidency cabinet in previous FEAs by creating the conditions for FEAs to flourish. (PPPs), representing 50 developing countries and 10 babassu forests – Brazil Brazilian governments) and the National Committee These conditions are constructed through economic high-income countries,184 as a way to finance social for Traditional Peoples and Communities. She policies, financing, reining in corporate power and services and infrastructure projects. With the negotiation “When the agribusiness and was city councillor in Lago do Junco, Maranhão state, elected by an articulation of local social respecting and expanding civic space. Emphasising of the ‘Trade in Services Agreement’ (TiSA) by some 50 extractive companies come to our a conducive environment for FEAs is not to suggest members of the WTO – although talks have been on movements. Lago do Junco was the first that the burden of ensuring their rights are fulfilled and hold since 2016 – public services are at risk of being land, they take away our rivers, municipality to enact the Free Babassu Law. redressing the wrongs of the economic system should further used as bargaining chips and privatised as key ponds, the babassu palm trees, and continue to rest with women, or that states do not export products.185 need to urgently step up to finance and provide quality finally take our lives away breaking and sugarcane. Meanwhile the legitimate land tenure gender responsive public services, social protection The Covid-19 pandemic has, however, exposed the our way of living, our spirit”, rights of people and communities, established through and decent work opportunities for women. Rather, in consequences of decades of privatisation strategies customary systems of living on and using land, have addition to this and as part of the shift towards a more that have undermined public health systems and stifled Maria do Rosário, leader of the Interstate 186 been ignored and violated. In addition to the challenge progressive economic system, states need to recognise progress on universal social protection. Numerous Movement of Babassu Coconut Breaker in accessing the babassu forests, the coconut breakers and support women-led initiatives and women’s privatisation failures, such as poor quality and women (MIQCB) also face difficulty gaining direct access to markets for autonomous organising that fall outside of current fragmentation of services, escalating fees, job losses, The Movimento Interestadual de Quebradeiras de their babassu products, which would provide greater mainstream economic discourse and approaches. wage cuts, displacement and loss of livelihoods, the emergence of private monopolies,187 not to mention Coco Babaçu (MIQCB) in Brazil, also known as the security for their livelihoods and futures. ‘Middlemen’ There are four types of FEA within this theme: firstly, the breakdown of democratic accountability and Babassu Coconut Breakers Movement, consists buying the babassu directly from the women are essential initiatives to centring care in our economies transparency, are prompting numerous municipalities of over 2,000 women and represents more than keeping them in working poverty, while making a profit 196 are those that reclaim public goods and services from as well as women’s movements and wider civil society 350,000 women who make a living from gathering selling the coconuts on the market. privatisation. Specifically the reclaiming of access by to reclaim public goods and services from privatisation, babaçu or babassu palm tree coconuts. This is a MIQCB’s long struggle led to the establishment of the women to Brazil’s Babassu forests. Next are initiatives and to seek justice from its negative fall-outs.188 Such women-led movement focused on accessing and ‘Free Babassu Law’ in 17 municipalities across Brazil, for protection and collective healing to sustain women’s movements are unfolding in both the Global North and protecting the babassu forests, who see the babassu mainly in the Cerrado region, protecting the Babassu leadership and movements. Followed by initiatives to South, often focusing on land, energy and water,189 as a common good, for community use. Milk, oil, forests and giving the landless coconut gatherers ensure corporate accountability globally and maximising as well as at the global and regional level, as seen in coal, bread, even cleaning products, roofs, fertiliser free access to babassu forests, including those now public financing through shaping feminist solidarity- FEMNET’s work challenging the promotion of PPPs by and textiles –over 70 products – are made from privately owned.197 When it became clear that a national based economic multilateralism. donors,190 IFIs and even within the SDGs.191 the coconuts without damaging the coconut trees. However, deforestation and privatisation threaten the law was not possible, due to an unwillingness to listen Remunicipalisation is the act of reclaiming essential coconut breakers’ livelihoods and are destroying the to the movement’s demands at national level, the 1. Reclaiming public goods and services from private operators and bringing their babassu forests. Many forests are being sold off to movement turned to the state and municipal level. delivery back into the public sphere.192 New research large scale agricultural business, who violently block The women babassu coconut breakers organised services from privatisation by the Transnational Institute and its international the coconut breakers’ access to the babassu forests themselves to work collaboratively with municipal and who prefer to cut down the babassu tress in order and state governments at every step of the legislative Reclaiming public goods and services from privatisation partners shows that between 2000 and 2019, there to create monocultures and plant crops that are highly process – from the design of proposed laws to the is essential to ensuring the centring of care in our have been over 1,400 new cases of “municipalisation” lucrative on global markets, as soybean, eucalyptus choice of councillor or deputy that would represent economies. Public care services in particular, are a or “remunicipalisation”– the creation of new public

30 31 them in presenting the laws. The women remained perpetrators of abuse. Many human rights defenders involved in the development and presentation of new (HRDs) are working within a system where the rule legislation to different chambers and assemblies and of law is weak and are particularly vulnerable as the during voting days. This process proved to be important opposition they face from governmental and private in strengthening the babassu coconut breakers’ entities act without fear of punishment. HRDs who collective identity as traditional people and in creating work specifically to counter corporate abuse and and exchanging knowledge, memories and experiences impunity and promote the rule of law are often subject between themselves and the Brazilian public. These to aggressive threats and reprisals from those who laws vary in their content; while some do guarantee free benefit most from the status quo.201 Women human access to babassu areas, others must be reworked in rights defenders (WHRDs) face many of the same order to secure greater access to babassu groves for challenges and threats in addition to obstacles, the coconut breakers. Drafted in the context of pressure threats and impacts on account of their gender. from economically powerful actors, some of these Women human rights defenders suffer threats, laws prioritise private landowners’ control over the land stigma, social rejection, gender based and sexual containing babassu trees. Despite this, the approval violence, not only because they are promoting and of each one of these free babassu laws represents a defending the rights of others, but also because very important achievement in the creation of innovative they are women doing that work.202 The UN Special legal mechanisms in which women from traditional Rapporteur on HRDs has a mandate to integrate a communities have successfully leveraged their political gender perspective and pay particular attention to power and worked successfully with government women human rights defenders. In his 2019 annual representatives and administrators in order to secure report to the Human Rights Council in Geneva he their rights, resist privatisation of their lands and limit the explains how “[i]n the current political climate, in which influence of powerful landowners.198 there is a backlash against human rights, women who defend and promote rights are often the first Enforcing the law has sadly often fallen on the coconut to come under attack.” The report shows how the breakers, where landowners have started to poison rise in misogynistic, sexist and homophobic speech trees rather than cut them down. This, in addition to the by political leaders in recent years has normalised constant pressure of new landowners, many of them violence against women human rights defenders.203 land grabbers, taking over their territories, has led the A survey conducted by the Mesoamerican Initiative movement to also start demanding stronger, or more of Women Human Rights Defenders (IM Defenders) stable, tenure rights. The coconut breakers are not amongst 55 women human rights defenders in advocating for individual titling, but for collective titling the region, uncovered that 55% of all attacks are so that the forests are protected for future generations perpetrated by state actors; 35% are perpetrated and resist pressure to sell the land. An additional by de facto powers, such as private companies, strategy has been the formation of associations and paramilitary and religious groups; and 15% are cooperatives by the coconut breakers to ‘cut out the committed by other private actors, such as the middlemen’ and guarantee fair prices for the work spouses or ex-partners of women who are victims or done by women. The spaces where these cooperatives survivors of violence.204 The UN Special Rapporteur operate are open to any coconut breaker without them therefore recommends that: “States and international having to be an associate or having to pay to make us organisations must recognise the specific challenges of the facilities. These cooperatives simultaneously serve and risks women defenders face. They must ensure as spaces for political discussions and organising.199 that such defenders are recognised, supported and The coconut breakers’ strategies present an alternative enabled to participate equally, meaningfully and proposal to the dominant management practices powerfully in the promotion and protection of human of landowning elite. The practices of the women rights.”205 As can be seen throughout this report, it allow communities to coexist with nature rather than is often from women’s resistance that FEAs are born depleting it. The successes of the MIQCB, in gaining and through women’s collective action that FEAs are local recognition of land-use rights and protection of realised. It is essential to supporting FEAs that states common resources that the coconut breakers share, recognise and counter the additional gendered threats serve as a powerful example of what could be achieved and obstacles WHRDs face so that women can on a national level in Brazil for other communities, and continue seeking strategies to withstand and protect in many countries across the world in order to realise themselves from the most egregious, often systematic the right to food, protect the forests and to meet human violence perpetrated by state and corporate actors rights obligations.200 in the interests of advancing a particular version of economic growth and development. Moreover, the formal policy commitments and frameworks of states 2. Women’s leadership with regards HRDs, notably the UN Declaration on Human Rights Defenders, are in need of being further It is the principal duty of states to protect and developed and implemented from a women’s rights progressively realise human rights. However, despite perspective.206 this they are often complicit in or even the worst

32 33 Protecting & supporting women human the Urgent Action Fund Africa set up the African Women 3. Corporate accountability a business case for gender equality, through increasing rights defenders globally Human Rights Defenders Platform aka ’the Feminist women’s labour force participation as a tool for higher Republik’ focused on holistic (protection) security, According to the UN, financial outflows from developing economic growth, the structural causes of women’s The Women Human Rights Defenders International safety, wellbeing and collective care; healing justice; countries largely to the Global North in the form of economic inequality and human rights violations in the Coalition has been instrumental in creating the identity as well as documentation and knowledge generation interest payments on foreign debt, capital flight and unjust global economy remain unaddressed.221 While category of the Women Human Rights Defender, which for WHRD. The focus on self and collective care and foreign investments amounted to approximately resisting corporate power and demanding accountability 207 activists find legitimising and empowering. The wellbeing is in response to collective, structural and US$970.7 billion in 2014 alone, far more than they is very much an act within the current economic Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights intergenerational distress caused by persistent forms received in aid and investment.213 The Global South structures, the following outlined initiatives demonstrate defenders defines women human rights defenders as of exclusion, violence and marginalisation. It is based currently lose somewhere between US$100 billion and how from this resistance frequently alternatives are born both female human rights defenders, and any other on research into the indigenous African ways through US$200 billion a year in lost tax revenue every year to that can both create changes to the material realities human rights defenders who work in the defence of which women generally, and WHRDs specifically, corporate tax avoidance.214 Most of these multinational as well as relations and structures of power. These are 208 women’s rights or on gender issues (A/HRC/16/44). have practised collective care and healing. UAF-Africa corporations (MNCs) are based in the Global North strategies for change, rather than end goals. Women have also been innovating mechanisms sees healing justice and collective care as critical in and many utilise European and US tax havens, deriving aimed at protecting and defending WHRDs. The societies that criminalise women’s resistance and their profits and wealth from the ‘cheap’ labour and Feminists for a Binding Treaty globally Mesoamerican Initiative of Women Human Rights fierceness and structurally cause WHRDs’ trauma while unpaid care work of women in the countries where they Defenders designed a Rapid Response Fund for creating no space, time or resources for healing and produce, enabled by global tax rules and norms set by The current negotiations for a legally binding treaty on Security and Self-care for WHRDs and established a regeneration.210 Collective care is essential to sustaining the OECD – a Northern-based agenda setter. In 2018, business and human rights, led by the Open-ended house providing collective well-being and care services movements.211 Moreover, as women’s collective action 69 of the richest 100 entities globally are corporations, Intergovernmental Working Group on Transnational for WHRDs in Oaxaca, Mexico called La Serena. This is usually unfunded or underfunded, AWID has designed not governments.215 Corporations and other Business Enterprises (IGWG), house has benefitted activists such as Lolita Chávez a framework towards creating a ‘Feminist Funding offer an historic opportunity to plug the accountability and her companions of the K’iche’s Peoples Council Ecosystem.’ In this feminist funding ecosystem, feminist Corporate wealth and power is being further gaps, regulate transnational corporations and other (CPK) who had been demonstrating against corruption movements – particularly in the Global South – would be consolidated and state policy space constrained by business enterprises and ensure access to effective and discriminatory policies against indigenous at the centre and equal partners in the political project the growing number of public private partnerships remedy for those whose rights have been violated. peoples. Her first stay provided her a space of rest and for global gender justice. Funders themselves would see (PPPs) replacing publicly owned and delivered public Global initiatives and frameworks to date, such as the reflection away from a situation of permanent stress, and understand their role within the ecosystem and are services, growing multi-stakeholderism which is OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises and 216 harassment, and attacks against her, her family and able to pull the levers of change so that the clear majority shrinking multilateralism and the increasing use the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human her organisation. The temporary stay house is used for of their funding commitments toward gender justice and of investor-state dispute settlement (ISDS) clauses Rights (UNGPs), have failed to ensure access to 209 recuperation, healing, rest and reflection. Similarly, women’s rights are going to movements directly.212 in trade and investment deals. ISDS clauses allow remedy and justice for survivors, due to not having multinationals to sue states for millions of dollars in internationally agreed sanctions for companies that private corporate courts if they feel an investment fail to meet their duties to respect human rights Photo: Sheldon Moultrie/ActionAid is jeopardised, even where a state is implementing overseas, nor being binding. The UNGPs also fail to legitimate policy measures aimed at promoting establish extraterritorial obligations of states to ensure equity or addressing climate change.217 Analysis by access to justice for abuses committed by MNCs in the Corporate Europe Observator and Transnational third countries. The UNGPs acknowledges and tries Institute (TNI) reveals how, even as the global death to address this governance gap by establishing the toll during Covid-19 exceeds exceeds 1 million (as of corporate responsibility to respect human rights via October 2, 2020)218, corporations and their lawyers human rights due diligence (HRDD), but this remains could soon launch lawsuits against governments that largely voluntary and is still weak in terms of ensuring took steps to address the pandemic. These include access to either judicial or non-judicial remedy and State measures to ensure that people can afford clean redress for those whose rights have been violated. water for hand-washing, taking control of private Feminists for a Binding Treaty is a collective of feminist hospitals and hotels to treat coronavirus patients, acting organisations, including women’s rights organisations to secure affordable medicines, vaccines and tests, and and INGOs, that work together to ensure that an preventing water, gas and electricity cuts due to lack of intersectional-feminist perspective underpins the binding payment.219 Not only do these cases cost governments instrument and its various provisions. The coalition millions of dollars in court fees and possible pay-outs, was established in recognition of the fact that women’s but just the perceived threat of being sued could under-representation in political decision-making due to discourage governments from introducing policies prevailing patriarchal power structures means that there that are beneficial to citizens but challenging to is a risk that women human rights defenders’ voices investors’ interests. will be excluded from this important new process on corporate regulation and accountability and women’s Power inequalities, patriarchal systems and entrenched experiences will be left invisible. These voices are vital discrimination mean that human rights abuses as a to represent the gendered impacts of corporate abuse, result of business activities are not gender neutral and the gendered challenges in accessing remedy, and have a disproportionately adverse impact on women gendered impacts on women human rights defenders and their economic rights: their access to land, their (WHRDs) standing up to corporate abuse. If a gendered right to decent work, their unpaid care and domestic approach to the treaty is not prioritised, it may further 220 Community volunteers and self-proclaimed ‘gender defenders’ (from left to right): Veronica, Jurusha, work. States are obliged to prevent and address the normalisation of human rights violations experienced Alice, Patience, Nancy and Rukia. These women see themselves as advocates for the rights of women human rights violations resulting from corporate by women, girls, including trans women and those and children in Mukuru, Niarobi, Kenya. practices under international human rights law. While from other groups experiencing intersecting forms of national and international actors increasingly promote

34 35 oppression.222 Feminists for a Binding Treaty are calling rights due diligence); gender-sensitive justice and remedy 4. Maximising public financing for the inclusion of the following: mandatory gender mechanisms; and respect, protection and an enabling impact assessments by companies (mandatory human environment for Women Human Rights Defenders.223 National gender due diligence legislation “The global reform of tax systems is the low hanging fruit In recent years, following the unanimous endorsement of the UNGPs by the Human for radical change.” Rights Council in 2011 and sustained advocacy by civil society, many countries have started to Jayati Ghosh - Professor of Economics, consider binding requirements on companies Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi to identify, prevent and mitigate human rights Current rigged global economic structures and taxation abuses in corporate supply chains, and to systems allow corporates to dodge taxes, shifting guarantee access to justice for victims of these income to tax havens and contributing significantly abuses. These legislative developments provide to the vast levels of illicit financial flows (IFFs) leaving an important opportunity to advance a feminist the Global South. This system facilitates private economic alternative of a world free from appropriation of public resources and illicit financial corporate abuse. To ensure corporations respect flows allows multinational corporations and wealthy women’s rights and fulfil their responsibility to individuals to avoid paying their fair share of taxes.228 respect human rights, as set out under the This denies the Global South between US$100 UNGPs and subsequently the revised OECD billion and US$200 billion of dollars each year229 and Guidelines, states should integrate a gender estimations in the report by the High Level Panel on Illicit perspective in existing mandatory human rights Financial Flows from Africa led by the president of South due diligence laws and those being drafted. Africa Thabo Mbeki are that the African continent loses These would require companies to conduct up to US$50 billion dollars annually as a result of IFFs. gender responsive due diligence throughout This is double the amount that the continent receives their entire operations and value chains, take in form of Oversees Development Assistance (ODA) steps to address violations identified, and making Africa a net creditor to the world.230 Tax justice ensure access to remedy, with civil and criminal and ending IFFs represents one of the strongest areas liability for companies failing to do so. As the of feminist advocacy for alternative economic policy call for mandatory human rights due diligence approaches. Networks such as the ‘Global Alliance for legislation grows louder in many countries and 224 Tax Justice (GATJ) Tax and Gender Working Group’ are even among actors in the corporate sector, providing space for advocates leading the charge to gender considerations need to be reflected in combine forces in demonstrating tax as a feminist issue. emerging due diligence legislation, or we risk adopting laws that leave women behind.225 Taxation is widely recognised as the most reliable, This has also been emphasised and called for sustainable and democratic way of funding the by the UN Working Group in Business and state budget and public services. Taxation is one Human Rights.226 On the first of July 2020, of the principal means through which the collective Dutch government coalition party ChristenUnie responsibility to finance public goods and services together with opposition parties Partij van de is realised. It is vital to the preservation of the social Arbeid, GroenLinks and Socialistische Partij contract between citizens and the state (as discussed submitted their policy proposal for mandatory above on page 28). Therefore taxation also strongly human rights due diligence legislation in determines the potential resources states may have Parliament. This initiative follows in the footsteps available to remunicipalise public goods and services of several legislative processes in the USA, from private providers. A progressive approach to tax

Photo: Jamy Osinga for ActionAid Australia and several European Member ideally entails higher tax rates appropriately set for States where governments have introduced those with more wealth, based on the ability to pay binding obligations on corporations to prevent with governments then spending/investing the revenue adverse impacts on human rights and the according to need. This is the redistributive power of environment due to their activities throughout their supply chains. The Dutch policy proposal is the first piece of legislation worldwide that acknowledges the differentiated impacts of Netherlands – have been advocating for years that corporate human rights violations on women the due diligence process corporations undertake as and requires corporations to mitigate these required by international standards, should include impacts. In the coming months, the Dutch a gender lens. If the Dutch government decides government will decide whether to take on board to adopt the proposal, it will be a milestone for Human rights and environmental activists from Zambia and Guatemala stand outside the Dutch Parliament to this proposal. INGOs advocating for women’s feminists demanding corporate accountability and hand over a letter to the Minister for Trade & Development Cooperation, demanding action for a feminist UN rights, such as ActionAid – including ActionAid access to justice for survivors everywhere.227 binding treaty business & human rights and national gender due diligence law.

36 37 progressive tax systems. There is not a one-size-fits- minimum of at least 20% tax-to-GDP ratio is needed of states to use the maximum available resources governments is further limited. Over the past decade, all answer for how much tax a country should collect, to deliver on the Sustainable Developments Goals and mobilise for the progressive realisation of rights is developing countries have faced a growing debt burden but most developing countries should be aiming to and to provide quality public services that are gender- prescribed in Article 2 of the International Covenant entailing that they are now spending 85% more on debt increase their tax revenue. Right now there are huge responsive.232 Worryingly, the estimated financing on Economic and Social and Cultural Rights.235 repayment than at the start of the decade. In Kenya gaps in the provisioning of quality public services, gaps for achieving the SDGs are now being used as World leaders have also committed to maximising for instance, over 36% of the budget goes to debt as education, childcare, healthcare, WASH and an excuse for bringing in corporate actors and PPPs, domestic resources, including on the 2030 Agenda for repayment, this is more than expenditure on education transportation. ActionAid’s “Who Cares for the Future” instead of more progressive taxation measures.233 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Addis and healthcare combined.245 Western governments report demonstrates how international benchmarks Moreover, while overseas aid and loans from IFIs might Ababa Agenda for Action.236 that dominate the leadership of the IMF need to embark on spending on education and early childcare, health provide temporary, partial support to gaps in financing, on transforming their institutions and change their policy and SRHR, water and sanitation compared to GDP they are not a sustainable solution and often come with Feminist analysis has shown how right now, tax prescriptions for the developing world that are ultimately are currently far off from being met, especially in low conditions set by lenders that create challenges and policies do not work for women.237 Current revenue extractive and maintain their neo-colonial power. income countries.231 And according to the UN a bare new restrictions on policy autonomy.234 The obligation raising systems are often regressive and have a Governments in the Global South need to, as much disproportionate impact on women from the poorest as possible within this unbalanced power dynamic and most marginalised communities.238 For instance, between North and South, resist IMF advice value added tax (VAT) and other consumption on austerity and regressive tax reforms 246 and taxes almost invariably lead to women being adopt more progressive approaches to taxation.247 disproportionately taxed, because the tax rate is the Governments in the Global North have a role to play same no matter an individual’s income and women to ensure business pay their fair share, also via spend more of their limited revenue on household or mandatory due diligence and a UN Binding Treaty basic goods and services. This has a further regressive on business and human rights.248 and gender-discriminatory impact.239 Despite this, corporation taxes have been reduced by half while Shaping a feminist solidarity-based consumption taxes including VAT have doubled over the past 20 years or so.240 IMF tax policy advice, contained economic multilateralism in surveillance and loan programmes, continues to The Bretton Woods Project describes how there is regularly encourage governments to introduce, expand currently a “crisis of multilateralism [that is] structurally or raise rates of VAT or sales taxes. As of 2018, 166 of undermining democratic governance and human rights, the world’s approximately 193 countries employ a VAT. while destroying the environment.”249 Women’s rights In sub-Saharan Africa, about 25% of tax revenue comes organisations such as AWID and DAWN highlight 241 from VAT, compared to 6.8% in OECD countries. how the international multilateral and financial system Moreover, of critical importance to increasing Southern we know today, encompassing institutions such countries’ ability to maximise public financing for gender as the WTO, IMF, World Bank, OECD, has largely equality is the fair taxation of multinational corporations. been shaped by colonial interests, that persist to The Independent Commission for the Reform of date in new forms, and is structurally not fit to tackle International Corporate Taxation (ICRICT) and UNCTAD, the major challenges of the 21st century, including among others have been calling for unitary taxation – an climate change and the global inequality crisis, which agreed minimum rate of 25% which is determined by require an urgent, ambitious and coordinated political the current corporate average tax rate in G7 countries action across borders.250 Moreover, one of the most – to prevent tax dodging and a competition among important post-WWII multilaterals – the UN – is being countries to offer the lowest possible tax rates to MNCs undermined by underfunding, increasing involvement in order to secure investment and therefore perpetuating of corporate interests and shrinking civic space. While 242 a race to the bottom. certain states largely ignore what comes out of the UN’s various bodies and refuse to partake (for instance The way in which tax is spent matters strongly to the US and the UNFCCC Paris Agreement). Following gender equality and the power of tax lies in the way the independence of many countries in the South that taxation policies can contribute to strengthening from colonialism, a new generation of political leaders democratic accountability for effective exercise of the created new economic opportunities and challenged the social contract.243 Due to loan and tax conditionalities rules of the multilateral game when these efforts were countries are being pushed to implement austerity stymied. However efforts since the 1970s by economic measures (which are more or less unchanged since elites, both national governments and in the financial the discredited and now more commonly known as and corporate sectors, used the multilateral system ’structural adjustment’ or ‘fiscal consolidation’ policies to expand global markets and cross-border financial from the 1980s) by the IMF.244 This means spending flows as ends in themselves. In many cases, this on public services, including public sector wage bills, means that multilateralism is not concerned anymore is held down or cut, further disadvantaging women with advancing common concerns by establishing and for whom quality provision of health, education, upholding universal standards.251 child care or other services can significantly reduce and redistribute unpaid care and domestic work The right to self-determination is key to the feminist responsibilities and address the wider poverty they approach, which includes for states and communities to may face. Moreover, through the heavy burden of debt have policy autonomy independent of IFIs conditionality repayment to the IMF, the public funds available to

38 39 and corporate power. UNCTAD shared its vision on a within the United Nations (often referred to as the “New Multilateralism Based on Shared Prosperity” in Global Tax Body) to reform international tax rules to Conclusion and recommendations 2019. The main problem this report aims to tackle is finance public services and to realise gender equality 4 the way in which multilateralism has been used by the since 2015.256 The existing UN tax group cannot set or economic elite. “Under the umbrella of the World Trade change rules as it is not a political body. It should be Organisation (WTO), with the active engagement of the therefore be upgraded.257 The Global Tax Body would IMF and World Bank, and through a plethora of trade ensure that a negotiated, globally agreed system would Feminist organising and leadership has demonstrated discrimination, and protection of the environment and investment treaties, [economic elites] have put in be less complex and more transparent and fair for all.258 time and time again that another world is possible, and climate. place a set of enabling norms and rules that allows Developing countries see the Global Tax Body as a a world that values care, wellbeing and the crucial 1.3. Invest in more comprehensive research and data footloose finance and firms to move freely within and way to remove tax rule-making from the tight influence contributions that women, girls and the environment gathering tools to track and assess progress across borders and into ever expanding spaces for of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and make to our everyday lives. While the deep flaws of and macroeconomic policy impacts that use profit making through privatisation of previously (and Development (OECD) giving developing countries a say, the current economic system have been apparent for robust intersectional analyses to better track and properly) public functions.”252 Critically UNCTAD sets and broadly democratising the process.259 The UN tax decades, the Covid-19 pandemic has laid bare the address gender inequalities, ensuring women at out recommendations for financial regulation. Central body would operate on the basis of One Country, extent of gender inequalities at all levels. Business the margins are neither made invisibilise nor left principles in this vision are: 1. Global rules should be One Vote, where developing countries would have as usual will not bring the solutions women and girls behind. so urgently need. Now more than ever is the time for calibrated toward the overarching goals of social and an equal say. However, several OECD members have 1.4. In the context of Covid-19 lockdowns, tackle systemic transformation. Essential is an economic economic stability, shared prosperity, and environmental repeatedly blocked any attempts to create a Global the shadow pandemic of gender-based violence policymaking geared towards realising changes to sustainability and be protected against capture by the Tax body, arguing that they are already reforming by ensuring services for survivors are deemed the material realities and lives of women as well as most powerful players. 2. States share common but international tax rules through the Base Erosion and essential and remain accessible and adequately changes to relations and structures of power so differentiated responsibilities in a multilateral system built Profit Shifting (BEPS) project. Although the BEPS funded. to advance global public goods, such as global health, project attempts to create some level of transparency, that human rights, climate and social justice are 1.5. Ratify and enshrine in national law and fully and peace and the planet, and protect the global commons by encouraging information sharing between countries primary drivers and not just profit and GDP growth. effectively implement relevant ILO Conventions 3. The right of states to policy space to pursue national on financial flows, it does nothing to address the Feminist economic alternatives, as the manifestations (including C190 and C189) in consultation with development strategies should be enshrined in global unequal division of power in defining global tax rules of women’s knowledge, experience and collective WROs and unions and worker associations rules. 4. Global regulations should be designed both and their application.260 imagination are an achievable yet transformative including those representing women working in to strengthen a dynamic international division of labour opportunity and must urgently be heeded and taken- the informal sector and domestic workers. and to prevent destructive unilateral economic actions up by policy makers and global agenda setters, that prevent other nations from realising common goals. including as part of efforts to implement a post-Covid 1.6. Support efforts of women workers to build 5. Global public institutions must be accountable to 19 recovery. collective power, particularly as they go back their full membership, open to a diversity of viewpoints, to work following the Covid-19 pandemic by Drawing from the extensive examples of FEAs cognisant of new voices, and have balanced dispute implementing the ILO Decent Work Agenda and covered in the four volumes of this report series, we resolution systems.253 Moreover in UNCTAD’s recent therefore aligning labour policies accordingly. end this volume with a series of recommendations report on ‘How South-South cooperation can support 1.7. Provide support and resources for mutual support for governments, IFIs and the private sector, many economic recovery’ it explains how while certain and reciprocity networks, including specific legal of which have been extensively made already by countries have found the fiscal and policy space to policies, frameworks and funding to support women’s rights organisations, feminist economists and respond to the crisis, most countries have been struck women’s cooperatives. activists themselves. These recommendations are not by capital flight, currency collapse, dwindling foreign 1.8. Enshrine a multidimensional right (like the necessarily new, but demonstrate that the solutions for exchange earnings and shrinking fiscal space. The Uruguay National Care System) to both give and a swift change in policy are available. Acknowledging response from the multilateral system to this extreme receive care and ensure quality childcare and the scale on which truly transformational change is financial stress has been underwhelming, falling short elderly care is accessible and affordable to all. necessary, these recommendations are presented of the efforts necessary to avoid recession turning into grouped per theme and area of change. A number of 1.9. Develop integrated care policies and systems depression. With this in mind, UNCTAD proposes a them are so urgent in the context of Covid-19 that we through participatory processes that engage and South-South cooperation agenda oriented on three have highlighted them in bold text. consult with civil society, feminist economists broad objectives: scaling-up financial resources; and the women’s movement so as to develop a 254 enhancing policy space; and building resilience. comprehensive definition of care and therefore address it with the right institutional frameworks Justice reforms in the dialogue and negotiation For Governments for each specific context. processes on tax policy between OECD countries and Global South is a highly necessary part of this. It 1. To centre economies around care is not just through IFFs that governments are losing 2. To ensure a just transition out on tax revenue, but also through the global ‘race 1.1. Centre fiscal, monetary, trade and investment 2.1. to the bottom’ or the competition by governments policies and national development strategies on Embark on a just transition away from constantly reducing tax rates or offering tax cuts, in the provisioning of human needs and human harmful agriculture, food and energy systems order to attract or retain foreign investment. In order well-being, based on an understanding of the that addresses – rather than exacerbates to maximise public financing for gender equality, centrality of the care economy and lessons – inequalities; transform systems to work feminist advocates highlight the need to challenge elite learned from the Covid-19 crisis. for people, nature and the climate; ensure inclusiveness and participation; develop multilateralism, global power imbalances and global 1.2. Drop GDP and growth as sole measures comprehensive policy frameworks. inequalities among countries.255 Feminist activists of progress and develop additional gender- and women’s rights organisations have been part of transformative indicators based on well-being, a. Climate policies must recognise that a campaign for an inclusive intergovernmental body human rights, tackling inequalities based vulnerable mining and farming communities on gender and other social and economic may already face precarious livelihoods and 40 41 may not be able to bear the burden or cost 3.2. Increase tax-to-GDP ratios at least to 20% in and reject the policy recommendations to cover core costs, as a way to support of just transitions unless they are given strong order to provide quality public services that are that advance neoliberal ideologies, trade autonomous feminist organising in line with their support and positive incentives to do so. gender-responsive. Invest too in social protection, liberalisation, austerity, privatisation and self-defined priorities. Support efforts to work b. Just transitions must address the lack of including in the expanded provision of quality conditionalities imposed by the IMF and other towards a feminist funding ecosystem. access to secure food, nutrition, energy and care, and ensure access to decent work for care international financial institutions. livelihoods faced by poor and vulnerable workers. 3.8. Support and contribute to the establishment of communities, and that women face particular 3.3. Redistribute wealth and maximise resources by an inclusive intergovernmental UN Global Tax For IFIs and other challenges and burdens. instituting systems of progressive taxation that Commission where all member states have a adopt a gendered lens, tackling corporate tax multilateral global c. When shifting away from fossil fuels towards seat at the table and equal say in determining avoidance and other forms of illicit financial flows renewable energy, the transformation of international tax rules. agenda setters energy systems must take into account the and closing tax havens. 3.9. Take a gender-transformative approach to trade, potentially harmful impacts of renewable 3.4. Make enhanced spending on care and GRPS recognising how trade policies impact on women 1. To centre economies around care energy’s increased demand on metal and one of the primary charges on the state budget. as workers, producers, providers of unpaid care. mineral extraction and must not simply shift Allocate budgets using participatory gender- As part of this, governments should reorient 1.1. Stop promoting privatisation of public goods and exploitation and land grabs to new areas. budgeting approaches. trade to support human rights, gender equality services and reverse privatisation especially of d. Strong labour, social, environmental and 3.5. Open up meaningful and representative spaces and protection for the environment over growth. public services. gender-responsive standards must govern all for women, women’s rights organisations Trade policies and agreements ought to include 1.2. The IMF must review its policy advice and loan sectors involved. and movements at decision making tables, mandatory gender and human rights impact conditionalities that promote austerity and the recognising the value of their knowledge and assessments with meaningful consultations and reduction of public sector wage bills. 2.2. Plans must be developed through the inclusive practice by, for example, including them in the engagement with women’s rights organisations participation of women, workers, farmers, 1.3. G20 leaders, IFIs and private sector lenders must design, implementation and review of any further and movements, remove ISDS mechanisms and communities and stakeholders, especially those cancel all debt servicing and renegotiate all other Covid-19 response and recovery policies and preserve countries’ policy space to create decent that are marginalised, and by taking account debts so that servicing of debts never again programmes. jobs and provide GRPS. of new communities and sectors that will be exceeds spending on health or education – and 3.6. Make and reshape economic policies with involved in or affected by the transition. Ensure 3.10. Support efforts led by the UN to develop a all future loans are taken out in a transparent and an intersectional lens, to ensure that women and promote women’s rights to access and feminist UN binding for treaty business and accountable way. facing intersectional forms of oppression have control land, water, forests, commons, and human rights and integrate a gender perspective their rights fulfilled, as part of a conscious effort especially women’s collective rights to use, in existing mandatory human rights due diligence to break with patriarchal, racist and colonial 2. To ensure a just transition exchange, obtain, select and sell their own seeds. laws and those being drafted. mindsets and policies that reflect and entrench 2.1. Support countries to develop and implement 2.3. Revise positions and policies on the Green 3.11. Introduce binding obligations on corporations to these. national climate policies by granting them the Revolution approach to national agricultural undertake gendered human rights due diligence 3.7. Governments that dominate the leadership fiscal space to finance them in the short and long development and pull back current policies in order to identify, prevent and address adverse of the IMF must embark on transforming term. that favour industrialised and market-driven impacts on human rights and the environment their institutions and commit to UNCTAD’s paradigms. due to their activities throughout their supply recommendations for financial regulation: chains, and ensure access to effective remedy. 3. To build the conditions for FEAs 2.4. Invest in Research and Development on proven agroecological practices such as water and a. Global rules should be calibrated toward the 3.12. Develop mechanisms to ensure access to to flourish nutrient conservation, organic pest management overarching goals of social and economic effective judicial remedy for victims of abuse 3.1. Support and materialise a more democratic global and the development of local plant varieties, and stability, shared prosperity, and environmental overseas committed by and/or linked to MNCs tax system hosted within the UN where each gear agricultural policies towards scaling these sustainability and be protected against domiciled in a State’s jurisdiction. country has one vote. approaches. capture by the most powerful players. 3.13. Cease all forms of criminalisation, persecution 3.2. Support and contribute to the establishment 2.5. Decentralise power to local communities, with a b. States share common but differentiated and repressions against WHRDs and civil society of an inclusive intergovernmental UN Global focus on women-led accountability mechanisms, responsibilities in a multilateral system built to at large. Protect and expand civil society space Tax Commission where all countries member for their full participation in the formulation and advance global public goods, such as global and support multiple forms of civil society. states have a seat at the table and equal say in implementation of policies and programmes that health, peace and the planet, and protect the Vital to this is the recognition and valuing of determining international tax rules. affect them. Improve collaborative competences global commons. the ideas, knowledge and contributions from autonomous feminist mobilisations and organising through capacity strengthening of rural c. The right of states to policy space to pursue (including indigenous women) which may institutions. national development strategies should be develop alternative and novel ideas for organising For companies 2.6. Enact policies to prevent rural dispossession and enshrined in global rules. economies more equitably. land grabbing. d. Global regulations should be designed both 3.14. Strengthen existing mechanisms to protect 1. To build the conditions for FEAs to strengthen a dynamic international division WHRD by, for instance, upholding the UN of labour and to prevent destructive unilateral to flourish 3. To build the conditions for FEAs to Declaration on Human Rights Defenders and economic actions that prevent other nations flourish developing this further from a women’s rights 1.1. Conduct gender-responsive human rights due from realising common goals. perspective so that WHRDs are recognised, diligence throughout their entire operations and 3.1. Cancel all debt servicing and renegotiate all other e. Global public institutions must be accountable supported and enabled to participate equally, value chains, take steps to address violations debts so that servicing of debts never again to their full membership, open to a diversity meaningfully and powerfully in the promotion and identified and ensure access to remedy. exceeds spending on health or education – and of viewpoints, cognisant of new voices, and protection of human rights. 1.2. Commit to become tax-responsible by making all future loans are taken out in a transparent and have balanced dispute resolution systems. 3.15. Dramatically scale up flexible, long-term funding incremental changes to its structures and tax- accountable way. As part of this, governments ought to resist for WROs and feminist networks, including related transactions eschewing the tax avoidance

42 43 measures currently widely practised so they stop using tax avoidance schemes and pay more References taxes in the countries where their profits are created.261 1 16 1.3. Recognise that women face particular For example, see: Futshane, V. (2018). ‘Queernomics: A queer Ibid (African Feminist Macroeconomic Academy 2020) eye for the straight economy’. BUWA! – The Future of African 17 disadvantages and discrimination, by developing Women’s Work in Africa. Available at: https://osisa.org/wp-content/ IMF (2020). The Great Lockdown: Worst Economic Downturn and publishing a gender policy, addressing the uploads/2019/04/BUWA-Issue9_DIGITAL_web.pdf Since the Great Depression. Available at: https://www.imf.org/en/ systemic problems faced by women and how the News/Articles/2020/03/23/pr2098-imf-managing-director-statement- company will seek to address them throughout 2 For example, see: Jain, D. Elson, D. Et al. (2011). 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Available at: including in their supply chain. 21 Mies, M. and Shiva, V. (1993, 2014) Ecofeminism. London, http://policydialogue.org/files/publications/papers/Austerity-the-New- ZED Books b. Guarantee paid parental leave for all workers Normal-Ortiz-Cummins-6-Oct-2019.pdf with care responsibilities and make childcare 22 Ibid (ActionAid (2020). Who Cares for the future?) provisions in the workplace for workers with 6 Earth Overshoot Day was on August 22nd in 2020. For more care responsibilities. information on Earth Overshoot Day and how it is calculated, see: 23 Ibid (Agosto, V, Shaw, A. Kelleher, F. Moosavi, N. 2020) Pp. 5-6 https://www.overshootday.org/2020-calculation/ c. Offer gender-transformative training, 24 Elson 2002; Young, Bakker, and Elson 2011; Galvez and Torres mentoring and opportunities for advancement 7 Ibid (Ortiz, I. Cummins, M. 2019) P.5. 2019 (emphasis added) of women. 8 Gender Development Network (2018). Submission to the 25 For example, see: UN Women. (2019). Families in a Changing d. Ensure that women workers, especially Independent Expert on foreign debt and human rights on the World. Available at: https://www.unwomen.org/-/media/ temporary and informal workers, are links and the impact of economic reforms and austerity measures headquarters/attachments/sections/library/publications/2019/ on women’s human rights. Available at: https://www.ohchr. represented and listened to in collective progress-of-the-worlds-women-2019-2020-en.pdf?la=en&vs=3512 org/Documents/Issues/Development/IEDebt/WomenAusterity/ bargaining about pay and conditions. GenderDevelopmentNetwork.pdf 26 Federici, S. (2011). Feminism and the Politics of the e. Commit to a zero tolerance of GBV and Commons. The Wealth of the Commons. Available at: http:// 9 Staab, S. (2020). COVID-19 sends the care economy deeper into work with women workers and their worker wealthofthecommons.org/essay/feminism-and-politics- crisis mode. UN Women. 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Available at: http://unsse.org/about/ financially and by acknowledging their crucial role in at: https://www.actionaid.org.uk/sites/default/files/publications/ protecting and advancing women’s rights. creating_lasting_impact_the_power_of_women-led_localised_ 33 UNRISD (2018). Feminist Analysis of Social and Solidarity responses_to_covid-19.pdf. Economy Practices: Views from Latin America and India. Available at: http://www.unrisd.org/80256B3C005BB128/(httpProjects)/ 14 Ibid (ActionAid (2020). Who Cares for the future?) P.40. 25E19977A47FFC96C1257F110054BCB5?OpenDocument. 15 African Feminist Macroeconomic Academy (2020). An Introduction to Feminist Macro-Level Economics. Available at: https://static1. squarespace.com/static/536c4ee8e4b0b60bc6ca7c74/t/5f2940 b2adaadd409fa60345/1596539086311/AFMA+resource+pack+- 44 +The+audacity+to+disrupt+2020.pdf. 45 34 UNSSE (2020). SSE responses to COVID-19: information from the 53 Care economy; Informal Work and Rural Women’s Rights; Tax 72 Ibid (Batliwala, S 2007) 92 The National Performance Framework Team at the Scottish members and observers of the UNTFSSE. Available at: http://unsse. and fiscal policies; Demanding accountability and reclaiming public Government (2019). Scotland’s Wellbeing report. Available at: https:// 73 org/sse-responses-to-covid-19-information-from-the-members- goods/services from privatisation; Land, food sovereignty / resisting Ibid (Agosto, V, Shaw, A. Kelleher, F. Moosavi, N. 2020) nationalperformance.gov.scot/scotlands-wellbeing-report and-observers-of-the-untfsse/ & ILO (2020). ILO Solidarity Message. and rejecting extractivism; Economies free from violence. 74 Michaeli, I. AWID. “Advancing Feminist Economic Alternatives To 93 Available at: https://www.ilo.org/global/topics/cooperatives/news/ The BBC (2019). 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Available at: https://renapess.files. wee.unwomen.org/en 78 Cook, S. 2014. ‘Book review: New frontiers in feminist political wordpress.com/2015/02/politique-nationale-de-lc3a9conomie- of costs, short-term employment effects and fiscal revenue, 58 UN Secretary-General’s High-Level Panel on Women’s Economic economy’, Gender and development 22.3, 583-587. http://www. UN Women, 2019. Available at: http://www.unwomen.org/en/ sociale-et-solidaire.pdf. More information on the Mali SSE policy can genderanddevelopment.org/page/new-frontiers-review be found at UNRISD (2016) Promoting Social and Solidarity Economy Empowerment (2020). Panel Members. Available at: https://hlp-wee. digital-library/publications/2019/07/discussion-paper-investing-in- through Public Policy, p121-122. Available at: http://www.unrisd.org/ unwomen.org/en/about/panel-members. 79 Elson, D. 2016. ‘Recognize, reduce, and redistribute unpaid care free-universal-childcare-in-south-africa-turkey-and-uruguayhttp:// www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publications/2019/07/ flagship2016-chapter4. 59 work: how to close the gender gap’, New labor forum 26.2, 52-61. The African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (2003). discussion-paper-investing-in-free-universal-childcare-in-south-africa- 39 Index Mundi (2019). Mali - Informal employment. ILOSTAT Available at:https://www.un.org/en/africa/osaa/pdf/au/protocol_ 80 When GDP was first proposed as a measure by the male turkey-and-uruguay P.6 database. Available at: https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/mali/ rights_women_africa_2003.pdf economists Meade and Stone in 1941, it was almost immediately 98 Ibid (De Henau, J. et al 2019) informal-employment. 60 AWID (2020). Feminist Propositions for a Just Economy. Available contested by a female economist in their team, Phyllis Deane, particularly based on the realities of women’s unpaid care work in 99 40 RIPESS (2020). Women and Governance in SSE, feedback on at: https://www.awid.org/feminist-propositions UN Women (2019). Progress of The World’s Women 2019–2020. Africa. Her insights were ignored by her male colleagues. (ActionAid ISBN: 978-1-63214-156-9. Available at: https://www.unwomen. the 4th RIPESS webinar on Women & ESS. Available at: http:// 61 AWID (2020). Co-Creating Feminist Realities. Available at: https:// (2020). Who Cares for the future?) org/-/media/headquarters/attachments/sections/library/ www.ripess.org/femmes-gouvernance-less-retour-4eme-webinaire- www.awid.org/priority-areas/co-creating-feminist-realities femmesess-ripess/ 81 Ibid (Agosto, V, Shaw, A. Kelleher, F. Moosavi, N. 2020) publications/2019/progress-of-the-worlds-women-2019-2020-en. 62 For example, see: https://womensglobalstrike.com/ pdf?la=en&vs=3512 P.229 41 UNRISD (2018). Feminist Analysis of Social and Solidarity 82 Deen, T. 2012. ‘Women spend 40 billion hours collecting water’, 100 Economy Practices: Views from Latin America and India. Available 63 Gender Development Network (2020). The Audacity to Disrupt: An InterPress Service News Agency, 31 August. Available at: http:// Ibid (UN Women 2019) P.230 at: http://www.unrisd.org/80256B3C005BB128/(httpProjects)/ Introduction to Feminist Macro-level Economics. www.ipsnews.net/2012/08/women-spend-40-billion-hours- 101 ILO (2018). Care Work and Care Jobs: For the Future of 25E19977A47FFC96C1257F110054BCB5?OpenDocument. collecting-water/ 64 Womankind (2020). Towards a Just Feminist Economy. Available Decent Work. Available at: https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/ 42 RIPESS (2020). SSE with gender perspective. Available at: at: https://www.womankind.org.uk/policy-and-campaigns/resources/ 83 Ibid (Elson, 2016) public/---dgreports/---dcomm/---publ/documents/publication/ http://www.ripess.org/ess-with-gender-perspective/?lang=en towards-a-just-feminist-economy wcms_633135.pdf 84 ILO (2018). Care Work and Care Jobs for the Future of Decent 102 43 In November 2013, during the RIPESS Globalisation of Solidarity 65 Women’s Budget Group (2019). What does a gender-equal Work. Available at: https://www.ilo.org/global/publications/books/ The ITUC (2017). Investing in the Care Economy. Available at: meeting in Manila, a group of women drafted a document that economy look like, and what policies do we need to achieve this? WCMS_633135/lang--en/index.htm https://www.ituc-csi.org/investing-in-the-care-economy. they then presented in plenary session: “the Declaration for gender Available at: https://wbg.org.uk/commission/ 85 Ibid (Mies, M. Vandana Shiva, V., 1993, 2014) P.7 103 De Henau, J. and Himmelweit, S. (2020). A Care-Led Recovery perspective in social solidarity economy.” Available at: http://www. 66 European Women’s Lobby (2020). Purple Pact: It’s Time for from Coronavirus. Women’s Budget Group. Available at: https://wbg. ripess.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/RIPESS_manila2013_ 86 a Feminist approach to the Economy. Available at: https://www. A Compass towards a Just and Harmonious Society: 2015 GNH org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Care-led-recovery-final.pdf gender_statement.pdf womenlobby.org/Purple-Pact-It-s-Time-for-a-Feminist-approach- Survey Report. Centre for Bhutan Studies & GNH Research, 2016. Available at: http://www.grossnationalhappiness.com/ 104 others include Mexico and Costa Rica. 44 Ibid (Wanjala, B. 2018) P.94. to-the-Economy; Wide+. Resources Feminist Economic Literacy. Available at: https://wideplus.org/resources/resources-feminist- 87 OPHI (2020). Bhutan’s Gross National Happiness Index. Available 105 Thim, A. et al. (2020). Enabling Women’s Economic 45 Ibid economic-literacy/ at:https://ophi.org.uk/policy/national-policy/gross-national- Empowerment. Women’s Economic Empowerment, OECD. Available at: https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/ec90d1b1-en/1/2/5/index. 46 Ibid (Agosto, V, Shaw, A. Kelleher, F. Moosavi, N. 2020) P.29 67 happiness-index/ WIEGO. Informal Economy. Available at: https://www.wiego.org/ html?itemId=/content/publication/ec90d1b1-en&_csp_= 47 Ibid informal-economy 88 For example, maternity leave was introduced but only for those e464979423b7e88e4ad4507dd3cb3871&itemIGO=oecd&item 68 Womin (2019). The Mogale Declaration: Living the Future Now. working the civil service. See: http://www.bhutanstudies.org. ContentType=book 48 Ibid (Agosto, V, Shaw, A. Kelleher, F. Moosavi, N. 2020) P.2 bt/2015GNHConference/Paperfor2015GNHConference/3.%20 Available at: https://womin.org.za/resource-library/women-building- 106 Esquivel, Valeria. (2015). La Economía Feminista desde América 49 Gender%20Differences%20in%20GNH%20in%20Bhutan.pdf Ibid power/feminist-just-transition.html Latina: ¿Una vía para enriquecer los debates de la Economía Social 89 50 Ibid 69 Batliwala, S. (2007). ‘Taking the Power out of Empowerment: an The Government of New Zeeland (2020). 2020 Budget, Available y Solidaria? experiential account’ in Development in Practice, Vol. 17, No. 4/5; at: https://www.budget.govt.nz/budget/2020/priorities/index.htm 51 Ibid, Pp.84-86 107 Esquivel, V. (2017) ‘The rights‐based approach to care policies: McFadden, P (2016) ‘Becoming contemporary African feminists: 90 Roy, E. (2020). The New Zeeland Wellbeing Budget. The Guardian. Latin American experienceThe rights‐based approach to care 52 Recognise and provide support for the existing invisible Her-stories, legacies and the new imperatives’. Feminist Dialogue Available at:https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/may/30/ policies: Latin American experience’ in International Social Security economy; Support women’s leadership, collective organising Series, 1: 1-7; Kelleher, F (2017) ‘Disrupting Orthodoxies in Economic new-zealand-wellbeing-budget-jacinda-ardern-unveils-billions-to- Review, Volume 70, Issue 4, Special Issue: The human right to social and decision-making within all spheres of economies; Implement Development: An African Feminist Perspective’, Feminist Africa, care-for-most-vulnerable#maincontent security, October/December 2017, Pages 87-103. Available at: gender-transformative public services; Provide support for specifically Issue 22 https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/issr.12154 91 Curtin, j and Morrissey Suzy (2019). Where Does Gender Equality feminist reworkings of traditional, placed-based and historic 70 Ibid (Agosto, V, Shaw, A. Kelleher, F. Moosavi, N. 2020) knowledges and practices; Recognise and value the ideas and Fit into the Budget?. The News Room. Available at: https://www. 108 Interview with Isabel Perez, 11 June 2020 contributions from autonomous feminist mobilisations and organising. 71 Ibid (McFadden, P 2016) newsroom.co.nz/ideasroom/614191/where-does-gender-equality-fit- into-the-budget. 46 47 109 Ibid (Esquivel 2017) 135 Internal ActionAid briefing: Violence and Harassment Convention, 155 ActionAid (2019). Advancing Equitable Land 173 Ibid (Agosto, V, Shaw, A. Kelleher, F. Moosavi, N. 2020) Pp. 69-70 2019 (No.190) and Recommendation (No.206). Unpublished. Governance. Available at: https://actionaid.nl/ 110 174 Ibid (Esquivel 2017) wp-content/uploads/2019/04/87995_ActionAid_ Interview with Samantha Hargreaves, WoMin, on 15 July 2020 136 Interview with Chidi King, August 2020 111 Ibid (Esquivel 2017) PublicatieAdvancingEquitableLandGovernance_INT3.pdf 175 Interview with Samantha Hargreaves, WoMin, on 15 July 2020 137 See for example open letter signed by ActionAid, APMDD, 112 Email communication from Margarita Petrovich, Red Pro 156 ActionAid (2018). From Rhetoric to Rights: Towards Gender-Just 176 Randriamaro, Z. (2018). Beyond Ectractivism: Feminist DAWN, GAATW, PSI and WEIGO at: https://actionaid.org/ Trade. Available at: https://www.actionaid.org.uk/sites/default/files/ Cuidados, on 5th June 2020 news/2019/violence-not-part-jobhttps://actionaid.org/news/2019/ alternatives for a socially and gender just development in Africa. publications/from_rhetoric_to_rights_towards_gender-just_trade_ Feminist Reflections. Available at: http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/ 113 Ibid (Esquivel 2017) violence-not-part-job and the campaign by ITUC at: https://www. actionaid_policy_briefing.pdf ituc-csi.org/GBVhttps://www.ituc-csi.org/GBV bueros/mosambik/15208-20190325.pdf 114 Email communication, Soledad Salvador, 25th May 2020; Email 157 European Parliament (2015). The New Alliance for Food 177 138 Ibid (ILO 2019, Ratification of the Violence and Harassment Friedrich Ebert Stiftung (2018). Feminist Reflections. Available at: communication, Red Pro Cuidados, 19th May 2020 Security and Nutrition in Africa. Available at: https://www. http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/mosambik/15208-20190325.pdf Convention) europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2015/535010/ 115 Ibid / AIDC. Amadiba Crisis Committee. Available at: http://aidc.org.za/ 139 ILO (2019). Namibia Commits to Ratify ILO Convention on EXPO_STU(2015)535010_EN.pdf partners/amadiba-crisis-comittee/ 116 Email communication, Red Pro Cuidados, 19th May 2020 Violence and Harassment. Available at: https://www.ilo.org/newyork/ 158 ActionAid USA (2018). The Collapse of the New Alliance and 178 WCMS_722051/lang--en/index.htm Moussié, R. (2016). Struggles for women’s rights, economic and 117 Email communication, Soledad Salvador, 25th May 2020; the Continued Threat of Agribusiness to Food Security. Available at: gender justice. Association for Women’s Rights in Development 140 ILO (1951) Equal Remuneration Convention. Available at: https:// https://www.actionaidusa.org/blog/new-alliance-threat-food-security/ (AWID). Available at: https://www.awid.org/sites/default/files/atoms/ 118 Ibid (Agosto, V, Shaw, A. Kelleher, F. Moosavi, N. 2020) P.46 www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO: 159 Global Justice. What is Food Sovereignty? Available at: https:// files/ccp_fullreport_eng.pdf P.46 119 Ibid (Esquivel 2017) :P12100_ILO_CODE:C100 www.globaljustice.org.uk/what-food-sovereignty 179 Ibid (Sen & Durano, 2015) 141 120 Amarante, Verónica, et al (2019). “The National Care System ILO (2011). Domestic Workers Convention. Available at: https:// 160 Cock, J. 2016. A feminist response to the food crisis in 180 A social contact is an ‘unwritten’ collective agreement whereby in Uruguay: Who Benefits and Who Pays?” Population and www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO: contemporary South Africa. Agenda, 30:1, 121-132, DOI: citizens endorse or are happy to comply with the laws and rules Development Review, vol. 45, no. S1, pp. 97–122., doi:10.1111/ :P12100_ILO_CODE:C189 10.1080/10130950.2016.1196983 set by a state, based on the trust that the state is and will continue padr.12271 142 ActionAid. (2020). Moving Together Towards a Just Transition. 161 Agarwal, B. (2014). Food sovereignty, food security and in their best interests. Systems of taxation are often seen as being 121 Email communication, Soledad Salvador, 25th May 2020; at the heart of the social contract – citizens are willing to relinquish 143 ActionAid. (2020). Principles for Just Transitions in Energy, democratic choice: critical contradictions, difficult conciliations, interview with Isabel Perez, 11 June 2020 their earnings in the belief that the government will re-invest these in Extractives and Agriculture, Policy Briefing The Journal of Peasant Studies, 41:6, 1247-1268, DOI: 10.1080/03066150.2013.876996 their/wider society’s best interests. It may be imposed from above, 122 RPC (2020). Declaracion de la red pro cuidados ante 144 Lopez, M (2017). Notes on the Just Transition Framework from fought over from below, and always holds the potential for change. elanuncio de la quita de recursos al sistema nacional de 162 the JASS Experience. JASS. Available at: https://justassociates.org/ Organic Without Boundaries (2018). Interview with Mariama But its fluidity is also interspersed with stability. Periods of stability cuidados. Available at: http://www.redprocuidados.org.uy/ en/article/notes-just-transition-framework-jass-experience Sonko: Raising the Voice of Women Farmers in West Africa! Available in social contracts, local or global, are periods when our collective declaracion-de-la-red-pro-cuidados-ante-el-anuncio-de-la-quita-de- at: https://www.organicwithoutboundaries.bio/2018/08/10/raising- understanding of what is and what ought to be are stable and recursos-al-sistema-nacional-de-cuidados/ 145 APWLD (2018). A Feminist Interpretation of Just and Equitable women-farmers-africa/ roughly in synchrony with each other; and when power structures Transitions in the Context of Climate Change. Available at: http:// and associated institutions are relatively steady. But social contracts 123 ILO (2020). Decent Work. Available at: https://www.ilo.org/global/ 163 apwld.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/2018_Just_and-Equitable_ https://www.cirad.fr/en/news/all-news-items/press- are always in a state of flux. Our usage of the term ‘social contract’ topics/decent-work/lang--en/index.htm Transitions_briefer.pdf. releases/2020/agroecology-senegal-public-policy is embedded in the political economy of power and inequality at 124 For example, see: https://www.world-psi.org/en/decent-care- 164 multiple levels and in varied forms. (DAWN, 2015) The UN General 146 Ibid (Lopez, 2017) In 2006, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the work-time-act Rockefeller Foundation launched the Alliance for a Green Revolution Assembly (UNGA) adopted the Declaration on the NIEO and its 147 Ibid (APWLD, 2018) in Africa (AGRA). Armed with high-yield commercial seeds, synthetic accompanying programme of action on 1 May 1974. In doing so, 125 Ibid (Agosto, V, Shaw, A. Kelleher, F. Moosavi, N. 2020) fertilizers, and pesticides, it was touted as being able to deliver Africa the UN pledged to take action on inequities and injustices in the 148 Ibid (Mies & Shiva, 2014) international system, eliminate the gap between developed and 126 ILO (2017). Leveraging the cooperative advantage for women’s its own Green Revolution in crop production to reduce hunger and developing countries, ensure accelerating economic and social empowerment and gender equality. Cooperatives and the World 149 https://africanarguments.org/2019/03/12/why-world-needs- poverty. However, African organisations are currently demanding development, and secure peace and justice. See more: http://sdg. of Work. No.1. Available at: https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/ african-ecofeminist-future/ answers after a recent report found that Alliance for a Green iisd.org/news/un-reports-on-progress-towards-new-international- public/---ed_emp/---emp_ent/---coop/documents/publication/ Revolution in Africa (AGRA) strategies have failed spectacularly to 150 economic-order/ wcms_307217.pdf Sato, C., Soto Alarcón, J. M. (2019). Toward a postcapitalist meet its goals of increasing productivity and incomes for millions feminist political ecology’ approach to the commons and of small-scale farming households by 2020 while reducing food 181 Ibid (ActionAid, 2018) 127 Ibid (Wanjala 2018) commoning. International Journal of the Commons, 13(1), 36–61. insecurity on the continent. For more, see: https://www.rosalux.de/ DOI: http://doi.org/10.18352/ijc.933 fileadmin/rls_uploads/pdfs/Studien/False_Promises_AGRA_en.pdf 182 Fraser, Nancy; et al. Nash, Kate (ed.) (2014). Transnationalizing 128 Borzaga, C. et al. (2017). Social and Solidarity Economy and the the Public Sphere. Cambridge, UK. Future of Work. The ILO. Available at: https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/ 151 Merino, J. (2017). Women Speak: Ruth Nyambura Insists 165 CIRAD (2020). Senegal: getting to work on the agroecological groups/public/---ed_emp/---emp_ent/--coop/documents/publication/ On A Feminist Political Ecology. Available at: https://msmagazine. transition. Available at: https://www.cirad.fr/en/news/all-news-items/ 183 GRPS are services which are 1) publicly funded, 2) publicly, not wcms_573160.pdf com/2017/11/15/women-speak-ruth-nyambura-feminist-political- press-releases/2020/agroecology-senegal-public-policy privately, delivered and universal, 3) gender equitable and inclusive ecology/ and 4) focused on quality, in line with human rights frameworks. 129 Ibid (Borzaga 2017) 166 CSM (2019). Without Feminism There is No Agroecology. For more information, see https://actionaid.org/publications/2018/ 152 Villa, M (2017). Women own less than 20% of the world’s Available at: http://www.csm4cfs.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/ 130 Ibid, P.25 framework-2018-gender-responsive-public-services land. It’s time to give them equal property rights. World Economic CSM-Agroecology-and-Feminism-September-2019_compressed.pdf 131 Ibid, P.44 Forum. Available at: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/01/ 184 Ortiz, I. Cummins, M. (2019). Austerity – the New Normal. IPS. 167 women-own-less-than-20-of-the-worlds-land-its-time-to-give-them- ActionAid (2018). Agroecology: Scaling-up, scaling-out. Available at: http://policydialogue.org/files/publications/papers/ 132 ILO (2019). Ratification of the Violence and Harassment equal-property-rights/ https://actionaid.org/publications/2018/agroecology-scaling- Austerity-the-New-Normal-Ortiz-Cummins-6-Oct-2019.pdf P.41 Convention. Available at: https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=N scaling-outhttps://actionaid.org/publications/2018/ ORMLEXPUB:11300:0::NO::P11300_INSTRUMENT_ID:3999810 153 FAO (2020). Why is gender equality and rural women’s agroecology-scaling-scaling-out 185 The European Comission (2015). Q&A. Available at: https:// empowerment central to the work of FAO? Available at: http://www. ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/in-focus/tisa/questions-and-answers/ 133 For instance, regarding ILO C190, see: https://www. fao.org/gender/background/en/ 168 Ibid (Organic Without Border, 2018) solidaritycenter.org/union-women-leaders-urge-nations-ratify- 186 Romero, M. (2020). Development finance in times of Covid-19: 169 Ibid (Merino 2017) ilo-c190/ 154 CFS (2012). Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Tenure of Time for a rethink at the World Bank. European Network on Debt Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security. 170 Ibid (Agosto, V, Shaw, A. Kelleher, F. Moosavi, N. 2020) Pp. 69-70 and Development Asbl. Available at: https://www.eurodad.org/ 134 ILO (2019). Violence and Harassment Recommendation. Available Available at: http://www.fao.org/3/a-i2801e.pdf development_finance_covid19_world_bank. at: https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0: 171 Ibid (CSM, 2019) :NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:R206 187 Ibid (Romero, 2020) 172 Ibid (ActionAid, 2017) Pp.2-3

48 49 188 Angel, J. (2020). Seven Steps to Building a Democratic 210 Urgent Action Fund Africa (2020). Journey Towards the Feminist 227 Tweede Kamer (2020). Initiatiefnota van de leden Voordewind, 245 Ibid (ActionAid (2020). Who Cares for the future?) Economy. Transnational Institute. Available at: https://www.tni.org/ Republik. Available at: https://www.uaf-africa.org/journey-towards- Alkaya, Van den Hul en Van Ojik over Tegen slavernij en uitbuiting 246 files/publication-downloads/tni_7_steps_to_build_a_democratic_ the-feminist-republik/ – een wettelijke ondergrens voor verantwoord ondernemen. Ibid (ActionAid (2020). Who Cares for the future?) economy_online.pdf Available at: https://www.tweedekamer.nl/kamerstukken/ 247 211 Abi Khalil, S. “Taxes, Taxes, Taxes: Shifting the IFI Narrative to Email exchange Jean Kemitare, UAF Africa on 22 August 2020 detail?id=2020D24473 189 Ibid (Agosto, V, Shaw, A. Kelleher, F. Moosavi, N. 2020) Progressive Gender-just Taxation” during the Civil Society Policy 212 Jones, R. & Miller, K. (2019). Toward a Feminist Funding 228 Othim, C. & Saalbrink, M. (2019). It’s time to tax for gender justice. Forum session on 12 April at the World Bank and IMF’s 2019 190 Eurodad (2020). How Public Private Partnerships are Failing. Ecosystem. AWID. Available at: https://www.awid.org/sites/default/ Available at: https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/oureconomy/ Spring Meetings. https://www.brettonwoodsproject.org/2019/04/ History RePPPeated. Available at: https://d3n8a8pro7vhmx. files/atoms/files/awid_funding_ecosystem_2019_final_eng.pdf. its-time-tax-gender-justice/ taxes-taxes-taxes-shifting-the-ifi-narrative-to-progressive-gender- cloudfront.net/eurodad/pages/508/attachments/ just-taxation/ 213 original/1590679608/How_Public_Private_Partnerships_are_failing. UN General Assembly, 2015b. World Economic Situation and 229 Ibid (ActionAid (2020). Who Cares for the future?) 248 pdf?1590679608. Prospects 2015. New York: United Nations, pp. 64–65. https://www. Ibid (Abi Khalil, 2019) un.org/en/development/desa/policy/wesp/wesp_archive/2015wesp_ 230 Ighobor, K (2016). Mbeki panel ramps up war against illicit 249 191 FEMNET (2019). PPPs. Available at: https://femnet.org/tag/ppps/ full_en.pdf financial flows. Africa Renewal. Available at: https://www.un.org/ The Bretton Woods Project (2019). A Series of Critical Essays. africarenewal/magazine/april-2016/mbeki-panel-ramps-war-against- Available at: https://www.brettonwoodsproject.org/2019/10/bretton- 192 214 TNI. Remunicipalisation. Available at: https://www.tni.org/en/ ActionAid (2018). Short Changed. Available at: Refs (90, 91 and illicit-financial-flows. woods-at-75/ collection/remunicipalisation 92) from Short Changed https://www.actionaid.org.uk/sites/default/ 250 files/publications/actionaid_briefing_short-changed_-_how_the_imfs_ 231 Ibid (ActionAid (2020). Who Cares for the future?) Waris, A. (2017). Why We Should Claim These Resources For 193 TNI (2020). 7 Steps to Build a Democratic Economy: The Future tax_policies_are_failing_women.pdf Gender, Economic and Social Justice. AWID. Available at: https:// is Publis Conference Report. Available at: https://www.tni.org/ 232 Ibid (ActionAid 2020 Who Cares for the Future?) P.20 www.awid.org/sites/default/files/atoms/files/iffs-awid-brief_2017.pdf. files/publication-downloads/tni_7_steps_to_build_a_democratic_ 215 Global Justice Now (2018). 69 Richest Entities on the Planet 233 251 economy_online.pdf are Corporations Not Governments. Available at: https://www. UNA-UK. Filling the Finance Gap. Available at: https://www. Gandhi, Kanchan (2016). “The Remaking of Social Contracts: globaljustice.org.uk/news/2018/oct/17/69-richest-100-entities- sustainablegoals.org.uk/filling-the-finance-gap/ Feminists in a Fierce New World Editors: GitaSen and MarinaDurano 194 Kishimoto, S. et al. (2019). Towards Democratic Ownership of for DAWN Zed Books, London - 2014 ISBN - 978-1-78032-158-5.” planet-are-corporations-not-governments-figures-show 234 Public Services. Available at: https://futureispublic.org/wp-content/ Ibid (ActionAid (2020). Who Cares for the future?) Journal of International Development, vol. 28, no. 7, 2016, pp. uploads/2019/11/TNI_the-future-is-public_online.pdf 216 Gleckman, H. (2019). UN signs deal with Davos that threatens 235 https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/cescr.aspx 1192–1193., doi:10.1002/jid.3227. democratic principles. Available at: https://www.tni.org/en/article/ 195 The Abijan Principles (2019). On the Right to Education. Available 252 Gallagher, P. and Kozul-Wright, R. (2019). A New Multilateralism un-signs-deal-with-davos-that-threatens-democratic-principles/ 236 The UN General Assembly (2015). The Addis Ababa Action at: https://www.abidjanprinciples.org/ for Shared Prosperity. Global Development Policy Center. Available at: Gleckman, H. (2019). How the United Nations is quietly being Agenda. Available at: https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/ https://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/gp_ggnd_2019_en.pdf 196 MIQCB, ActionAid Brazil. (2019). The struggle turned into a public-private partnership. Available at: https://www. population/migration/generalassembly/docs/globalcompact/A_ of Babassu Coconut Breakers in Brazil for Access to Land, Territory opendemocracy.net/en/oureconomy/how-united-nations-quietly- RES_69_313.pdf 253 Ibid (Gallagher & Kozul-Wright, 2019) and Natural Resources. being-turned-public-private-partnership/ 237 The Gender & Tax Working Group for the Tax Justice Alliance 254 UNCTAD (2020). South-South Cooperation at the time of 197 If Not Us Then Who? (2014). Babassu - Brazil’s 217 Stop ISDS (2020). Rights for People, Rules for Corporations. has an annual ’Make taxes work for women’ campaign, see more: COVID-19: Building Solidarity Among Developing Countries. Available Warrior Women. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/ Available at: https://stopisds.org/ https://www.globaltaxjustice.org/en/action/make-taxes-work-for- at: https://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/gdsinf2020d4_en.pdf. watch?v=ISE5q3aPL6c&feature=youtu.be women 218 ECDC (2020) Covid situation update worldwide, as of 2 October 255 Durano, M., Bidegain Ponte, N. A Feminist Perspective on the 198 Ibid (MIQCB 2019) 2020, Available at: https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/geographical- 238 Ibid Ibid (ActionAid (2020). Who Cares for the future?) Follow-Up Process for Financing for Development. Development 59, distribution-2019-ncov-cases 32–39 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41301-017-0075-z 199 Interview with Emmanuel Ponte, ActionAid Brazil on 25 May 2020 239 The Bretton Woods Project (2017). The gender dimensions of the 219 Corporate Europe Observatory (2019). Cashing in on the IMF’s key fiscal policy advice on resource mobilisation in developing 256 Ibid (Othim & Saalbrink, 2019) 200 Ibid (MIQCB 2019) pandemic: how lawyers are preparing to sue states over COVID-19 countries. Available at: https://www.brettonwoodsproject.org/wp- response measures. Available at: https://corporateeurope.org/ content/uploads/2017/04/IMF-and-Gender-Equality-VAT-1.pdf 257 Matti Kohonen. “Taxes, Taxes, Taxes: Shifting the IFI Narrative 201 Peace Brigades International (2020). Human Rights Defenders en/2020/05/cashing-pandemic-how-lawyers-are-preparing-sue- to Progressive Gender-just Taxation” during the Civil Society Policy fighting impunity. Available at: https://www.peacebrigades.org/en/ 240 states-over-covid-19-response-measures Woo, M. (2018). How does austerity impact women’s human Forum session on 12 April at the World Bank and IMF’s 2019 human-rights-defenders-fighting-impunity rights? Asia Pacific Forum on Women, Law and Development. Spring Meetings. https://www.brettonwoodsproject.org/2019/04/ 220 ActionAid. (2020). We Mean Business. Available Available at: https://wbg.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Misun- 202 Peace Brigades International (2018). Women Human Rights taxes-taxes-taxes-shifting-the-ifi-narrative-to-progressive-gender- at: https://actionaid.nl/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/ Woo-remarks-4-December-2018.pdf Defenders. Available at: https://www.peacebrigades.org/en/women- just-taxation/https://www.brettonwoodsproject.org/2019/04/ We-Mean-Business-Protecting-Womens-Rights-in-Global-Supply- taxes-taxes-taxes-shifting-the-ifi-narrative-to-progressive-gender- human-rights-defenders 241 Ibid (ActionAid (2020). Who Cares for the future?); OECD (2019). Chains_ActionAid_March-2020.pdf & Awori, S., Anumo, F., Cordova just-taxation/ Revenue Statistics 2019: Tax Revenue Trends in the OECD. Available 203 OHCHR (2019). Women human rights defenders face worsening Montes, D., & Hughes, L. (2018). A Feminist Approach to the Binding at: https://www.oecd.org/tax/tax-policy/revenue-statistics-highlights- violence. Available at: https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/ Instrument on Transnational Corporations and other Business 258 Simeoni, C. et al. (2018). SDG 5: Women, macroeconomic brochure.pdf P. 7 DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=24232&LangID=E. Enterprises. Business and Human Rights Journal, 3(2), 285-290. policies and the SDGs. Available at: https://www.2030spotlight.org/ en/book/1730/chapter/sdg-5-women-macroeconomic-policies-and- doi:10.1017/bhj.2018.3 242 ICRICT (2019). International Corporate Tax Reform. 204 MamaCash. Mesoamerican Initiative of Women Human sdgs. Available at: https://www.icrict.com/press-release/2019/10/6/ Rights Defenders. Available at: http://history.mamacash.nl/ 221 Feminists for a Binding Treaty (2018). Women’s Rights Beyond icrict-report-current-reform-of-international-tax-system-radical- donors-funds-page/fondsen-op-naam/mesoamerican-initiative-of- the Business Case. Available at: https://wilpf.org/wp-content/ 259 Waris, A. (2017). Why We Should Claim These Resources For change-or-yet-another-short-term-fix women-human-rights-defenders/ uploads/2018/09/Fem4BT-2018-Womens-rights-beyond-the- Gender, Economic and Social Justice. AWID. Available at: https:// www.awid.org/sites/default/files/atoms/files/iffs-awid-brief_2017.pdf. business-case.pdf 243 Ibid (ActionAid (2020). Who Cares for the future?) 205 Ibid (OHCHR, 2019) 222 260 Ibid (Waris, 2017) Ibid (Awori et al, 2018) 244 The IMF has acknowledged that ’certain policy recommendations 206 OHCHR (2019). Women Human Rights Defenders. Available by staff’ may exacerbate gender inequality. When it came to at: https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WRGS/Pages/ 223 Ibid (Feminists for a Binding Treaty 2018) 261 ActionAid (2018). Towards Responsible Corporate Tax Behaviour. correcting this the IMF “missed the forest for the policy trees,” HRDefenders.aspx#:~:text=The%20Special%20Rapporteur%20 Available at: https://www.actionaid.org.uk/sites/default/files/ 224 Support for EU Framework on Mandatory Human Rights and according to Emma Bürgisser of the Bretton Woods Project. on%20the,HRC%2F16%2F44 publications/getting_to_good_towards_responsible_corporate_tax_ Environmental Due Dilligence. (2020) Available at: https://media. “Almost every macroeconomic policy the IMF regularly prescribes behaviour.pdf 207 Women Human Rights Defenders International Coalition. business-humanrights.org/media/documents/EU_Business_ carries harmful gendered impacts, including labour flexibilisation, The WHRD Identity. Available at: https://www.defendingwomen- Statement_Mandatory_Due_Diligence_02092020.pdf privatisation, regressive taxation, trade liberalisation and targeting defendingrights.org/our-work/ social protection and pensions.” (Bretton Woods Project, 2017. 225 Ibid (ActionAid (2020). We Mean Business) The IMF and Gender Equality A Compendium of Feminist 208 Ibid (OHCHR, 2019) 226 OHCHR (2019). Gender guidance for the Guiding Principles on Macroeconomic Critiques). 209 Ibid (Agosto, V, Shaw, A. Kelleher, F. Moosavi, N. 2020) P.77 Business and Human Rights. Available at: https://www.ohchr.org/ Documents/Issues/Business/Gender_Booklet_Final.pdf

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