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Home , Capital flight, Feminist economics, Marilyn Waring, Terre Nash

Women Reinventing Globalisation

Edited by Joanna Kerr and Caroline Sweetman

Oxfam Focus on The books in Oxfam's Focus on Gender series were originally published as single issues of the journal Gender and Development, which is published by Oxfam three times a year. It is the only European journal to focus specifically on gender and development issues internationally, to explore the links between gender and development initiatives, and to make the links between theoretical and practical work in this field. For information about subscription rates, please apply to Taylor and Francis Ltd., Customer Services Department, Rankine Road, Basingstoke, Hants RG24 8PR UK; Fax: + 44 (0) 1256 330245. In North America, please apply to Taylor and Francis Inc., Customer Services Department, 325 Chestnut Street, 8th Floor, Philadelphia, PA 19106, USA; Fax +1 800 821 8312. In Australia, please apply to Carfax Publishing Company, P.O. Box 352, Cammeray, NSW 2062, Australia; Fax: +61 (0) 2 9958 2376; [email protected]; www.tandf.co.uk/journals

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Front cover: , near Shenzen. Migrant labourers from inland provinces working in a toy factory producing dolls. Photo: Mark Henley/ Panos Pictures

© Oxfam GB 2003 Published by Oxfam GB, 274 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7DZ, UK www.oxfam.org.uk / publications Typeset in Palatino by Oxfam; printed by Information Press, Eynsham Oxfam is a registered charity No. 202918 Oxfam GB is a member of Oxfam International ISBN 0 85598 492 9

This book converted to digital file in 2010 Contents

Editorial 3 Joanna Kerr and Caroline Sweetman I The of globalisation Gender budgets and beyond: feminist in the context of globalisation 15 Nilufer Cagatay Feminist responses to economic globalisation: some examples of past and future practice 25 Ruth Pearson Counting for something! Recognising women's contribution to the global economy through alternative accounting systems 35 African women challenging neo-liberal economic orthodoxy: the conception and mission of the GERA programme 44 Zo Randriamaro In search of an alternative development paradigm: feminist proposals from 52 Members of the Feminist Initiative of Cartagena If I were Minister of Finance...: gaining understanding of through a simulation workshop 59 Mehrene Larudee and Caren Grown II Globalisation as politics Fundamentalisms, globalisation, and women's in Senegal 69 Fatou Sow A daring proposal: campaigning for an inter-American convention on sexual rights and 77 Valeria Pandjiarjian Free markets and state control: a feminist challenge to Davos Man and Big Brother 82 Mona Danner and Gay Young Using the master's tools: , media and ending 91 Sanya Sarnavka III Specific issues of global concern Strategic advocacy and maternal mortality: moving targets and the millennium development goals 97 Lynn Freedman HIV/AIDS, globalisation and the international women's movement 109 Sisonke Msimang New genetic technologies and their impact on women: a feminist perspective 114 Lisa Handwerker Trafficking and women's human rights in a globalised world 125 Pamela Shifman IV Building a global voice to protect women's rights The women's movement in the era of globalisation: does it face extinction? 135 Andrea Medina Rosas and Shamillah Wilson Institutions, organisations and in an era of globalisation 142 Aruna Rao and David Kelleher Resources 150 Compiled by Ruth Evans Publications 150 Electronic resources 152 Briefing kits 154 Journals 154 Organisations 155 Videos 156 Conferences 157 Editorial Joanna Kerr and Caroline Sweetman

'The world's giant transnational corporations, gender equality movement. Yet there was and the governments and multilateral clear agreement on the major analysis: institutions that cling to them, are globalising globalisation processes, in their current the wrong things, things that are of benefit to form, are a threat to the gains women have them and no one else. And they're refusing made over the past three decades, in to globalise the right things, which would struggling for an end to and equal benefit all of us.' status and rights with men: in their families, (Jorquera, 2000) the community and the state. As shown in this collection of articles, radical action is 'Globalise this - women's rights now.' needed, if globalisation is to be re-routed (AWID Forum, 2002) down a just and sustainable path. In this brief editorial we will distinguish This collection of articles comes from the between two interpretations of what Association for Women's Rights in globalisation actually means: a largely Development (AWID)'s Ninth International technical process, and one that is inherently Forum, on Reinventing Globalisation. The political. The phenomenon of globalisation Forum was held in Guadalajara, Mexico, needs to be demystified if we are to work from 3-6 October 2002. The collection was a together to challenge its current course. We collaborative effort between AWID and will go on to outline the connections Oxfam GB. It has been jointly edited by between globalisation and . Joanna Kerr, Executive Director of AWID, Finally, we introduce each article in this and Caroline Sweetman, of Oxfam GB. collection, and consider how its writer The goal of the Forum was to under- addresses the key issue: that is, how should stand globalisation and its impact on we turn gender analysis of globalisation women's rights and gender relations better, into action for ? and to pinpoint ways in which we can But first, here are a few words to mobilise to ensure these complex processes introduce AWID. can guarantee human rights, development and peace for all. Obviously, there were Introducing AWID many different takes on globalisation, what it is and what it is doing, from different AWID began its life in 1982, as a member- individuals and organisations at the AWID ship organisation offering support, and a Forum. This range reflects the overall forum for discussion for policymakers, diversity to be found within the feminist/ practitioners and academics promoting gender equality in developing countries. , or your local IT Since then, AWID has grown in both size provider, use the word 'globalisation' in a and scope, to become the dynamic network technical, rather than a political way, to of thousands of women and men working refer to the increasing ease with which in development research, policy and people can communicate and do business practice that it is today. More than half of internationally. This means that inter- AWID's members live and work in the national financial transactions can be global South, Eastern Europe and the executed in a split second, changing the fate former Soviet Union. AWID aims to of national economies overnight. Events facilitate ongoing debates about funda- unfolding in can be beamed into living mental and provocative issues, as well as to rooms in South America in the course of a build the individual and organisational few minutes. capacity of those working for women's Some critics of globalisation see these empowerment and . new technologies as being inherently bad The AWID Forum occurs every three for human rights and the sustainable years, and is the largest regular inter- development of the planet. They decry the national meeting focusing on women and way in which global technologies promote gender equality outside the an international Western-dominated culture system. It has become a key event for of and capitalist develop- feminists in development. In Guadalajara, ment. They emphasise that the most around 1,300 leaders, scholars, and appropriate, just and fair economic and practitioners gathered to consider not only political decision-making is made at local the economic, but also the political, social, level, by women and men who have full ecological and cultural implications of knowledge of the realities of the social and globalisation. In more than 150 workshops, cultural context. plenaries, skills-building sessions and In contrast, some opponents of global- debates, they discussed their experiences of isation can see the potential of the new current models of globalisation of the technologies for change that benefits economy and the political system, and people. For example, they believe that if debated viable alternatives to the unsus- free was genuinely free and tainable, undemocratic, and exploitative was lifted in the global forms that globalisation has taken so far. North, developing countries would poten- tially be able to challenge global inequality. Women around the world could benefit What is globalisation? from buying food, clothing, or computers at Reams of paper and thousands of key- cheaper . Another example, which is strokes have been expended in theoretical often pointed out by feminists, is that of the debates about globalisation. But the potential of the Internet to build a new and concerns of the readers - and writers - of this genuinely participatory kind of democracy. collection of articles are about formulating Using the Internet, global networks of development policy and practice which activists can meet up, develop their ideas in promotes gender equality as a part of its real-time chat rooms, and plan political vision. Two key points emerge from the action. debates, which help to clarify what globalisation actually is, and its impli- Globalisation as a political process cations for womens' rights. People who see the technical processes of globalisation as potentially useful often Globalisation as a technical process tend to use the word 'globalisation' as a Some, such as broadcasters on CNN, shorthand term for the ways the new Editorial technologies are being used by the current expanding tendency of Western countries, generation of economists and politicians. economies and to dominate the Some - the supporters of neo-liberal rest of the world? ... All formal empires, development strategies - think globalisation with the possible exception of the in its current form is broadly beneficial to American Empire, if you want to call it humanity. They argue that speedy global that, have disappeared from the world' travel and communications enable (Giddens, Lecture 1, Reith Lectures 1999). companies to invest in parts of the world Gidden's mention of the U.S.A. here which have hitherto been isolated from chimes with critics of the current model of international production and world trade, world development, who highlight the way and speak of the level playing field which in which the global North (that is, both the globalisation can potentially create. U.S. and other prosperous countries, Globalisation is 'sold' as apolitical, including and those of the concerned only with economics; as pro- European Economic Community) is forcing growth and pro-poor. its political convictions and its preferred However, there is now a vast and onto poor countries in the weighty body of evidence that proves global South and Eastern Europe. The globalisation to be profoundly political: countries of the global South have a history states play a very significant role in of economic exploitation by richer nations, facilitating the activities of transnational and many are hugely in debt to inter- corporations. The evidence also shows that national financial institutions (IFIs). This, globalisation in its current form does not together with a lack of democracy in IFI challenge deep-rooted, structural poverty, decision-making, creates a very weak either for nations or for individuals and bargaining position for most of them. their families. Critics decry the present Through the 1980s and beyond, Southern model of globalisation for eroding human countries have been forced to introduce a rights, and diminishing the ability of package of neo-liberal economic policies, individual governments to protect their which are supposed to encourage economic citizens' rights. Governments are not able growth. to determine their own economic policies to Their borders have been forced open to suit the particular context of the country trade and . While international they have been elected to rule, and their of world trade by the World ability to address and solve problems of Trade Organisation (WTO) is supposed to inequality and poverty is therefore create equal opportunities for all economies dramatically compromised. in a global marketplace, in fact 'free trade' Many governments of developing is really a misnomer. countries, and NGOs involved in develop- rules purport to bring for all, by ment in North and South, argue that enabling all countries to compete on equal globalisation processes are consolidating a terms for shares of the international new kind of colonialism. Increasingly, . Yet, the rich countries of the global power and resources are being held by a North do not follow the same rules as those relatively small number of global players, in the South: for example, protectionist who are unaccountable to the vast popu- policies continue to shelter farmers and lations of people in poverty in the global industrialists in Northern countries. In the South. These global players are inter- global South, transnational corporations national businesses, states in the global offer desperate workers precarious and North, and elites in North and South. exploitative . Their bargaining Antony Giddens has asked: 'Does position is usually too weak to enable them globalisation mark the increasing ever- to attain better conditions, since the international migration of workers is . Women who used to spend their prevented by harsh laws protecting the US time cultivating staple crops for family and 'Fortress Europe' from immigrants in consumption are now obliged to labour on search of a better life. fields of sugar or flowers for export. They rarely see the earned, and cannot use the new crops they grow to feed their Why is globalisation a families. Women are overworked and gender issue? disempowered, and their children can go How is globalisation affecting the power hungry. imbalance between women and men, Another strand in the feminist research which is a feature of almost all cultures on globalisation looks at the impact of throughout the world? What does it do to employment for global markets on women's daily lives? For over 20 years, individual women and on gender relations gender and development and feminist more widely. In industry, globalisation has researchers have studied aspects of resulted in a profound change in the globalisation, and their impact on women. relationship between factory workers and The economic 'reforms' of the 1980s and the companies whose products they make. promoted a shift in emphasis from The propensity of factories to employ a production for domestic consumption, in female workforce was first noted by both industry and agriculture. A of feminist researchers in the 1970s and 1980s. research now exists to show the impact of Then, women were directly employed by this supposedly 'gender-neutral' change in national companies. Nowadays, local emphasis, on women's daily lives and on employers are part of an international their status in society. chain which links vast transnational Much of this research examines the corporations to individual women workers, links between ordinary women and their turning out garments, toys and other dependents, international rules about consumer commodities for a US-inspired trade, and policies imposed on debtor global market. countries by the international financial Many commentators assert that women's institutions. Far from being gender-neutral primary responsibility for their dependents in their impact on communities, inter- makes them more desperate then men for national financial policies have a^ dramatic work, willing to accept lower , direct impact on individual women and on precarious terms of employment, and poor gender relations throughout society. Some working conditions. Much energy has gone kinds of impact have been researched more into debating whether employment in than others, over a longer period of time. industry is, overall, a good or bad thing for For example, one well-established body individual women's daily lives, and for the of work looks at the effect of structural status of women more widely. But this is a adjustment on women - in particular, in sterile debate, which is based on a false relation to cutbacks to social services and premise that women's working conditions shifts to cash-crop cultivation for export. In cannot be challenged. Every worker, male agriculture, pressure from governments to or female, throughout the world, should be produce cash crops for export has led to a able to find a that offers a fair in reduction in women's control over the safe conditions. fruits of their labour. This is because there More recent analysis in the field has is a correlation in the majority of societies examined the many new challenges that between male domination of women and have arisen in the context of a globalised male control over activities which earn world. At first glance, these challenges Editorial seem quite unrelated to each other; yet and 1990s. International financial institu- globalisation connects them. The escalation tions imposed a rigid package of 'reforms', of trafficking in women is an outcome of aiming to open up markets and reduce the globalisation that pushes women into new role of the state. Niliifer £agatay outlines forms of precarious transnational employ- the impact on women and gender relations ment. Drug treatments for HIV /AIDS - a of SAPs and macro-economic stabilisation. disease which is highly gendered - have She highlights the fact that these have become pawns in an international struggle typically led to a fiscal squeeze by putting for intellectual rights, as multi- pressure on public budgets, asserting that national companies try to control the 'The fiscal policies of most governments in accessibility of generic drugs through trade the last 20 years reflect the increased power laws. And the rise in fundamentalism is of vis-a-vis labour, on the one hand, also connected to globalisation, as politico- and of foreign and national vis-a- religious movements react to Western- vis the rest of the citizenry, on the other' imposed cultural domination. These (this issue). State spending on social emerging right-wing movements promote welfare has reduced, throwing the burden their own interpretations of 'tradition' and of social welfare provision back into the 'culture', at the expense of women's rights, home. Because, in most societies, the and often their lives. gender division of labour leaves women with chief responsibility for the care of the Turning analysis into action family, reductions in , and sanitation spending challenge them to So, we have the analysis of the impact of create an alternative. The article points out aspects of globalisation on women and that a variety of feminist policy positions gender relations. Yet, all too often, we have have been developed on global taxation, not taken up this analysis and transformed debt cancellation, antimilitarism, and it into action, whether we work in women's overseas development assistance. These organisations or in development organi- policies can be - and need to be - supported sations working on gender equality. It is by the advocacy efforts of mainstream easier to pinpoint what is wrong with the development organisations as well as world than it is to suggest ways of putting feminist organisations, in order to gain it right. Much analysis of the gendered visibility and have a real impact on impact of globalisation has gathered dust international policy-making. on the shelves of resource centres and libraries. It is critical now to ensure that Ruth Pearson's article provides an political action is taken, based on women's accessible guide to some of the key agree- experience of globalisation - both the ments in world trade, and states why considerable losses, and the undeniable international trade cannot be seen as a gains - to ensure that international laws 'gender-free zone'. The existence of and work for women in culturally-condoned gender roles in all poverty rather than against them. This was human societies leads to seemingly neutral the starting-point for AWID's Forum. policies having different implications for women and men. In order to challenge Envisioning which is policies which lead to greater inequality friendly to women between women and men, these policies In her article here, Niliifer (Jagatay traces need to be demystified by feminist the impact on women of economic liberal- economists who are committed to rendering isation policies, imposed on countries in the them comprehensible and accessible to grip of financial crisis through the 1980s organisations who want to lobby for change. Pearson devotes the second half of high on the agenda of the international her article to outlining ideas for alternative institutions responsible for economic policies, some currently being activated reform. These are: the false message that and others that need energy from activists economic policy is apolitical; the pressing to be turned from ideas into reality. need to ensure good of inter- Economic policy that is friendly to national trade; and the need for women in women needs to be based on accurate data and beyond to speak out against the which reflect the and scope of way in which human security concerns are women's contribution to global production. currently being equated with the security Marilyn Waring's article reminds us of the of states and corporations, at the expense of fact that international institutions continue the security of individuals. to use outdated, inaccurate and illogical For others, thinking about the political measures of economic activity, which dimension of globalisation means ignore key parts of women's economic considering the implications of the rapidly- activity. These are work within the home, changing world order over the past and work in the informal sector. Despite 15 years. Many factors, including the fall of challenges from feminists for the past three the Communist bloc, the rise of the decades, worthless are still religious right in many countries, (both collected year after year, and used to form Islamic and Christian), continuing turmoil national and international economic policy. in the Middle East, and the attack on the Waring discusses and critiques some World Trade Centre, have transformed the practical alternatives that have been world we live in. At the AWID conference, developed. Improved methods of data there was much discussion around feminist collection and analysis have potential to responses to various forms of restrictions involve women, and entire communities, in on civil , and in particular those of determining the information relevant to women. In her article, Fatou Sow, of policy-formulation, and reporting it accurately. Women Living Under Muslim Laws and DAWN, highlights the way in which 'the Acknowledging globalisation's political is the symbol of ethnic purity for dimension nationalists'. The need to protect the nation Time and again, at the Forum and again in often results in curtailing women's their articles in this collection, writers freedoms and violations of their human highlight the political dimensions of rights. globalisation. In her article, Brazilian lawyer and For some, this means challenging the activist Valeria Pandjiarjian explores this idea that is theme further. Enormous advances have somehow separate from the political been made in international human rights sphere. Zo Randriamaro of the GERA law in the past few decades, to ensure it (Gender and Economic Reforms in Africa) meets the needs and of women. network addresses this issue in the context This is globalisation working in women's of African women's varied experiences of favour. It is essential that the advances of globalisation. GERA is a pan-African the past few decades are not lost, and that research and advocacy programme, set up where international law has not yet in 1996. It aims to increase the participation advanced sufficiently far, it is allowed to of African women in the formulation of do so. Valeria Pandjiarjian's organisation, economic policy. Zo's article focuses on CLADEM (Latin American and Caribbean three important issues, which she argues Committee for the Defence of Woman's GERA and others need to ensure are placed Rights) is part of a network of organisations Editorial currently campaigning for an Inter- Into the future: specific American Convention on Sexual Rights and issues of global concern Reproductive Rights. The goal is to challenge the laws and social beliefs in In addition to critiques of globalisation, the Central and Latin American countries, AWID Forum attracted presenters who are concerning sexual practices and repro- at the cutting edge of analysis and action ductive choices. The campaign has been on specific issues of global concern. mounted to raise the awareness of policy Presentations ranged over an extremely makers and the public about the connections wide array of topics, ranging from those between reproductive choice, sexuality, and which have been a focus for feminist action economic, social and political development. for years, yet remain on the agenda, to Moving the focus north to the United those which are entirely new. They States, two US academics, Mona Danner included subjects as various as present and and Gay Young, provide a critique of US future conflict over water resources, to the domestic and foreign policy at this time of future role of the UN in furthering a global global instability, focusing on the impact on women's rights agenda. When we started women. Like Zo Randriamaro, they assert to plan this collection of articles, we wanted that global economic policies exported by to include articles on both the latter, and US- and European-led IFIs, and the current many more. However, some writers were focus on security, act in the interests of not able to contribute due to pressures of international capital at the expense of the time and work, and we also had an obvious human rights of individuals. They high- physical limit on space. Hence, this collection light the ways in which the focus on includes only a small number of articles to ensuring security from terrorism are give a flavour of the array of different 1 threatening civil rights, and encouraging concerns at the Forum. xenophobia against ethnic and religious minorities. They call for feminist analysis to Maternal mortality and the Millennium make the links between economic global- Development Goals isation processes and the growing global Lynn Freedman's article is an example of a political dominance of the US, and for Forum presentation on a topic of para- feminist action to challenge the rule of mount importance to millions of women, white, Western, heterosexual, wealthy men on which much remains to be done. While over international institutions which shape much progress was made in the mid- to the future of us all. late 1990s on promoting women's repro- One restriction on women's civil ductive rights, reproductive health was liberties, which occurs daily in all societies, expunged from the Millennium Declaration receives markedly little attention from the document which outlines development public, from feminist organisations, or from goals to be reached by 2015. The focus on development agencies. In her article, Sanya maternal mortality which is included in the Sarnavka discusses the role of the document does, however, offer much scope mainstream media - now global, as well as for advocacy. Lynn Freedman argues that: local - in promoting sexist and stereo- 'In short, a maternal mortality strategy that typical images of women. These feed the focuses on emergency obstetric care (EmOC) public imagination and present a real threat gives health and human rights advocacy a to progress in promoting women's role in structural perspective and concrete, do-able public life and, ultimately, gender equality. agenda that simultaneously addresses some 10

of the most important challenges in the reproductive rights discourses can be, and health and human rights fields in an era of are being, misused by organisations globalisation' (this issue). employing whatever means possible in their fight for the right to develop HIV/AIDS: the globalisation of a disease processes such as the cloning of human HIV/AIDS is clearly an overwhelmingly beings for their own ends. This article huge current concern in sub-Saharan argues that such technologies are not one Africa. It will be an issue of equal enormity more advance in the fight for 'reproductive in Asia and Eastern Europe in a few years' choice', but are actually a global threat to time. In her article, based on a plenary the interests of women and children, and to presentation delivered at AWID, Sisonke wider humanity. Msimang outlines the process through which HIV infection spreads in situations Trafficking and sexual slavery of poverty and gender inequality. She A significant strand of the discussions at emphasises that AIDS and death come all AWID was concerned with the globalisation the quicker to HIV sufferers who lack good of trafficking and sexual slavery - the most food, water supplies and a safe, comfort- abhorrent aspect of the globalisation of able place to stay. In the context of labour. One key aspect of the ideal of truly Sisonke's home country, , free trade is that people should be free to colonialism and apartheid, with their travel, across state boundaries if necessary, extreme exploitation of African workers to take up employment opportunities. But and destruction of family life, have created the fact that international migration has a recipe for mass HIV infection. The been clamped down on in the past 50 years challenge now is to ensure global action to has now led to a situation where such prevent future infections, and enable those migration is limited or non-existent. A key who already have the disease to arrest it, survival strategy on which whole families using anti-retroviral drugs which are depend is women migrating for work as currently available only to the affluent, due domestics or sex workers. For women from to world trade regulations protecting the poor backgrounds who are uneducated, it interests of international drug companies. can often only take place illegally, via a globalised network of traffickers in human Feminist concerns about new beings. Desperate for a livelihood, some reproductive technologies travel in full or partial awareness of the Moving from the grim ongoing realities of dangers they face, yet they take the gamble maternal mortality and AIDS to a health- in the hope of bridging the extraordinary related issue which is entirely new, a gap between their lives of poverty and the pioneering article in this collection affluence of life in the US and Europe. This discusses the need for a concerted rejection issue, and the need for international action of new genetic technologies. Lisa Handwerker to solve the problem is discussed in this recognises the great diversity of feminist collection by Pamela Shifman and an perspectives towards new reproductive international panel of activists. technologies, but argues that we need to unite to oppose human reproductive cloning. Despite the fact that this issue Building a global voice to appears only to be relevant to a minority of promote women's rights affluent people in the global North, its relevance to human rights activists all over It is implicit in all the above that action on the world should not be underestimated. the part of the international women's All of us need to be aware that women's movement and gender and development Editorial 11 policymakers and practitioners is needed development. It is quite clear from the more than ever. We must protect the gains evidence of the gendered impact of made over the past three decades and globalisation that international financial hitherto, and ensure the perspectives of institutions, and national and international women in poverty are heard in global government bodies, have not taken on key protests against unjust and unsustainable messages regarding gender, poverty, and world development. equality. However, despite the blindness of The need for women's organisations to many of them to these issues, the majority work together, and in partnership with of them are - at the very least - playing lip- feminists in government and NGOs, was to '' - that is, very clear at the AWID Forum. Two articles to ensuring that a gender analysis informs in this collection capture a flavour of the all their work. In many organisations, lively debates which were had around the including multilateral and bilateral challenges of working in these ways. development agencies, the work of gender mainstreaming is deemed complete. Yet, if Challenges for the international women's gender mainstreaming had occurred, we movement would see radical transformation of the The women's movement is currently on its organisation's work, and the end result 'third wave'.2 Having successfully drawn in would be a very different world. In their women who do not have direct experience article, Aruna Rao and David Kelleher of the dramatic days of the 1970s and 1980s assert the need for development organi- - those in their thirties, and those a decade sations to move up a gear, from a focus on or so younger - the women's movement is systems, procedures and policies, to a more now challenged by inter-generational radical approach. Their own work, in the issues. Who runs the movement? Whose Gender at Work initiative, offers a strategy voices are heard? While some older women for mainstream development organisations feel their experience is undervalued by to use, to ensure gender equality is the outcome of all their work. younger women coming in, some younger women feel their energy and grasp of what makes the new generation tick is consigned Conclusion to the sidelines. In their article, Andrea Medina Rosas and Shamillah Wilson This issue speaks to the many complex and discuss a workshop held at AWID which interrelated challenges facing gender facilitated a discussion between the equality advocates worldwide that generations, aiming to achieve mutual continue to emerge as a result of global- awareness and appreciation of the age- isation. It also contributes to a growing related tensions within the movement, and number of concrete strategies needed to to build a commitment to use this diversity 'reinvent globalisation' to ensure human as a strength. rights for all women and men. For AWID, these ideas emerging from the Forum go Challenges for development well beyond the conference. They become organisations working to promote the substance of analysis and organising for gender equality AWID's growing membership around the Another relationship which is often tense, world. By moving a human rights and but of great importance, is that between development agenda forward within the feminist activists in the wider women's women's/feminist communities that can movement, and gender and development address globalisation's impacts, more policy makers and practitioners working in actors will have the tools and analysis to mainstream organisations concerned with fight for economic justice. Similarly, AWID 12

intends to widen the circle and work with a Notes larger constituency of the 'unconverted' - that is, mainstream economists, policy makers 1 Nonetheless, there are many articles and opinion leaders - on transforming the available in English, French and Spanish global economic processes that currently on the AWID website at www.awid.org underpin gender inequalities. Ultimately, In addition, AWID has published the our analysis has to be more rigorous, our Highlights of the Forum including issues policy solutions compelling, and, of course, discussed in many of the workshops and our voices stronger. The strong feminist plenaries. Information on this publi- leadership and solidarity discernible in cation is available through the website. Guadalajara is a clear indication that 2 The first wave being the nineteenth and change is possible - or quite simply that twentieth century movement to obtain women's rights can be globalised. civil rights for women in many countries, and the second, dating from Joanna Kerr is Executive Director of The the 1970s, focusing on employment and Association for Women's Rights in Develop- reproductive rights, among other issues. ment. Postal Address: 96 Spadina Avenue, Suite 401, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M5V 2J6. Reference [email protected] Jorquera, J. (2000) 'The choice is clear: Caroline Sweetman is Editor of Gender and for capital, or for people', Development, and a member of the Inter- in The Age, September 11 (at national Planning Committee for the Ninth www.globalpolicy.org / socecon / movement AWID Forum. /jorquera.htm, last checked 31 March [email protected] 2003) Part I The economics of globalisation

15

Gender budgets and beyond: feminist fiscal policy in the context of globalisation Niliif er £agatay

Macro-economic theories and macro-economic policies in general, and fiscal policies in particular, are seldom, if ever, gender-neutral. Since the mid-eighties, gender budget analysis, which has been undertaken in many countries, has been a key strategy to challenge macro-economic theorising and policy-making. Such initiatives, along with a variety of pro-poor budget initiatives, constitute the major challenge to the prevailing fiscal policy stance in many countries. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the changes in the fiscal policy stance in the context of liberalisation and globalisation in order to draw out their implications for social inequality, especially gender inequality. The article ends by discussing a variety of policy advocacy positions open to feminist activists, to build on the work of gender budget initiatives.

From the Keynesian and increased employment during consensus to the economic downturns, and diminished as Washington consensus the economy came out of . In the late 1970s and 1980s, partly as a In the post-war period, macro-economic result of the increase in oil prices and the policy making reflected the 'Keynesian ensuing debt crisis, budget deficits became consensus', which highlighted the role of unsustainable and inflationary. In the the state in employment generation, growth South, macro-economic stabilisation policies and redistribution. In economies of the were adopted in conjunction with South, the developmental state took a structural adjustment policies (SAPs). leading role in promoting growth through These were intended to minimise the role investment. It was recognised that the of the state, which had begun to be seen as active role of the state was needed to 'inefficient'. The 'Washington consensus', counter the effect of market failures, or the with its emphasis on market liberalisation, simple absence of markets. The Keynesian replaced the earlier 'Keynesian consensus'. approach also recognised that capitalist A variety of market liberalisation policies, economies are prone to economic crises, such as trade liberalisation, financial and go through cycles. Fiscal policy, liberalisation, labour market '' especially in economies of the global North, and liberalisation, were put was designed to counter the ups and into place. Similar sets of policies were also downs of the cycle. Some forms of state adopted in the industrialised economics in expenditure, such as benefits, the 1980s. In the 1990s, the transition were called 'automatic stabilisers', in that economies followed suit, under the rubric they kicked in automatically to counter the of economic restructuring. The immediate effects of reductions in economic activity, objective of these policies was to achieve 16

macro-economic stabilisation, which was for three decades, were not immune to viewed as critical for achieving sustained deep crises. The world economy became growth. The broader objective was the more volatile, as economic crises spread reduction of the role of the state in from one country to another with lightning economic life. speed. The international integration of Fiscal policy1 was usually reoriented national economies through trade and toward combating and reducing investment flows has made it more difficult current account deficits. Public spending - for governments to shield their economies especially on social sectors - was cut in against crises that break out in other country after country, in order to achieve economies. fiscal balance. Because the state was seen as The increased mobility of short-term crowding out the 'efficient' private sector, capital flows means that relatively few employment in the public sector was financial investors could potentially wreak reduced, and the privatisation of public havoc in the world economy by moving services became a key policy objective. User funds from one country to another in a fees were adopted in order to increase the short period of time. This vulnerability has efficiency of delivery, and caused insecurity. At the same time, in raise revenues. To be credible to financial many countries, inequality has worsened investors, governments had to keep budget across , between capital deficits low and rates high, which (business owners) and labour (their introduced a deflationary bias (that is, a workforce), and among different segments bias in favour of ) into the world of labour (highly skilled versus unskilled economy. All these policies were expected workers). Numbers of people living under to produce sustained growth, increased poverty have either increased or remained efficiency and benefits that would improve constant in many countries, (van der the well-being of all, through the trickle- Hoeven 2000; UNDP 1999, Milanovic 2003). down of wealth. The record of the last 20 years shows Double jeopardy: the fiscal that market liberalisation policies have failed to deliver on many fronts. While the squeeze fiscal balances of many countries did As outlined above, many of the liberal- improve, inflation rates did come down, isation policies implemented as part of and international trade and investment SAPs and macro-economic stabilisation flows did increase immensely, the promise programmes have led to a fiscal squeeze by of higher and sustained growth rates has putting pressure on public budgets not materialised. The lower world growth (Grunberg 1998). On the revenue side, rates in the world economy (compared to market liberalisation has led to erosion of its record of the previous decades) reflect public revenues, as I explain below. On the the deflationary bias of current economic expenditure side, it has had the effect of policies. In many Latin American and sub- increasing economic insecurity and Saharan African economies, growth rates vulnerability, because increasing volatility over the last two decades were very low, of markets leads to a rise in the demand for and macro-economic performance was social protection (Rodrik 1997). The generally characterised by stop-and-go preferred way of closing deficits has been cycles. The East Asian crisis of the late to cut expenditure. 1990s brought home the point that even the Specifically, the Washington consensus 'miracle' economies of East Asia, which had has led to the following effects on the experienced sustained high growth rates revenue side: Gender budgets and beyond 17

Trade Privatisation and sales of public Trade taxes, which amounted to about one- Together, privatisation and sales of public third of government revenues in many assets in order to raise revenues have low-income countries, have been steeply become an important, but unsustainable, reduced under trade liberalisation method for governments to close budget (Grunberg 1998; UNDP 2003). deficits. among governments to attract foreign On the expenditure side, the following direct investment has led to a reduction in can be observed: corporate and capital gains taxes. For example, in the OECD countries,2 all Increased demand for public spending, countries except for two reduced their rates but fewer resources in the top bracket in the late 1980s Increased volatility, insecurity and income (UNDP 1999, 3). Thus the burden of inequality has resulted in an increased taxation on owners of capital went down. demand for public spending in the form of At the same time, many countries have social protection. But as many economies introduced export-processing zones where have continued to suffer from a high debt businesses are exempt from paying tax. burden, debt servicing has left little in the This has meant a shift in the burden of way of resources for the provisioning of taxation from business owners, whose health, education and other needs. The funds are increasingly mobile, to workers, HIPC (Highly Indebted Poor Income who are relatively immobile (except for Countries) initiative has failed to provide highly skilled people). An implication of much relief to such economies, as debt these phenomena is that the burden of relief was made contingent upon the taxation has also been shifting from men to implementation of 'sound macro-economic women, since women own and control policy'. This means in effect the adoption of much less property compared to men the Washington consensus approach, albeit worldwide, although the exact figures are with some recent modifications to put more not known. emphasis on poverty and the reform of institutions. PRSPs (Poverty Reduction No increase in official development Strategy Papers) continue to insist on the assistance same type of macro-economic strategies. Official development assistance (ODA), which is an important source of revenue for Continuing loss of public resources some of the poorest countries, has not through corruption increased, as many industrialised countries The squandering of public resources have failed to live up their pledge to through corruption has continued. Privatis- channel 0.7 per cent of their GNP. to ation, which was supposed to reduce state development assistance. expenditures and inefficiency as well as curb corruption, has become a new avenue Introduction of indirect taxes and user for corruption. fees In an effort to increase revenues, a number Continued high levels of military of countries have reformed tax collection, spending instituting -added taxes or intro- The politics of the Cold War and its cont- ducing user fees for some public services, inuing legacy of militarism in the North and which leads to people living in poverty the South, and the activities of arms dealers, shouldering more of the tax burden. mean that in many countries military 18

expenditure has kept its importance. The issue over the last 20 years. Because of this, peace dividend that it was hoped would little public debate has taken place on accompany the end of the Cold War has alternative patterns of taxation and public not materialised. While many governments spending, and their impact on different have continued to plead poverty, they have social groups (ECLAC 1998), leading to a resisted reducing military expenditure, and lack of accountability and transparency. some of the poorest countries have While fiscal credibility and accountability continued to develop nuclear arms.3 vis-a-vis potential foreign investors has been of utmost importance, their signifi- The implications of fiscal cance for the citizenry at large as an aspect of economic democratisation is hardly retrenchment for growth, recognised (Elson and Cagatay 2000). development and equality Effects on growth and stability These changes in the fiscal stance over the last two decades have many implications 1. Anti-deficit radicalism for , and for equality (in It is argued that inflation is detrimental to terms of class as well as gender relations). economic growth and works against the These are interconnected to some extent. interests of people in poverty, and that Cuts in government spending and market budgets therefore need to be balanced in liberalisation have had adverse effects on order to achieve zero inflation rate. the ability of the state to promote growth However, this 'anti-deficit radicalism' is and employment, human development, misguided: while high levels of inflation do and social equity (ECLAC 1998). This has had have adverse effects on economic growth, profound implications for redistribution of moderate levels of inflation do not have income between classes (to the detriment of such an effect. (Sen, A.K. 1998; van der workers), and between women and men (to Hoeven 2000). As keeping budgets in check the detriment of women). is accomplished through cuts in social The way a government allocates its services, anti-deficit radicalism has spending shows its vision and economic jeopardised long-term human develop- priorities, as well as the balance of power ment, well-being, social equity and growth among different social groups. The fiscal (Sen, A.K. 1998, Sen, G. 2000). Limiting public policies of most governments in the last 20 spending on infrastructure, which as a rule years reflect the increased power of capital encourages private investment, and limiting vis-a-vis labour, on the one hand, and of and/or cutting health and education foreign and national investors vis-a-vis the expenditure, reduces social equity (as poor rest of the citizenry, on the other. As men segments of the population and women are generally own and control a higher prop- more likely to benefit from these services) ortion of capital compared to women, this and human development. In addition, such also represents the increased economic limitations also have negative feedback power of men vis-a-vis women. effects on the long-run growth potential of However, the social content of macro- an economy (Sen, A.K. 1998). economic policies (Elson and Cagatay 2000) At the same time, high interest rates - that is, the fact that they reflect, and that are intended to attract foreign invest- affect, the balance of power across different ment have discouraged domestic investment social groups because of the way in which and employment generation by the private they affect the of resources - sector. The expected flows of foreign direct has been obscured because fiscal policy- investment have materialised in only a few making has been presented as a technical countries, mostly in Asia, while the cost of Gender budgets and beyond 19 borrowing has remained high for domestic The gender implications of liberalisation firms. 1. Cutbacks in social spending Gender equality and pro-poor budget 2. Failure to stabilise during economic initiatives undertaken in the last two downturns decades have shown that the impact of Another related problem of the last two public spending and various revenue- decades is that the approach to government raising methods are seldom, if ever, gender spending in many countries has heightened or class-neutral. Excessive reductions in the peaks and troughs of the economic social programmes that directly enhance cycle, rather than evened them out, as it used human capabilities are harmful for all to during the Keynesian consensus. living in poverty. However, social pro- Despite the achievement of low grammes ameliorate the impact of gender inflation rates and fiscal balances, which inequality within households, and cutbacks were envisioned as important elements in in these services therefore affect women and disproportionately. In extreme stabilising the economy, there are other situations, gender inequality results in sources of instability in the Washington female deaths. For example, gender consensus policy package. National inequality means that in many societies, economies are potentially less stable due to 4 women and girls are less likely than men the liberalisation of capital flows. Govern- and boys to be well-nourished, or to have ments are unable to take measures to access to health care. There are an stabilise the economy during downswings, estimated up to 100 million 'missing partly because multilateral finance agencies women' worldwide (Sen, A.K. 2001). Given that monitor structural adjustment pro- these facts, the state has an extremely grammes overemphasise deficit indicators important role to play in order to offset this without regard to whether the economy is gender bias, through social provisioning. in the upswing or downswing of a cycle In most countries, poor or otherwise, (ECLAC 1998). Budget deficits are likely to the major responsibility for caring for the change over the course of a cycle, usually sick (as well as other forms of unpaid increasing during the downswing. This caring labour) at home falls on the practice of ignoring the impact of the cycle shoulders of women. This results in another in the monitoring of deficits has led to type of gender bias that can be seen in the drastic adjustments, with adverse conse- unequal labour burden borne by women, quences for the economy. For example, one which is largely invisible in traditional of the initial policy positions, formulated macro-economic analysis and policy making, by the IMF in response to the East Asian since the latter focuses on the monetised crisis (despite opposition from the World economy. Cutbacks in state spending on Bank), was to cut public expenditure social provisioning affect women disprop- (Stiglitz 2002). Increased restraint in ortionately because of this unpaid labour. government spending during a crisis only An example is state cutbacks in the exacerbates the economic downturn. In provision of clean water. Lack of clean water is a major cause of disease and ill economies with little or no social protection health for women and men alike. However, to speak of, the adverse distributive there are additional consequences for consequences for poor people and poor women and girls, as in poor countries it is women, in particular, are immense. their responsibility to fetch water. 20

2. Other spending and revenue-raising is therefore often outside the realm of Many other types of expenditure and existing social insurance systems. It is also revenue-raising also have implications for assumed that women whose work consists women, aggravating unequal gender of unpaid domestic labour will be the relations. Cutbacks in the public sector beneficiaries of social protection provided have particular implications because of to the male breadwinners in the family. gender segregation in labour markets. In Thus, fewer women are recipients of social some economies, the public sector has protection than men (United Nations 1999). in the past given greater employment This is one of the reasons why they are opportunities to women compared to men. more vulnerable to poverty, and more Outside the public sphere, there may be insecure economically. relatively few opportunities of employment While this bias dates from the Keynesian that offer comparably good work conditions. consensus, the Washington consensus has Privatisation has led to large employment added another: commodification bias losses, and to cuts in the number of formal (Elson and Cagatay 2000). This refers to the sector , for example in Africa and Latin trend towards the private ownership of America (van der Hoeven 2000). knowledge, life forms, and that were Revenue generation methods, such as previously publicly provided or held in user fees or indirect taxation such as common. This works to the detriment of consumption taxes (which are less poor people, and especially of women and progressive than income taxes) are class- girls. biased against segments of the population Economic crises and instability result in with lower , but they are also often a huge additional work burden for women. gender-biased. This can result from the In the last resort, women provide social higher incidence of 'income poverty' protection in most developing countries, among women and girls in some countries. where social safety nets are few. They It is also because women earn lower buffer their families from the ill-effects of incomes compared to men. economic crisis by working harder both within and outside the , to make Gender bias in economic up for reduced private incomes and reduced crises: the impact on public services. Their paid and unpaid workload often increases in absolute and women relative terms compared to that of men. The impact of economic crises and volatility Women's role as primary carers for is often more severe for women. There are their families means that crisis makes a variety of reasons for this. First is the disproportionate demands on their time gender-biased nature of social protection and energy. Their work in the home (and systems. Such systems are very inadequate sometimes in the wider community) for both women and men in the global increases, as they spend more time South, partly because women's paid work shopping trying to stretch their family conditions are inferior and more insecure budgets further, or working at home to compared to those of men. It is also substitute home-produced goods for those because social insurance systems are purchased outside. They may also some- almost invariably designed on the times respond to crisis by setting up assumption that families have a male 'communal kitchens', where economies of breadwinner in a formal sector job (Elson scale can be gained, or engaging in other and Cagatay 2000). Women's work is much types of communal (or volunteer) labour. more likely to be in the informal sector, and Gender budgets and beyond 21

A third gender bias may result from the analyses, which are sometimes accompanied fact that income disparities may increase by broader analyses of the macro-economic between men and women, as women framework, then serve as the basis for the crowd further into female-stereotyped formulation of gender-equitable budgets. work, which is often informal. A fourth These initiatives have far-reaching political gender bias may come about when girls, and economic implications, and are very rather than boys, are pulled from schooling important tools for women and poor people during periods of economic distress to care to make governments accountable, and for for younger siblings or other family them to make claims on public resources. members when their seek paid However, in the context of global- work. They may also be pulled out isation, fiscal policy cannot be rendered disproportionately from schooling when gender-equitable or broadly equitable at family incomes go down, even if the cost of the national or local levels alone. It is also schooling remains the same (i.e. no new necessary to address these concerns at the fees are imposed). Even if family incomes international level, and to ensure that there are restored after the economy enters a is coherence among the international period of macro-economic recovery, the dimensions of policy and advocacy and the educational losses incurred are not easily national and local ones. A variety of policy remedied, and translate into permanent positions (for example, on global taxation, gender inequalities. debt cancellation, anti-militarism, and A fifth problem is that crises and overseas development assistance) are taken instability may lead to increased social by civil society organisations, including violence and , as some feminist ones, and these need to be dimensions of the ideologies of mascu- supported by broader constituents of linity, such as the male breadwinner feminists with greater focus and visibility. ideology, are challenged. This may result in There also needs to be more debate and more violence against women, as men dialogue on how to shape these positions in attempt to regain a sense of power and ways that are more gender-equitable. . A number of feminist groups, such as DAWN (Development Alternatives with Democratising fiscal policy Women for a New era) have been involved and increasing in these debates for a long time. The point here is not the absence of feminist analysis, accountability to women but rather the strengthening of advocacy However, during the last two decades, based on it. This can be accomplished there have also been a wide range of efforts through greater dialogue between a) around the world to democratise fiscal feminists who are involved in national or policy in the form of pro- poor and gender- local budget initiatives and those who do sensitive budget initiatives (Cagatay, advocacy at the international level; b) Keklik, Lai and Lang 2000). The latter focus between feminists and other groups who mostly on the expenditure side, and focus on democratising macro-economic analyse not only government allocations policies (such as those who focus on pro- specifically targeted at women, but rather poor budgets or other types of progressive all allocations. The purpose is to uncover macro-economic policy making at the the differential impacts of allocations on national and global levels and c) between women and men; boys and girls feminists involved in budget initiatives in (Budlender, Sharp and Allen 1998; the South and the North. Some of these Commonwealth Secretariat 1999). Such areas are briefly outlined below. 22

Global taxation and redistribution company with others. More than ever schemes before, the current danger in the world Schemes like the Tobin tax,5 or the economy is not inflation, but deflation. institution of a global taxation authority, Assessments of social equity, more need to receive more attention from specifically, the gender equity and growth feminist activists. Revenue generated by implications of alternative fiscal policy such taxation could be an important source scenarios (including scenarios with of universal public provisioning of basic alternative budget deficit assumptions) can social services, including healthcare, be important feminist tools in opposing education, nutrition, sanitation and water, anti-deficit radicalism (Sen, G. 2000). These and funding to realise country-specific would require integrating gender analysis gender equity goals. A portion of the into macro-economic modelling. revenues could be awarded to govern- ments for the design of gender-equitable Demand for increased international social protection systems. A Tobin tax mobility of labour would be likely to reduce market volatility As pointed out above, a major reason (Erturk 2002), a phenomenon which, as we behind the shift in the burden of taxation have seen above, has disproportionately between labour and capital stems from the detrimental effects on women. relative immobility of labour compared to capital. Such an asymmetry has also led to Debt cancellation campaigns the erosion of workers' rights. Feminist Many feminists from the South support advocacy should include demands for unconditional debt cancellation. Others increased international mobility of labour, advocate attaching conditions relating to as well as demands for increased national gender equality to such efforts. Even and international resources for the without specific gender-related conditions, protection of workers' rights (for example, debt cancellation would benefit women, as from global taxation schemes). These are not long as this was accompanied by a parallel only important as demands in themselves, demand for universal provisioning of but also because they have implications for social services. Women have more to gain taxation patterns. Campaigns to eliminate than men from universal provisioning, as tax havens, which allow corporations to they are the ones who suffer more from a reduce their taxes, could also constitute lack of such services, as outlined earlier. another venue for feminist activism on gender-equitable taxation. Reallocation of military spending toward poverty reduction and social equity in North and South Conclusion This is another important demand, which was put forward recently in . Feminist advocacy in these policy contexts Feminist activists working on gender would further the efforts toward democrat- budget initiatives in the North can demand isation of macro-economic policy making at from their governments a reallocation of all levels, from the local to the national and their own military expenditures toward the international. They would help render increased overseas development assistance. gender budget initiatives, which have been the most important feminist macro- Opposition to anti-deficit radicalism economic policy challenge so far, more Feminist activists need to oppose anti- effective by helping build greater solidarity deficit radicalism more forcefully, in within the global justice movement. Gender budgets and beyond 23

Nilufer Cagatay teaches at the Department of Budget Analysis: Contemporary Research Economics, 1645 Campus Center Dr., Room 308, and Practice', London: Commonwealth BUC, University of Utah, USA 84112. Secretariat [email protected] Cagatay, N., D. Elson and C. Grown (1995) 'Introduction', World Development 23 Notes (11) Cagatay, N., M. Keklik, R. Lai and J. Lang 1 Fiscal policy means policy relating to (2000) 'Budgets as if People Mattered: government revenue, particularly Democratizing Macroeconomic Policies', taxation and spending. New York: UNDP, SEPED, Bureau for 2 The OECD (Organisation for Economic Development Policy Co-operation and Development) is an Commonwealth Secretariat (1999) 'Gender international organisation helping 30 Budget Initiative', London: Common- member governments (mostly of the wealth Secretariat global North) to tackle the economic, ECLAC, (1998) The Fiscal Covenant: social and governance challenges of a Strengths, Weaknesses and Challenges, globalised economy. Santiago: ECLAC, eclac.org/English/ 3 The continued primacy of military aruba / lcg2024 / sum.htm expenditures may be one aspect of fiscal Elson, D. (1998) 'Integrating gender issues policy that has remained 'Keynesian', into national budgetary policies and a feature that is called military procedures: some policy options', Journal Keynesianism. of International Development 10 4 A recent paper by IMF economists, Elson, D. and N. Cagatay (2000) 'The social including the chief , argues content of macroeconomic policies', that in poor countries financial World Development 28(7) integration to the world economy does Erturk, K. (2002) Why the Tobin Tax Can Be not result in growth and leads to greater Stabilising, Levy Institute of Economics, volatility in consumption and output. Working Paper 366, available at Although many economists have www.levy.org repeatedly made these arguments, this is Grunberg, I. (1998) 'Double jeopardy: the first time IMF economists have done globalization, liberalization and the so. See Prasad, Rogoff, and Kose (2003). fiscal squeeze', World Development 26(4) 5 The Tobin tax, initially proposed by the Haq, M., I. Kaul and I. Grunberg (1996) Nobel prize-winner James Tobin, seeks (eds.), The Tobin Tax: Coping With to reduce volatility in the world Financial Volatility, Oxford: Oxford economy by imposing a small inter- University Press national tax on foreign exchange Milanovic, B. (2003) 'The two faces of transactions. It would be a significant globalization: against globalization as source of revenue that could be used for we know it', World Development 31(4) human development purposes. See Haq, Prasad, E., K. Rogoff, S.Wei and M.A. Kose Kaul and Grunberg (1996). (2003) Effects of Financial Globalisation on Developing Countries: Some , March 17, www.imf.org/ References external / np / res / docs / 2003 / 031703.htm Budlender, D. (2000) 'The political Rodrik, D. (1997) 'Has Globalization Gone economy of women's budgets in the Too Far?', Washington D.C.: HE South', World Development 28(7) Sen, A. K. (1998) 'Human development and Budlender, D. and R. Sharp with K. Allen financial conservatism', World Development (1998) 'How to Do a Gender-Sensitive 26(4) 24

Sen, A.K. (2001) 'Many Faces of Gender UNDP (1999) , Inequality', Frontline, 18 (22). Oxford: Oxford University Press Sen, G. (2000) 'Gender mainstreaming in UNDP (2003) Making Global Trade Work for finance ministries', World Development People, London: Earthscan Publications 28(7) UNIFEM (2000) 'Progress of the World's Stiglitz, J. (2002) Globalization and Its Women 2000', New York: UNIFEM Discontents New York: WW Norton van der Hoeven, R. (2000) 'Poverty and UNCTAD (1997) 'Trade and Development Structural Adjustment: Some Remarks Report, 1997', New York and Geneva: on the Trade-off Between Equity and United Nations Growth', Geneva: ILO, Employment United Nations (1999) 'World Survey on Paper the Role of Women in Development: Globalization, Gender and Work', New York: Division for the Advancement of Women, DESA 25

Feminist responses to economic globalisation: some examples of past and future practice Ruth Pearson

In order to challenge unfair international trade rules, it is essential to understand how each of them works. This article presents an overview of the various agreements concerning different kinds of economic activity, which are enforced by the World Trade Organisation (WTO). It aims to make these agreements comprehensible to non-economists, so that proposals to make international trade more gender equitable can be understood. The argument goes beyond the usual rhetoric that women's concerns must be central to international trade regulation, and reviews some existing and new initiatives which seek to do just that.

he world of economic globalisation is global North, and earning sufficient foreign confusing. International regulation of exchange to meet their import requirements. Tworld trade by the World Trade Different agreements within the WTO Organisation purports to offer a level structure - such as TRIPS and GATS - all playing field to rich and poor countries refer to specific parts of the new rules alike; but often in the name of regulation concerning different kinds of international the WTO imposes rules which prevent economic activity. developing countries from supporting industrial activity for domestic consump- TRIPS tion, for example, garment production or food production. Under the new regime, all TRIPS stands for Trade Related Intellectual economies are being moved towards a Property. The TRIPS agreement is concerned unitary system, whereby investment can with the freedom of transnational corp- move freely between countries, and orations (TNCs) to protect their brand enterprises will meet no obstacle in names and production know-how from sourcing or marketing their produce from copying or adaptation by others without anywhere in the world. While this is the agreement (and payment). Well-known theory, in practice the level of protec- examples of companies that have been tionism in the North (in terms of ongoing protected under TRIPS are the pharma- subsidies to local producers, or tariff ceutical companies, which have developed barriers against imports) remains extremely effective drugs to treat malaria or to delay high. In spite of the apparent 'level playing the onset of AIDS and to prevent - field' that the new rules offer all parties, to- transmission of the virus. TRIPS developing countries continue to face prevents other companies from copying difficulties in accessing markets in the the basic (generic) form of a drug and 26

marketing it under a different name (and structures, they are considered by mainstream often at a much lower ). Already there orthodox economists to be 'gender-free' - have been 'trade disputes' at the WTO that is, to have no special implications for about TRIPS - with Brazil successfully women or men, or for power relations challenging the pharmaceutical companies between them. Rather, they are believed to to allow it to manufacture anti-HIV drugs be concerned with flows of factors of relatively cheaply. However, so far the production - finance, investment, and TNCs have resisted allowing generically trade. The new institutions have gone so far produced drugs to be exported to other as to categorically exclude considerations countries by their producers. about labour from their remit, even though labour is clearly a requisite for any production or trading system. Discussions GATS over the new international economic order GATS refers to the General Agreement on have been conducted at a level of abstraction Trade and Services. Trade in services was where it is assumed gender analysis is always a difficult area for international irrelevant. But of course the agreements negotiation. The new agreement does not outlined above - like other economic only regulate trade in services, it is also structures, such as government budgets about systematising the markets for invest- or tax systems - are deeply gendered. ment in service sectors. Ultimately, this Changing trade rules means changes to the means that developing countries' service structure of incentives and rewards to sectors - which include health, education, different people. sanitation, water, transport, communi- For example, in agriculture, the effect of cations, tourism, and so on - have to be taking away subsidies for food production, opened up to competition from inter- and encouraging farmers to switch to national investors. This move is considered export production is very different for men to offer the prospect of ongoing investment and women. Women generally control the and improvements in efficiency. There is a production of food crops for family relatively long lead-in period over which consumption and local markets. In contrast, countries can sign up to the GATS agree- men tend to control larger-scale agriculture ment, and decide which of their economic undertaken for national and international sectors they wish to open up to inter- sale. If control over export production does national investment and competition. But remain in the hands of women producers, many NGOs and campaigners have warned reaching distant markets tends to be harder of its implications for developing countries, for women since they face obstacles in particularly since once a country agrees to accessing financial assets, information, be bound by GATS it cannot withdraw, transport and storage networks (Harriss- even if its economic circumstances or White 1998). political rule have changed since the If you turn land over to cultivation of original agreement was signed. export crops, women may be the major source of labour for the new NTAEs (non- traditional agricultural exports) such as The impact of new trade seasonal fruit (grapes and kiwi fruits) and rules on women, men and vegetables (beans and mangetouts) gender relations (Barrientos 1999, Dolan 2001). However, even if such production is carried out by New multilateral trade systems are the smallholders, male heads of household institutional face of economic globalisation. generally have control over production and As with most economic policies and the income from it. If production is Feminist responses to economic globalisation 27 organised in large-scale estates or commercial in the future. But, short of declaring a farms, women tend to carry out onerous national emergency in order to import work for low pay and under bad conditions, generic drugs, which governments for seeing little benefit from their involvement various reasons have been reluctant to do, in production for global markets. access to the anti-retrovirals, which could When the WTO insists on governments in some part mitigate this situation by dismantling structures of protection like ensuring a much longer for subsidies to local producers, and taxes on HIV-positive adults and children, remain imports, it not only changes the ways in beyond the reach of most developing which resources for production are states. allocated, but also deprives governments of Under the GATS agreement, the prospect important sources of revenue; trade taxes offered is one of commercial companies account for about 10 per cent of total tax buying and running essential services in revenue in developing countries. This in poor countries. Governments will have turn means that money available for the little control over the cost to the service government to spend on social services like users, and there is little prospect of the health and education is reduced. If the state profits being reinvested in the physical and stops providing social services, people have social infrastructure of the country (World to look elsewhere for them. In the vast Development Movement 2002). Given majority of contexts, women are the existing gender power relations, the fact primary care-givers for their families, that poor households have to pay cash for assisted by their daughters. If state services basic health or education supplies can are no longer available, women attempt to produce additional problems for women. provide home-based alternatives. This Women are likely to have less access to and gives them a higher burden of work within control over cash, but their household and the household, and may reduce girls' access caring responsibilities means they have the to education, in situations where they most direct need for supplies to meet their already face (Evers 2002, 7-8). families' requirements. Women's access to The TRIPS agreement is not a gender- clean water, for example, is central to their free zone, either. To return to the example responsibilities for household reproduction of pharmaceuticals, poor governments - what Molyneux called their practical cannot afford to import essential drugs gender interests. If women lack cash which while the intellectual property rights of they need for health and education services, TNCs are protected. The effect on nations, this will affect their strategic gender communities and individuals is devastating. interests as well (Molyneux 1985). Yet, as Unequal gender relations, and poverty, stated above, in the rarified world of mean millions of women and girls through- international trade and financial negoti- out sub-Saharan Africa and elsewhere are ations, gender issues are rarely taken into particularly vulnerable to HIV infection in account. a context of grossly inadequate public health facilities, sanitation and nutrition, and general living conditions. Moreover, Economic globalisation and women are the ones responsible for the the international regulation care of children, and other family members, who fall sick. There are whole generations of labour of 'grannies' who are currently having to Significantly, the one area which is not support children orphaned by the included in the new trade rules is the pandemic - and many of those children are international regulation of labour. There themselves likely to suffer from HIV /Aids has been endless discussion about whether 28

the WTO should include a 'social clause' relocate the labour-intensive parts of which would require members to demons- production processes to 'cheap' labour trate a certain level of protection for the countries. Here, the workers were mostly labour force involved in production for young, relatively educated, manually international trade. For example, the social dexterous, single, childless women. They clause would involve adherence to the ILO were employed to assemble electronics Core Labour Standards which oblige states components, or sew fashion clothing, to to guarantee and the provide Northern consumers with cheap right to collective bargaining, the elimi- goods. Most of the investment came from nation of all forms of forced or compulsory North America or Europe, a lot of it was labour, the effective abolition of child located in Free Trade Zones, and the labour and the elimination of discrim- dominant mode of investment was direct ination in employment and occupation investment by the multinational company. (Murray 2002). But today, things have changed Developing countries have responded considerably. Now, there is little direct that a social clause could be a disguised investment in so-called 'off-shore production'. form of protectionism; that is, a means by Instead, transnational 'brand' companies, which developed countries could refuse such as The Gap or Nike, are involved in a entry of exported from whole series of sub-contracting links to the global South to their domestic markets. produce fashion clothing, sports goods, This would constitute a new form of non- jewellery, electronics, or computer goods. tariff barrier. Since many people complain They do not invest directly in the countries about the high level of protectionism that where the production is taking place, remains in the North, in spite of the instead contracting local producers to existence of the new international manufacture products according to their frameworks, it is argued that the intro- specifications, using their materials, duction of a social clause would produce designs and logos. Often, a particular further obstacles to the growth of trade, contractor - say, a company making and therefore the possibilities of develop- trainers in Indonesia - will be contracted by ment in poor countries. Instead, it is several companies to produce shoes in the argued, international regulation about same factory, to be sold under different labour force conditions and protection brand names in North America or Europe. should be the preserve of the International In some cases, parts of the production Labour Organisation (ILO), which is process will be sub-contracted to informal organised along tripartite representation - workshops, or even home-based workers that is, governments, employers and trade who do not enter the factory at all. Many of unions participate in it, thereby dealing the subcontracted enterprises are owned by with labour-related issues in a labour- Japanese, South Korean, Taiwanese and related, rather than trade-related, context. (overseas) Chinese entrepreneurs, as these However, economic globalisation has countries have developed experience in also wrought huge changes in the ways in export production and their successful which both production and the labour force has generated surpluses to in internationally traded sectors are invest in the global economy. In China organised. In the 1970s and 1980s, we were itself, on the other hand, production is told we were operating under a New contracted to national companies, often in International Division of Labour (Frobel joint ventures with local or state govern- et al. 1980). The model for this new way of ment, who produce under licence for the producing for international markets was to overseas buyers. Feminist responses to economic globalisation 29

This pattern of production - or 'global contracts and conditions which differ value chain' - is also present in the growing, dramatically according to their location. harvesting and marketing of non-traditional agricultural exports. A given buyer - for example, a UK supermarket - will contract Feminist responses — what suppliers in or South Africa or , do they look like? who will then either subcontract to small- What if we were to insist not just on holders or will organise estate production conducting a gender analysis of the impact using temporary contract labour. of trade reform and financial liberalisation, However, two factors have remained but to construct feminist responses and constant. First, women still comprise the initiatives which would take into account bulk of the labour employed in both export the results of such analyses? Doing this manufacture and agriculture for consumer would require us to move beyond recording markets. Second, although the growth of the different ways in which women are export production has certainly provided (adversely) incorporated into global growing employment opportunities for production, to learn from the ways in which women in many parts of the world, the jobs women workers and others have responded themselves are low-paid, often insecure to their experiences. and temporary, offer no skills training, frequently involve forced overtime, and the Codes of conduct workforce typically has little access to non- One example of this is the effort which wage benefits such as health services and women who work in factories, informal insurance, pension rights, and unemploy- workshops and at home have put into ment benefits. Moreover, many women are participating in efforts to develop and subject to health and safety problems, often implement Voluntary Codes of Conduct causing reproductive and other hazards. (VCCs). These are voluntary codes, which There are reports of increasing incidences are concerned with labour conditions along of verbal, physical and sexual abuse as the the value chain involved in production. A management of different establishments in VCC requires the main contractor to take the production chains has diversified and responsibility for the pay and conditions of women from more and more countries are all workers at every stage of production. being pulled into the global value chains Many women workers' organisations (Pearson and Seyfang 2002, Canos 1998). have welcomed the opportunity to negotiate Whilst the global economy has demanded with management over VCCs. Because the flexibility from the economies of the workforces at different links in the chain developing world, it often seems as though have different employers and contractual much of that flexibility is derived from the arrangements, it has been hard in the past extraordinary energy and industry with to organise the workforce in order to which women in factories, workshops, improve pay and conditions for women vineyards and farms apply themselves to workers. Traditional forms of organisation the production of the commodities which by trade unions have not achieved women's form the basis of increasingly extravagant objectives: they have little bargaining global consumption patterns. With inter- power, and very often they are not allowed national creating a non-stop to organise in unions in any case. In demand for sneakers and sweatshirts, cell addition, experience has shown that phones and CD players, apparently identical mainstream trade unions are not very and standardised products are manufactured amenable to listening to women's specific by women workers employed under demands, and prioritising them in their 30

negotiating strategies. Even in situations in job which amounts to a living wage, and which trade unions are permitted to the right to collective organising and operate, they may deal directly with bargaining; they have also made a series of company management, but women workers demands which reflect their position vis-a-vis rarely get a seat at the negotiating table. men, and their responsibilities according to Also, as many people are swift to point the gender division of labour. out, however hard and exploitative the For example, the VCC drawn up by the conditions of work might be, most of the members of the Central American Women's women have no better alternative. They are Network (CAWN) included organisations therefore concerned to keep their jobs, of women workers in Nicaragua and rather than forcing companies to take their Honduras. They committed their signatures contracting business elsewhere. Given the to a policy of no discrimination, job security flexible and cross-border nature of global for all, but in particular for pregnant and production, it is easy to understand that the post-natal women, consideration in the buying companies do have alternative work place (no verbal, physical, or mental sources for their manufactures. What the abuse), working conditions which guarantee women workers want is 'Trabajo - si pero workers' physical integrity (relating to con dignidad' ('Work, yes - with dignity') health and safety, sanitary facilities and so (Red CentroAmericana de Mujeres en on), access to national social security Solidaridad con las Trabajadoras de la benefits, a minimum wage, limits to the Maquilas, [email protected]). length of the working day, pay for over- In many instances, a much wider range time, freedom to organise and to conduct of stakeholders has been involved in collective bargaining, and a ban on child drawing up VCCs, including community- labour. based NGOs, women's organisations, and Although there is little concrete evidence coalitions of groups representing women that VCCs have the power to coerce TNCs workers. Whilst the idea of this kind of to treat their workforce with dignity and voluntary regulation has been dismissed by fairness, they have provided a voice for some as a public relations gimmick, it is women's groups, so they can publicise the also the case that companies are very reality of their work situation and connect vulnerable to changes in consumer prefer- with international systems of solidarity, ences, and the young affluent consumers monitoring and verification of the imple- who are the main purchasers of branded mentation of VCCs. They have also clothing and sportswear are also very challenged the assumption that TNCs can attuned to information available on the operate in a borderless global economy, Internet about conditions of production all accountable to no one, and that the right to over the world. It is for this reason that exploit cheap labour in the pursuit of some companies have been willing to co- economic efficiency is to be tolerated in the operate with VCC initiatives. global market.1 Although it is cannot be claimed that VCC initiatives have changed the situation A gender equity clause in the WTO of women involved in export production Although, as explained above, many overnight, one thing that they have done is governments have bring into the public domain women's objected to the introduction of a social priorities which have often been over- clause in WTO negotiations on the grounds looked by male labour representatives. In that it would constitute a disguised form of many instances, women have stressed not protectionism, the idea of proposing a just their rights to appropriate pay for the gender equity clause could also be explored. Feminist responses to economic globalisation 31

By 2005, the existing Multi-Fibre importers and exporters alike to adherence Agreement (MFA) will have been phased to minimum conditions and rights of out in order to bring world trade in textiles workers in this sector. and garments in line with WTO rules. While a gender clause like this would be It will be replaced by the ATC (Agreement open to the same kinds of criticisms that on Textile and Clothing). The MFA developing countries have raised about the regulated imports from developing countries social clause and conditionality in general, in order to protect the domestic producers a focused sector-based demand for gender in North America and Europe. In theory, equity might provide an important factor in ending the MFA should benefit developing ensuring women workers' interests are met countries wishing to export these goods. in agreements governing this part of However, gender analysts fear that it is international trade. the transnational companies which will be able to take advantage of the open markets From the Tobin Tax to the Maria Tax The Tobin tax (named after the Nobel prize- and deregulated labour forces which will winning economist James Tobin) is a radical be the result of ending the MFA. In proposal to use the current trading in the contrast, the mainly female workforce in international financial markets for the textile and garment manufacturing in benefit of developing countries. The Tobin tax developing countries will suffer increased advocates a tax on foreign trading, insecurity and deteriorating conditions of which is currently estimated at some three work. Many developed countries no longer hundred thousand billion dollars per year see any advantage in continuing the old (over 50 times greater than global spending system which regulated exports of textiles on goods and services including food, and garments from producers in North housing and transport). Such a tax, even if America and Europe. However, its demise it were set as low as a fraction of one per will put further pressure on the unprotected, cent, would raise between 50 and 100 predominantly immigrant industrial billion dollars a year. This money would workforce in the North. It will also effectively double the current aid budget pressurise Southern governments into available for development and poverty further reductions in their own trade elimination activities (see www.tobintax. barriers, in exchange for 'concessions' on org.uk). This proposal, which was once reducing protection of garments markets in dismissed by many as unrealistic, is now the North (Hale and Hurley, downloaded garnering increasing political support. The 10/03/2003). governments of Canada, , Belgium, It is probably right to assume that the and the UK have either declared phasing-out of the MFA will not directly their support, or are actively considering it. improve employment opportunities or Whilst the Tobin tax proposal is for the conditions for women workers supplying proceeds to be spent on unspecified the global industry in textiles and garments. development activities, the idea can also be However, a gender-equity ethical clause in adapted to argue for a tax which could be the new ATC might be a good opportunity directed at the promotion of gender to raise issues of gender equity in terms of equality. Given the importance of the both opening markets to competitive foreign exchange earnings of the export international sourcing (that is, buyers will sectors to many developing countries it is be able to get textiles/garments from important to publicly acknowledge the anywhere in the world), and reducing extent to which this rests on the efforts of protection of local industries, in both the women who still suffer disadvantages in North and the South. It could commit terms of access to non-wage benefits and 32

development initiatives. A tax could be instruments dealing with financial imposed on the foreign exchange value of aggregates, expenditures and revenues, exports of manufacturers, agricultural surpluses and deficits rather than with real products and services, which could reflect men and women. But, from the perspective the proportion of women in the export of gender analysis, it is clear that women's labour force. Such a tax - which I have gendered responsibilities coupled with dubbed a 'Maria tax' - could be levied by inferior economic power and political voice governments, and re-invested in initiatives means that government expenditure is to achieve gender equity for women workers. frequently allocated in a way that For example, money could be spent on entrenches women's subordination rather child-care facilities, reproductive and than reduces it. For example, apparently occupational health facilities, educational gender-neutral expenditure on children's programmes, health insurance, and pension education frequently results in more boys schemes. And, just as the Tobin proposal attending school and higher education; a has served to focus attention on the destabil- gender-sensitive response would be to ising effects of international currency build in mechanisms to promote girls and , the Maria tax could also be women's access to education and to used both to highlight the particular overcome the current obstacles to their contribution of women workers in economies participation. participating in the global economy and to argue for gender equity and justice. Different initiatives are currently underway in over 20 countries in four Of course, many will argue that such an regions. Although fiscal and public initiative would impose extra costs on the expenditure matters are often seen to be employment of women, and that it would dry and boring, feminist activists all over result in a decrease in women's job the world have welcomed this new tool as opportunities. However, this would not be a way of forcing gender issues into the the case if the tax were to be imposed on centre of political debate. According to the governments and the importers, rather Colleen Lowe-Mama, former CEO, than on the producers. If such a tax were Commission on Gender Equality, South universally applied worldwide, the Africa: 'Money talks. Men listen to money incentive for re-location to another country talk. These truisms are at the heart of the would also be undermined. enthusiasm with which the idea of the Gender budgets as feminist tools women's budget has been embraced by Finally, gender budgets are another recent gender activists. When we talk budget, we initiative which have sought to mainstream finally have a sense that we are getting to a concern for gender equity and justice the heart of the matter...and that men will within the process of economic policy sit up and listen' (cited in Elson 2000,114). formulation and execution and of holding The proposals and initiatives outlined governments to account for their inter- above illustrate the ways in which the national and national commitments to the interests of women can be articulated in the advancement of women (Budlender et al. negotiations and agreements concerning 2002). international trade and investment within Initially devised as a way of analysing the global economy. For a number of years, budgets from women's perspectives, many advocates have argued that it is allowing women to 'follow the money', necessary for gender issues to be considered gender-sensitive budget initiatives start by the international organisations that from the premise that national budgets shape the global economy, and for women's may appear to be gender-neutral policy interests to be represented in the new Feminist responses to economic globalisation 33 systems. The gender budget initiatives Elson, D (2000) Progress of the World's illustrate a number of examples of how Women, UNIFEM Biennial Report, gender interests can be mainstreamed NewYork, United Nation Development within national fiscal and monetary Programme (UNDP); full text available, policies. Similar processes also need to be in English, French and Spanish at undertaken with respect to international www.undp.org / unifem / progressww economic systems. The proposals for a Evers, Barbara (2002) 'Gender, International gender equity clause in the WTO, and a Trade and the Trade Policy Review 'Maria tax', are not yet detailed concrete Mechanism: Conceptual Reference proposals. Rather, they are ideas which are Points for UNCTAD'. Available on: intended to stimulate debate about how to http: / / www.gapresearch.org / governance mainstream gender issues in international /wto.html (downloaded 20/03/2003) trade, and to help focus attention on the Frobel, Heinrichs and Kreye (1980) The contribution women continue to make in New International Division of Labour, the production of goods and services Cambridge University Press, Cambridge within the global economy. Hale, A. and J. Hurley 'What does the phase out of the MFA quota system Ruth Pearson works at the Centre for Develop-mean for garment workers?' in Gender ment Studies, University of Leeds, LS2 9JT. Trade and the World Trade Organisation, [email protected]. uk www.poptel.org.uk/women- ww/gender_trade_and_the_wto (downloaded 10/03/2003) Notes Harriss-White, B. (1998) 'Female and male 1 For a review of VCCs and the views of grain marketing systems: analytical and different stakeholders see Jenkins et al. policy issues for West Africa and India', (2002). in Jackson, C. and R. Pearson (eds.) Feminist Visions of Development : Gender Analysis and Policy, London: Routledge References Jenkins, R. R. Pearson and G. Seyfang (eds.) Barrientos, S., A. Bee, A. Matear and I. (2002) Corporate Responsibility and Labour Vogel (1999) Women and Agribusiness: Rights: Codes of Conduct in the Global Working Miracles in the Chilean Fruit Economy, London: Earthscan Export Sector, Basingstoke: Macmillan Molyneux, M. (1985) 'Mobilization without Budlender D, D. Elson, G. Hewitt and T. emancipation? Women's interests, the Mukhopadhyay (eds) (2002) 'Gender state and revolution in Nicaragua', in Budgets Make Cents: understanding Feminist Studies 11, Summer gender responsive budgets' London: Murray, J. (2002) 'Labour rights /corporate Commonwealth Secretariat responsibilities: the role of ILO labour Canas, M., Y. Martinez, M. Pastora standards', in Jenkins, R. R. Pearson and Sandino, J. T. Cortez Magana (1998) Los G. Seyfang (eds.) (2002) Corporate derochos hjumanos y la maquila en El Responsibility and Labour Rights: Codes of Salvador, Procuraduria Adjunta para la Conduct in the Global Economy, London: Defensa de los Deroechos Humanos de Earthscan la Muhr, San Salvador, El Salvador C.A. Oxfam (2002) Make Trade Fair: Rigged Rules Dolan, Catherine (2001) 'The good wife: and Double Standards: Trade, Globalisation struggles over land and labour allocation and the Fight Against Poverty, available in the Kenyan horticultural sector', in from Policy Department, Oxfam GB, 274 Journal of Development Studies 27:3. Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7DZ, or 34

www.maketradefair.org / assets / english / Report_English.pdf Pearson, R. and G. Seyfang (2002) "I'll tell you what I want....": women workers and codes of conduct' in Jenkins, R. R. Pearson and G. Seyfang (eds.) (2002) Corporate Responsibility and Labour Rights: Codes of Conduct in the Global Economy, London: Earthscan World Development Movement (2002) 'GATS: A Disservice to the Poor', WDM, January, London or: www.wdm.org.uk / campaign/ GATS. htm 35

Counting for something! Recognising women's contribution to the global economy through alternative accounting systems Marilyn Waring

As a political economist, the focus of my research and activism has always been how economic data can be used to influence . 1 am very familiar with the technical, logistical and measurement arguments traditionally raised by statisticians or economists in the debates on the collection, presentation and imputations related to gender disaggregated statistics. I also have very little patience with them. This article explains why, in the context of a critique of the United Nations System of (UNSNA). It also surveys some alternative methods of accounting, which better capture the realities of women's contribution to the global economy.1 The new feminist challenge is to identify and use these models in public policy making and in advocacy for change.

ince the Second United Nations simple equation operating here: if you are Women's Conference in Copenhagen invisible as a producer in a nation's Sin 1980,2 feminists have strategised to economy, you are invisible in the distrib- force global and national accounting bodies ution of benefits (unless they label you a to make women's economic contribution welfare 'problem' or 'burden'). visible in their data. A main focus for In 1993, the rules of the UNSNA (United attention has been the United Nations Nations 1993) were changed. This was an System of National Accounts (UNSNA). opportunity to address feminist concerns, UNSNA was instigated in 1953, with the and incorporate essential work performed aim of enabling comparisons to be made for home consumption into the accounting between national economies, and serving as system. However, this chance was missed. a guide to countries developing their own Paragraph 1.25 of the 1993 UNSNA accounting systems. In the UNSNA, national establishes the 'consumption boundary', economies are defined in terms of market enumerating the many domestic and transactions; consumption, investment, and personal services which do not 'count' measures are given in addition to when they are produced and consumed income and production totals. A vast within the same household. Women all amount of work performed by women is over the planet perform the bulk of these for household consumption or unpaid tasks. They are the cleaning, decoration and work in the . This work is maintenance of the dwelling occupied by not counted in UNSNA. The lack of the household; cleaning, servicing and visibility of women's contribution to the repair of household goods; the preparation economy results in policies which perpetuate and serving of meals; the care, training and economic, social and political inequality instruction of children; the care of the sick, between women and men. There is a very infirm or old people; and the transportation 36

of members of the household or their and the dye (active and inactive labour). All goods. These services do count in the this time she will carry the baby on her UNSNA when they are supplied by back (inactive work). government or voluntary agencies, and Of particular importance to feminists is when they are paid for. The 'uncounted' paragraph 1.22 of the 1993 UNSNA, which tasks are termed 'indicators of welfare'. describes the UNSNA as a 'multi-purpose Out of a breathtaking conceptual system ... designed to meet a wide range of ignorance, and undoubted Western bias, analytical and policy needs'. It states that the UNSNA fails to grasp there is no 'a balance has to be struck between the demarcation for women in the subsistence desire for the accounts to be as compre- household between production inside or hensive as possible', and their being outside the consumption boundaries. Just swamped with non-monetary values. The picture the following. A woman wakes; revised system excludes all 'production of she breastfeeds her four-month-old child services for own final consumption within (unproductive inactive primary production, households ... The location of the production consumed by a member of the household). boundary ... is a compromise, but a deliberate There is no accurate way of ascribing value one that takes account of most users [my to this activity, even in the proposed emphasis - it is difficult to make extensive 'satellite accounts'. (The satellite accounts use of statistics in which you are invisible] are the 'add on' compromise that will ... If the production boundary were include . They have to be extended to include production of personal separate so as not to disturb what the and domestic services by members of experts call the 'internal integrity and households for their own final consumption, international comparability of the current all persons engaged in such activities accounting framework'.) There is no market would become self-employed, making price for breast milk, so the satellite unemployment virtually impossible by accounts will price that food at its nearest definition.' Rather than justifying leaving replacement equivalent. But infant formula, most of the work done by most women out whatever cost is ascribed to it, cannot of the equation, this statement surely compete with the quality of breast milk, demonstrates that the current definition of which means that its use will have a cost unemployment is inappropriate. impact on the future health and education The International Labour Organisation of the child. (ILO) specifies that the production of Let's continue with the picture. The economic goods and services includes all woman goes to collect water. She uses some production and processing of primary to wash dishes from the family evening products, including that for home consum- meal (unproductive work) and the pots in ption, with the proviso that such production which she previously cooked a little food must be 'an important contribution' to the for sale (informal work). Next, she goes to total consumption of the household (ILO the nearby grove to collect bark for dye for 1982). In a 1993 resolution concerning the materials to be woven for sale (informal international classification of status in work), which she mixes with half a bucket employment, the International Conference of water (informal work). She also collects of Labour Statisticians defined subsistence some roots and leaves to make a herbal workers as those 'who hold a self- medicine for her child (inactivity). She uses employment' job and in this capacity the other half of the bucket of water to 'produce goods and services which are make this concoction (inactivity). She will predominantly consumed by their own also collect some dry wood to build the fire household and constitute an important to boil the water to make both the medicine basis for its livelihood.' (ILO 1993). Counting for something! 37

Compare the concepts of 'an important public policy, yet the framework of the basis for livelihood', and 'an important UNSNA remains intact. However far contribution' to the total consumption of removed from reality the UNSNA becomes, the household, with the specific exclusions governments, business and multilaterals from production in the 1993 UNSNA. are committed to it, in the misguided The distinctions made in terms of the conception that it accurately measures the boundary of production and consumption, thing which matters most: economic 'growth'. and the definitions of the informal sector opined in his CBC worked on so earnestly for the last ten Massey Lecture Series: 'I would suggest years, are in these few sentences revealed that we are in desperate need of a reform- as a load of patriarchal nonsense. As the ulation of the idea of growth...It is difficult example above shows, women's lives are to imagine how we might escape our not so meaninglessly divided. All tasks of ongoing economic crisis unless we can survival in such circumstances are related. reconsider [its] nature... By reconsideration, The Statistical Commission reported: 'As I mean that we must attempt to draw back far as household production is concerned, far enough to see where value lies in the central framework includes for the first society' (Ralston Saul 1997, 156-7). In the time all production of goods in households, next section, I look at some work which has whether sold or not, and services if they are resulted from such attempts. supplied to units other than their producers' (my emphasis) (UN Statistical Commission, www.un.org / Depts / unsd / sna / sna2-en. Information on real life: htm). As concerned as they have been with alternative models conceptual and measurement difficulties, In the past 12 years, some very fine work and boundaries of consumption or has resulted from the consideration of such production, the designers of the new issues. The figures feminists needed, to UNSNA just miss the point, and in so ensure that the realities of women's and doing fail to reflect the reality of the children's lives are made visible to econ- majority of women on the planet. omists and politicians, are finally starting The problem is systemic, and encom- to be produced. Data on the ways in which passes issues other than gender inequality. we survive in a context of resource There are other significant measurement exploitation and environmental degradation problems in the current UNSNA frame- are emerging. What alternative models work. Among the research topics of the have been developed which yield such Inter-Secretarial Working Group on national material, and render it useful for public accounts, co-ordinated by the UN Statistical policy purposes? The new feminist challenge Commission, have been the indirect is to identify and use these models. measurement of financial intermediation services; services in the informal sector; the The of Sustainable Welfare (ISEW) classification of the purposes of non- The authors of this model, institutions serving households; a work- and John Cobb, share a concern that 'what shop on intangible assets; the issue of is needed is a new measure.' (Daly and measuring e-commerce; and more on Cobb 1994, 378). They are particularly counting the hidden economy. All of these concerned that 'costs' should be registered pose significant technical, measurement as deficits or depletions, not as 'goods' or and valuation problems. Wild, speculative 'benefits' in production and consumption, abstractions regarding these concerns have as in the UNSNA . resulted in the figures produced being Daly and Cobb propose the Index of absolutely meaningless for the purposes of Sustainable Economic Welfare (ISEW). 38

In this method of data collection and In addition, Daly and Cobb's valuations analysis, growth is no longer God; the are based on old inequalities. In ascribing a emphasis is now on . The value to unpaid work, they adopt Robert characteristics used in the ISEW are Eisner's method of estimating the value of personal consumption, distributional time spent on unpaid household work on inequality, household labour services, the basis of the average wage rate for consumer durables, services provided by household domestic workers (Eisner 1989). highways and streets, improvement in This, they say, avoids the problem of using health and education by way of public differential market wage rates for men and expenditures, expenditures on consumer women. However, this does not avoid the durables and defensive private expendi- problems thrown up by using traditional tures on health and education. Costs low wage rates from a female occupation to included are the costs of commuting, the estimate the value of the work of domestic costs of personal pollution control, costs of workers, especially when much of that work automobile accidents, costs of water is in the management of a small business, pollution, air pollution, noise pollution, even if there is no market exchange! losses of wetlands, losses of farm land, The results of the ISEW are measured depletion of non-renewable resources, long- in per capita dollars. They have been term environmental damage, cost of ozone calculated in the USA for the years depletion, capital growth, (that is, the 1950-1990, and show variations when growth in the stock of goods used to measured against the GDP in each of the produce other goods) and a change in net four decades, and a decline in the 1980s. In international position (indebtedness). retrospect, these studies can demonstrate Attempts to ascribe a value to leisure that improvements in car safety and were omitted from the ISEW, because 'the reductions in air pollution have made rather arbitrary assumptions upon which such contributions to raising the level of a calculation is based ... are particularly economic welfare. So have social policies to reduce income inequality (ibid., 507). The problematic'(ibid., 455). However, Daly categories included in the ISEW make this and Cobb include 'a rather speculative method of data collection yield a far more estimate of long-term environmental recognisable picture of reality. But the damage, particularly from climate modifi- ISEW still remains one conglomerate, a cation' (ibid.). They admit to being forced single new measure, and the dollar is the to make 'heroic assumptions' in compiling measurement tool. the ISEW, such as the cost imposed on future generations by the depletion of The (HDI) natural resources (ibid.). Since its inception in 1990, the United The ISEW falls down on the issue of Nations Human Development Report unpaid work. While it shows evidence of series has been dedicated to ending the new thinking, it remains patronising. mis-measurement of human progress by 'Which of the activities within the house- economic growth alone. 'To be valuable and hold should be classified as work as legitimate, development progress, both opposed to leisure or an intrinsically nationally and internationally, must be satisfying activity?' (ibid., 457), they ask. people-centred, equitably distributed and There is an easy response to this point: environmentally and socially sustainable ... members of the paid workforce also take time If present trends continue economic dis- for leisure in paid time, and find elements parities between the industrial and developing of their employment intrinsically satisfying. nations will move from inequitable to We still count all their activities as work. inhumane'(United Nations 1996, iii). Counting for something! 39

To make the HDI capture gender- are estimated where possible, but in the related inequalities, life expectancy, adult GPI it is not necessary that all components literacy and education are disaggregated by should have a financial value attributed to sex, as are data on share of earned income. them. A 'Gender Empowerment Measure' (GEM) The indicators of the GPI include includes data on the proportion of seats in statistics on unpaid work, divided into parliament occupied by women, data on voluntary and community work, unpaid women as a percentage of administrators housework and parenting, and the value of and managers, professional and technical unpaid overtime and underemployment. workers, and women's percentage of These figures can be gender-disaggregated. earned income. The Human Development The monetary valuation method used in Reports are augmented with other data this study for calculating the economic relevant to gender-based poverty and value of unpaid work is the replacement inequality. Despite the data limitations of cost (specialist) method. This reflects the timeliness and availability, the problems of hourly wage rate that would be paid in currency conversions to the USD baseline, Nova Scotia to replace existing activities at differing concepts, classifications and market prices for the same kind of work. methods, and charges that there are too While this financial valuation is used to many data with too many different demonstrate linkages between the market indicators, the HDI begins to approach and non-market sectors of the economy, a approximate accurate input for the purpose clear focus of the analysis is on time. In 1997 of policy making. Nova Scotians contributed an estimated 134 million hours of their time to civic and Genuine Progress Indicators voluntary work, and more than 940 million One key indicator that is missing from the hours to unpaid household work. Their UN HDI is time-use. Time-use has figured unpaid work in these two categories was prominently in the work to establish the equivalent of 571,000 full-year full-time Genuine Progress Indicators (GPI) in Nova jobs! Scotia. Prepared by Dr Ronald Coleman, the Nova Scotia GPI project has been The GPI work in Nova Scotia is the designated as a pilot with Statistics Canada, most sophisticated measurement work for which is providing ongoing assistance in policy outcomes anywhere. I recommend it data collection and analysis, and staff to you. Of particular use are the cross- support. In addition to the national census, cutting sectoral work in the forestry the GPI uses data from the Canadian accounts, the water accounts, and the System of Environmental and Resource unpaid work accounts in both the house- Accounts. The index consists of twenty hold, and voluntary and community components with a sectoral approach and sectors. Only the key points and press an emphasis on policy relevance. statements in each area appear on the The GPI indices distinguish direct website at www.gpiatlantic.org, but full contributions to economic welfare from reports can be purchased. defensive and intermediate expenditures, The original aim of the GPI for Nova and from activities that produce an actual Scotia was to create an economic data set in decline in well-being. Natural resource which all activities had an estimated accounts include fisheries, soil and agri- monetary value - obviously, the involve- culture, forestry, wildlife, and greenhouse ment of Stats Canada and the Nova Scotia gas emissions. There are data on the costs Provincial Government had to be appeased. of crime, income distribution, and trans- But it is the ground-breaking work in the portation cost analysis. Monetary values policy field that has saved this from being 40

just another data set, and moved it on so-called reasonable degree of accuracy. inestimably from Cobb and Daly's work, Sometimes the choice of what data to which continued to 'Redefine Progress'.3 collect depends simply on what is on the Rather than producing pages of retro- UN agenda for that year. spective alternative data sets with alternative explanations for policy outcomes, GPI Presenting and interpreting data in non- Nova Scotia's publications look forward to monetary terms raising the key questions for policy decisions The fine policy work in Nova Scotia also today and tomorrow, and with cross- mitigates the second problem of data sectoral trade-offs explicit in the equations. which cannot be presented and interpreted It is superb work. It is also written in other than in monetary terms. This means totally accessible language, for non- that all sections of the population - not just economists. The ongoing engagement of academic statisticians and economists, can the Nova Scotia community in the analysis participate in debates about the research. of the GPI has also been a breakthrough in It is expressed in the way that people might all the projects on alternative indicator sets talk about it in a community meeting, of which I am aware. in 'real world' terms. It is also important that data can be debated in terms of its own integrity, instead of the somewhat far- Key challenges remaining fetched abstractions that result when The process in Nova Scotia partially solves everything is given a monetary value. For two of the key problems that remained example, if we think of gender inequality (at that point) with the GPI approach and the potential users and objectives of (which was originally Daly and Cobb's time-use data relating to women's and successor to the ISEW). men's workloads, we know that it is not necessary for policy discussions to ascribe Asking people to set their own indicators monetary values to that work. For example, of well-being awareness of unequal time-use may spark The first of these partial solutions is that off discussions about the need for day while the indices seek to measure the well- nurseries to offer more flexible services so being or development of a people or peoples, that women's need for child-care can be community, nation state or region, it is not met. These discussions do not require usual for anyone to ask people themselves information about the value of the work what indicators they would use to describe which women are undertaking for such their well-being, and how they would long hours. Nor do debates about policy measure outcomes of policies based on this regarding assistance to private businesses, data. Instead, the indicator sets are either or the planning and production of goods what the authorities determine as being the and services for home care. The need for figures they will collect (because the World monetary values to be ascribed occasionally Bank or IMF says so; because you can get a is not a reason to abstract all time-use data lot of software and hardware and vehicles to the economic model. Far more rigorous if you collect particular data in a develop- planning can be achieved by retaining the ment assistance programme; because they time-use framework, and it makes much support a corrupt government and can be more sense. easily manipulated; or just because they are Ascribing monetary values to labour the ones that have always been collected results in a loss of detail and specificity in and there is comparability over time), or policy analysis. Nowhere can the conse- the figures that can be collected, from a quences of this be more starkly seen than in logistical and technical standpoint, with a the case of children who work. Stories in Counting for something! 41 the State of the World's Children 1997 That ought to be sufficient for effective illustrate this. The ILO Minimum Age policy planning. Different units yes, but Convention allows light work at age 12 or with judgement exercised. But the econo- 13, but prohibits hazardous work before 18. mists want one baseline, so that depletion It also establishes a general minimum age of capital could include not just depreci- of 15 years for paid work, provided 15 is ation of physical capital, but depletion of not less than the age of completion of natural resources along with deterioration compulsory schooling. Yet, of the projected of environmental quality. The problem is, 190 million working children in the 10-14 they say, that so much expenditure for age group in the developing world, three- environmental protection compensates for quarters work six days a week or more, and the negative impact of economic growth, so one half work nine hours a day or more it should be a cost to be deducted from (UNICEF 1997, 25). In a 1993 study in national income. Malawi, 78 per cent of the 10-14 year olds, There's an attractive logic here, and it and 55 per cent of the 7-9 year olds living parallels the 'costs' component of Daly and on tobacco estates were working full- or Cobb's ISEW system. The UN satellite part-time (ibid., 38). One quarter of the system has been tested in several countries. work force - around 50,000 - in the glass For Mexico between 1986 and 1990, it was bangle industry of Firozabad in India are found that the environmentally-adjusted children under 14, working in indescribably domestic product was 13 per cent less than unsafe and inhumane conditions (ibid., 37). the conventionally measured net domestic Haiti has an estimated 25,000 child domestics, product. The new accounting measures 20 per cent of whom are 7-10 years old also showed that net investment, which (ibid., 30). In the , at least conventional measures showed as positive 100,000 children are believed to be involved at 4.6 billion pesos, was a negative 700 in child prostitution (ibid., 26). As many as million pesos. Net , also assumed to 3 million children aged 10-14 are estimated be positives, were actually close to zero. A to work in Brazil's sisal, tea, sugar cane and for Papua New Guinea over the tobacco plantations (ibid., 38). The most same period produced similar results. reliable estimates available for the United There consumption exceeded output so net Kingdom show that between 15-26 per cent savings were negative (UN 1996, 63). of 11 year olds are working (ibid., 20). But there had to be a better way. Do we want to lose the detail of what we do to children by ascribing monetary Alberta GPI values to their production? I certainly do The latest work in which I have been not, but that would be the result of including involved as an adviser appears to have their labour and its outcome under a addressed both these major impediments to generic 'producer' category. Similarly, I do using the GPI in a major tool for policy not want to lose the complexity of the planning. My challenge to the Alberta GPI impact of human activity on our eco- Project Director, Mark Anielski at the system behind dollar signs. Yet that is the Pembina Institute, was that the character- direction being pursued to give 'visibility' istics of well-being to be utilised in the to environmental issues. To establish the Alberta GPI should reflect the values seen United Nations satellite system of integrated as indicative of well-being by Albertans economic and environmental accounting, themselves. The values held by Albertans the first step for each country is to draw up should also determine how a characteristic a comprehensive balance sheet of natural in the GPI approach is treated. For example, resources, measured in physical quantities. in some communities, divorce is seen as a 42

negative . We know it usually I believe there is now this model. It is leads to the economic downward mobility based on the healing circle used by the First of women. Most governments focus on Nations People of North America. It requires single-parent-headed households as a no expensive software: it is a simple radar negative phenomenon. Yet we all know diagram in an Excel Programme. The work cases where the separation or divorce can be downloaded from www.pembina.org. brings about an end to prolonged violence, I believe this approach offers enormous and the well-being of children and mothers possibilities, but it must not be abused. (I improves substantially. Divorce can dread to think of it as a tool in the hands of therefore, in some contexts, be seen as unethical postgraduate students who need positive. Similarly, some communities a thesis.) In the first place, users should would see the rate of oil extraction in know the origins of opposition to the Alberta as a positive contribution to well- UNSNA approach, and how and why this being; others might see such extraction as a alternative approach evolved. It must come cost, particularly in terms of inter- as a whole piece of work, which is initiated generational equity. by the communities whose well-being (or In the time available, the Alberta GPI level of poverty, or development indicators) team was not able to conduct new research, is or are being determined. These people but it was able to undertake a meta-data themselves should determine the indicators analysis of the Canadian and Albertan to be included, and this list should be research on community values as reflected revisited with them every five to ten years. in the past five to ten years. This had the You can see immediately that the open immediate effect of increasing the character- architecture could deal with all the istics to be included to over 50, as opposed following: inflation rate, daily caloric to the 26 in the original GPI or the 20 used intake, maternal mortality, the cost of a litre in Nova Scotia. of water, last year's rainfall, notifiable and The next challenge was to find a way of contagious disease levels, levels of education presenting all the data without ascribing or literacy or school attendance, access to notional monetary values, in such a way and use of family planning, agricultural that all characteristics were measured in extension programmes, micro credit schemes, terms of their own integrity. It would the retention of indigenous languages, obviously be useful if the system or model natural disasters, pollution of air and could also make trade-offs visible, and water, deforestation - the list can be as long could be accessible for communities to as a community determines. They should understand and to participate in the also be party to the interpretation of the analysis and planning that flows from the radar diagram, which would determine the presentation of data. It would also be a vast policy inputs required for desired out- improvement if the system could have comes, with trade-offs being very explicit. 'open architecture' - that is, when a comm- I believe this model can be rigorous, unity or nation state demonstrated that a ethical and accessible in our hands as a real particular characteristic was no longer breakthrough for policy work, with and for important to them, it could drop out of the women and their communities. system. Similarly, whenever a new measure- ment deemed important presented itself, it Conclusion too could be introduced, without the tedium of 'not disturbing the comparability of the The UNSNA is still the most influential model over time', which is the outdated model being used universally, but it is approach of the UNSNA and its policy of failing women miserably as a policy satellites. instrument, regardless of all its other Counting for something! 43

problems. The feminist agenda in reinventing References globalisation sees the removal of this pathological arbiter of 'well-being' as a Daly, H. and John B. Cobb Jr., (1994) For the critical focus. The satellite alternative is a Common Good: Redirecting the Economy co-option. The Alberta model is the most Towards Community, the Environment and exciting alternative development in my a Sustainable Future, Boston: Beacon Press lifetime - and one we can begin to use in Eisner, R. (1989) The Total Incomes System of our own nations and communities. Accounts, Chicago: University of Chicago Press Dr Marilyn Waring is Professor of Public International Labour Organisation (1982) Policy on the Albany Campus of Massey 'Fifteenth International Conference of University in New Zealand. Correspondence Labour Statisticians: Report II, Labour through the editor, please. Force, Employment, Unemployment and Underemployment, Geneva: ILO International Labour Organisation (1993) Notes 'Fifteenth International Conference of 1 This article includes material from the Labour Statisticians: Report IV, Revision introduction of the second edition of my of the International Classification of book, Counting for Nothing - What Men Status in Employment, Geneva: ILO Value and What Women are Worth (1999)Ralsto, n Saul, R. (1997) The Unconscious University of Toronto Press, Toronto. Civilization, Ringwood, Vic: Penguin 2 The United Nations Decade for Women Books ran from 1975 to 1985. United Nations (1993) A System of National 3 The organisation Redefining Progress Accounts, New York: United Nations carries on Cobb and Daly's work. United Nations (1996) Human Development www.rprogress.org Report, New York: United Nations UNICEF (1997) The State of the World's Children, New York, UNICEF Waring, M. (1999) Counting for Nothing - What Men Value and What Women are Worth, Toronto: University of Toronto Press 44 African women challenging neo-liberal economic orthodoxy: the conception and mission of the GERA programme Zo Randriamaro

Despite the many international commitments to gender equality, much remains to be done in terms of mainstreaming commitment to gender equality into development. It seems that the major global development institutions appear currently to be more concerned with mainstreaming trade into development. For example, the outcomes of the major international conferences, from the International Conference on Financing for Development to the World Summit on Sustainable Development, show a great deal of progress made in mainstreaming trade into development. Women's rights and gender activists have voiced their concern that this progress is paralleled by lip service to gender equality and women' s rights. This article focuses on the activities of the GERA (Gender and Economic Reforms in Africa) programme. GERA is a pan-African research and advocacy programme which aims to increase the participation of African women in the formulation of economic policy. The article highlights some critical strategic issues that need to be addressed: the depoliticisation of economic policy, the governance of multilateral trade, and the way in which human security is conceptualised.

ERA is a pan-African research and questions about the gender dimensions of advocacy programme, which aims economic policy, trade and human security Gto increase understanding of the in the context of globalisation. Responding different impact of economic reforms on to these questions is a critical element of the men and women in the African setting, and African women's movement's contribution ensure greater participation of African to re-inventing globalisation so that it research organisations and women's works for women and for people in poverty, groups in research, analysis and advocacy. rather than against them. It is the common dream of a group of African women, who created it to order to deconstruct and transform economic The conception and policies from a gender perspective. The mission of GERA economy is a central site of struggle for GERA was set up in 1996. Since then, a African women's empowerment in the era growing number of African women of globalisation. Nowadays, daring to researchers and activists have joined the dream and to write about a dream is not an initial group, to help make the dream come innocent exercise, or a simple exercise of true. To date, GERA has provided support style: it is a political statement. This article for 16 research and advocacy projects on discusses the concept behind GERA and the gender dimensions of economic reforms some of its achievements so far, and in 12 African countries, and for 11 projects considers its position in relation to key focusing on the gender dimensions of trade The conception and mission of the GERA programme 45 and .1 Ultimately, the global economic governance. GERA programme intends to create a pan- GERA also aims to make African African movement of gender researchers, women's voices heard in the debate that economists, trainers, advocates, and policy- has emerged about trade and investment makers, who are committed to trans- policies, their impact on women, and their forming economic policy-making implications for gender relations. Under- processes. taking research is an important means of GERA's overall goal is to enable women empowering women and marginalised better to articulate their concerns and groups. Empowerment occurs through the needs, and transform economic policies participation of these groups in the from a gender perspective. Through its different stages of the research itself, and research activities, GERA has contributed the articulation of their own perspectives to the body of knowledge about the and needs. GERA's research has given a gendered impacts of structural adjustment growing number of African women the programmes (SAPs) and other policies opportunity to exercise their right as which aim to stabilise African economies citizens to have a voice in decisions that (Kerr et al. 2000). The programme research shape their lives, together with the means has increased awareness about macro- to enter the male-dominated domain of economic policy issues that shape the daily economics and to express their concerns lives of poor women and men in the and needs. continent. The research conducted by At the global level, GERA participates African researchers under the GERA in the global women's movement's programme has provided evidence that activities to promote progressive change. macro-economic, trade and investment GERA undertakes advocacy work to policies are not gender-neutral. GERA influence global economic decision-making provides critical analyses of economic and processes, and counter the neo-liberal reform processes in Africa from a gender economic paradigm underlying the so- perspective, and works to develop called Washington Consensus.2 We believe alternative approaches that ensure gender that advocacy is not merely a tool for equity and economic justice. Our analyses achieving immediate objectives. Rather, it is examine the intersecting causes of women's a political tool to transform policies and subordination and marginalisation in the institutions. It is an important means to economy at the micro, meso and macro address issues of power and power level. Since 2000, GERA's focus has been on relations in the arena of economic policy- gender, trade and investment. making, and wider society. GERA's research extends beyond analysis which focuses on micro-level GERA's current concerns issues and interventions such as income- generating activities, micro-credit and the The depoliticisation of economic policy like. It also goes beyond the widespread GERA is currently concerned about current view - especially among African women's attempts by the major global institutions to organisations - that all issues related to depoliticise economic policy. This is at the women's empowerment and gender heart of the mainstream discourse on inequality can be resolved at the national globalisation and development. But level. We recognise that, in addition to a economic policy is not apolitical, and focus on the micro and meso level, African should not be seen as such. The promoters women's economic empowerment requires of the new economic orthodoxy are trying transforming policies and institutions in to promote the idea that economic policy is 46

a technical system that should be protected concerns the vision of society that is from political interference. This can be promoted through the monopolisation of clearly seen in the current liberalisation economic policy making by experts, which and privatisation drive in African countries. implies the exclusion of ordinary citizens It has led to a debate among African from the major form of political action and intellectuals and activists over the role of subsequently, further marginalisation of the state in African countries.3 While this women. issue has become part of the advocacy In the past few years, African civil agenda of civil society groups in Africa, society and women's organisations have there is a need for wider awareness of the been increasingly involved in consultations huge political implications. Attempts to about some processes led by the World remove economic policy from political Bank and donors, such as the PRSP (Poverty control, by reducing economic policy to a Reduction Strategy Plan) processes. set of technical prescriptions, imply that However, members of the GERA network economic policy is the territory of experts have voiced their concerns about the way and should not be subject to democratic in which women's voices have been turned debate and participation. Yet, the ever- into instruments to legitimise economic increasing power of international financial processes imposed by the and and trade institutions shows that economic donors (Mbilinyi 2001). In our view, in policy has actually become the major form many cases, this willingness to give a voice of political action at the global level. This is to African women seems to be mainly a major threat to democracy in general, and motivated by the need to legitimise those women's rights in particular. processes. It comes as no surprise that the GERA advocates for a formulation of the macro-economic frame- approach to gender, trade and investment work of the PRSPs, like other macro-economic as the most appropriate way to uncover policies, remains the preserve of experts - issues that have been hitherto considered as most of whom are male - and closed to unintended effects of, rather than inherent public debate and participation. to, these policies themselves. GERA counters the depoliticisation of economic policy in What are real policy all its research: the starting point for its alternatives from a gender analysis of the gender dimensions of trade liberalisation and the multilateral trading perspective? system is a thorough understanding of the While most women's rights and gender way in which inequalities are created and equality advocates agree on the need to maintained by the global . oppose neo-liberal economic policies, there Production, consumption and savings may is still little consensus on what a feminist appear to be purely economic issues, but they position should be on a number of issues. are sustained by the ways in which society At GERA, we believe that the debate is organised. Therefore, attention needs to among women's organisations and activists be given to the social dimensions of macro- has been obscured by the overwhelming economic policies (Elson and Cagatay 2000). focus on the impact of neo-liberal policies on women and gender relations, at the expense of a systematic analysis of the The role of civil society in structural and inter-related causes of this economic policy-making impact. A critical question that we at GERA believe An example is the issue of social should be raised whenever possible protection under globalisation (that is, the The conception and mission of the GERA programme 47 extent to which the state should be able to Multilateral trade and the protect and fulfil the social rights of its WTO: the ghost of tyranny citizens, including the rights to employ- ment and social security, in a globalised GERA' s work on the gender dimensions of economy). In some cases, discussions trade seeks to inject African women's within the women's movement focus on perspectives in trade policy-making and processes. In this section, I will examine social protection and policies to ensure this, some different approaches to the gender without relating these issues to gender dimensions of trade liberalisation, to show biases and structural inequalities between the compartmentalised nature of current women and men in the economy. But these debates. These debates miss the inter- discussions on women and social protection linkages between macro, meso and micro do not deal with the key factors which issues, as well as the connections between lead to women's requirement for social different types of economic reforms and protection. Looking at social protection in policies. From the point of view of African this isolated way legitimises the idea that women, this suggests that there is an women are a category of people who only urgent need to transform the economic require measures to address their welfare model underlying the international trade needs, but not actions or policies for regime, because of the structural and addressing the root causes of their political biases that undermine gender marginalisation in the globalised economy. equality and disempower women in the This gives rise to a 'politics of compassion', economy. deployed by the promoters of neo-, Gender issues forgotten: mainstreaming in order to counter the mounting protest trade into development against the negative effects of their policies. The depoliticisation of economic policy 'Engendering' economic policies is discussed above can be seen in current different from institutionalising compassion WTO processes, and the governance of the towards women. Promoting gender- multilateral trading system. On one level, sensitive economic policies is not only the undemocratic and manipulative practices about establishing safety nets. It is that characterise the WTO processes are primarily about ensuring that there will be major issues, because gender issues and no need for safety nets. In this regard, a women's empowerment cannot be on the feminist approach would posit that sound agenda when people are ignored. At and equitable economic policies require another level, the governance of the men and women to have equal access to, multilateral trading system has been - and and control over, productive resources, remains - a key issue for the advocacy equal participation in decision making, and work of women's organisations and equal distribution of the benefits of their activists. This is not only because gender as work. Gender-sensitive economic policies a category of analysis, and gender relations as a key set of social dynamics, are not would not be obsessed with budget recognised in trade policy decision-making deficits, inflation and macro-economic (Williams 2002). Most importantly, it is stability. They would take the care because trade policy formulation and economy fully into account. They would decision-making needs to be challenged, if give each country enough flexibility to trade liberalisation is to be re-configured to meet the needs of their peoples, giving ensure gender equality (Williams 2002). primacy to human rights and develop- The convergence between the policies of mental needs. the IMF, the World Bank and the WTO has 48

not only created a dominant discourse GERA research aims to support the which promotes the trade liberalisation development of such a policy framework. agenda. It has also given rise to mech- In our view, the framework needs to take anisms such as the IMF Poverty Reduction account of the following: and Growth Facility (PRGF) and the World • the distributive effects of trade policies Bank-led Poverty Reduction Strategy Plan on African economies; (PRSP), which are particularly powerful since they are backed by all three • the interaction between trade institutions. These mechanisms impose liberalisation and other types of conditions on countries in a similar way to economic reforms and policies; Structural Adjustment Policies (SAPs). The • the extent to which this general context Integrated Framework for Technical Assist- empowers or disempowers women - ance, which is meant to ensure the integration their empowerment in trade also of trade and development, involves the depends on the general economic and combined efforts of the IMF, World Bank political conditions into which they and WTO, along with other UN agencies. integrate the trading systems. One cannot but ask why similar but The framework needs to be based on an separate mechanisms have not been put in acknowledgment of the multiple ways in place and used to further gender equality which African women are disempowered and women's empowerment. by international trading arrangements. This is not only to do with WTO agreements and rules, but also to do with the role of Gender and trade: towards 4 international financial institutions and an African perspective transnational corporations, as well as the African analyses of trade liberalisation state, and institutions at national level. need to be heard. African countries have Most importantly, GERA advocates for been integrated into the multilateral trading African gender researchers and activists to system, through the General Agreement on re-claim the concept of gender main- Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the establish- streaming, so that it plays the role of a ment of the World Trade Organisation political tool for women's empowerment, (WTO), without any kind of meaningful instead of a technical device for legitimising participation. Their integration has also inequitable trade and economic policies. taken place under peculiar conditions that The prevailing approaches to addressing define their weak position in the global the gender implications and impact of trading arrangements. In addition, there is trade policies should be critically evaluated and challenged. The findings of GERA an unresolved controversy around the 5 issue of gender mainstreaming into the researchers demonstrate that, as a first WTO. In particular, the lack of attention to step in this direction, the ways in which African women's perspectives on this issue different forms of inequality intersect each is important, since it has critical impli- other to create different forms of disempower- cations for them. The first step to ensure ment for particular individuals and groups these perspectives are heard is to ask should be incorporated in the analysis of African women the right questions, and trade and economic policies. Forms of develop a coherent analysis which articulates inequality would include those created by their interests. The second step is to define gender, class, race, ethnicity and other a policy framework which will ensure not forms of identity. only that women gain from trade liberal- isation, but also that the structural causes of their economic subordination are addressed. The conception and mission of the GERA programme 49

Human security from a internal politics in the different countries gender perspective involved in the coalition. The conceptual shift in the discussions In its ongoing advocacy work on the on human security has also meant an gender dimensions of investment and 'new exclusive focus on human security in times issues' in the WTO, GERA has recently of conflict. As a result, the specific threat been emphasising the need for women in posed by gender inequality to women's Africa and beyond to speak out against the security in times of peace is further way in which prevailing understandings of neglected. This leads to abuse in both human security are overemphasising the private and public spheres, which includes security of states and corporations, at the violence against women and girls, gender expense of the security of individuals. inequalities in control over resources as Concerns for the security of investment and well as in power and decision-making. the protection of the rights of investors In addition, the current focus on military increasingly take precedence over people's action promotes the very of security in the international agenda. Most and against which of the time, this is presented in the name of women's rights activists have been economic efficiency - as in the case of water struggling for so long. At the Ninth privatisation - and for the sake of economic International Association for Women in growth. Women's rights activists and Development (AWID) Forum in 2002, gender equality advocates, including the sisters from Afghanistan amongst others GERA programme, are focusing on the provided striking testimonies of how 'the integration of the notion of freedom from 6 mainstream discussion of human security want and its gender dimensions, including economic security, into the international emphasises military might, and even agenda. occasionally justifies military action and an anti-terrorist ideology with securing GERA also shares the current concerns women's welfare'. of the global women's movement about issues of human security, in the context of GERA has highlighted that fact that the the establishment of the international strengthening of the coalition between the coalition against terrorism. Civil society international financial and trade institu- and women's struggles for progressive tions and rich countries in support of the social transformation are threatened by the Washington Consensus is paralleled, and conflation of protest with terrorist actions, potentially further reinforced, by the and the subsequent intensification of establishment of the international coalition repression by military means (Randriamaro against terrorism (Randriamaro 2002). 2002). Discussions on human security, and It is well known that women and policies arising from these discussions, are children are the most affected by conflicts, resulting in the progressive elimination of and the last decade has seen an increasing gender considerations from the inter- number of African women's organisations national agenda. The media in many involved in initiatives to promote women's different countries are reporting wide- participation in conflict prevention and spread human rights violations, along with resolution. The progress that has been the manifestations of a lasting economic made as a result of these efforts is being crisis that will disproportionately affect undermined by the developments around women and marginalised groups. GERA the international coalition against terrorism, has also pointed out that the increase in which is being established without military spending is likely to lead to the consideration for implications in terms of diversion of scarce resources from sectors 50

that are crucial for women and the poor, to perspectives and concerns into the agenda defence budgets. of the global women's movement while GERA has pointed to the risk that integrating into its own thinking those initiatives such as the New Partnership for elements of universality that give a sense to Africa's Development (NEPAD) pose to the women's common struggles in the context rights of women in . of globalisation as well as to our solidarity They could just be the new policy platform with other marginalised groups. To that to fight international terrorism from Africa, end, GERA will continue to bridge the gap as opposed to tackling the other issues that between researchers and advocates in are critical for women and the poor order to give a stronger voice to African (Randriamaro 2002). Solidarity is urgently women from the national to the global needed among the peoples affected by level. current developments within national boundaries by which democracy and Zo Randriamaro is a gender and human rights human rights - including women's and activist from Madagascar. She is working with children's rights - are traded away in Third World Network-Africa as Manager of the exchange for their countries' support for GERA programme. Address: PO Box AN the international war against terrorism. It is 19452, Accra, Ghana. a strategic requirement, as well as an [email protected] ethical imperative for the global women's movement. Notes Conclusion 1 The GERA programme's achievements have been described in more detail in The AWID Forum raised awareness among Kerr et al. (2000). participants about a number of critical 2 The Washington Consensus refers to the questions that require strategic responses shared neo-liberal vision of development from women's rights and gender activists. on the part of the international This article argues that the depoliticisation development financing institutions, of economic policy, the governance of including the World Bank and IMF. The multilateral trade, and the re-conceptual- Washington Consensus inspired the set isation of human security are some of the of prescriptions imposed on developing issues that require responses from the countries under the structural adjust- national to the global level. These are also ment programmes (SAPs) and economic pointers to common front lines for reforms, from the early 1980s. These solidarity within the global women's prescriptions included fiscal discipline, movement, which include the right to sit at deregulation, privatisation of state the table (but also to determine what is on enterprises and trade liberalisation. the table and the structure of the table 3 See, for example, Taylor 2000, for the itself, as well as the right to dream as a debate within the African women's prerequisite for developing alternatives) in movement. economic and trade policy decision- 4 This subsection draws from a lecture making; the primacy of people's security given by the author at the 2002 Session and the integration of gender differences of the CODESRIA Gender Institute, and inequalities in the international human Dakar, 1-6 July 2002, on 'Gender, Trade security agenda. Liberalisation and the Multilateral A major challenge for the African Trading System: Towards an African women's movement will be to inject its Perspective'. The conception and mission of the GERA programme 51

5 Namely, the GERA Phase II research Randriamaro, Z. (2002) 'The NEPAD, findings on the impact of trade and Gender and the Poverty Trap: the investment liberalisation on women NEPAD and the Challenges of Financing working in the leather and footwear for Development in Africa from a industry in South Africa. These findings Gender Perspective', unpublished paper are due for publication by TWN-Africa presented at the joint TWN-Africa/ as part of a book compiling the findings CODESRIA International Conference on of the eight GERA Phase II research Africa and the Development Challenges projects. of the New Millennium, Accra, 23-26 6 UNDP 1994: freedom from want and April 2002 (available from Third World freedom for fear are the two major Network-Africa, see postal address in components of human security. biographical details above, or visit www.twnafrica.org) References Taylor, V. (2000) Marketisation of Governance: Critical Feminist Perspectives from the Elson, D. and N. Cagatay (2000) 'The social South, SADEP/DAWN: University of content of macro-economic policy', Cape Town, Cape Town World Development, Vol. 28(7) UNDP (1994) Human Development Report, Kerr, J. et. al. (eds.) (2000) Demanding New York Dignity: Women Confronting Economic Williams, M. (2002) 'Gender and Reforms in Africa, Ottawa: The North- Governance in the Multilateral Trading South Institute and Third World System: Critical Areas of Decision- Network-Africa Making and Global Responses', paper Mbilinyi, M. (2001) 'Budgets, Debt Relief presented at the GERA Mid-term Review and Globalisation', GERA Discussion Workshop, Accra, 25-29 November 2002 Paper 1, Accra: GERA Programme/ (forthcoming from the GERA programme TWN-Africa /TWN-Africa) 52

In search of an alternative development paradigm: feminist proposals from Latin America Members of the Feminist Initiative of Cartagena1

This article is taken from five presentations given at AWID by members of the Feminist Initiative of Cartagena. Its main goal was to suggest that there is a Southern - more specifically, Latin American - vision of globalisation, and to identify what is needed to develop a new model of development.

1 Why did the Feminist networks in the region, which provides all Initiative of Cartagena its members with an opportunity to react to start? changing economic issues. Networking of organisations from different sectors of civil Alejandra Scampini, Co-ordinator, IFC, Uruguay society, including women's organisations, can strengthen their ability to discuss and In July 2001, a seminar took place in influence the design, execution, follow-up Cartagena, Colombia, in preparation for the and evaluation of public policy, with UN Conference on Financing for Develop- governments and international organisations. ment (held in Monterrey, Mexico, 18-22 After Monterrey, the IFC continued March 2002). The seminar was organised by producing research and developing advocacy DAWN (Development Alternatives with activities. The organisations involved in the Women for a New era), REPEM (Red de IFC take a collective position on regional Educacion Popular Entre Mujeres) and the macro-economic issues. Monitoring public UNIFEM Socio-Economic and Cultural policy and undertaking advocacy is 'a Rights Programme in the Andean region. prepositional and pragmatic answer to The Feminist Initiative of Cartagena global and local political contexts that (IFC) was founded as a result of the today are more receptive to requests for seminar. It was set up because Latin gender equity' (Alvarez 1997). We propose American feminists wished to influence the to advance the analysis of macro-economic UN conference, which brought together issues faced by our region, building on the governments, private sector (business and work of other groups and existing NGOs) and international funding organi- initiatives. We want to share our experience sations. The IFC is an association of active and proposals with women from Latin Feminist proposals from Latin America 53

America and other regions of the world. In influence the UN Conference on Financing common with other feminist organisations, for Development, which brought together we are developing ways of linking work at governments, private sector (business and grassroots level with activities at the 'macro NGOs) and international funding bodies. level' of public governmental and inter- We have centred our analysis on a number national politics. of key issues. We aim to combine rigorous analysis with good political practice from a feminist Financial resources and development perspective. The IFC is intended to provide The basis for our analysis is to ask: 'What an open space to strengthen the different type of development are we thinking of, as knowledge and abilities of its members, groups of feminist women?' That is, in who have different experience and expertise. what way can our vision of the economy It is flexible about how it does this. In terms and economic development incorporating a of our ways of working, we aim to: commitment to gender equality, contribute • meet common objectives, without to critical analysis of the current economic becoming too formal or institutionalised model? And how can our vision contribute to the development of alternative economic • create a common position and discourse models? The dominant economic policies which is built on a genuine recognition have not guaranteed equality or brought of all the personal and organisational about an end to poverty, and have not contributions of everyone in the IFC tended to achieve expected rates of • maintain active and participatory economic growth. And all of those are communication, and a dynamic of essential elements in sustainable develop- permanent consultation, among ment. members • sustain exchanges with other networks Expectations of the Financing for and organisations. Development (FFD) process Quite reasonably, the debate around the So far, we have faced some challenges. It is FFD process at Monterrey created expect- challenging and complex work to generate ations among those who took part. First, critical debate about the impact of neo- there is a need to mount a concrete liberal globalisation, and suggest alternatives challenge to the existing development into which gender issues have been model. Second, all those involved in integrated. It is particularly hard to keep up development need to reach some essential with the rhythm of regional and global agreements in order to overcome the events while relying mostly on short-term failures of the current development process voluntary work, and little funding. Further- and guarantee a level of sustainability in more, there are challenges in developing development. This is critical not only for new and timely responses while simul- poor countries, but also to ensure the future taneously maintaining our commitment to of life on our planet. a collective process in reaching policy positions. By the end of the 1990s, we could already see that 'free trade' was only really free for some. Free flows of capital, in the 2 Putting the IFC proposal form of speculative flows of currency in into practice and out of government control, were Alma Espino, Uruguay destabilising different economies. As the decade came to an end, private capital flow As outlined above, the IFC is the result of surpassed development support as the the wish of Latin American feminists to main foreign source of capital available for 54

developing countries. Direct investment economies were not able to revitalise it. The operating in a borderless market without forecast in terms of growth continues to be effective regulations conditioned the bleak. Conditions set by the international availability of funds for development, and financial bodies not only affect the thus conditioned state policies in our sovereignty of states from the point of view countries. of the economy, but also threaten demo- The Monterrey Consensus2 threw all cracy in states where this is weak. our expectations overboard. The consensus reflects the complete failure of the The challenges conference to address the poverty and Today, we in the Latin America region face hardship faced by women and men in poor the familiar challenges of development in countries which are integrating their conditions of growing economic decay and economies into a 'globalised' world. The fragile democratic governance. The lessons consensus did nothing to increase the we have learnt through our experience availability of resources for developing make us more entitled each day to insist countries, or improve their access to that power relations among countries and markets. Nor did Monterrey support regions cannot depend on economic theory developing countries through the develop- alone. Policy making cannot neglect the ment of a control mechanism, or capital realities of the relationship between regulation, which would reduce the risks of economics and politics. Social and political financial crisis associated with the inter- exclusion and economic poverty should be national , and increase the addressed in economic proposals. Aside options in terms of which economic policies from being socially unjust, the exclusion countries are able to adopt. and economic want experienced by particular groups of people according to Regional crisis their sex, race and religion, and so on, can During the 1990s, the Latin American influence the success of economic policy. region experienced a production crisis and So the equality issue cannot be left until a large increase in unemployment, even poverty has been addressed: there is either though measures had been taken to make growth with equity, or there is no growth. the labour market 'flexible' - that is, to As feminists, we need to perfect our deregulate it. These problems occurred at a analysis and proposals, but gender analysis, time of financial and banking crisis. State together with feminist practice, can sovereignty was decreased because of a contribute to the necessary changes in number of related factors, including the fact terms of access to welfare, social justice, that national debt levels were high and and the strengthening of democracy and increasing, the institutions intended to peace. regulate national economies were weak, and the necessary regulations were lacking. Regional initiatives like MERCOSUR 3 Placing equity at the heart were virtually paralysed. MERCOSUR (the of the agenda on external Common Market of the Southern Cone) is a debt and trade customs union between four member states Norma Sanchis, (Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay) and two other associate members (Bolivia Latin America continues to be the most and Chile). MERCOSUR was established in unequal region in the world. As feminists 1995. It is the third largest trading bloc in who recognise the importance of noting the world. The East Asian crisis had a strong economic and political trends, we have impact on MERCOSUR, and the regional consistently emphasised the importance of Feminist proposals from Latin America 55 equality as a human value which trans- Aside from these differences in wealth cends gender, social, economic, ethnic and within countries, there are obvious inequal- national differences. Over the past few ities between countries which increase decades, wealth has been increasingly vulnerability in the global free-market concentrated in a few hands, and social economy. The large foreign debts of injustice has increased. developing countries are a key issue which In the 1990s, structural adjustment has been taken up by sectors of civil society policies (SAPs) led to the opening up of and social movements in the Latin America markets and financial deregulation in Latin region in recent years. The current debt of American countries. At the beginning of Latin America is several times larger than it the 1990s, the open market seemed to be was 20 years ago, even though over the leading towards a promising rise in exports past few years debt repayments have been and growth from the countries in the made which are higher than the value of region. At the same time, some analysts the loans. According to data from the flagged up the fact that countries in the World Bank and ECLAC, Latin America region needed to transform their pro- has repaid US$1.4 billion over the past 20 duction processes in order to improve their years. This means that there was a resource reach into the world market, and that this transfer five times larger than the original change must be linked to proposals to debt, even though today the debt is three improve social and economic equality times larger. (ECLAC 1991). To be competitive, we International trade is another way in needed to upgrade our technology and the which asymmetrical power relations skills and qualifications of the work force. between countries, which shape international These analysts warned us of the fact that relations, is manifested. International trade improvement in the ability to compete is usually seen as a technical field, in could not be achieved on the basis of which the negotiation mechanisms of tightening labour costs, or overexploiting exchange are analysed according to the the natural resources in the region. specific interests of each country or region. Throughout the 1990s, the inequalities However, this perspective ignores the fact in wealth distribution that characterise the that power defines the primary interests of region remained strong. While economies the stronger economies. In the case of the were growing, it was not possible to FTAA (Free Trade Area of the Americas) counteract the patterns of unequal distrib- negotiations, the supremacy of the northern ution which were observed in the 1980s. In economies is evident - in particular that of 2001, the ECLAC Social Panorama of Latin the US, which represents about three- America (ECLAC 2001) showed that in all quarters of the region's GDP. The remaining Latin American countries except for Costa quarter is produced by the other 33 Rica and Uruguay, the richest 10 per cent countries that are part of the agreement. owns 30 per cent or more of the wealth. In This level of asymmetry, which became Brazil, the country with the highest indexes evident in the political and military spheres of wealth concentration in the whole as well, after September 11, allows for the region, the proportion owned by the richest FTAA to serve, not only as a trade agree- 10 per cent is as high as 45 per cent, while ment, but also as a tool for the political, the share of the poorest 40 per cent is economic and cultural dominance of the around 10 per cent in all countries except US. Civil society movements in Latin Uruguay, where it is 22 per cent. In all the America are mobilising to address this. countries in the region as a whole, the It is necessary to encourage an agenda inequality in distribution became sharper that places social and gender equity at the during the period 1997 to 1999. centre of economics and politics. Growth in 56

itself is not enough. We need institutions • sectors that are not part of the paid that promote equality, and gender equality labour market are excluded from social as a part of this; we need political systems protection and politicians who will fight against the • hence, the economic security of women inequalities that remain in our societies. is dependent on their spouse or father. They need to promote discussion on issues such as intra-state and international There have always been forms of employ- asymmetries in power, strategies to build ment that are outside of this 'norm', such as alliances and negotiate, to challenge the contracts for specific services. But since the 1970s, the gap has widened between the focus on wealth creation in favour of norm and reality. The laws governing this more equal distribution, and to promote kind of relationship between employers the universality of human rights (including and workers are not only used less because economic, social, political and cultural of direct law evasion, but because their rights), as a guarantee of . application is restricted to an ever smaller population of workers. The system loses its 4 Forming institutions in protective strength if it only applies to response to the new labour certain groups of workers. Yet, while most employment now does not conform to the relations norm, the regulations and forms of By Rosalba Todaro, Chile protection are still thought of as standards by which labour relations are defined. We are facing a crisis of what has been termed 'normal labour relations'. By this phrase Although the changes in the way labour I mean the type of labour relations and is regulated have happened in the context protection of workers that characterised of neo-liberal politics, it would be too the capitalist industrial era in Western simplistic to say that this is the sole reason economies. they have occurred. This would bypass other important factors that influence The fundamental characteristics of labour structures, including new tech- 'normal labour relations' are the following: nologies, especially information and • full-time work, mostly performed by communications technologies. These make men, in jobs of indefinite duration, it possible for employers to co-ordinate designed as a long-term relationship labour processes that may be taking place between worker and employer simultaneously in geographically distant • job provides family income, sufficient locations. This makes for greater financial for family sustenance flexibility, and a more elastic relationship • women perform essential work at home between workers and working tools. The with dependents, which subsidises fact that productive processes can be 'farmed out' to distant regions, facilitated men's paid work by technological advances, dilutes the • the relationship between worker and nature of the relationship between the employer is part of a set of legal norms, company and the worker and creates a grey negotiated by different social actors area between employment and self- • job is of standard duration, and employment. regulated by the working day On the other hand, important changes • workers' rights to social protection have taken place in the relationships depend on their presence within the between women and men, linked to changes paid labour market in the economic needs of families. In the Feminist proposals from Latin America 57 description of 'normal labour relations' Latin American economies, high unemploy- given above, a strict gender division of ment leads to companies being able to labour was a key feature. Current changes insist that their labour forces are flexible. in family needs are linked to economic There are currently serious difficulties in crisis, to commercialisation of public achieving a form of 'virtuous flexibility'. services, and to the growing instability and Institutions and regulations are required to insecurity of employment. At the same meet the needs of women and men time, there are also changes in women's involved in the new forms of labour and expectations and hopes for autonomy, as new gendered relationships. These will they question the traditional division of come out of a new social agreement labour. Family units are changing and between all those involved in global trade new forms are emerging, and marriage is and employment. But the problem we are becoming unstable in many contexts. All facing today is the inequality among the this leads to the disappearance of the players in the globalised employment 'family wage' paid to a male breadwinner, market. Overcoming this problem is a key and to challenges to strict divisions of objective. labour by sex, and hence to the organi- sation of paid work. A paid worker used to be male, with a wife who took care of his 5 Macro economics and daily needs and those of his family. This macro politics can no longer be assumed. Cecilia Lopez Montafio, Colombia Overcoming poverty now requires flexibility. Currently, the new jobs are Latin America in the context of the 1990s characterised by : low incomes, During the so-called 'lost decade' of the instability in contractual arrangements, 1980s, it became evident that the import lack of social protection leading to greater substitution and popular politics model of vulnerability in times of illness, and less development in Latin America was at an scope for workers to resist exploitation and end. In many countries, a welfare state had negotiate terms, because of conditions of been attempted at the expense of fiscal instability and high unemployment. deficit and debt. Since the beginning of the Flexibility is not only an economic require- 1990s, the Washington Consensus began to ment for labour forces as a whole, but also insist on SAPs being applied indiscrim- a prerequisite of daily life for individuals in inately in most of Latin America. The same paid employment. recipe was used from country to country, Labour relations and social protection without any consideration of local need to be re-regulated, according to the conditions, or social safety nets. This new terms in which people are involved in occurred in pursuit of the goal of thrusting paid work, and the new gender relations. these countries into the globalised Work itself needs to be understood and economy. This was an unrealistic aim, conceptualised correctly - not just as paid which soon became apparent. In reality, in work, or work for the market, but as the many cases the pre-modern structures of totality of activities that people and society production were not modified, nor the need. provide new patriarchal relationships, nor work in models to help us understand reality, and precarious or exploitative conditions. enlarge the boundaries of the economy in theory and in practice. The axis of the current debate Given the context of economic crisis and Finding real alternatives to current minimum growth among the majority of economic policies requires recognition that 58

we are now facing new realities in which Notes the old analysis is no longer functional. Today, it is clear that the problems of the 1 The following networks are part of the 1990s have been replaced by new problems. Feminist Initiative of Cartagena: REPEM The issue of inflation has been replaced by (Popular Education Among Women that of recession. Unemployment has Network), DAWN, IGTN-LA (Inter- become a key issue worldwide, and national Gender and Trade Network- seriously affects our region. The old Latin America), CLADEM, Women and monetary and fiscal policies have shown Habitat Network, Feminists Economists obvious signs of weakness. Group, Women Transforming, Feminist Marcosur Coalition. We also need to recognise the neo- colonialism that now dominates the 2 The Monterrey Consensus can be found management of world economics. With at http://ods-dds-ny.un.org/doc/ the Washington Consensus, developing UNDOC/GEN/N02/392/ 67/PDF/ countries lost autonomy in political and N0239267.pdf economic decision-making. At the same time, the power of the Western countries References has been consolidated because it is they who supply financing to developing Alvarez, S. (1997) The relationship between countries in debt. Only the rich countries the , democracy and which do not need resources are free to State, Flora Tristan: Peru decide on their economic policies. Since ECLAC (1991) Transformation productiva con this model benefits the rich countries, its eauidad, Santiago: ECLAC forced implementation on the poor ECLAC (2001) Social Panorama of Latin countries creates a neocolonial relationship. America, Santiago: ECLAC The third thing we need to recognise is United Nations (2002) Financing for that we are facing a partial and incomplete Development: Building on Monterrey, UN, process of globalisation. Many of the New York elements of a genuine globalisation process are not taking place: there is no such thing as free trade since protectionism is still the order of the day, and not everything has been globalised - in particular, the free movement of the workforce. For global- isation to work, it must go deep and integrate all factors and levels. Finally, we need to recognise what other writers in this article have high- lighted already: macro economics is tied to, and conditioned by, international politics. It is necessary to strengthen political parties and reclaim public space for citizens to assert their full rights. 59

If I were Minister of Finance...: gaining understanding of financial crisis through a simulation workshop Mehrene Larudee and Caren Grown

Financial crises (also known as debt crises, currency crises or crises) have become endemic in the modern world. The countries at greatest risk have been developing countries. This article discusses a workshop/If I were Minister of Finance...', which we ran at the Association for Women in Development (AWID) conference in Guadalajara in October 2002. In the workshop, participants took part in a simulation of the Argentine . The simulation sought to give participants a better understanding of the causes of a currency crisis, and the tough, limited choices a government faces in trying to prevent it. Simulations like the one described in this article can be helpful to activists and women's organisations in moving a gender-sensitive economic policy agenda forward.

eveloping countries which have goods into Argentina from another country. faced financial crises in the past One must pay in dollars. Of course, if credit Dtwo decades include Mexico (1982 is available one does not have to pay those and 1994-5), Chile (1982), Brazil (1982, dollars immediately. But, sooner or later, much of 1986-1993 and 1999), one has to come up with enough dollars to (1997), and (1998), to name only a pay - and if it is later, of course one has to few. But even Finland (1992) and Sweden pay back not only the principal (that is, the (1990) have faced similar crises, and even original money borrowed), but interest as so-called 'fortress' Britain was compelled to well. devalue the pound in 1992, when it came The second step in understanding under speculative attack. (Speculative financial crises and why they arise is to attacks are explained below in Round 3.) recognise that anyone who wants to obtain Why do financial crises arise at all? The dollars normally gets them by selling the first step is to understand that most local currency and buying dollars. (For countries' - Thai baht, Indian convenience, local currencies were repre- rupees, or Argentinian pesos - are not sented by the peso in the simulation.) In accepted as payment when goods are sold most countries, only the , or a across borders. To carry out international financial institution authorised by the transactions, one has to have so-called Central Bank, is allowed to sell dollars and 'hard currency': dollars, euros, or one of a buy pesos. (At least, this is the theory.) In very few other currencies such as the yen, practice, there may be a , but the Swiss franc or the British pound the simulation ignores that complication in sterling. (In the simulation, all kinds of the first round. hard currency are referred to as 'dollars'.) The third fact to bear in mind is that For example, suppose one wants to import although the words 'crisis' and '' 60

suggest pain and suffering, there are both unfolded into a crisis. At times, the work- losers and winners in a currency deval- shop seemed near chaos, as workers uation. The losers are those who are holding feverishly manufactured 'soccer balls' pesos when the devaluation happens, while toy manufacturers struggled to sell because after the devaluation, the pesos can them and remain profitable in the face of buy fewer dollars than before. For instance, imports, which were suddenly cheaper after the devaluation of than local products. Meanwhile, Argentina's 1994-5, there was a steep drop in cross- Central Bank tried to hang on to its dollar border shopping by Mexicans from Ciudad reserves, as the rich put their money into Juarez, who normally spend considerable dollar savings outside the country, and money in El Paso in the USA, buying currency speculators waited to pounce. clothes, toys, appliances and other goods. In our simulation, the nine players sit Women who are responsible for repro- around a table, and each is given a quantity ductive work can also lose out from of pesos (white beans), dollars (black beans), devaluation, as the prices of necessities and and debt (red cards) that are appropriate to basic goods rise; women then have to make her role. There are three foreign and six do with less. domestic players. The foreigners are a In contrast, the winners from deval- Foreign Lender, a Foreign who uation are those who successfully anticipate also runs an export-import business, and a it and buy dollars just in advance of it. Currency Speculator. The domestic players After the devaluation, they can buy back are a Central Banker, a Local Banker, the twice as many pesos, and may well end up Argentine Government, a Rich Argentine, a better off. In fact, all those who are holding Toy Manufacturer and a Worker in the Toy dollars after devaluation have an advantage. Manufacturing Business. The central banker For example, after the Asian financial crisis, and the toy manufacturer are the busiest and the Wall Street investment firm Goldman have the most complex tasks; at the other Sachs was able to buy up hotels and real extreme, the currency speculator does nothing estate in a number of Asian countries. except watch for the first couple of rounds, and springs into action late in the game. The worker and the manufacturer start The workshop process out with nothing. The manufacturer borrows The AWID workshop simulation was pesos from the local bank at 20 per cent designed for participants with no previous interest to pay local wages, and also borrows knowledge of economics. The workshop dollars from the foreign lender at 10 per was run twice and, all together, a total of cent interest to import inputs (sheets of about 30 women were taught the basic purple paper) with which to produce soccer principles of balance of payments, as this balls. The workers then manufacture soccer affects the lives of people in developing balls (by crumpling the paper into balls), countries. The same simulation has also and the soccer balls are sold, some abroad been used in a class at the University of (to the foreign investor with the export- Kansas, and a simpler version was run import business) and some at home (to the during the 2002 UN Committee on the rich Argentine). With the sales revenue, the Status of Women meetings in New York at manufacturer pays the worker, and then a teach-in hosted by UNIFEM. repays the loans with interest, making a Each participant took one of nine roles, small profit. The worker spends some of and followed a script spelling out her her money on imported goods, as does the actions during four rounds of play, during rich Argentine. which balance of payments problems The Argentine government already has became progressively more serious, and $200 debt at the beginning of the simulation, Gaining understanding of financial crisis through a simulation workshop 61 and in each round has to pay 10 per cent even if for some temporary reason the interest on that debt. To do so, it has to use inflow of dollars slows or the outflow its tax revenues and exchange them for increases, the country will still have dollars with the Central Bank, since the enough dollars to continue making its debt interest must be paid in dollars. (We hand payments as well as buying imports to four rounds of tax revenues to the keep its economy going. In a very real government at the beginning of the game, sense, the central banker is happiest if in order to keep matters simple.) However, nothing happens to her dollar reserves at the government does not have any net all. But once the dollar reserves fall close to principal repayments on the $200 debt, zero, pandemonium breaks out. The since it rolls over the loan each round; that approaching crisis sets off behaviour by is, it pays back exactly as much principal as certain economic actors which make that it borrows anew. crisis far harder to avoid. In addition, though, the government But this is getting ahead of our story. happens to have a persistent budget deficit Our workshop unfolds over four rounds of - a common, though not universal, feature the simulation. of economies headed for crisis - and the deficit is financed by borrowing from abroad. For this purpose, the government How the simulation works also borrows an additional amount in each round, so that in each subsequent round it Round 1: A stable peso, no balance of has to pay additional interest at the payments problem; learning basic world , which stays at 10 per principles cent throughout. In the simulation, the action focuses on the Similarly, each player buys, sells, Central Bank: the central banker sells borrows, lends, invests, or disinvests, as dollars to some players, receiving pesos in specified in the script. Each time such a exchange, and buys dollars from other transaction involves changing pesos into players, giving pesos in exchange. In dollars or dollars into pesos, the players see Round 1, the is set at 1 peso the Central Bank's stack of dollars fall or = $1. In this round, the players just get rise. The main point for participants to take accustomed to their roles in a situation in away is this: a financial crisis simply means which there is no crisis, and the balance of that the Central Bank is running out of payments is balanced. Dollars flow in and dollars. That stack of dollars in Argentina's out of the Central Bank, but at the end of Central Bank - which in real life is actually the round (which represents a time period kept in a bank somewhere in New York - of a year or so) the Central Bank holds the is called the Bank's 'foreign exchange same $100 with which it started. reserves' or 'foreign currency reserves'. In this round, players see that it is the Some transactions cause dollars to be taken flows of dollars into and out of the country from the stack. Others cause dollars to be that matter, and they see the various added to the stack. reasons why foreigners, local manu- As a rule of thumb, a central banker is facturers, the government and various happiest when the stack contains enough private producers and consumers might dollars to pay for at least three and want to buy dollars and sell pesos, or sell preferably six normal months' worth of dollars and buy pesos. imports, and when, year after year, the The simplest example of this is imports: stack remains around that size. The dollar if an Argentine has pesos and wants to reserves act as a kind of guarantee to import a car, he needs to go to the Central international investors and lenders that, Bank, sell his pesos and buy dollars. He will 62

be able to pay for the imported goods with buyers, or else the Central Bank will have his dollars. (Equivalently, the car dealer or to use some of its dollar reserves to buy up importer may actually obtain the dollars; the extra pesos. the point is that someone has to give up Once dollars seem to be flowing out pesos for dollars in order for the car to be faster than they are flowing in at the imported.) Likewise, if an Argentine prevailing exchange rate, players begin to bicycle manufacturer exports bicycles, then see the dilemma facing the Central Banker. she receives dollars in payment, and goes She has three options, none of them to the Central Bank and exchanges these for appealing. The first option, the one which pesos, which she uses to pay her employees the script dictates in Round 2, is to go and local suppliers. For simplicity, in the ahead and use her dollar reserves to buy all simulation we slightly altered the details of the extra pesos offered for sale, and so this scenario, but the basic idea is sound. If Argentina has $40 billion in imports and maintain 'parity' at one peso per one dollar. $40 billion in exports, then the overall effect This has the advantage that it offers on the dollar reserves in the Central Bank is potential foreign investors a stable, to leave them unchanged. But if Argentina predictable exchange rate. It prevents imports $5 billion more in goods than it devaluation for the moment, but unfor- exports, and nothing else changes, then the tunately it also reduces the Central Bank's Central Bank's dollar reserves will fall by stack of dollars. Next year, if there are more $5 billion as long as the exchange rate is pesos for sale than offers to buy them, the still 1 peso = $1. Central Bank will face the same choices. Of course, there are many kinds of But if the Central Bank sops up the extra transactions besides trade that bring dollars pesos each time this occurs, it will very into the Central Bank: foreign lending to soon run out of dollars, and a financial Argentine private firms or to the govern- crisis will ensue. At that point the govern- ment, for instance. There are also many ment will have to appeal to the International kinds of transactions that vacuum dollars Monetary Fund (IMF) for an emergency out of the Central Bank, such as payments loan, and knuckle under to the IMF's of interest on foreign loans (which have to demands for austerity measures. be paid in dollars). A variety of these sorts A second option is to let the value of the of transactions are illustrated in subsequent currency be determined by letting all rounds of the simulation. parties freely trade it. In other words, the Central Bank may drop its insistence on Round 2: Brazilian currency is devalued; carrying out all peso-dollar and Argentina's dollar reserves shrink In Round 2, Brazil, a major trading may let the currency float down to a new, partner of Argentina, undergoes a large lower value which the Bank believes will devaluation, just as it did in January 1999. eliminate the outflow of dollars. The bank Suddenly, Brazil's goods are much cheaper. can then announce its intention to defend Argentina now has a harder time exporting the new, lower value of the peso. This is to Brazil and, within Argentina, consumers what is meant by a devaluation. It is often buy more Brazilian goods. A decline in unpopular - especially just before an exports and an increase in imports throw election - because it typically causes the balance of payments out of balance. In inflation. In the simulation, the devaluation this round, about twice as many pesos are happens only in Round 4 after all other offered for sale as dollars. So if the options have been exhausted. exchange rate is to remain at 1 peso = $1, The third option is the one used in either some peso sellers will not find Round 3, and is explained below. Gaining understanding of financial crisis through a simulation workshop 63

Round 3: Central Bank raises interest loan with interest - and to keep the rates; a crisis approaches remaining dollars as profit. In 1992, when The third tool in the Central Bank's toolbox George Soros used $10 billion of his money - to raise interest rates - is no more to force devaluation of the British pound, politically attractive than a devaluation. he ultimately made $2 billion on the deal Round 3 illuminates why increasing (www.soros.org). interest rates can be temporarily effective. Although the high interest rate can slow By the beginning of the round, the level down the exit of capital, it can unfortunately of dollar reserves has fallen so low that, at also have negative effects on the economy. most, one or two months of imports can be The toy manufacturer finds that all her purchased. This triggers responses by profits are eaten up by interest on the loan. certain players which set in motion a If high interest rates persist, she will go out destabilising process that is hard to stop. of business, and her employees will lose One response is : the rich their jobs. And if this happens to many firms, Argentine sells pesos and buys dollars, in the local banks may also become insolvent. anticipation of the devaluation. Similarly, Foreign lenders may then stop lending the foreign investor sells the shares in the altogether, and this will trigger a crisis. toy manufacturing firm which she bought in Round 2, and takes her dollars out of Round 4: Capital flees, currency Argentina. Alarmed by these develop- speculator attacks, Central Bank ments, and seeing that its ability to sop up devalues the peso the additional pesos sold is limited by its In Round 4, the situation deteriorates dwindling dollar reserves, the Central Bank even further. Both the rich Argentine and imposes higher interest rates. Raising the foreign investor sell their pesos and buy interest rates persuades the foreign investor dollars, and - even if nothing else changes not to take her money out of the country - this capital flight uses up the Central just yet. It also slows down the currency Bank's last dollar reserves, forcing it to speculator, who senses an approaching declare a currency devaluation. devaluation and seeks to borrow pesos in order to sell them later for dollars. However, in light of higher interest rates, The impact of financial she waits to be sure she has her timing crises right, because the higher the interest rate, When crises hit, countries often turn to the the more costly any mistake will be. International Monetary Fund for help. The The other factor that precipitates the Fund usually imposes a structural adjust- crisis is that in Round 3 the currency specu- ment programme as a condition of its lator goes into action. She borrows huge lending, which is not included in our quantities of pesos, and then exchanges the simulation. Many readers will be familiar pesos for dollars at the one-for-one exchange with the features of structural adjustment rate. Because she is adding to the number but, in brief, the IMF forces the government of pesos being offered for sale, she essentially to balance its budget so that it will not keep forces the Central Bank to buy those pesos, adding to its debt, and usually also forces a and so speeds up the exhaustion of its devaluation of the currency, which restores dollar reserves. If she gets the timing right, near equality between exports and imports she forces a devaluation of the peso. Once and halts that source of drain on the dollar this happens - in Round 4 - she will be able reserves. Countries often balance their to use only about half her dollars to buy budgets by cutting public expenditure, back all the pesos she needs to repay the often for education, health, and other 64

services essential to the poor and working participants said they had had no idea how class, and by imposing fees for service. extraordinarily important it was to Public sector workers may suffer wage cuts understand these basic principles. Perhaps or retrenchment, as government is down- most startling was the realisation of how sized. Public like water and very narrow the scope is for central banks to electrical power are often privatised, and manoeuvre, once a crisis is well underway. fees are raised, hurting the poor. Teaching about financial crises through Some financial crises have not been role-play works surprisingly well, even preceded by significant government when the simulation is complicated. In budget deficits. For instance, in Chile in order to play their roles, participants have 1982, and several Asian countries in to ask questions. Through the game, they 1997-8, there was little or no government gain clarity about various currency trans- budget deficit, and the crisis was rooted in actions, the reasons why one buys or sells private sector debt. Nevertheless, a budget dollars, and the effect of these transactions deficit might appear after the crisis breaks on different sectors of the economy. All the and austerity measures may be imposed to players see the Central Bank's dollar minimise that deficit, as was the case in reserves declining, and they see that the East Asia. one recourse - to raise interest rates - The impact of financial crises is, by makes matters worse in many ways. They now, quite well known. Analyses of the see, too, that once the crisis approaches, the 1998 Asian financial crises have shown that efforts of the Central Bank to avert it can be women bore a disproportionate share of thwarted by capital flight and speculative the costs - see Lim (2000) and Frankenberg, attacks on the currency. Like it or not, the Thomas, and Beegle (1999). Poor and country ends up in the stifling embrace of working-class women, especially, provided the IMF. the unpaid work that was critical to family So what is the solution to financial and community survival. Low-income crises? The proposal by late Nobel prize- women - and their daughters - spent more winner James Tobin is still on the table, for time and effort to produce non-market a tax on international financial transactions substitutes for goods and services that which would limit the lurching of capital became too expensive or were no longer into, and then out of, developing countries. available. In addition, women sought more Billionaire and wizard investor George Soros paid work, often in informal employment, has advocated the same thing, and has where returns were low, to make up for some ideas of his own, spelled out in his reduced family income. Girls were pulled out recent book, George Soros on Globalisation of school before boys, in order to help their (2002). Several feminist economists - families. In South Korea and Indonesia, job including Diane Elson, Niliifer Cagatay, losses were higher for women than for men Irene Van Staveren, Stephanie Seguino as the public and private sectors contracted. and others - have also made the case for Studies on financial crises in other regions Tobin-type taxes on speculative financial of the world find similar impacts. capital, as well as for national-level actions that include controls on both inflows and outflows of capital, as well as changes in Conclusion fiscal and . Each of these Simulations like the one described here are proposals should be put on the agenda of an effective tool for teaching a complex and the international women's movement. technical subject. At AWID, the response was overwhelmingly positive; several Gaining understanding of financial crisis through a simulation workshop 65

Mehrene Larudee is Assistant Professor of Frankenberg, E., D. Thomas, and K. Beegle Economics at the University of Kansas. Her (1999) 'The real costs of Indonesia's research is on the effect of trade and investment economic crisis: preliminary findings liberalisation on employment, wages and from the Indonesia family life surveys', growth, especially in Latin America. Address: Labor and Population Program Working Economics Department, University of Kansas, Paper Series: 99-04, RAND, 1300 Sunnyside Ave., Room 213, Lawrence, KS www.rand.org/labor 66045-7585. Ghosh, J. (2002) Argentina: a cautionary tale [email protected] from South America, International Associates Caren Grown is Director of the Poverty Network (IDEAS), Reduction and Economic Growth Team at the http://networkideas.org International Center for Research on Women. Lim, J. (2000) 'The effects of the East Asian Her recent research has focused on the effect crisis on the employment of men and of gender inequality on macroeconomic and women: the Philippine case', World other development outcomes. Address: 1717 Development 28 (7): 1285-1306 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W., Suite 302, Rodrik, D. (2002) 'Reform in Argentina, Washington, D.C. 20036. take two trade rout', The New Republic, [email protected] 14 January 2002, http://tnr.com/ Singh, A. and A. Zammit (2000) 'International capital flows: identifying the gender References dimension', World Development 22 (10): Baden, S. (1996) 'Gender issues in financial 1249-68. Oxford: Elsevier Science Ltd liberalization and financial sector reform', Soros, G. (2002) George Soros on Globalisation, Brighton, UK: BRIDGE Publications, New York: Public Affairs Institute for Development Studies Stiglitz, J. (1999) 'Responding to economic Elson, D. (2002) 'International financial crises: policy alternatives for equitable architecture: a view from the kitchen', recovery and development', The Femina Politica, Spring Manchester School Vol. 57 (5): 409-27 66 Part II Globalisation as politics

69

Fundamentalisms, globalisation and women's human rights in Senegal Fatou Sow

One response to the phenomenon of globalisation in politics, economics and culture has been a resurgence of fundamentalist movements. To fundamentalists, women symbolise ethnic and cultural purity, and their rights and status have become an enormous issue. But the links between fundamentalisms, tradition and modernity are very complex. In this article I look at the example of Senegal, where traditional spiritual beliefs are mingled with the newer world religions, in very complex ways. Consequently, it is difficult to understand the connections between fundamentalism, globalisation and women's human rights. But this understanding is critical if women are to obtain and retain equal rights with men. This article is taken from a presentation given at a workshop entitled 'Fundamentalisms, globalisation and women's human rights', at the AWID Forum.

he issues of human rights, democracy difficult to address women's rights when and citizens' participation have never policies reduce social budgets, and privatise Tbeen debated as much as they are resources and basic services to the poorest today - both internationally, and in Africa. populations. How can we sustain the few The world is now dominated by the ideas gains made for equality between women and rules of the free market, which are and men, when states are unable to forcing political changes, obliging states to guarantee that these are reflected in women's open up to the world market. These changes lives? Women experience globalisation are altering the relationship between states daily when they go in search of water at the and citizen. The state is reshaping itself, in hydrants in poor neighborhoods, or when line with the prescriptions of the inter- they busy themselves in thousands of other national financial institutions (IFIs) and the ways to fulfill the needs of their families. World Trade Organisation (WTO) that These are needs that men are no longer able there should be a lesser state presence or to meet, or needs arising from the cutting of even a total absence of the state, in contexts state provision for education or health where the role of the state was previously services, under the constraints of structural very prominent. States currently seem adjustment policies. It is primarily women more concerned about their sheer survival who pay the actual costs of the privati- in the world market than in satisfying the sation of the economy. interests of their citizens. All these factors have favoured the The talk of human rights heard in emergence of fundamentalist movements, international fora masks the violation of in environments where religion is an citizen's rights in general - and women's integral part of culture. This article focuses rights in particular - which accompanies on the example of Senegal. The resurgence globalisation. In particular, it is increasingly of Muslim discourse, and its impact on 70

women, is what interests us most here, these practices represent a call to the spirit because of its impact on national life. world, to enlist the ancestors' protection. Senegalese of all religious denominations, and of all ranks and social standing, Religion and culture in depend on religious laws and rites to define Senegal their collective identity. Senegal is a country located on the west Many of these rites lie within women's coast of Africa, which had a long spiritual realm. They participate in them either as tradition even before Judeo-Christianity actors or leaders of worship. Female and Islam set roots. Pre-Islamic and pre- divinities govern the areas bordering the Christian religious underpinnings are sea and rivers, between Dakar, Cape Verde deeply embedded in daily social attitudes and Saint-Louis on the north coast of the and practices. These form the basis for country. Fishermen's wives make offerings numerous informal social norms, and to Mame Jaare and Mame Coumba Bang as formal laws. For example, it is customary in boats prepare to leave the shore at the many Senegalese communities to sacrifice beginning of the fishing season. This is an an animal when a newborn child is given important activity in a country with over a name, or during funerals. There are other 600 kilometres of coastline. Women healers (facckat) preside over fertility rites (to cure similar examples. People still spill animal infertility, or protect a pregnancy), and blood before undertaking an important possession rites (including ceremonies of event, to call upon the spirits (rab) and exorcism), and administer drug-yielding enlist their support, or in order to mollify plants for therapeutic purposes, in cases of their wrath. People bury cola nuts and physical or mental illness or emotional charms, or pour sour milk or animal blood crisis brought on by different types of on the foundations when starting to build a problems, including difficult marital house. Others drink and smear their bodies relationships. with all kinds of mixtures for luck, before In the newer world religions there is taking an exam, applying for a job, or to much less of a leading role for women. In ensure that their professional or political Islam in particular, leadership of religious job remains secure. rites is mostly taken by men. This has had Islamic and Christian practices have an impact on the traditional rites. By flourished and mingled with traditional adding a few verses from the Koran to their practices. In the first example given above, incantations, male healers have taken over a Muslim rite may be used for the animal from female healers, giving the rites a new sacrifice, with people facing Mecca, and 'holy' dimension. Women have given up reciting Koranic prayers. Good luck charms their roles as high-priestesses. The masters are made from soaked paper inscribed with of worship and healers (who were referred Koranic chapters. A Sereer Christian from to as 'shamans' in colonial ethnological Sine would use the Bible for this purpose. terminology), have attained an even All these types of behaviour are looked higher status than they had before the upon as familiar and sensible. Whether coming of the new religious beliefs. Thus, they are popular or not, they are never we are now witnessing subtle changes to considered fetishist or pagan. It does not cultural practices, in line with the gradual matter to the people who practise this Islamisation of the country. A spiritual behaviour what traditional healers or is now established. The important priests think of it. To the majority of titles of Serigne, Thierno or Marabat are believers, whether they are Muslims, given to men, but never to women, no Christians, or follow indigenous beliefs, matter what the degree of their acquired Fundamentalisms, globalisation and women's human rights in Senegal 71 wisdom. The male title Serigne (nowadays traditions, which make up the cultural base used for 'Mr') designates a religious man; of Senegal. And matriarchal lineage still the female title, Sokhna (now used for 'Mrs' defines the fundamental foundations of either designates the female relative of a Senegalese kinship systems, in the face of a Muslim holy man, or a woman who has patriarchal Islam. religious knowledge and learning. In pre-colonial Senegal, a strong religious sensibility was governed by tolerance. Into this context, French colonialism imposed Senegal, the land of Islam the separation of religion and state. The Senegal has slowly become Islamised since Napoleonic code was imposed in governing the ninth century.1 Today, almost 90 per family relationships. This was a partial cent of its population (close to 10,000) are success, with Christian families undergoing members of four religious brotherhoods. a civil ceremony before a church wedding. Each is led by a marabout or spiritual All civil marriages forced the spouses to leader. These are the Tijaania, of Algerian abide by rules of French law, especially origin, the Xaadria of Mauritanian origin mandatory monogamy, legal divorce, and (Boutlimit), the Mourides (Touba) and the so on. But the Muslim communities - even Layeen. These last two brotherhoods are of including individuals within them who had local origin and can be seen as nationalist been most influenced by the French - responses to colonialism, when people categorically opposed the use of the civil strengthened their sense of collective code. Koranic law, adapted in line with identity in the face of Westernisation and local traditions, continued to be admin- Judeo-Christian beliefs imported through istered. Muslim jurisdictions managed by a formal education and changes in social and Cadi (Islamic judge) were reinforced as political models. While France, the colonial well. Their legal decisions covered various power, spent a century crushing monarchies areas of expertise, especially family law from Senegambian soil, the traditional (divorce, child custody, family conflicts or authorities gathered strength and dynamism inheritance, for example). They were, until around Islam. independence, recognised by the colonial Even though Senegal is a Muslim state. The colonial state was unable to ban country, its culture is not an Arab culture. polygamy, or to make civil marriages There are certainly Arabic terms in local mandatory. The legislation which it tried to languages, especially from the Koranic introduce was not respected in cities or legal code, but Arabic is only spoken in the villages. People continued to abide by laws country sparingly, in order to read and enacted by traditional custom, and then by recite the Koran. The Arabic alphabet was religious law (if not at the same time). used to transcribe national languages,2 even Senegalese Islam, while giving shape to before Latin characters were adopted. moral and social life, has been relatively Many rules of civil and social conduct such gentle towards women. It recognises the as the proper way to say 'hello', 'thank importance of each family system, whether you', or conduct marital and social customs, this is patrilineal or matrilineal. Beneath the testify to a deep Islamic imprint. This general principle that women should be imprint has mingled with other influences, obedient to men, women have a degree of in harmony with some and in opposition or choice in negotiating their status and their contradiction with others. For example, it authority within the family and society. needs to be emphasised that women wearing a veil, or female seclusion within domestic space, are not practices from Wolof, Sereer, Pel, Mandeng or Koniagi 72

Secularisation, women's state was attempting to secularise the rights and religious laws: institution of marriage. Consent, celebration, managing identities and registry of marriage at City Hall were demanded of the spouses. Most importantly, In Senegal, secular forces have promoted a divorce had to be decreed in a civil court of state based on ideas of 'modernity'. The law. Spousal support was set by the judge. eight constitutions that Senegal has drafted While the code does not eliminate poly- since its independence in 1960 have all gamy, it requires men to choose between been based on the principle of the secular monogamy, polygamy with two, or poly- state. This includes the current Constitution, gamy with more than two. Once a man has voted upon in 2001. In its efforts at social chosen monogamy, this cannot be reversed. 'modernisation', the new state, presided While Christians could marry through a over by Leopold Sedar Senghor, who is a civil ceremony, without going through the member of the Sereer ethnic group and church, Muslim couples must celebrate Christian, underwent significant legal their union at the mosque as dictated by reforms. Enacted into law in 1973, the their Muslim identity. A civil marriage is Family Law Act of Senegal was an impor- mainly an administrative formality. tant and original reform in the West Despite the fact that Senegal is a 3 African region. The Family Law Act, country in which culture, religion and which aimed to be secular and applicable to secularism intermingle and contradict one all Senegalese, no matter what their another, its citizens reaffirmed their religious denomination, met strong commitment to the principles of secularism opposition from the outset. All Muslim in the constitution voted in 2001, and tribunals were abolished. Muslim authorities confirmed equality between men and proclaimed their commitment to the women in so doing. principles of the Shari'a ifiqh) and a large Yet, secularism seems to infringe upon majority of men believed the code to favour people's deepest sense of identity. Modern- women too much. Indeed, the code provided isation, which is rapidly changing the impetus for women's rights insofar as it landscape in Senegal, does not allow for represented a series of rules set by the disagreement with the socio-economic, legislator and not by the interpretation of political and material changes associated customs, or even by customs that were re- with it. The time for questioning the extent invented to suit various needs and contexts. to which Africans remain African if they However, the code still contained an adopt aspects of seems to important number of Koranic dispositions, have gone.4 Topical concerns now seem to and it was left to citizens to decide whether consist in youngsters starting to challenge to adopt these or not. For example, in the the authority of elders, especially where case of inheritance law, there are two new ideas about female identity are options: either the inheritance is equally challenging ideas about male identity divided among children regardless of sex, (which have also changed). or an unequal share is awarded to the two The status of women is an issue which sexes (the daughter inherits half of the is at the heart of people's ideas about son's share, and only children born into society and culture, and it is hence at the wedlock have to right to inherit). heart of the confrontations between Islam Similarly, in the case of marriage, and modernity, between ideas about a dowry is possible, but not mandatory. But Muslim 'Africanness' and Westernisation. despite all the sex discrimination which Fundamentalist forces criticise the concept appears in the Family Code, the Senegalese of modernity, which they say is imposed Fundamentalisms, globalisation and women's human rights in Senegal 73

'from the outside'. For them, the important Muslim communities as a guarantee and thing is to reconquer and reclaim a traditional symbol of female purity - a concept which identity. In the eyes of fundamentalists, is so important in Islam. It is sometimes nothing should be changed (even though proclaimed that women who are not change is an inevitable process) and a genitally mutilated cannot say prayers or woman is a symbol of ethnic 'purity'. serve meals. This is a context in which Challenges to these religious and patriarchal ideas of cleanliness are closely linked to power structures are presented through ideas of religious purity: where to perform Senegalese women's new access to education one's ablutions before prayers, and to (a symbol of modernisation), and the abstain from praying and from fasting intellectual and professional freedom they during menstruation, are religious obli- can potentially gain. It should be noted, gations. This affects gender relations: however, that while religion - which sexual activity during menstruation is freezes ideas of women and their status in prohibited for reasons of impurity. At the time - does not bring women freedom, end of a menstrual period, women must modernisation and Westernisation do not undergo a ritual cleansing before being necessarily guarantee that freedom either. allowed to pray again. Islam is invoked by those who wish to continue with the practice of FGM and to legitimise its The globalisation of continuation. women's human rights A similar analysis can be produced regarding violence against women. Since The globalisation of the issue of human the reform of the penal code in 1999, this rights should open infinite possibilities to type of violence is punished more severely promote the rights of women. We cannot than before. In the old French and talk about African women's rights without Senegalese penal codes, domestic violence taking into account the globalisation of this to women was permitted if there were issue. Women's claims to equality have extenuating circumstances. In Shari'a law, been strengthened by the international beating one's wife is allowed in specific recognition of universal human rights, and circumstances. Male public opinion was by scrutiny of the extent to which these strongly opposed to the first public rights are upheld in particular contexts. campaigns against domestic violence led by Two decades of world conferences on women's organisations, which were women, from 1975 to 1995, have allowed sparked off by the death of Dokki Niasse. debates about women's struggles for their Dokki Niasse was a young woman who, in rights to be heard at national and inter- 1993, was beaten by her husband while national levels. Women's claims have been she was in the early stages of pregnancy. legitimised by various conventions signed Taken to hospital, she died a few hours by states. later. Her husband was arrested by the For example, international campaigns to police, and jailed only after women from outlaw the different forms of female genital her neighbourhood marched, and petitions mutilation (FGM) have pushed some were signed nationwide. The case against African states to legislate to abolish these him was dismissed three years later practices. In Senegal, this occurred in 1999. because the doctor was unable to establish Forms of FGM were found in the regions of that her death was a result of the beating. Hal Pulaar and Soninke, in the north and Finally, international debates about the north-east, and in the south, in Mandeng need to ensure women's equal access to and Pulaar. While FGM is actually a pre- politics and decision-making has contri- Islamic practice, it has been embraced in buted to a larger contingent of women 74

entering the public sphere of political and Muslim President. Certainly, he allied economic power, sometimes through himself spiritually to the very powerful positive discrimination. brotherhood of Mourides, mentioned earlier, which controls the production of 5 Fundamentalism as a peanuts, other tradeable products, and craft industries. Migrations of people from response to globalisation the Mourides brotherhood to other parts of During important international gatherings Africa, and to North America, have in the recent past, the church and the resulted in significant sums of money being mosque have forged an alliance in order to sent back for re-investment in the country. limit women's rights. It is widely acknow- During his 20-year presidency, between ledged that the Christian discourse of Pope 1981 and 2000, manipulation and mutual Jean Paul II plays a role in constraining influence became established between the women's freedoms, especially in terms of Senegalese state (initially ruled by a single their sexuality and reproductive rights. The party system, then a multi-party system), condemnation by the Vatican of contra- and the religious leaders, for the control of ception, including condoms, and abortion, the mainly rural electorate. The Mourides weighs heavily on the sexual and repro- spiritual leader would encourage the ductive rights of Christians. Muslim believers to vote for a particular candidate. women are relatively free: they may use The March 2000 elections overthrew the contraception, and therapeutic abortion, if socialist party in power for the previous 40 life is threatened. However, Muslim women years. The new President proclaimed cannot refuse to see pregnancy to term for himself a Muslim, a talibe6 of Mourides, to any personal reasons, or undergo an the surprise of the political establishment. abortion if they have been raped. Hundreds A lawyer and professor of economics - an of women have died from secret pregnancies exemplification of modernity - he has and abortions as a result of the imposition encouraged the progression of a funda- of these religious dictates. mentalist discourse. This has caused During the 1970s, the Koranic discourse concern to civil society and women's was brought together with the power of organisations. It is true that Senegal is money. Islamic power emerged as a major certainly not a religious state such as Iran force with the Iranian revolution, and with or Algeria. There is no 'Islamist' power as the wave of activism generated from the such; indeed, the constitution prohibits the escalating price of oil from countries in creation of political parties based on the Maghreb and the Middle-East. The religious, ethnic or gender affiliation. influence of this new religious movement Nonetheless, during the presidential has been significant in the sub-Saharan elections of March 2000, three parties Muslim world, and gave a boost to already claiming Islamic denomination offered existing movements within the region. As their candidatures. They were effectively Islamic power became evident in the ignored by the electorate, but their speeches Senegalese political landscape, Senghor, about a return to faith and to Shari'a law, the Christian President of Senegal for over and their promise to abolish the Family 30 years, made efforts to strengthen Law Act in the event of an electoral victory, secularism, and maintained a certain presented a threat to women. balance between communities of different Dahira, and other fundamentalist religious denominations. religious groups have now emerged, and In 1981, his successor was immediately attempt to impose a totally retrograde and seen by a part of public opinion as a alienating rhetoric on women, which is Fundamentalisms, globalisation and women's human rights in Senegal 75 disseminated by local radio. Their stip- divine texts. Fundamentalist groups ulations include the wearing of the veil by manipulate religion for ideological and girls in schools, in city streets and in political means, and women's rights issues villages; a taboo against touching women's are a particular focus. We cannot allow hands; revival of religious vigils; a return to them to succeed, or leave it to society to the Islamic practice of patriarchal control introduce the necessary changes to abolish over women, women's seclusion in domestic discrimination on the basis of gender, class spaces, and rule of a male household head; or race. We need laws to reduce violence, to and condemnation of social changes which prohibit marriage and family practices are rooted in secular law. The airwaves are which harm women, such as polygamy and taken over by Islamic preaching until very divorce by repudiation, and to give states late into the night. Women and children's the power to renegotiate power relations rights are heavily contested, and are between the sexes in the pursuit of greater subject to fights between 'modernists' and social justice. Here lies the real challenge of 'Islamists'. Others even question the legi- democracy. timacy of laws voted on in Parliament. Obedience to the patriarchal order is Fatou Sow is Professor of , and a looked upon as a sign of commitment to member of the Groupe de Recherche sur les God and religious faith. The funda- Femtnes et les Lois au Senegal (GREFELS), mentalist discourse on culture has gone as affiliated with the solidarity network Women far as to deny the civilised cultural values Living Under Muslim Laws. Address: which Senegalese communities had Universite Cheikh Anta Diopb, P206 Dakar, preserved in the face of both Islamisation Senegal. and Christianisation. Wolof Islamic customs [email protected] are questioned in the name of a united, outward-looking Islam. Notes At the time of writing, the state is getting ready to implement changes to the 1 Christian communities live mainly on Family Law Act. Resistance to this is the coast and the south of the country. strong. One of the changes proposes a 2 Wolofal refers to the transcription of modernisation of the concept of paternal Wolof using the Arabic alphabet. authority, so that parental authority over 3 Cote d'lvoire, Mali and Guinea form- the children is shared by the mother and ulated their Family Codes much later. the father. This change is in line with the Benin ratified its code as late as 2002, principle of equal rights as stipulated in the while Niger and Chad, which have constitution. The parliamentary debate on strong Muslim communities, refuse to this has so far been unable to resolve the adhere to secular law on the family for issue. To debate women's issues is also to religious reasons and questions of debate the question of male identity. identity. Except for Mauritania (which by establishing itself as an Islamic Conclusion republic in the 1980s has followed Shari'a law) all these countries have Religious forces in Senegal are demanding written secularism in golden letters in greater power in the public sphere and in their constitution. decision-making institutions which shape 4 This is a reference to Cheikh Hamidou's the lives of citizens. The intention of certain L'aventure ambigue, a Senegalese novel religious groups is to influence the political published in the 1960s to highly process through their interpretation of enthusiastic reviews. The author questions 76

the construction of the African identity in light of Western culture. 5 Peanuts are Senegal's main export crop. 6 A Talibe is a pupil of the Koranic school, given up by his family, who must beg to make a living for himself and his teacher. 77

A daring proposal: campaigning for an Inter-American Convention on Sexual Rights and Reproductive Rights Valeria Pandjiarjian

Can women in Latin America and the Caribbean really exercise their sexual and reproductive rights? Are economic globalisation and state policies in our region creating conditions which will help us claim the rights we have gained in international fora, or are we going in the opposite direction? And is it possible to have a society which respects human rights under a neo-liberal model of development? These questions were asked in a workshop at the Association for Women in Development (AWID) Forum, which focused on the new Campaign for an Inter-American Convention on Sexual Rights and Reproductive Rights.

ister Juana Ines de la Cruz lived in nun enabled her to pursue her talent, rather Mexico from 1651-1695. She was a than taking on the conventional roles of Spoet and nun, a woman of genius, wife and mother, with no control over her whose intellectual prowess, ideas and sexuality and fertility. accomplishments were ahead of her time. Sexuality and reproduction are essential She was a precocious writer who, from an dimensions of the life of each human being. early age, was renowned not only for her Historically, women's ability to express beauty, but for her wisdom and poetry. choices in these areas of life have been When she was 16, Sister Juana joined a conditioned and constrained under economic, convent, since this was one of the few political, religious and cultural patterns, places in the seventeenth century in which responding to a model of 'normality', a woman could gain access to education which disallows any kind of behaviour and intellectual pursuits. which deviates from this. Reproduction has At the ninth AWID Forum, an actor been the basis for the social inequality playing the role of Sister Juana opened a between men and women; women's workshop which focused on women claiming identities have been limited to motherhood. their sexual and reproductive rights in the Society and the law have repressed any era of globalisation. There could be no behaviour that could challenge the repro- better image than that of Sister Juana to ductive role of women in societies open such a workshop. Her life shows how throughout the world. women throughout history have found The dramatisation of Sister Juana's life ways of gaining control over their minds at the AWID workshop prompted the and desires, as well as over their sexuality participants to learn about and discuss a and fertility, to enable them to be free to bold and daring proposal, for a Campaign contribute to the good of the world. Being a for an Inter-American Convention on 78

Sexual Rights and Reproductive Rights. understanding of sexual and reproductive The workshop participants were as diverse rights. This is because traditional attitudes as they could possibly be. Around 90 to sexuality and reproduction have been people attended; among them were women oppressive for everyone, but particularly and men of different ages, races and cruel for women. Control of women's ethnicity, from different continents, regions bodies by men, and the significance and countries, representing many kinds of attached to chastity, fidelity and child- movements, networks and organisations. bearing within marriage, have resulted in All were interested in gender equality and social and legal codes which are based on human rights, and concerned about the the need to control female bodies. We hope impact of economic globalisation and that the Convention would shape political, current state policies on these. social and economic development, by The aims of the workshop were: ensuring that women are able to benefit • to share the idea of the proposal of a from the agreements on reproductive and Campaign for an Inter-American sexual rights which have been reached at Convention on Sexual Rights and the international and national levels. Reproductive Rights The main goal of the campaign is to • to gain further support for this proposal challenge the laws and social beliefs in our • to invite more organisations and countries concerning sexual practices and networks to participate in the campaign reproductive choices. We want to make policy makers and the public aware of the • to publicise the campaign, in order to connections between reproductive choice, create a favourable environment for sexuality, and economic, social and political discussions on the proposal at national development. We aim to mobilise people level within the Latin American and and organisations to lobby for change. To Caribbean region. achieve this, we have to work out strategies, organise political action, generate alliances, About the campaign and accumulate and consolidate power, so that we can put our point of view to The idea of the campaign came first from CLADEM, the Latin American and decision-makers in powerful positions. We Caribbean Committee for the Defence of want to create the space in public debates Woman's Rights. I have worked for to express different views on sexuality and CLADEM for the last ten years, in my reproduction, which would promote capacity as a feminist lawyer, researcher mutual understanding. and consultant in gender and human rights, with a specific focus on sexual rights What would the convention and reproductive rights. The proposal for do? the campaign has been discussed and adopted by many well-known networks The basic ideas presented and discussed and organisations from the Latin American in the workshop were those drafted in and Caribbean women's movement.1 The the manifesto 'Our Bodies, Our Lives' workshop at the AWID Forum resulted (See www.convencion.org.uy, available in from collaboration between representatives Spanish). An inter-American convention on of some of these organisations.2 sexual rights and reproductive rights An inter-American Convention on would ensure state accountability for Sexual Rights and Reproductive Rights respecting sexual rights and reproductive would effect profound mid- to long-term rights, as well as for monitoring and changes in society's - and the law's - resolving conflicts and human rights Campaigning for an inter-American convention on sexual rights and reproductive rights 79 violations and abuses at international levels Protection of human rights regarding related to this subject. It would ensure that 'market logic' international treaties of human rights on Currently, globalisation is causing people reproductive and sexual rights are created in particular contexts to lose the battle to and implemented by countries, via the guarantee a good quality of life. It is also development of national standards and responsible for the widening gap between norms. It would also ensure that arguments rich and poor in Latin America and the defending women's reproductive and Caribbean. Some people and groups are sexual rights are heard in political and legal now excluded from full participation in our fora. Women and men want their rights as economies, societies and political systems. citizens upheld, and an aspect of citizen- The so-called 'logic' of the market is in clear ship is the right to protect the exercise opposition to international human rights of our sexuality and our reproductive cap- standards, which hold that the well-being acity. We want to speak, hear, and debate. of people is paramount. States have Through this, we will eliminate prejudices, obligations to pursue progressive, not break myths, and open up minds, windows regressive, economic and social policies. and hearts. Any economic development which contra- dicts the principles of human rights and While the ideas underlying our campaign well-being should be seen as an obstacle to are constantly being debated, there are be overcome by state policy. some principles and ideas that are non- negotiable. Participants at the workshop The secular state and its role in discussed some of them and the main protecting human rights issues are presented below. It was clear to all of us in discussions at the workshop that keeping the separation The universality, interdependence and between the churches and the state in our indivisibility of human rights region is the only acceptable way of The workshop participants discussed the governance. States must adopt a neutral fact that human rights are held by all position regarding the different dogma of human beings, and all human beings must beliefs. The churches have relevance and be able to exercise the whole range of rights jurisdiction only over their members, while simultaneously. There is no hierarchy states act in line with public interest, among human rights; that is, there are no upholding citizenship for all. Because they rights more important than other rights. In try to shape the behaviour of everyone, all particular, civil and political rights are not forms of fundamentalism are a threat for more important than economic, social and states which have a commitment to uphold cultural rights. For instance, the freedom to human rights. express oneself freely is not more impor- tant than the right to food, health or Feminist perspectives on sexuality and education, and vice-versa. This means that reproduction governments cannot excuse a failure to Workshop participants agreed that women protect one right by saying they have have not often had freedom to decide how prioritised another. For human well-being, to exercise their sexuality. Society treats everyone needs employment, health, and them differently according to their age and education, but also , integrity, marital status, but in general all women are dignity and a life free from violence and expected to remain sexually faithful to their discrimination. husbands and to bear children. They are punished severely when they veer away from the role of a traditional, heterosexual 80

wife and mother. The sexual freedom of international legislation on sexual and is not respected, and neither are reproductive rights. But an inter-American the choices of bisexual, transsexual and convention on sexual rights and repro- transgender persons. These women present ductive rights would not regulate our a challenge to religious and moral mandates, bodies, in order to control our sexual and and the traditional male-dominated family, reproductive lives, as many of our national with its objective of reproduction. They laws have done in the past. On the challenge ideas of what is 'normal' and contrary, it would be an instrument 'natural', and undermine the idea that the guaranteeing the full enjoyment of this traditional family is the only type of family important dimension of human life, possible. establishing standards that respect and strengthen the conditions for women and Distinguishing between sexuality and men to make choices and decisions on their reproduction own reproductive and sexual lives, based Following on from the last paragraph, the on principles of gender equality and non- assumption that there is always a link discrimination. between sexuality and reproduction - i.e. Designing a convention like this is that one leads to the other - reinforces the going to be a long-term process, since it widespread assumption that women must have children. There has not been a free involves a set of complex issues on which choice about this in our societies. Once, consensus will be hard to reach. There are there was no contraception and only hetero- many steps to take before we can draft the sexuality was allowed in our societies, text of the convention, and then work on which meant that sex was usually linked to mechanisms for its implementation. having children. But now we have sex The convention will sit beside those that without reproduction due to contraception, already exist in the inter-American system and even reproduction without sex through of human rights protection. We have good fertility technologies ... so how can we, and models of how social movements can why should we, keep dealing with these participate in constructing legislation in the issues in a traditional way? inter-American system, for example, the Each one of the topics above is very 1994 Inter-American Convention on the complex, and cannot be discussed fully in Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of this article. We want to be as democratic as Violence Against Woman (Convention of possible in constructing our proposal for Belem do Para). Nowadays, the issue of the convention, so we invite readers of this domestic violence against women is article to join us in thinking about the understood and approached as a human issues and designing the convention. The rights violation. However, it was a different proposal is a seed to be watered by story until very recently. The Inter-American creativity, dreams, and ideas. Convention on Violence against Women is legally binding for those countries that have adopted this convention, and it has Designing the convention been incorporated into their national In this first phase of the campaign, we are systems. Consequently, much national spreading the idea and discussing its legislation on domestic violence has been principles. This process is strengthening the created and implemented in different campaign at national levels. We are aware countries of the Latin American and that some sectors and groups can initially Caribbean region. In Brazil, for example, feel resistant to the idea of a regional the state was declared responsible for convention, because they do not want negligence, omission and tolerance related Campaigning for an inter-American convention on sexual rights and reproductive rights 81 to domestic violence against women. Brazil recognition would empower women to has also implemented many recommend- claim their right to choose freely how to ations established by the Inter-American lead their lives, according to a principle of Commission on Human Rights, including equality and non-discrimination. the development of public policies to prevent and eradicate domestic violence Valeria Pandjiarjian is Regional Co-ordinator against women in the country (see Case of the gender violence area of the work of 12.051, Maria da Penha vs Brazil, CLADEM, the Latin American and Caribbean www.cladem.org). An Inter-American Committee for the Defence of Woman's Rights. Convention on Sexual Rights and Contact her at Rua Oscar Freire, 1967, apto. Reproductive Rights could have the same 122-A, CEP: 05409-011 Sao Paulo, SP, Brasil. kind of impact. [email protected]

Conclusion For more information on the campaign contact CLADEM e-mail and website: The final point we discussed at the [email protected] I www.cladem.org workshop was the fact that rights are only useful when they can be exercised. Even if women know they have a right to decide Notes whether to sex with a man, in many 1 Many networks and organisations are situations they will not be able to prevent now supporting the campaign, including: being raped or coerced. What happens CIDEM, Cotidiano Mujer, FEDAESP, when these rights are not clearly defined to Flora Tristan, Instituto de Estudios the people they could help? Or people are Ecuatorianos, Movimiento El Pozo, SOS- unaware of how to claim their rights in Corpo e Genero, Campana 28 de Septiembre, court? One consequence of the non- Catolicas por el Derecho a Decidir, Red de exercise of women's rights is the fact that Salud de las Mujeres Latinoamericanas y thousands of clandestine abortions take del Caribe (RSMLAC), Red Feminista place each year, presenting very high Latinoamericana y del Caribe contra la health risks to the women concerned. Violencia Domestica y Sexual, Red We know that democracy is still a Latinoamericana y Caribena de Jovenes challenge; it is a goal which no society has por los Derechos Sexuales y los Derechos yet reached. Because of this, we need to Reproductivos, Rede Nacional Feminista rethink the political, juridical, economic, de Saiide, Direitos Sexuais e Direitos social and cultural systems we have in each Reprodutivos, REPEM-DAWN, GELEDES, of our countries, and ensure that they assist CEPIA, CFEMEA, AGENDE, AMB, all human beings to expand and strengthen IP AS, THEMIS, Comissao de Cidadania their capacities, in conditions of substantive e Reproducao - Programa de Saude equality and real liberty. We want a Reprodutiva e Sexualidade do NEPO/ convention because it would be a long-term UNICAMP, Rede Mulher de Educacao. means of guaranteeing and strengthening a 2 The workshop was run by: Mayara key group of human rights for all persons. Antunes (artistic performer), Roxana We need to incorporate a discourse of Vasquez, Ximena Machicao, Alejandra rights into our political and legal systems, Dominguez, Lidia Alpizar, Lucy Garrido enabling women to reclaim their right to and Valeria Pandjiarjian. Supportive control their own bodies and lives. This contributions were also made by: Celita discourse of rights would also equip Eccher, Maria Consuelo Mejia, Sandra women to recognise that they are full Gonzales, Marita Pareja and others. citizens, with independent rights. Such a 82

Free markets and state control: a feminist challenge to Davos Man and Big Brother Mona Danner and Gay Young

In this article, a sociologist and a criminologist argue that recent analysis from feminist men's studies points to ways to challenge the masculine institutions involved in global economic restructuring and the global war on terrorism. The expansion of state control - in the name of security and fighting terrorism - represents a new aspect of globalisation, which, in the US, carries significant consequences in terms of less freedom, more incarceration and tremendous costs. As with economic restructuring, women will bear much of this burden. However, the forms of masculinity dominant in global social institutions are subject to challenge. This gives feminists opportunities to transform existing relations of social inequality in states and markets.

'The hidden hand of the market has been camouflaged in the current global will never work without a hidden fist - war on terrorism. Pursuing this objective McDonald's cannot flourish without means an extension of the state's long- McDonnell Douglas, standing task of controlling populations, the builder of the F-15 [military jet fighter]' both within and outside its borders. This (Friedman 1999) occurs through the criminal justice system, as well as the military. The consequences of Economic globalisation, in the form of Big Brother's2 increased control are less reigning neo-liberal development strategies, freedom and more incarceration, supposedly enshrines two key ideals: de-regulation of to ensure security. The tremendous economic markets, and the notion that less govern- cost of this strategy carries liabilities for ment is the best government. The creed of ordinary members of society - especially 'Davos Man'1 is that the key to allowing poor women in both the North and the global markets to work naturally is to South. minimise state intervention. However, this General familiarity with critiques of conviction is based on a misrepresentation global economic restructuring exists among of the state's active role in global economic gender and development analysts and restructuring, over two decades (Beneria policy makers. We highlight certain of 1999). Often, so-called 'state de-regulation' those themes here, as they link in key ways simply amounts to different regulation; that to our critical appraisal of the expansion of is, protection and benefits now accrue to state control beyond the control of crime to corporations and elites, rather than to homeland security and the global war on workers or to the public. terrorism. Like the outcomes of market-led Belief in that state power has contracted, development, evidence from the United yet a dramatic expansion of state control States, our home country, shows that Free markets and state control 83 expanding state control of populations Awareness Programme - an electronic exacerbates gender-, race-, and class-based surveillance programme - will eventually inequalities (Wonders, Danner, Solop 2002). enable the government to track people's How can feminists respond to these daily activities, including their use of global issues? We feel they need to struggle libraries, email, the Internet, telephones, for justice for women in the face of both and credit cards, and the contents of their aspects of globalisation: the global war on medical records. terrorism, and global economic restruct- As a result of the attacks, the legal uring. As we discuss here, possibilities do standard required to initiate intelligence exist for feminist intervention in the surveillance of US citizens has been institutions involved. The forms of mascu- lowered, and information learned can be line domination that drive and legitimate turned over for unrelated criminal prose- institutional practices in markets or states cution. Previously forbidden 'sneak and are not immune to challenge and trans- peek' searches, in which government formation. Such feminist challenges agents search homes without notice, are potentially open the space for progressive now allowed. Government officials may institutional changes to dismantle relations now listen in on previously confidential of gender, race, and class domination attorney-client conversations without (Wonders and Danner 2002). notice. In contrast to the increased surveillance and decreased civil rights of citizens, the new laws protect private The consequences of industries from scrutiny if they are part of control-oriented state the 'critical infrastructure' of national expansion security, even if their actions endanger public safety. Increased surveillance The escalation of the war on terrorism, in Decreased space for civil dissent the context of intensified crime control, The expansion of the state in controlling means heightened surveillance of citizens populations has also led to attacks on the and immigrants. In the aftermath of the acceptability of civil dissent. US colleges attacks on the World Trade Centre and the and universities have, in the past, been Pentagon, the US government passed the considered relatively safe spaces for civil USA Patriot Act and, later, the Homeland dissent, in large part because of their Security Act. The US government justifies commitment to academic freedom. However, increased surveillance of citizens and the new state emphasis on homeland immigrants because it might help detect security and the war on terror has made terrorist activities before they occur. college campuses an important focus for However, the surveillance methods government surveillance. A university employed and proposed represent a police officer on the University of significant incursion into civil rights. Massachusetts-Amherst campus was Hundreds of Arabs and Muslims have recruited to work with the FBI's Anti- been arrested and detained, held, tried, Terrorism Task Force as part of his campus imprisoned, and deported, in secrecy. The job. This affiliation led to the questioning of FBI's terrorist watch list was released to a faculty member about his political views government agencies and private corp- and organisational affiliations, even though orations; its numerous errors resulted in the no specific suspicious activity was reported harassment of people with absolutely no (Smallwood 2002). Universities are also involvement in terrorist activities (Davis more sensitive to public opinion, and 2002). The Pentagon's Total Information academics can no longer assume university 84

support for free speech, including partici- profiling - for example, traffic stops of pation in anti-war teach-ins. Even tenured African Americans or Latinos solely professors are in danger of losing their jobs because of their race/ethnicity. Racial for their political opinions and affiliations. profiling is now evident in the war on terrorism as well, as officials selectively Increased incarceration enforce immigration law on the basis of State actions taken as part of homeland nationality, race and ethnicity. Men and security and the war on terrorism are women of Middle Eastern appearance can following the punitive pattern demons- expect to be stopped on the street or called trated by the US war on crime and drugs, in for questioning by local and federal law which is now in its fourth decade. While enforcement and immigration authorities. there has been little decrease in drug use or The slightest visa violations can lead to the problems associated with drug use, this imprisonment and deportation, and even policy resulted in the incarceration of legal immigrants are being detained for nearly 2 million people in prisons and jails minor offences and technical violations in 2001 alone. This amounts to more than a (American Civil Liberties Union 2002, fourfold increase in just 20 years. Another Human Rights Watch 2002). As state 4.6 million adults were under some other authority expands and civil rights shrink, form of correctional supervision, such as practices associated with crime control and probation or parole (US Department of now homeland security and the war on Justice 2002). Over 167,000 of those terrorism will likely add immigrants and imprisoned were women, and another citizens of Arab descent to the racial and 960,000 women were on probation or ethnic minorities with incarceration rates parole (Beck, Karberg and Harrison 2002; far higher than their proportions in the US Glaze 2002). population. The rate of women's imprisonment has increased nearly twice as much as the rate Counting the cost for men, and 34 new women's prison units The final consequence of the expansion of have opened across the US, beginning in the state in this context is the costliness of the 1980s (Immarigeon and Chesney-Lind the control policies associated with the war 1992). The number of black women on terrorism. The White House has imprisoned for drugs has increased to more estimated that the US will spend $100 than three times that of white women billion per year on homeland security, not (Bush-Baskette 1998). Black men and including costs associated with the military women are seven times more likely to be (Office of Homeland Security 2002, 63). imprisoned than are white men and women Establishing the new Department of (Beck and Karberg 2001); the expansion of Homeland Security is expected to cost $3 mandatory and increased sentences for billion (Congressional Budget Office 2002). drug law violations accounts for much of The US Conference of Mayors estimated this difference (Mauer 1990). African- that cities would spend more than $2.6 Americans, who represent 13 per cent of billion on additional security costs by the the population, make up 45 per cent of end of 2002 (Hasson 2002). The latest those incarcerated (Beck and Karberg 2001); estimates put the cost of a war in Iraq 25 years ago they were 35 per cent of those between $60 billion and $95 billion; and locked up (Maguire, Pastore, and Flanagan higher outlays are expected to pay for 1993, 618). Nearly all of those behind bars occupation, reconstruction and humani- are poor. tarian relief (The Washington Post 2003). The war on crime and drugs has The effects of such high levels of included a practice known as racial control-oriented spending are significant. Free markets and state control 85

Note that the cost to imprison one person dominated by men. Finally, in the context in the US stands at $20,000 per year. As a of more limited social services and fewer result of increased incarceration, state jobs, female relatives must shoulder the spending on corrections has grown at six emotional care and economic support of times the rate of spending on higher the children of mothers and fathers in education, and states now spend more custody, whose numbers will certainly money building prisons than colleges increase with control-oriented state (Ziedenberg and Schiraldi 2002). The expansion aimed at homeland security and enormous and expensive prison construction fighting the war on terrorism. programme undertaken during the 1990s This analysis depicts patterns in the US. meant that prisons represented 'the only UN documents on crime and justice parallel expanding public housing' in the US (The the US emphasis on drug trafficking, Nation 1995, 223). And now the costs counterfeiting, and copyright piracy - in associated with maintaining these facilities sharp contrast, we note, to their limited and incarcerating citizens are dwarfing the attention to crimes of corporate theft and costs of construction. In addition, the violence or to crimes of concern to feminists, current economic downturn has resulted in such as human trafficking and the violation significant shrinking of governmental of women's human rights. Through budgets. Social service programmes aiming multilateral agencies as well as direct to benefit people living in poverty, most of bilateral linkages, the US 'exports' experts whom are women, are those frequently to the so-called developing world to targeted; education and health care also support the creation of systems of criminal face cuts. Budgeting for prisons and criminal law and crime control. In an ironic way, justice agencies, however, remains relatively this importing of US models for state safe. Thus, the expansion of state inter- control of populations fits the vention aimed at crime control, the pursuit for 'trade not aid' incorporated in neo- of homeland security and the war on liberal development strategies. However, terrorism parallels the contraction of state we assert another connection between activities devoted to meeting human needs. control-oriented state expansion and global In addition to incarceration, women economic restructuring. That is, raising bear many of the other visible, as well as challenges to the 'predestined' march of the hidden, costs of expanding a punitive market-led development across the globe and expensive criminal justice system likewise affirms the possibility of resisting (Danner 1998). Not only do women as the prescribed strategies for the global war beneficiaries suffer directly when the state on terrorism. cuts education, health care, and social services, but they also suffer indirectly due to cuts in various services, which increase Alternatives to market-led women's unpaid labour. To pay for state development expansion beyond crime control into homeland security and the war on terrorism, For the past two decades, neo-liberal deeper cuts will be made to these services. economic policy - the so-called 'Washington In addition, the jobs cut in education, Consensus'- has demanded dedication to health care, and social services are principles of market-led development primarily jobs done by women. In contrast, (Williamson 2000). The worldwide spread the jobs created in the crime control/ of this ruling policy framework of market homeland security/war on terror apparatus fundamentalism has propelled global are, overwhelmingly, jobs in sectors economic change (Baker et al.1998). This approach has intensified a longer-term 86

trend, in which over-reliance on market Challenging Big Brother systems has led to the organisation of social and Davos Man life in a way which serves a global economy based on values of profit and Feminist scholars in the fields of macro- gain. Society runs as an accessory, or an economics and first adjunct, to the capitalist economic system undertook analysis of the gendered nature (Polanyi 1957). Because the primary of large-scale institutions, such as states concerns of 'free-marketeers' are growth and global markets (Elson 1995, 1999 and and efficiency and not human or social Tickner 1992 being but two examples). goals, more and more people - especially Important new directions in feminist men's women and their dependents - are losing studies are advancing the understanding of the struggle 'to live in a society, rather than masculinity as an attribute of global social [exist] in an economy' (Bayes et al. 2001,4). institutions (Connell 2000). This work However, 'the market' is a social builds on several key points about construction not a 'natural' phenomenon, masculinity (the social status and personal and the growth of global markets in the identity of being a man). First, societies and past two decades has been achieved largely social institutions contain many forms of by macro-economic policy makers' masculinity, but a dominant, or hegemonic, interventions. Recognising the socially form of masculinity usually exists, which is most desirable in a given social context. constructed nature of markets reveals the Second, men actively construct mascu- possibility of creating alternative economic linities, and because they contain systems, which operate in the service of contradictory elements, are social life, rather than the reverse, and in subject to reconstruction, including the which growth and efficiency are promoted unseating of one ruling form by another as means to increase collective well-being, (Connell 2000). The dominant form of not valued as ends in themselves (Beneria masculinity is an idealised model rather 1999). Until recently, economic global- than a description of the actual traits of the isation has succeeded as a 'totalising story' majority of men in a society, but it - a grand vision of inevitable and influences and is a key aspect of virtually irresistible global market integration - all institutional practices (Connell 1987). stifling discussions of economic diversity, The institutions of the globalised world and making alternative economic practices number not only corporations and markets invisible (Gibsen-Graham 1996). As in the for capital and labour, but also armies, short poem with which we introduced this bureaucracies and criminal legal systems. article, many commentators assert the These institutions, involved in global necessary connection between militari- economic restructuring and the global war sation and McDonaldisation. But we can on terror, are masculine in two senses: on envision alternatives to the governing the one hand, men (or, more precisely, a agenda of 'making the world safe for small number of elite, white, Western men) markets' (MacEwan 1998, 65). In particular, dominate these institutions, and their views analysis from feminist men's studies and interests prevail; on the other hand, suggests potentially powerful ways to such institutions serve as sites where challenge the dominant institutions particular notions of masculinity are involved in global economic restructuring created, maintained and legitimated in the and in the global war on terrorism. context of ongoing global processes (Hooper 2001). Global social institutions, then, are places in which a particular form of globally dominant masculinity is forged Free markets and state control 87 and exercised. Key analysts have dubbed do not simply impose forms of masculinity the ascendant form of dominant mascu- from above; rather, they construct and linity, typified by the men who control the reconstruct them in their ongoing social institutions central to economic liberal- practices (Hooper 2001). isation, 'transnational business masculinity' Who, then, is Guadalajara Woman? She (Connell 2000). A leading publication of is not some essentialist vision of universal , womanhood or the version of ever-compliant (1997), created the character 'Davos Man' to femininity emphasised by dominant represent the new style of elite masculinity masculinity. She has a complex identity which fits a globalised world of accelerated and an activist agenda. She takes her name capitalist accumulation. from the location of the AWID conference. However, any form of masculinity is She knows another world is possible, and subject to challenge. Just as processes of knows that the cumulative effect of scores globalisation have disrupted and displaced of local small-scale feminist interventions earlier forms of dominant masculinity, can round out large-scale global campaigns current responses to ongoing international multiplying their potential for institutional events may undermine the dominance of change (Hooper 2001). Davos Man. The escalation of the global Thus, she participates in women's war on terrorism has reinvigorated the NGOs and progressive community action 'control-oriented military-style' masculinity to resist control-oriented state expansion. of Big Brother - who, before the attacks on An example is Families Against Mandatory the World Trade Centre and the Pentagon, Minimums (FAMM), a woman-founded was a 'fading threat' to the dominance of and -led organisation that challenges US transnational business masculinity (Connell mandatory drug law imprisonment policies. 2000, 59). The competition between FAMM has had significant impact because different potentially dominant forms of of the sophisticated use of new tech- masculinity in global institutions offers nologies, including the World Wide Web, feminists opportunities to take action. to organise against excessive prison Because this competition shows that sentences to tell the stories of individual masculinity is not fixed or monolithic, women and men sentenced to long prison institutions - even those of international terms, and to reveal the plight of families, finance and security apparatus - become poor communities, and communities of vulnerable to feminist intervention colour, in the wake of high rates of (Hooper 2001). imprisonment. Guadalajara Woman also At the AWID conference, we introduced works with organisations such as Human 'Guadalajara Woman' as a character Rights Watch, challenging not only the epitomising feminist action. She can be a conditions in prisons, including the sexual potentially 'disruptive' presence in settings abuse of women in custody, but also the where the masculinity of military control provisions of government legislation that now vies for dominance with the mascu- endanger human rights. In addition, she linity of fast capitalism. While enterprising supports civil liberties organisations to alliances between these two groups of elite confront governments by filing freedom of men are certainly possible, the tensions and information requests and lawsuits, and contradictions between them can be generating publicity. Through these and manipulated by feminists to undermine other progressive actions, Guadalajara their power to maintain gender inequality. Woman struggles for institutional account- And even in global social institutions, elite ability, and demands gender, racial and men - despite their power and advantage - class justice from the state. 88

Likewise, Guadalajara Woman has been Notes building alliances with a broad cross- section of social justice advocates who are 1 Introduced by The Economist, 'Davos engaged in highly visible protests against Man' refers to the international business international financial institutions. Women and political executives who meet have lifted their voices and decried annually in Davos, Switzerland for the corporate-led globalisation, beginning in World Economic Forum. Seattle in 1999, through the 'A16' action 2 'Big Brother', introduced in George against the meetings of the World Bank Orwell's 1984, was always watching you and IMF in Washington DC in the spring of via telescreens mounted everywhere, 2000, and on to and other sites including people's homes, such that where the international financial elite have everyone was always under surveillance gathered (Staudt et al. 2001). Guadalajara by the state. Woman knows economic activity can be motivated by values such as reciprocity References and redistribution, solidarity and altruism. Her goal is to see that institutions which American Civil Liberties Union (2002) give macro-economic prescriptions to Caught in the Backlash: Stories from governments in the North and South will Northern California, San Francisco, CA: be held accountable to women, and work American Civil Liberties Union in service to people-centred development. Foundation of Northern California The workings of neither free markets nor Baker, D., G. Epstein, and R. Pollen (eds.) state control extend beyond the reach of (1998) Globalization and Progressive collective action to globalise feminist Economic Policy, Cambridge: Cambridge visions of economic justice and just peace. University Press Bayes, J.H., M.E. Hawkesworth, and Gay Young is associate professor of sociology atR.M. Kelly (2001) 'Globalization, demo- (on leave) and resident cratization and gender regimes,' in R.M. scholar at the Institute of Women's Studies, Kelly et al. (eds.) Gender, Globalization Bir Zeit University (2002-2004). P.O. Box and Democratization, Lanham, MD: 20175, Jerusalem-East 91200, Israel. Rowman and Littlefield gyoung@american. edu Beck, A.J. and J.C. Karberg (2001) Prison and Jail Inmates at Midyear 2000, Mona Danner is associate professor of sociologyWashington, DC: U.S. Department of and criminal justice at Old Dominion Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics University. Old Dominion University, Beck, A.J., J.C. Karberg, and P.M. Harrison Department of Sociology and Criminal Justice,(2002) Prison and Jail Inmates at Midyear Norfolk VA 23529. 2001, Washington, DC: U.S. Department [email protected]. of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics Beneria, L. (1999) 'Davos man,' Feminist Economics 5 (3): 61-83 Bush-Baskette, S.R. (1998) 'The war on drugs as a war against black women', in S.L. Miller (ed.) Crime Control and Women: Feminist Implications of Criminal Justice Policy, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Congressional Budget Office (2002) Cost Estimate: H.R. 5005 Homeland Security Act of 2002, as introduced on 24 June 2002 Free markets and state control 89

Connell, R.W. (1987) Gender and Power, Overused, San Francisco, CA: National Stanford, CA: Press Council on Crime and Delinquency Connell, R.W. (2000) 'Masculinities and MacEwan, P. (1998) 'Comment' in D. Baker globalization', in M. Baca Zinn et al. et al (eds.) Globalization and Progressive (eds.), Gender Through the Prism of Economic Policy, Cambridge: Cambridge Difference, Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon University Press Danner, M.J.E. (1998) 'Three strikes and it's Maguire, K., A.L. Pastore, and T.J. Flanagan women who are out: the hidden (eds.) (1993) Sourcebook of Criminal Justice consequences for women of criminal Statistics 1992, Washington, DC: U.S. justice reform', in S.L. Miller (ed.) Crime Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Control and Women: Feminist Implications Statistics of Criminal justice Policy, Thousand Oaks, Mauer, M. (1990) Young Black Men and the CA: Sage Criminal Justice System: A Growing Davis, A. (2002) 'FBI's post-Sept. 11 "watch National Problem, Washington, DC: list" mutates, acquires life of its own', The Sentencing Project The Wall Street journal, Al, A10, The Nation (1995) 'The prison boom', 19 November 2002 20 February 1995 The Economist (1997) 'In praise of the Davos Office of Homeland Security (2002) National man', 1 February 1997 Strategy for Homeland Security, Elson, D. (1999) 'Labor markets as Washington DC: U.S. Government gendered institutions: equality, Polanyi, K. (1957 [1944]) The Great Trans- efficiency and empowerment issues,' formation, Boston, MA: Beacon Press World Development 27(3): 611-27 Smallwood, S. (2002) 'University of Elson, D. (1995) Male Bias in the Development Massachusetts faculty members protest Process, New York, NY: Manchester FBI meeting with scholar', The Chronicle University Press of Higher Education, 13 December 2002 Friedman, T.L. (1999) 'A manifesto for the Staudt, K.A., S.M. Rai and J.L. Parpart fast world', New York Times Magazine, (2001) 'Protesting world trade rules: can 28 March 1999 we talk about empowerment?' Signs 26 Gibson-Graham, J.K. (1996) The End of (4): 1251-7 Capitalism (As We Knew It), Maiden, MA: Tickner, J.A. (1992) Gender in International Blackwell Publishers, Inc. Relations, New York, NY: Columbia Glaze, L.E. (2002) Probation and Parole in the University Press United States, 2001, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice (2002) U.S. U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Correctional Population Reaches 6.6 Justice Statistics Million, Press release, 25 August 2002 ' Hasson, J. (2002) 'Funding holdup irks United Faculty of Florida (2003) The United mayors', Federal Computer Week, Faculty of Florida Defends the Due Process 9 December 2002 Rights, and Academic Freedom and Tenure Hooper, C. (2001) Manly States: Rights of USF Professor Sami Al-Arian. Masculinities, International Relations, and http: / / w3.usf.edu / ~uf f / AlArian / Over Gender Politics, New York, NY: Columbia view.html . University Press The Washington Post (2003) 'Tax cuts plus Human Rights Watch (2002) Presumption of war equals a record deficit', 2 March Guilt: Human Rights Abuses of Post- 2003, H2 September 11 Detainees, Washington, DC: Williamson, J. (2000) 'What should the Human Rights Watch World Bank think about the Washington Immarigeon, R. and M. Chesney-Lind Consensus?' World Bank Research (1992) Women's Prisons: Overcrowded and Observer 15 (2): 251-64 90

Wonders, N.A. and M.J.E. Danner (2002) 'Globalization, state-corporate crime, and women: the strategic role of women's NGOs in the new world order', in G.W. Potter (ed.) Controversies in White Collar Crime, Cincinnati, OH: Anderson Wonders, N. M.J.E. Danner, and F.I. Solop (2002) 'Gender, race and class divides in the U.S. under globalization: new injustices, new opportunities', paper presented at the Society for the Study of Social Problems, Chicago, IL, August 2000 Ziedenberg, J. and V. Schiraldi (2002) Cellblocks or Classrooms?: The Funding of Higher Education and Corrections and its Impact on African American Men, Washington, DC: Justice Policy Institute 91

Using the master's tools: feminism, media and ending violence against women Sanya Sarnavka

Worldwide, women are harnessing the power of mainstream media to change minds and hearts about women's human rights. In particular, they are focusing on ending violence against women as depicted in the media. Violence against women is here understood in two ways - not only as violence against women in society, but as violence committed in the media. By this we mean all misrepresentations, distorted reflections, and silencing of women's voices, which violate women's right to equal access to public discourse. In a workshop at the AWID Forum, three leading feminist media analysts -from Croatia, India, and Uruguay - presented short video clips from their work, and discussed the successes and failures of women's human rights activists who use mainstream media as a vehicle for change. Their presentations were followed by a discussion about the successes and failures of women's human rights activists to engage with mainstream media as a vehicle for change.

here have been many statements by a culture. The media serve not only as governments that equality between carriers of information and messages, but Twomen and men is an integral part of also as interpreters, supporters and democratisation. The need to reform the advocates of certain social, political and way in which women are represented in cultural values. Today especially, the media the media, especially in the mainstream play a significant role in determining media, has been recognised as part of the people's perception of their view of the process of achieving equality. For example, world and their place in it, regardless of the Fourth Ministerial Conference on whether they are based in First-, Second-, Equality between Women and Men, was or Third-World countries, as 'almost 80 per held in Istanbul in 1997. This affirmed, in cent of the total news flow emanates from its final declaration, 'Democracy must Western-based major transnational agencies; become gender-aware and gender-sensitive; one-fifth of the total number of foreign this includes gender-balanced represent- correspondents of the Western agencies are ation as a demand for justice and a necessity based in the developing nations where for attaining genuine democracy, which can four-fifths of the world's population lives; no longer afford to ignore the competence, no wonder that Western agencies devote skills and creativity of women...' only 20 to 30 per cent to developing (www.humanrights.coe.int/equality/ countries' (Partanayak, 1985). Eng / WordDocs / Document / 201ist.htm). The international media are dominated The media, taken together, are a very by several (at the moment, eight) trans- important societal institution, which shapes national corporations, and are predominantly public discourse and gives legitimacy to profit-driven. The conquest of markets for the existing social structure, describing, the benefit of economic gain also means defining and creating a power basis within control over people, if the mass media are 92

used as transmitters of dominant ideology, through different media: the beauty myth, and audiences lack media literacy in order with anorexic models who are paid to to engage in independent analysis and expose their bodies, but are never allowed arrive at a diversity of readings. Because of to speak; stories about women's lack of all these facts, it is of utmost importance to interest in politics and economic issues; initiate a debate to try to work out how fairy tales about women who are joyful in feminist activists can use the master's tools serving others, but who have no interest in in order to advocate for a more just gaining power and attaining decision- presentation in the mainstream media. making positions. Little progress has been made in imple- The most powerful and exciting part of menting strategies in line with statements the workshop came when women activists like the one above. The representation of presented video materials they had women in mainstream media remains produced, to challenge such stereotypes mostly stereotypical and discriminatory. and promote equality between women and This reinforces the unequal terms on which men. These were a cartoon commercial women participate in public life, and used in the '16 Days of Activism Against prevents them from taking a more active Violence Against Women Campaign' in role in shaping the political, cultural and Croatia, musical videos produced in India, economic environment in society. This one of which had been nominated for an remains a huge and seemingly very MTV award, and a video clip against difficult problem to solve fundamentalisms produced in Uruguay. It proved that it is possible to promote gender equality through lively, interesting, The workshop commercially competitive media products If anyone needed proof of how important that can draw a wide audience. the issue of the representation of women in However, the production of attractive the public media remains, this was media artefacts - created according to the provided at the AWID Forum in the shape highest professional standards, as well as of the number of women who joined our being empowering and not sexist or session, their interest in the presentations, discriminatory - has not been among the and their participation in the discussion priorities of women's movement so far. that followed. The panel at the workshop From time to time, women's NGOs have were: Loreto Bravo, of CORSAPS (Area de been supported, usually with small grants, Salud y Genero de la Corporation de Salud to research the media or produce materials y Politicas Sociales), Chile; Mallika Dutt of independently. These materials have Breakthrough, India /USA; Lucy Garrido of usually had connections to campaigns on Cotidiano Mujer, Uruguay; Joanne Sandier violence against women. No ongoing of UNIFEM, USA; and Sanja Sarnavka of Be education of women activists on media active, Be emancipated (B.a.B.e.), Croatia. production and media literacy has been The first part of the session presented conducted. Nor has the education of facts from different surveys of media journalists on gender issues been a priority. content, together with texts that illustrated While many donors and agencies have persistent stereotypes of 'maleness' and given support of various kinds to 'femaleness'. It was important to show journalists and the media in developing participants how media literacy should countries, and this support has been become one of the priorities of the women's declared to promote professionalism, movement if we want to empower women openness, and a non-partisan approach, and enable them to become less vulnerable somehow gender discrimination was to the messages that are disseminated daily always left out and 'forgotten'. Feminism, media and ending violence against women 93

Conclusion Reference At the end of the session, we concluded Pattanayak D. (1985) 'Diversity in without any hesitation that if gender communication and languages. mainstreaming is our true goal, more Predicament of a multi-lingual nation elaborate projects addressing critical issues state: India, a case study', in N. Wolfson related to the media should be carried out. and J. Manes, Language of Inequality, We need to work in collaboration with Berlin: Mouton each other - across countries and across professions - and to take a long-term perspective. And the message should be sent to all who want to re-think globalisation and women's position in the world that, without women's voices in the mainstream media, all our struggles and networking will remain marginalised and invisible.

Sanya Sarnavka works for B.a.B.e., Vlaska 79, Zagreb 10000, Croatia. [email protected] 94 Part Specific issues of global concern

97

Strategic advocacy and iternal mortality: moving targets and the millennium development goals Lynn Freedman

The UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are the latest international development strategy} The debates around the choice of MDGs, and the first steps of implementation, have threatened to push many women's health concerns off the policy map. But I argue in this article that there is space for feminist action around the remaining MDG on reducing maternal mortality. I discuss strategies to address maternal mortality and emphasise the importance of all women having access to EmOC (emergency obstetric care) in the event of birth complications. Using this MDG, we have an important opening for strategic advocacy focused on accountable health systems that can deliver the care necessary to save women's lives and improve their health. That focus will enable us to demand that attention be given to the globalisation policies that have contributed to the devastation of health systems in many parts of the world.

'Health care systems that do not offer care - sets out eight broadly stated goals of social that take a narrow or an abusive view of and economic development: the Millennium their duties... contribute profoundly to Development Goals or MDGs, and specific, people's experience of what it is to be poor' time-bound targets for each goal. A year Mackintosh, 2001 later, in September 2001, the Secretary General issued a Road Map to Implementation There are moments for 'strategic advocacy', of the UN Millennium Declaration, that when certain issues and approaches should structured and formalised the goals and be raised and fought for because of the targets, and put forth a set of indicators to considerable possibility they offer for monitor progress. The goals and targets that advancing women's health and rights, and make up the MDGs are shown in Table 1. because of the danger that looms if we fail That the Millennium Declaration is a to seize our opportunity and instead allow negotiated political document becomes other interests to take control. I believe we apparent when we see the fate of repro- are in one such moment in the fight to ductive health, the central concept elaborated secure good health and human rights for in the Programme of Action issued at the women worldwide. International Conference on Population In September 2000, the United Nations and Development (ICPD) in Cairo in 1994. General Assembly issued the Millennium The concept of reproductive health incorp- Declaration, designed to focus and intensify orated many of the most significant development efforts. Drawing on the UN developments in the analysis and practice conferences of the 1990s, the declaration of women's health and women's human 98

Table 1: Summary of the Millennium Development Goals and Targets

Goal 1 Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger Reduce by half the proportion of people living on less than one dollar a day Reduce by half the proportion of people who suffer from hunger

Goal 2 Achieve universal primary education Ensure that all boys and girls complete a full course of primary schooling

Goal 3 Promote gender equality and empower women Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education preferably by 2005, and at all levels by 2015

Goal 4 Reduce child mortality Reduce by two-thirds the mortality rate among children under five

Goal 5 Improve maternal health Reduce by three-quarters the maternal mortality ratio

Goal 6 Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases Halt and begin to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS Halt and begin to reverse the incidence of malaria and other major diseases

Goal 7 Ensure environmental sustainability Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programmes; reverse loss of environmental resources Reduce by half the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water Achieve significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers, by 2020

Goal 8 Develop a global partnership for development Develop further an open trading and financial system that is rule-based, predictable and non- discriminatory. This includes a commitment to good governance, development and poverty reduction - nationally and internationally Address the least-developed countries' special needs. This includes tariff- and quota-free access for their exports; enhanced debt relief for heavily indebted poor countries; cancellation of official bilateral debt; and more generous official development assistance for countries committed to poverty reduction Address the special needs of landlocked and small island developing states Deal comprehensively with developing countries' debt problems through national and international measures to make debt sustainable in the long term In co-operation with the developing countries, develop decent and productive work for youth In co-operation with pharmaceutical companies, provide access to affordable essential drugs in developing countries In co-operation with the private sector, make available the benefits of new technologies - especially information and communications technologies Strategic advocacy and maternal mortality 99 rights made during the decade that health policy actors, including the World preceded ICPD - and has grown to capture Bank, UN agencies and bilateral donors, many of the developments in those fields are taking these specific targets and made since. Reproductive health had indicators seriously, investing enormous therefore been one of the international amounts of time, energy, and political development targets advanced during the capital on developing strategies for their five-year process leading up to the achievement. There will be a push to use Millennium Declaration (Devarajan, Miller the MDGs at the country level as well. et al. 2002). But, at the last moment, under It is now critical, therefore, that the apparent pressure from the United States women's health and human rights com- and its conservative allies on this issue, munities turn their attention to maternal reproductive health was expunged from mortality in a new and more intensive way. the Millennium Declaration document As the target and indicators for maternal (Berer 2001; Girard 2001). mortality reduction are translated into Although achievement of many of the new policies, programmes, and spending other MDGs will certainly have positive priorities, we will need to have a clear effects on women's health, only one goal vision about their implications for women's having any explicit connection to women's health and human rights. We will also need health remained. Goal 5, to 'improve a clear strategy to ensure that the MDG maternal health' is put into action with a targets are used to confront - rather than to target on maternal mortality - that is, avoid - the globalisation policies that have women's death in pregnancy and had such a profound influence on health childbirth. The target is to 'reduce by three- and rights. quarters between 1990 and 2015, the maternal mortality ratio'. The road map suggests two indicators for tracking Maternal mortality: basic progress toward the target: first, the facts maternal mortality ratio, and second, the Maternal mortality accounts for approx- proportion of births attended by skilled imately 515,000 deaths of women each year. health personnel. For each death, an estimated 30 to 50 Of course, reproductive health is women suffer short- or long-term disability inextricably connected to the goal of due to complications of pregnancy and improving maternal health. As countries childbirth (Fortney and Smith 1996). The and the international community develop distribution of maternal deaths across the strategies for achieving the MDGs, world is telling. As shown in Table 2, reproductive health services will need to almost 99 per cent occur in poor countries, play a central role - both as a matter of with Africa and South Asia over- good evidence-based public health policy, whelmingly bearing the brunt. By contrast, and as a matter of human rights in the global North, maternal mortality has (Freedman, Wirth et al. 2003). Women's virtually ceased to exist as a public health health and rights advocates will need to problem. work hard to ensure their appropriate Why? Why has the level of maternal inclusion. mortality registered barely any change At the same time, it matters very much globally, despite nearly 15 years since the what targets and indicators are chosen for Safe Motherhood Initiative2 was launched? the maternal health goal. In public health Why have child mortality rates steadily practice, what you count is what you do and declined, while maternal mortality rates where your resources go. Many international have stayed unchanged? Why is there such 100

Table 2: Maternal mortality worldwide

UN region Maternal mortality ratio Number of maternal deaths Lifetime risk of maternal death (maternal deaths lln: per 100,000 live births)

World total 400 515,000 75 Africa 1,000 273,000 16 Asia* 280 217,000 110 Europe 28 2,200 2,000 Eastern 50 1,600 1,100 Northern 12 140 3,900 Southern 12 170 5,000 Western 14 280 4,000 Latin America and the Caribbean 190 22,000 160 Northern America 11 490 3,500 Oceania* 260 560 260

"Japan and Australia/New Zealand have been excluded from the regional averages and totals Source: WHO, UNICEF, and UNFPA, 'Maternal mortality in 1995: Estimates developed by WHO, UNICEF, UNFPA', 2001, Geneva: World Health Organization

a dramatic difference in death rates same way as maternal mortality, with sub- between rich and poor countries when it Saharan Africa doing dramatically worse comes to death in pregnancy and childbirth on most social and economic development (where child mortality shows a twenty-fold indicators than other parts of the world. difference, maternal mortality ratios show But for women's health and rightsadvocates , nearly a hundred-fold difference)? Why it is absolutely essential to push past these does one in every 16 women in sub- broad associations between development Saharan Africa die in pregnancy and and maternal mortality, to ask: what is the childbirth, compared to one in every 5,000 mechanism of action? What is the route women in southern Europe? through which gender inequity or income Something is deeply wrong. While this poverty influences maternal mortality? scenario can be taken apart and analysed in Until we can answer that question, we will many ways, and through different lenses, fail to develop effective strategies that I believe that the medical and historical focus on the critical things that can make a evidence, and analysis of contemporary difference. health policies, point to one critical fact: To understand the importance of a without exception, high-mortality countries functioning health care system to reduction have failing, grossly deficient, often of maternal mortality, it is crucial to inequitable health care systems that have recognise several basic facts about how been unable to provide the interventions maternal mortality happens. Eighty per cent necessary to save women's lives. of maternal deaths are caused by five direct Of course, there are many other obstetric complications: haemorrhage, differences between high and low mortality infection, hypertensive disorders (pre- countries that one could point to; differences eclampsia and eclampsia), obstructed in income and poverty, gender equity, and labour, and unsafe abortion.3 The vast education would also map in roughly the majority of these obstetric complications Strategic advocacy and maternal mortality 101 cannot be predicted or prevented (the Strategies for addressing exception is deaths due to complications of maternal mortality abortion, which could be almost totally eliminated by access to safe abortion In 1985, a groundbreaking article, 'Where is services). Most non-abortion-related the "M" in MCH?' (Rosenfield and Maine obstetric complications happen suddenly 1985) first focused attention on the and unexpectedly, in women with no neglected issue of maternal mortality. known risk factors, and even in women Through 15 years of the international Safe who are otherwise in good health. Yet Motherhood Initiative led by UN agencies, virtually every one of these complications and a decade-long campaign to reduce can be treated by well-known, relatively maternal mortality spearheaded by simple techniques: blood transfusion for women's health activist movements, haemorrhage, antibiotics for infection, anti- strategies to reduce maternal mortality convulsant drugs for eclampsia, Caesarian have evolved significantly. In addition to section for obstructed labour. Together, the provision of safe abortion services, these health interventions to treat compli- which has been and remains an essential cations are called emergency obstetric care part of maternal mortality reduction efforts, (EmOC). early recommendations centred on the The fact that most life-threatening training of traditional birth attendants complications cannot be predicted or (TBAs) and improved antenatal care. Yet, prevented means that many of the actions as discussed above, neither antenatal care and interventions that we commonly nor trained TBAs can prevent the vast associate with women's health care that is majority of obstetric complications from effective - for example, antenatal care happening; and once a complication occurs, programmes and nutrition programmes - there is almost nothing that TBAs, by will not substantially reduce maternal death. themselves, can do to alter the chance that To make a dramatic change in maternal death will ensue. Thus, neither of these mortality - certainly to meet the MDG interventions has had a substantial impact target of 75 per cent reduction - all women on maternal mortality levels (Goodburn, must have access to EmOC, in case they Chowdhury et al. 2000; Greenwood, Bradley experience complications. et al. 1990; Smith, Coleman et al. 2000). Emergency obstetric care should there- Risk-screening programmes - another fore be seen as a core element of essential early recommendation in this field - have health care services for women. This does also proven ineffective. Because most life- not mean that all women must give birth in threatening complications occur in women a health facility, nor does it imply a focus with no known risk factors, a screening on urban, high-tech hospitals. But it does program that identifies high-risk women mean that every woman must have access for special monitoring and treatment can to a facility that can provide EmOC, so that catch only a small fraction of those who if she experiences a life-threatening compli- will die in childbirth (Maine 1991; Maine cation, she can get there and be treated in and Paxton 2003). time. EmOC will only be accessible to all Today, there is a clear international women, rich and poor alike, when countries consensus that scarce resources should not have functioning, equitable health care be spent on trying to predict which women systems. Until then, whatever else is done will have life-threatening complications. to improve their overall health, women will Instead, maternal mortality reduction continue to die in pregnancy and childbirth programmes should be based on the in unacceptably high numbers. principle that every pregnant woman is at 102

risk for life-threatening complications. These two approaches can certainly Thus, all women must have access to high- complement each other. But the difference quality delivery care. That care has three between them is not just a question of key elements: semantics. It is a question of strategy: • a skilled attendant at delivery of setting priorities, and of linking activism on maternal mortality reduction to other • access to emergency obstetric care important aspects of women's health and (EmOC) in case of a complication human rights. • a referral system to ensure that those women who experience complications 'Skilled care' can reach life-saving EmOC in time. The skilled care strategy (or skilled attendant strategy, as it is sometimes called) in theory It is important to note that 'skilled includes a broad set of maternal and attendant' refers 'exclusively to people newborn health interventions during with midwifery skills (for example, pregnancy, delivery and the post-partum doctors, midwives, nurses) who have been period (WHO 2003). It is often interpreted trained to proficiency in the skills necessary to mean that top priority should be given to manage normal deliveries and diagnose, to training, equipping, supporting, and manage or refer complications' (WHO, supervising enough new health workers UNFPA et al. 1999, 31). This is a level of (with midwifery skills) to reach every skill and training substantially higher than woman of reproductive age, whether she that of most trained TBAs or community gives birth at home or in a facility. This health workers. Although TBAs have a role interpretation is reinforced by the MDG to play during childbirth, they are not indicator, 'proportion of births attended by substitutes for skilled attendants (Safe skilled health personnel'. This inter- Motherhood Inter-Agency Group 2002). pretation exposes a serious drawback to the 'skilled attendant' indicator for the MDGs: What priorities should be it focuses on the person who attends a birth, set? but not on the system into which the attendant must be integrated in order to There is currently much discussion about save women's lives. how best to frame and promote this constellation of services. Some have framed Prioritising EmOC this whole package as 'skilled care', In contrast, those who emphasise EmOC meaning the person of the skilled attendant first advocate a strategy that aims to ensure and the conditions, including EmOC and a that all women who experience life- referral system, that enable the attendant to threatening complications have access to manage complications, as well as a range of the care necessary to save their lives. In this other maternal and newborn health view, 'access' means physical and financial measures. Others feel that 'skilled care' access to non-discriminatory, culturally may be too broad a concept to be sensitive, high-quality, facility-based strategically effective: their view is that services. This strategy begins with a focus EmOC must be explicitly identified as high on the health system, ensuring first that priority in a maternal mortality reduction EmOC is in place - a process that includes strategy in order to ensure that attention to community involvement in the develop- health systems and emergency care does ment of accountable health services - and not slip off the agenda as has happened so second, that women with complications often in the past. can and do use it (Maine and Rosenfield Strategic advocacy and maternal mortality 103

2001; Freedman 2001). The UN recom- social and economic determinants of poor mendation for minimum levels of coverage health and the need to link health to other is one comprehensive EmOC facility and sectors of social development. It thereby four basic EmOC facilities per 500,000 made health work an affirmative, socially- people.4 Progress in improving availability engaged, politically-aware process of and utilisation of EmOC can be monitored action. Among PHC's most important with a set of health system indicators which contributions was to move the focus of were issued in 1997, by WHO, UNICEF and health work away from building high-tech UNFPA (Maine, Wardlaw et al. 1997; urban hospitals - 'disease palaces', as some Paxton, Maine et al. 2003) called them - into communities, engaging In an ideal world, both strategies would with and empowering the people whose quickly arrive at the same end result of health was at stake (Morley, Rohde et al. every birth being attended by a person 1983). with midwifery skills. That person would As originally articulated at Alma Ata, be able to do some procedures that can PHC was a broad and comprehensive prevent certain complications in women vision that contemplated an integrated (for example, active management of third system of basic and referral health services, stage labour to help prevent post-partum delivered in as close proximity as possible haemorrhage) and in newborns as well to where people lived. PHC was intended (for example, resuscitation for birth to respond to their most pressing needs asphyxia). In the event of a complication, in a respectful and empowering way. there would be an accessible facility able to But the idealism of PHC quickly hit the deliver the appropriate level of emergency stone wall of and a care needed to save a woman's life; and the new development orthodoxy which was skilled attendant could stabilise and ushered in with the debt crisis of the 1980s. quickly refer the woman to that facility. The broad programme of PHC which had been set in 1978 at Alma Ata rapidly Reaching this goal through became an agenda of 'selective primary health care' focused on households and strategic advocacy and communities with simple interventions health systems (such as oral rehydration therapy, But how should most countries get to this immunisation and family planning) often goal? And what should the international delivered vertically, and often side- community do to facilitate the process? stepping the health system altogether What should the health, human rights, and (Claeson and Waldman 2000). development advocacy communities do to Such interventions have been vitally ensure the most appropriate and effective important for people's health and the steps are taken - and how does this relate attention to household and community- to other advocacy agendas? based health care was long overdue. But Activists in the public health field often the scaling back of PHC into almost only find themselves in an ambivalent relation- these interventions has left the formal ship with formal health systems. For many public health system unattended and of us, the touchstone of our work has been unprotected. The decades of structural Primary Health Care (PHC) and the adjustment and health sector reform principles of PHC articulated in 1978 in the programs that followed have taken their Alma Ata Declaration.5 Recognising that toll, not only on the health of people, but on poor health is not just a biological the infrastructure and functioning of health phenomenon, PHC brought into focus the systems (Simms, Rowson et al. 2001). 104

Today, health systems are in profound developing countries - has been allowed to crisis. continue virtually unchecked, as health In vast parts of the world, health centres systems crumble under economic reform stand empty and deteriorating. In others, policies and a host of other domestic and they are overwhelmed and unable to cope. international pressures. User fees and exemption schemes have routinely failed to protect the poor, with 'informal' or illicit payments sometimes Reconnecting households being the only way health providers can and communities to health earn a living wage, while drug care systems force patients into the streets to find life- If, 25 years ago, the politically and medically saving supplies or to forgo needed care appropriate move was to take health care altogether. In many countries, the public out of the urban hospitals and into house- health system is plagued by personnel holds and communities, today the politically posting and transfer policies that put strategic - and medically vital - move is to patients' interests last, and by absenteeism reconnect those households and communities as public employees (sometimes driven by to local health care systems, but in a necessity) engage in private practice and new way - a way based on fundamental steer patients accordingly. At the same principles of human rights. That will time, massive 'brain drain' draws trained require a different vision of health care professionals out of countries while IFI systems - what they do, how they work, (international financial institutions) policies and who should guide them (see WHO pressure for bans on government hiring. 2000). It will also require new, multi- Those who remain are often poorly trained disciplinary, flexible approaches to human and supervised, leaving even the best- rights (Freedman 2000). intentioned providers without confidence or skills. Over-worked and demoralised, A new vision should be premised on they can barely cope with their workloads the recognition that, by its operation, a much less follow protocols for improved health system forms part of the very fabric inter-personal relationships with clients. of social and civic life. This fact often goes And, all the while, patterns of social and unnoticed in societies where health systems gender discrimination that shape society as basically work. But where health systems a whole often end up reflected in health have failed - and even more, where they systems where shocking maltreatment of have failed for poor and marginalised patients and their families is almost populations - that failure is experienced, to routine. quote Maureen Mackintosh, 'as a core But for many health activists and public element of social exclusion . . . Health care health professionals, attention has been systems that do not offer care - that take a focused elsewhere. This has had profound narrow or an abusive view of their duties - effects for women - not least because of the thereby contribute profoundly to people's futile search for maternal mortality experience of what it is to be poor' reduction strategies that could be (Mackintosh 2001; Tibandebage and implemented regardless of the current state Mackintosh 1999). Equally important is of national health systems. Despite the fact Mackintosh's insight that 'the culture and that almost every single maternal death is operation of the health care system (as a avoidable with access to appropriate whole, public and private) is the way in treatment delivered through a health which claims are established, legitimated system, maternal mortality - the leading and denied or fulfilled by "society"' killer of women of reproductive age in (Mackintosh 2001,185). Strategic advocacy and maternal mortality 105

This has significant implications for the inclusion and emphasis forces a confront- development of rights-based approaches to ation with the social and economic policies health, including mechanisms that will that, at the global and national levels, have ensure constructive accountability. I use the decimated health systems and dramatically phrase 'constructive accountability' to make increased health inequity. In short, a clear that accountability is not primarily maternal mortality strategy that focuses on about blame and punishment when things EmOC gives health and human rights go wrong. Rather, it is about developing an advocacy a structural perspective and effective dynamic of obligation and entitle- concrete, do-able agenda that simul- ment between people and their government, taneously addresses some of the most and within the complex system of relation- important challenges in the health and ships that form the wider health system, human rights fields in an era of global- both public and private. It is, first and isation. foremost, about building health systems This strategy for women's health that function for the benefit of people (see advocates can link synergistically to Freedman 2000; Freedman 2001). emerging trends in the child health field A strategy built on ideas drawn from and in the HIV and tuberculosis fields as human rights transforms the health system well. For example, although household and from a static agglomeration of buildings, community-based PHC interventions have equipment, drugs and staff, into a dynamic certainly had a positive impact on child entity through which citizens interact with mortality, coverage is beginning to plateau their government and the wider civil or decline, as gaps between rich and poor society. Mechanisms of constructive grow ever wider (see Leon and Walt 2001; accountability give people the potential to Evans, Whitehead et al. 2000). Vertical effect change - from the micro level of programs such as EPI (Expanded Programme interactions with local health workers, to on Immunisation), once championed and the macro level of health sector reform in supported by international donors, but the context of international development often delivered outside the broader health policies. system, are now experiencing stagnation or In the context of the MDGs, the target even reversal, as donors begin to withdraw on maternal mortality, and a strategy based and the health system is unable to sustain first on EmOC, gives us an opportunity to immunisation coverage levels (Starling, realise a new kind of analysis and activism, Brugha et al. 2003). There is growing grounded in the basic needs and evidence that the weakness of health perspectives of women, but linked to the systems, particularly in low-income, wider set of social and economic forces that highly-indebted countries, now presents a shape their experience. For just as people's serious constraint to the scaling-up of health status cannot be detached from the appropriate child health interventions, such social and economic conditions in which as IMCI (Integrated Management of they live, so the health policies that Childhood Illnesses), and to efforts to structure health systems are not set in address inequity (Black and Troedsson isolation from the forces of globalisation 2002; Gwatkin 2001). and the specific agendas of IFIs and other A similar concern is growing in the actors (private and governmental) that community of health workers and activists drive globalisation and the social and focusing on HIV/AIDS. Even if access to economic changes it entails (Kim, Millen et al. essential medicines is ultimately secured, 2000; Lee, Buse et al. 2002). the need for a health system strong enough Because EmOC cannot be delivered to deliver treatment adequately will still outside of a functioning health system, its present an enormous obstacle in many 106

countries struggling to cope with the 3 The remaining 20 per cent are indirect epidemic. The same is true for effective complications, i.e. pre-existing conditions interventions to cope with the resurgence such as HIV and malaria that are of tuberculosis, such as DOTS (Directly aggravated by pregnancy and delivery. Observed Therapy Short-Course). Without In areas where HIV and malaria a health system that is strong enough to prevalence is high and growing, these support the therapy properly, the poorest indirect deaths may account for an and most marginalised remain out of reach. increasing proportion of maternal mortality. Conclusion 4 Each country organises its health system differently. Basic EmOC can be delivered The strength of the Millennium Develop- in a health centre that is more ment initiative is that it brings these sophisticated than a health post, but not different aspects of health together, and it a full-service hospital. Comprehensive puts them at the table not only with other EmOC, which includes the capacity to social sectors critical to health (e.g. water do blood transfusions and surgery (e.g. and sanitation, education), but also with Caesarian sections), is generally delivered representatives in ministries of finance and at the level of a district or sub-district planning, and with the parts of World Bank hospital (see Maine, Wardlaw et al. 1997). and other international actors, who truly 5 The Alma Ata Declaration was defined hold the power and resources necessary to following the UN Conference on make real change. It is a moment for Primary Health Care (PHC) in Alma Ata strategic advocacy focused on accountable in the former USSR in 1978 health systems that can deliver the care (www.who.int/hpr/archive/docs/ necessary to save women's lives and almaata.html). Alma Ata recommended improve their health. We dare not miss it. that development plans concentrate on establishing community health centres Lynn Freedman is Associate Professor of and training community health workers, Population and Family Health, and Director of to benefit predominantly rural commun- the Law and Policy Project at Mailman School ities, rather than funding expensive of Public Health, Columbia University, 722 urban hospitals, advanced technologies West 168th Street, Suite 1030, New York and specialist medical staff. NY10032, USA. [email protected]. References Berer, M. (2001) 'Images, reproductive Notes health and the collateral damage to 1 At the Millennium Summit in September women of fundamentalism and war', 2000, the Millennium Declaration, Reproductive Health Matters 9: 6-11 signed by all UN member countries, set Black, R. and H. Troedsson (2002) 'The out a number of Millennium Develop- Future Agenda for Child Health', ment Goals. Powerpoint presentation, 16 December 2 The Safe Motherhood Initiative is a 2002 (on file with author) worldwide effort that aims to reduce Claeson, M. and R. Waldman (2000) 'The the number of deaths and illnesses evolution of child health programmes in associated with pregnancy and child- developing countries: from targeting birth. The Initiative was launched at a diseases to targeting people', Bulletin of conference held in , Kenya in the World Health Organization 78(10): 1987. 1234-45 Strategic advocacy and maternal mortality 107

Devarajan, S., M.J. Miller and E.V. Swanson Lee, K., K. Buse, S. Fustukian (eds.) (2002) (2002) 'Goals for Development: History, Health Policy in a Globalising World, Prospects and Costs', Washington, DC: Cambridge: Cambridge University The World Bank Press Evans, T., M. Whitehead, M. Wirth et al. Leon, D.A. and G. Walt (eds.) (2001) (eds.) (2000) Challenging Inequities in Poverty, Inequality and Health: an Health: From to Action, New York: International Perspective, Oxford: Oxford Oxford University Press University Press Fortney, J. and J. Smith (1996) 'The Base of Mackintosh, M. (2001) 'Do health care the Iceberg: Prevalence and Perceptions systems contribute to inequalities?', in of Maternal Morbidity in Four Developing Leon and Walt (eds.) (2001) Countries', Research Triangle Park, Maine, D. (1991) Safe Motherhood Programs: North Carolina: Family Health Options and Issues, New York: Center for International Population and Family Health Freedman, L.P. (2000) 'Human rights and Maine, D. and A. Paxton (forthcoming women's health' in M. Goldman and 2003) 'Evidence based strategies for M. Hatch (eds.), Women and Health, prevention of maternal mortality', in New York: Academic Press R. Johanson and S. Daya (eds.) Evidence- Freedman, L.P. (2001) 'Using human rights based obstetrics, Oxford: Blackwell in maternal mortality programs: from Publishing analysis to strategy', International JournalMaine, D. and A. Rosenfield (2001) 'The ofGynecology and Obstetrics 75: 51-60 AMDD program: history, focus and Freedman, L.P., M. Wirth, R. Waldman, M. structure', International Journal of Chowdhury, A. Rosenfield (2003) Gynecology and Obstetrics 74: 99-103. 'Millennium Development Project Task Maine, D., T. Wardlaw, V. Ward et al. Force 4 Background Paper on Child (1997) Guidelines for Monitoring the Health and Maternal Health' (on file Availability and Use of Obstetric Services, with author) New York: UNICEF Girard, F. (2001) 'Reproductive health Morley, D., J. Rohde and G. Williams (1983) under attack at the United Nations Practising Health for All, Oxford: Oxford (letter)', Reproductive Health Matters 9(68) University Press Goodburn, E., M. Chowdhury, R. Gazi et al. Paxton, A., D. Maine, N. Hijab (2003) (2000) 'Training traditional birth 'Using the UN Process Indicators of attendants in clean delivery does not Emergency Obstetric Care: Questions prevent postpartum infection', Health and Answers', New York: AMDD Policy and Planning 15: 394-9. Program, Heilbrunn Department for Greenwood, A., A. Bradley, P. Byass et al. Population and Family Health (1990) 'Evaluation of a primary care Rosenfield, A. and D. Maine (1985) programme in the Gambia: the impact of 'Maternal mortality - a neglected traditional birth attendants on the tragedy: Where's the M in MCH?' outcome of pregnancy', Journal of The Lancet ii: 83-5 Tropical Medicine & Hygiene 93: 58-66 Safe Motherhood Inter-Agency Group Gwatkin, D.R. (2001) 'The need for equity- (2002) 'Skilled Care During Childbirth: oriented health sector reforms', Inter- Policy Brief, New York: Family Care national Journal of Epidemiology 30: 720-3 International Kim, J., J. Millen, A. Irwin, J. Gershman Simms, C, M. Rowson, S. Peattie (2001) (eds.) (2000) Dying for Growth: Global 'The Bitterest Pill of All: The Collapse of Inequality and the Health of the Poor, Africa's Health Systems', London: Save Monroe, Maine: Common Courage Press the Children Fund UK 108

Smith, }., N. Coleman, J. Fortney et al. WHO (2000) World Health Report 1000, (2000) 'The impact of traditional birth Geneva: World Health Organization attendant training on delivery compli- WHO (2003) 'Maternal and Newborn cations in Ghana', Health Policy and Health: Making Pregnancy Safer', Planning 15: 326-31. http:/ /www.who.int/reproductive- Starling, M., R. Brugha, G. Walt (2003) health / mpr /index .htm 'New Products into Old Systems: The WHO, UNFPA, UNICEF, World Bank Initial Impact of GAVI from the Country (1999) 'Reduction of Maternal Mortality: Level', London: Save the Children A Joint WHO/UNFPA/UNICEF/World Tibandebage, P. and M. Mackintosh (1999) Bank Statement', Geneva: World Health 'Institutional Cultures and Regulatory Organization Relationships in a Liberalising Health Care System: A Tanzanian Case Study', ESRF Discussion Paper for WIDER workshop on 'Group Behaviour and Development', September 1999 109

HIV/AIDS, globalisation and the international women's movement Sisonke Msimang

The spread of the HIV IAIDS pandemic is closely connected to processes of globalisation in the South and, in particular, in Africa. It is clear that, for the most part, these processes are bad for poor people, women, and a range of marginalised groups, both within the global South and in some communities within the North. While globalisation certainly has a strong relationship to AIDS, groups such as the Treatment Action Campaign1 are fighting back and demonstrating that in the new world order the need for a vigilant civil society is all the more important. At the global level, feminists from the North have not as yet engaged with HIV/AIDS as a critical issue. Given that in my country (South Africa), HIV prevalence hovers at about 22 per cent, and not a weekend goes by without a funeral of someone my age whose death no one can explain, it feels like there is an almost deafening silence on AIDS in the global women's movement. In this article, I propose that by analysing the complex intersections between different forms of inequality,2 feminists from the South can move such critical issues further up the global agenda.

HIV/AIDS and globalisation they set up and abandon economic infra- structure - opening and closing factories, Globalisation has been described as 'the establishing hostels. In so doing, they create drive towards an economic system dominated peripheral communities hoping to benefit by supranational trade and banking from employment and the presence of new institutions that are not accountable to populations where previously there were democratic processes or national govern- none. And when they move on, once they ments' (Globalisation Guide, www.global have found a cheaper place to go, they isationguide.org / 01.html). It is charac- leave in their wake communities that are terised by an increase in cross-border extremely susceptible to HIV/AIDS. economic, social, and technological exchange under conditions of (extreme) This is because the virus follows vulner- capitalism. As human bodies move across ability, crosses borders with ease, and finds borders in search of new economic and itself at home where there is conflict, educational opportunities, or in search of hunger, and poverty. The virus is parti- lives free from political conflict and cularly comfortable where wealth and violence, they bring with them dreams and poverty co-exist - it thrives on inequality. aspirations. Sometimes, they carry the virus It is not surprising, then, that Southern that causes AIDS, and often, they meet the Africa provides an excellent case study of virus at their destinations. the collusion between globalising processes As corporations increasingly patrol the and HIV/AIDS. planet, looking for new markets, and The economy of the region has been natural and human resources to exploit, defined in the last two centuries by mining: 110

gold and diamonds. In an era of otherwise marginalised communities plummeting gold prices, and an increasing within these countries, where HIV preva- shift towards the service industry, Southern lence is on the rise. An analysis of the Africa is shedding thousands of jobs. Yet complex intersections between inequalities the last century of globalisation has tells us that it is not enough to belong to a provided a solid platform for the current rich country - that alone does not protect AIDS crisis. you from vulnerability to HIV infection, If there was a recipe for creating an nor does it guarantee treatment. Where you AIDS epidemic in Southern Africa, it would sit in relation to the state is equally read as follows: 'Steal some land and important - whether you are a woman, a subjugate its people. Take some men from poor woman, a black woman, an educated rural areas and put them in hostels far woman, a , a woman with a dis- away from home, in different countries if ability who is assumed not to be having need be. Build excellent roads. Ensure that sex, an immigrant who is not entitled to the communities surrounding the men are many of the social security benefits of impoverished so that a ring of sex workers citizens. All these factors determine your develops around each mining town. vulnerability to HIV/AIDS. Add HIV. Now take some miners and send Now what does this mean for a 25-year- them home for holidays to their rural, old woman living in Soweto? Jabu works as uninfected wives. Add a few girlfriends in a security guard at a shopping centre in communities along the road home. Johannesburg. Every day she spends two Add liberal amounts of patriarchy, both hours travelling to work because of the home-grown and of the colonial variety. distances the architects of apartheid set up Ensure that women have no right to between city centres and the townships that determine the conditions under which sex serviced them. Jabu is grateful to have a will take place. Make sure that they have no job. Her two little ones are in KwaZulu access to credit, education, or any of the Natal with their grandmother until Jabu measures that would give them options to can get a stable job. She is on a month-to- leave unhappy unions, or dream of lives in month contract with the security company. which men are not the centre of their She watches expensive cars all day, activities. Shake well and watch an protecting their owners' while epidemic explode.' they work. The company doesn't want to There's an optional part of the recipe, take her on as staff so each month she faces which adds an extra spice to the pot: the uncertainty of not having a job the next African countries on average spend four month. Joining a union is not an option - times more on debt servicing than they do she's not technically a staff member and she on health. Throw in a bit of World Bank can't afford to make trouble. Jabu's propaganda, some loans from the IMF and boyfriend Thabo drives a taxi. Their beat well. Voila. We have icing on the cake. relationship saves her cash because he As the gap between the rich countries of drives her to and from work every day - the North and the poor countries of the a saving of almost one third of her salary South grows, we are beginning to see each month. She has another boyfriend at serious differences in the ways that states work, who often buys her lunch. She has to can afford to take care of their citizens. be careful that Thabo doesn't find out. Access to technology, drugs, and strong In addition to race, class, and gender, social safety nets in the North, mean that Jabu's life is fundamentally shaped by the HIV /AIDS is a manageable chronic illness forces of globalisation - where she works in most developed countries. Yet there are and how secure that work is, where her pockets of poor, immigrant, gay, and children live, even how she arrives at work. HIV/AIDS, globalisation and the international women's movement HI

These factors all influence her vulnerability AIDS. What it really means is that women to HIV infection. will do it. What it translates into is that families split up, girls hook for money and food,3 and a vicious cycle is born. HIV/AIDS and feminism While there is some feminist analysis of During the last eight years of my work on the AIDS epidemic, we have not yet heard sexual and reproductive rights, my focus a rallying cry from the women's move- has been primarily on HIV and AIDS. For ment. A recent article by Noeleen Heyzer, me, the pandemic brings into stark relief UNIFEM's Executive Director begins to the fact that states have failed to provide formulate some arguments about why their citizens with the basic rights enshrined in the context of AIDS, women can no in the declaration of human rights. longer wait for equality with men Twenty years ago, AIDS was known as (www.csmonitor. com / 2002 / 0718 / pl3sO2- Gay Related Immune Disease - so associated coop.html). Dr. Heyzer points out that it was it with gay men. Today, the face of takes 24 buckets of water a day to care for a AIDS has changed. It looks like mine. It is person living with AIDS - to clean sheets now black, female, and extremely young. fouled by diarrhoea and vomit, to prepare In some parts of sub-Saharan Africa, girls water for bathing (sometimes several times aged 15-19 are six times more likely than a day), to wash dishes and prepare food. their male counterparts to be HIV positive. For women who must walk miles, and still Something is very wrong. do all the other chores that always need In the next ten years, the epidemic will doing, the burden becomes unbearable. explode in Asia and in Central and Eastern This past spring in New York, I was Europe as well as in Latin America. The asked to speak to a group at a high school pandemic will have profound effects on the in Brooklyn about HIV/AIDS and violence burden of reproductive work that women against women in the South African do, and this in turn will have far-reaching context. They were an intelligent group, consequences for the participation of well versed in feminism. I was not the only women in politics, the economic sector, and presenter. A young American woman who other sectors of society. The very had worked with Ms. Magazine talked maintenance of the household, the work about pop culture, and the politics of that feminist economists like Marilyn wearing jeans and letting your G-string4 Waring, Diane Elson and others tell us show. I left the meeting feeling disconcerted. keeps the world running, may no longer be I had made my presentation and received a possible. few awkward questions about men in As older women are increasingly called Africa. I cringed on behalf of my brothers upon to care for children, and as life because I certainly was not trying to expectancy shrinks to the forties and fifties, demonise them, but the students were in Africa we face the prospect of a gener- feeding into a larger narrative of the ation without grandparents, and an familiar discourse of black male laziness, imminent orphan and vulnerable children deviancy and sexual aggression that I was crisis that will effectively leave kids to take careful to point out to them. Aside from care of kids. As the orphan crisis deepens, that, they found little else to talk about. child abuse is on the rise. Girls without On the other hand, the woman from the families to protect them are engaging in US struck a chord with them. They talked survival sex to feed themselves and their about eating disorders and the media, siblings, and we are told that communities about Britney Spears and Janet Jackson. will 'cope.' There is a myth of coping that It was fascinating. Having lived in the US, pervades the development discourse on I was able to follow and engage, but my 112

interests as an African feminist do not lie in We know that, in the vast majority of cases, this subject matter. It was a clear example this is simply not true. of how far apart we, as feminists, some- The Treatment Action Campaign (TAC), times are from one another. a movement begun by and for people Contexts vary, and of course the issues living with HIV/AIDS in South Africa, has that are central in the global North will be managed to mobilise national and inter- different from those of Southern feminists. national support for the idea of universal And amongst us there will be differences. I access to drugs for people with AIDS. The understood where the high school students group began their campaign by using were coming from. pregnant women as their rallying cry. The must be rooted in what matters most to right to nevirapine for pregnant women women at a local level. At a global level opened the door for TAC's broader claims within feminism, however, I fear that about the rights of all people with we may be in danger of replicating the HIV/AIDS to HIV medication. The G-strings versus AIDS conversation. I am campaign has been hugely successful. worried by the relative silence from our TAC encouraged the South African Northern sisters about a pandemic that is government to take the pharmaceutical claiming so many lives. industry to court and the government won, paving the way for a win at the . Companies' patent A way forward rights can no longer supersede the rights In the context of HIV/AIDS, it is no longer of human beings to access life-saving enough to frame our conversations solely medicines. in terms of race, class, and gender. These TAC's strategy needs to be vigorously are primary markers of identity, but debated and analysed by feminists. TAC increasingly, we need more. We need to did not use arguments about reproductive look at where women are located spatially and sexual rights. They simply said, 'It is in relation to centres of political, social, and unfair for the government not to give drugs economic power. We need also to examine to pregnant women so they can save their how where we live - rural, urban, North or babies' lives.' It was a classic 'woman as the South - intersects with poverty and gender. vessel' argument. TAC's interest was not in We also need to think about how the women's rights - but in the rights of people experience of poverty interacts with, and living with HIV/AIDS, some of whom not just intersects with, gender. Culture is happen to be women. The campaign's another factor that deserves attention. success was largely based on the notion We are beginning to see dangerous that the average South African found it patriarchal responses to the epidemic - difficult to accept that 'innocent' babies from virginity tests to decrees about female would die because of government policy. chastity from leaders. In part this is simply This requires some serious feminist an extension of deeply rooted myths about interrogation. TAC has since been pushed female sexuality. However, with HIV/ by gender activists within the movement to AIDS, it can also be attributed to the fact ensure that the drugs do not stop when the that in many cases women are the first to baby is born. receive news of their sero-positive status. Gender activists to date have struggled This is often during pre-natal screening, or to get their voices heard in the doctor- when babies are born sick. Bringing home dominated AIDS world. The mainstream the 'news' that there is HIV in the family women's movement needs to get on board often means being identified as the person and face up to the challenge of HIV/AIDS. who caused the infection in the first place. AWID's 'Globalise This' campaign provides HIV/AIDS, globalisation and the international women's movement 113 an opportunity to highlight the HIV/AIDS Notes epidemic and the threat it poses to women. At precisely the moment when we need 1 Treatment Action Campaign, a move- international solidarity to focus on the ment begun by and for people living impact of AIDS on poor women's lives, and with HIV/AIDS in South Africa, which their need to be able to control their lives began in the late 1990s. and their bodies, we have to oppose the US 2 I have based my idea of 'inter- administration's cutbacks on funding for sectionality' on Kimberle Crenshaw's essential reproductive health services. We definition: for her, is are also still waiting for the G8 to enact about 'challenging those groups that are their long-standing commitment to spend home to us, in the name of those parts of 0.7 per cent of GDP on overseas develop- ourselves that don't feel so at home' ment assistance each year. How likely is it (Crenshaw Williams 1994). that they will ever reach this target if they 3 Girls engage in survival sex/sexual focus instead on supporting the war relationships for financial gains. against Iraq? 4 Fashionable underwear. Our sisters in the North need to develop a consciousness about the fight against Reference AIDS as a feminist fight. We need civil society and feminist voices in developing Crenshaw Williams, Kimberle (1994) countries to challenge their governments to 'Mapping the margins: intersectionality, tackle HIV/AIDS as a health issue, as a identity politics, and violence against human rights issue, and as a sexual and women of color', in Martha Albertson reproductive rights issue. If we lose this Fineman and Rixanne Mykitiuk (eds.) fight, it will have profound effects on the The Public Nature of Private Violence, New lives of girls and women into the next York: Routledge century.

Sisonke Msimang lives in South Africa and works on gender and sexual and reproductive health and rights issues including HIV/AIDS. She has worked with a number of NGOs and international agencies based in sub-Saharan Africa. Postal address: Youth Against AIDS Network, PO Box 56950, Arcadia 0007, South Africa. Tel. +27 12 392 0500; Fax. +27 12 320 2414 [email protected] 114

New genetic technologies and their impact on women: a feminist perspective1 Lisa Handwerker

In wealthy countries such as the United States, new genetic and reproductive technologies, including human reproductive cloning, are being developed. To date, the short- and long- term consequences for women of human reproductive cloning have remained largely unexamined. This article analyses ten common misconceptions about new genetic technologies, especially human reproductive cloning, and shows that women will bear the major physical, psychological, social, moral, legal, political and economic burdens of these genetic manipulations. Despite the great diversity of women and differing feminist perspectives towards new reproductive technologies, I argue that we need a united position which opposes human reproductive cloning. This article is based on a presentation that formed part of a panel at the Association for Women's Rights and Development (AW1D) 9th International Forum entitled 'The Genetic Revolution, Biotechnology and Women's Rights'.

n late January 2001, a breaking news cloning unsafe and to recommend a ban. story announced that a well-known The result was a five-year moratorium IItalian infertility specialist, Dr Severino (June 1997-June 2002) on federal, not Antinori, and his colleague, Panayiotis M. private, funds for human cloning in the Zavos, Professor of Reproductive Physiology United States. Since there was no moratorium at the University of Kentucky, USA, had on private funds, scientists backed by plans to clone human beings within the private funding sources raced to be the first next 12 to 24 months (Los Angeles Times, to clone a human being. In late 2002, 28 January 2001). This announcement by Clonaid, the Raelians' for-profit company2 medical professionals who supported new claimed the birth of the first cloned baby, genetic technologies was a culmination of named Eve. While the Raelians initially efforts to overcome public repulsion of and promised to provide evidence that the baby resistance to human reproductive cloning. was indeed a clone, to date no proof has On the one hand, scientists, researchers, been provided. and bio- who favour human genetic This paper is a critique of human manipulation had been insisting that these reproductive cloning,3 from a feminist techniques are low-risk, helpful to women perspective, focusing on the impact on and children by reducing disease and women and women's health. It is based on producing a physically and mentally research that I conducted both as a 'superior' baby by design, and inevitable. consultant for the Exploratory Initiative on On the other hand, there was concern from the New Human Genetic Technologies other members of the scientific community (known today as the Centre for Genetics and broader public which led President and Society) in 2001, and my own ongoing Clinton's National Bioethics Advisory research. At the start, I want to acknow- Committee to declare human reproductive ledge that very important differences are New genetic technologies and their impact on women 115 bound to exist among and between women doing, I am focusing on the potential and women's groups about new human technological harms, and discussing these genetic manipulations. Where individual within the broad context of US culture. women draw the line between acceptable and unacceptable practices will be influenced 1 Diseases, abilities, and personalities by our multiple identities, including are genetically determined; thus, ethnicity, class, wealth, sexuality, religion, solutions to human problems are age and disability. In addition, our decisions genetically based will be influenced by our political 'Genomania', is a term coined by Ruth persuasions. Hubbard, a biologist and Professor Among those of us who are feminists, Emeritus from Harvard University, and board member of the Council for Responsible some may be members of the Feminist 4 International Network of Resistance to Genetics, to refer to the way in which Reproductive and Genetic Engineering biological determinism has entered into the (FINRRAGE), a group which is opposed to public's consciousness through the media all new reproductive technologies on the (Hubbard and Wald 1997). Biological grounds that they are ultimately oppressive determinism refers to ways our lives are and dangerous for women. Others may be increasingly pervaded by a flow of bio- post-modern feminists, who reject grand medical knowledge showing a connection theory to explain inequalities, but as a between biology and identity, and biology result, may also shy away from a political and disease. We are witnessing the 'over- position. Or we may be cyborg feminists, geneticisation' of people and life; genes who are interested in the ways we can alone do not determine a person's health, produce forms of resistance as part- ability or personality. In fact, the majority machine/part-human. We may be libertarian of diseases, abilities, and personalities are feminists, who are committed to individual influenced by multiple genetic and environ- reproductive liberty and procreative mental factors. Ultimately, we are complex freedom. Or we may take an egalitarian social and biological beings. feminist perspective, dedicated to social 2 The human genome sequence and the justice, and to understanding how social human genome project are 'neutral' position influences the ways in which The human genome project, an inter- technologies are used and inform us. national effort to map and sequence human While respecting these differences, I DNA, was officially launched in 1990. argue that women need to consider a Interestingly, the questions of whose genome united position, which opposes human is being matched, and whose sequences we reproductive cloning. These new genetic are being compared to, are often over- techniques are not in the best interests of all looked (Mahowald 2000) in this area of women. Women, more than men, will bear research. The generic human genome the burdens - physical, psychological, sequence, developed mainly from a social, moral, economic, political, and legal composite of existing cell lines of healthy - of these technologies, and any negative individuals of both sexes from different consequences. ethnic groups, is referred to by scientists as 'neutral'. It is this 'neutral' human genome Ten misconceptions sequence that women's genome is compared to. Based on past lessons, we know that My purpose in outlining ten miscon- research on male subjects cannot always be ceptions about human reproductive cloning accurately applied to women. Thus, is there is to debunk some existing myths. In so really such a thing as a 'neutral' human 116

genome sequence, which disregards sex human cloning, where genetic abnorm- and other factors? Regardless of whether it alities result in grotesque foetuses unable to is or not, clearly political, social, and survive outside the womb (www.DailyNews. economic decisions stemming from this yahoo.com/h/n/m/20010126/cloning_dc_ project are not neutral. Women in the l.html). According to newspaper reports, United States need to question the justifi- 'All sorts of things can go wrong', said cation for spending over three billion George Seidel, a cloning researcher at dollars on genetic research, given the Colorado State University. Cloned cattle limited funding for research and inadequate and sheep are often born dangerously coverage of basic rights of women large. A calf might normally weigh 100 including food, clothing and shelter. pounds, but a clone might weigh 160 pounds. This excessive size prevents the 3 Human reproductive cloning is calf from having room to grow and wiggle, relatively risk-free, and whatever risks resulting in all sorts of limb deformities. exist will be worked out in a short time 'Sometimes the kidneys aren't right - In the media, pro-human reproductive they're just plain put together wrong - or cloning scientists are building their case the heart is, or the lungs, or the immune and hoping that a single success will erase system,' he added. 'It can be a unique all ethical and safety concerns. It is abnormality in each case. They can die suggested that human reproductive cloning within a few days after birth, or sometimes is inevitable and just a matter of time, they just can't make it after you cut the despite bans in most of Europe and in umbilical cord.' Nobody really knows why several US states. Dr Zavos, one of the team members who will attempt human (The New York Times Magazine, 4 February 2001). reproductive cloning, has said, 'We have a great deal of knowledge. We can grade Even Dr Harry Griffith, assistant embryos, we can do genetic screening, director of the Roslin Institute, Scotland, and we can do quality control' (www. which successfully cloned Dolly, the sheep, DailyNews.yahoo.com / h / n / m / 20010126 / has said on BBC News Online, 'It would be cloning_ dc_l.html). Seemingly as an wholly irresponsible to try to clone a afterthought, he is reported to have added: human being, given the present state of 'It's not the easiest thing. The stability of technology. The success rate with animal the genetic information is what's important. cloning is about one to two per cent in the We are cloning a human being now; we are published results, and I think lower than not trying to create a Dolly. You don't want that on average. I don't know anyone to create a monster (ibid).' In a recent working in this area who thinks the rates television interview, he added, 'We don't will easily be improved. There are many intend to step on dead bodies to get there. cases where the cloned animals die late in But cloning babies is only a matter of time' pregnancy or soon after birth' (BBC, (World News, ABC, Channel 7,13 February http: / / news / bbc.co.uk / hi / English / sci / tech 2001). /newsid_11440001 / 114694.stm). Others We should be very concerned when have cited risks to women in carrying potential risks of human reproductive clones. For example, several scientists cloning are played down or ignored. To stated that the first 100 attempts to clone create animal clones, scientists frequently will result in spontaneous abortions because made hundreds of failed attempts to of genetic or physical abnormalities, develop viable embryos. Many, including putting the health and lives of the surrogate medical professionals and ethicists, have mothers at risk (Washington Post, 7 March, posed the possibility of cruel failures in 2001). New genetic technologies and their impact on women 117

Scientists and doctors who support production had no known health risks. human reproductive cloning argue that any Since there is evidence about potential woman undergoing these new techniques risks, this kind of misinformation is will be told about all the risks in order to irresponsible and unethical. make an informed decision. Dr Zavos has Women are rarely provided with what said, 'Cloning has already been developed the US-based National Women's Health in animals. The genie is out of the bottle. Network5 refers to as, 'evidence-based, It's a matter of time when humans will independent information' to empower apply it to themselves, and we think this is them to make fully informed decisions. best initiated by us... with ethical guide- There are very few organisations which, lines and quality standards' {The Nation, like the network, act as an independent 2 Jan, 2001). voice for women's health by not accepting But can these same doctors, working at money from companies that sell pharma- such high stakes for success and fame, and ceuticals, medical devices, dietary Institutional Review Boards (IRBs), within supplements, alcohol, tobacco, or health private hospitals and clinics motivated by insurance. We must ensure that women profit, be entrusted to develop informed have access to evidence-based, independent consent protocols that are in the best information to enable them to make their interests of women? This, I argue, is a serious decision from a fully-informed perspective. conflict of interest. We have examples from In addition to physical risks, women the past of abuses, and the need for will face serious social, psychological, additional mechanisms to protect women moral, and legal risks if they are involved and women's health. Women who under- in reproductive human cloning. They went in-vitro fertilisation (IVF) techniques, will be burdened with complex moral often to overcome male infertility problems, decisions about their embryos and be read and signed informed consent forms. held responsible for future generations. However, some women later learned that If human reproductive cloning is allowed, information about possible risks had been social relationships between people will withheld from them. Specifically, some become very complex and we will need women were not informed about a study additional guidelines about how to act which linked multiple failed attempts at towards one another. A cloned child may IVF to an increased risk of ovarian cancer question his/her relationship with his/her (Turkiel 1998). When I asked several adult caregivers, and will want to know, doctors why this information was not 'Are you my mother, sister, or twin?'6 What reported to infertile couples, they said the will happen if a woman refuses to use new results were not statistically significant. genetic tests and her baby is not considered But why were women not allowed to read 'normal' by some external standard or the study to determine that themselves? committee? Furthermore, who sets the Last year, I was interviewed on two radio standards and decides what is 'normal'? stations, including KPFA in Berkeley, Many involved in the disability rights California and National Public Radio movement are rightfully concerned about (NPR) about the social and ethical issues of these and other issues, including how IVF with egg donation. Also on one of the embryo decision-making occurs at the pre- radio programmes was a woman who had implantation stage.7 donated her eggs on three separate What will happen if and when a woman occasions. Her doctors, whom she trusted, makes a different decision from that of her repeatedly told the woman that the doctor? What will happen if a woman and hormones she was given to stimulate egg her partner (male or female) cannot agree 118

on similar qualities for their baby? Will them from being able to bear children these women face criminal charges or (Roberts 2001). wrongful birth suits? In a social context where women have been criminally charged 5 New genetic technologies, including for failing to agree to a Caesarean or gene therapy and human reproductive charged with taking drugs that endanger cloning will save a dying child, replace their newborn as has happened in some a dead child and reduce human suffering US states (Handwerker 1994), these women I think we would all agree that we would might well face criminal charges or want to save a dying child, or reduce wrongful birth lawsuits. Such a scenario is human suffering. The question is whether not paranoia, but rather raises some serious new genetic technologies can really save a concerns about both the short- and long- dying child and cure diseases. In Western term consequences of new human genetic societies where average life expectancy is manipulations, including human high, people are terrified of the idea that reproductive cloning. they will die eventually, and particularly by the idea that this may be before a ripe 4 The commercialisation old age. Some strive to find solutions. of reproduction is not a problem, and For example, scientists and doctors held will not adversely impact women out hopes for experimental gene therapy, According to a recent newspaper report in but overall it has been largely unsuccessful, the US, Mark Eibert, a cloning advocate and sometimes quite dangerous. In 1999 and attorney, said he received requests the untimely death of a young man, daily from people asking whether they can 18 years of age, who underwent gene participate in clinical trials of reproductive therapy in the US raised many concerns cloning. Of those, he estimates that 90 per about the process. His father, who had cent are infertile, one per cent gay or originally agreed to this treatment, lesbian, and the rest are worried about questioned its experimental nature after genetic diseases (UPI Science News, his son died. In 2002 gene therapy trials in 28 January 2001). This raises the question of both the US and France have been halted who the first subjects of these new experi- after a child undergoing treatment developed ments will be. What selection criteria will a leukaemia-like disease (Lemonick 2003). doctors use to decide? Will they be wealthy These and other examples have forced a women, mainly Caucasian, who can afford critical re-examination of the health risks of to pay the estimated $50,000 fee? Or poor gene therapy. women, especially women of colour (this is Marcy Darnovsky, a staff member of a term used in the US to refer to any the Center for Genetics and Society located woman who is not white, or who identifies in Oakland, California, has told the story of with any ethnic group other than how a female bio-, testifying as an Caucasian), who are too often subjects of expert witness at a California Advisory human trials? Within the United States and Committee on Human Cloning, argued that abroad, I can imagine a scenario in which one reason reproductive cloning should be both would be possible. Despite recent allowed is to replace the loss of a child. evidence that in the US, black women What an insult to human dignity - as suffer 1.5 times more from infertility though a child who dies can so easily be problems than white women, it is dis- replaced! Among some grieving parents proportionately white women who use there is a misperception that a cloned child expensive technologies to bear children, will be the exact replica of a child that died. while black women disproportionately An irony of human cloning, if it happens, is undergo surgical procedures that prevent that it may finally disprove biological New genetic technologies and their impact on women 119 determinist theories! It will become clear to devastating consequences including that a clone, while s/he may look alike, will psychological backlash of anger, stigma, never be the exact replica of the person and discrimination against any child, and because of environmental influences and especially one who cannot or does not live cultural experiences (Diane Beeson, up to expectations. Women making the Professor of Sociology at California State decisions will also face incredible pressures, University, Hayward, US, personal moral decision-making, and potential communication, 1999). backlash if babies do not work out as Since each child is unique and can never planned. In addition, some in the disability be replaced, this sets up a dangerous community argue against any form of pre- precedent. George Annas, a biomedical implantation diagnosis, because of the ethicist and lawyer, has said, 'perhaps [the] potential further stigmatisation of disabled most compelling [reason to clone a human] people in our society (Wolbring 2000). The is cloning a dying child if this is what movie, Gattaca (1997), vividly illustrates grieving parents want. But this should not societal impacts when one attempts to be permitted. Not only does this encourage control a baby's destiny from birth. There is the parents to produce a child in the image an incorrect assumption that diseases, of another, it also encourages us all to view personalities, and characteristics are all children as interchangeable commodities. genetically predetermined. In 1999 a The death of a child thus need no longer be New York Times magazine article predicted a singular human tragedy, but rather an a future scenario called 'The Genetic Report opportunity to try to duplicate the no Card' in which a baby's first official check- longer priceless deceased child.' (Annas up would be in the petri dish while s/he is 1998,12). And yet the clone claimed to have an eight-cell embryo (The New York Times been produced by Clonaid, was said to Magazine, 1999). have been cloned from a ten-month-old deceased baby (The New York Times 7 Human reproductive cloning cures the Magazine, Feb 4 2001). 'incurably' infertile and offers a last chance for a genetic connection 6 Human genetic manipulation will not Professionals, such as lawyers and in-vitro lead to the commodification of and fertilisation (IVF) doctors, make this geneticisation of children argument professing to speak on behalf of We have already witnessed ways in which infertile couples. Ironically, one of the children have become commodities in the rationalisations for human reproductive twenty-first century. For example, in 2001, cloning is the low success rate of IVF. While twin babies were sold on the Internet to testifying at the California Advisory the infertile couple who bid the highest. Committee on Human Cloning, one well- Genetic manipulation is likely to result in known IVF doctor relied on the same the further commodification of children statistics used to convince infertile couples because people will begin having what of IVF's success, to make his argument that Marcy Darnovsky and others refer to as IVF's low success rates justified the need 'designer babies'. Advocates of human for human reproductive cloning. Yet, IVF is reproductive cloning tell us that parents currently one of the steps in the human will be able to design a 'superior' child reproductive cloning process. through the selection of personality traits, Among some women, especially infertile physical attributes, sex, and intellectual and women and lesbians, human reproductive moral qualities. cloning may be a potentially divisive issue. However, the consequences of selecting In the case of infertile couples, even within specific characteristics in a child may lead RESOLVE, a national organisation for 120

infertile couples, women are divided about treatment, which may or may not result whether or not to support human repro- in a live birth. Anyone who has faced ductive cloning. In the rare case of an infertility problems and later had a child, infertile couple in which neither person through birth or adoption, will tell you that produces gametes (or a reproductive cell the infertility experience is still a part of that can unite with another similar one to her/his identity. Secondly, there is no form the cell that develops into a new indication to believe that new technologies individual), human reproductive cloning such as human reproductive cloning will would allow for a genetic connection that have any better 'success' rates ('success' no other reproductive technology could being measured by the live birth of a offer. Nevertheless, many feel this is healthy child) than IVF, GIFT (Gamete dangerous threshold to cross to help a few Intra-Fallopian Transfer ) or GIUT (Gamete (Hayes 1999). Intrauterine Transfer). Thirdly, while I Generally speaking, lesbians have relied whole-heartedly support low-risk research on alternative technologies, and embraced efforts to help infertile women, men, and many new reproductive technologies as a couples, I also endorse preventive efforts. form of resistance to heterosexual nuclear The majority of causes of infertility are families and as an opportunity for mother- preventable including occupational health hood. Human reproductive cloning offers hazards, environmental toxins, drug-induced lesbian couples, in a society that is obsessed infertility like DES,8 sexually transmitted with biological connections and often uses diseases, accidents, and rare cases of this as a marker in legal custody battles, complications following childbirth or the rare opportunity to be genetically abortion. linked to both women. Egg donation cannot accomplish this. (With egg donation, 8 Human genetic technologies will lead a lesbian couple may choose one woman to new ways to rid society to supply the egg and the other woman of all unwanted and unplanned to carry the pregnancy to term and/or pregnancies breastfeed). To date, sperm banks, especially Martine Rothblatt has written a book those serving mainly lesbians, have not proposing 'inocuseed', a technique for taken a formal position for or against these banking all men's semen as a way to end new technologies. teenage pregnancies (Rothblatt 1997). In Professionals who support reproductive her vision, each male will undergo a cloning would like people to believe that if vasectomy at puberty and their sperm will anyone is against human reproductive be stored in a bank and reproduction will cloning, then we are against infertile be controlled with no unwanted preg- couples. An anti-reproductive cloning nancies. Certainly, this idea which relies on position is not unsympathetic to the pain new technologies seems an extreme of infertility, or to women and men measure to prevent unwanted pregnancies. experiencing infertility in their lives. What has happened to the promotion of Infertility is a painful life experience, but condoms or other contraceptive methods to even within the infertility community, prevent unwanted pregnancies? members are divided about their support or lack of support for human reproductive 9 Women who are anti-human cloning. In considering infertility, there are reproductive cloning are anti-procreative several important points to be made. liberty and anti-science and in a Firstly, new reproductive technologies democratic society, that is unacceptable never 'cure' infertility but rather, they only In a recent book, Genes, Women and Equality, offer temporary solutions to infertility or Mary Briody Mahowald, a philosopher, has New genetic technologies and their impact on women 121 outlined two feminist positions (Mahowald 10. Women who are 2000). Firstly, the feminist libertarian anti-human reproductive cloning are position, which emphasises women's right also anti-abortion. to pursue individual liberty and repro- This misconception has far-reaching ductive freedom. A majority of feminist implications for women and women's libertarians would argue that women groups. The human genome project should have access to such genetic tech- potentially makes for interesting political nologies, if and when they become available, alliances between groups that have usually and be free to choose between them. been oppositional including the religious The problem with this approach is that it right and the democratic progressives. fails to consider social inequalities among For example, both the religious right led by and between women based on race, class, the Vatican and the democratic progressive ethnicity, disability, and sexual orientation. movement are against human repro- Not every woman will have equal access to ductive cloning. But the Vatican does not these technologies, and nor will there distinguish between reproductive cloning always be autonomy to make a decision. and non-reproductive cloning (or stem cell For example, a libertarian feminist position research). It is opposed to stem cell fails to consider what happens if a research on the grounds that such research, heterosexual couple disagrees on these although not necessarily, may involve technologies; who makes the final decision? embryos or aborted foetuses. The second position Mahowald outlines Many women and women's organi- is the feminist egalitarian position, which sations support stem cell research, but are operates from a social justice framework opposed to human reproductive cloning. (Mahowald 2000). It considers the fact that Furthermore, they do not want to be a woman's autonomy is contextually aligned with the Vatican's anti-abortion located and social location - class, disability, position. Rather, they prefer to collaborate race, ethnicity, gender - influences our with like-minded people who support a ability to make decisions and have access to women's right, if necessary, to have a safe technologies. Thus, feminist egalitarians are and legal abortion. The challenge for not only interested in women's access to a women and women's groups is how to new technology, but also how women's work with other groups, on a policy that is social location impacts the use or misuse of anti-human reproductive cloning, but that technology. If a new technology which is clearly not anti-abortion rights. increases inequality, women need to pay (I am deliberately refraining from using the attention to this. We, as a society, need to word 'choice', since professionals who make the benefits and burdens associated support human reproductive cloning use with genetics more equal for both men and this word to mean reproductive freedom.) women. Genetics is neither gender neutral nor colour-blind. Even if all women had There is another interesting twist. access to these technologies, we still might I believe that scientists and doctors in not want them. A feminist egalitarian support of human reproductive cloning might support some gene technologies, and inadvertently feed into anti-abortion still reject others, if and only if, they were politics, by further delineating the pregnant both equally available and women had woman and foetus as separate and opposing equality within the broader social context. entities, as in cases of pregnancy and drug abuse, forced Caesareans, and with the use of ultrasound screening during pregnancy. This is ironic, because human reproductive cloning may actually further the need for safe and legal abortions at a historical 122

juncture when this legal right is being moral, legal, political, and economic threatened. If human reproductive cloning burdens of these genetic manipulations. occurs, we may be performing more late- Finally and most importantly, human term abortions than we have had to do in reproductive cloning and germ line the past. Brigitte Boisselier, a French alteration, whatever their risks, are chemist who is the 'scientific director' of unprecedented and irreversible. Clonaid, the Raelians cloning venture, has The discussion in this article about what said, 'We want a healthy baby.' All of the is happening to women in the US has far- 50 young females eagerly volunteering to reaching implications for women in a serve as egg donors and surrogate mothers global context, where women still face all were prepared to undergo abortions if kinds of social, political, and economic defects were revealed by ultrasound or injustices. I seriously doubt that human amniocentesis. If one pregnancy failed, reproductive cloning would tip the scale another surrogate would automatically towards balancing these inequities, step into line; there would be no need to including poverty, violence, stigmatisation, wait another month, as you would if you unemployment and unequal wages and were dependent on the cycles of one exploitation, for women in a global context. woman (The New York Times Magazine, 4 February 2001). While scientists claim Lisa Handwerker, Ph.D., M.P.H., is a medical that pre-implantation diagnosis can detect anthropologist, international health consultant poor quality embryos and grade embryos and recently, a conflict mediator. For over 20 while still in petri dishes, we know this is years, she has worked on women's health issues not always possible. Furthermore, not all as a teacher, activist, researcher, writer, and 'mutations/defects' are genetic, and thus policy maker. Postal address: UC Berkeley, identifiable at an early stage. In fact, Institute for the Study of Social Change, do evidence from research conducted on 2333 Prospect Street, Berkeley, CA 94704 sheep suggests that high rates of foetal USA. anomalies were discovered in late term [email protected] pregnancy or soon after birth. Potentially, if human reproductive cloning is allowed this could have devastating consequences Notes for women. 1 A version of this paper was first presented as a talk on 3 February 2001 at a meeting in San Francisco, California Conclusion US, on 'human genetic manipulation Both the short- and long-term conse- and its implications for women and quences of these new human genetic women's organisations' co-sponsored by manipulations, especially human repro- The Exploratory Initiative on the New ductive cloning, must be seriously Human Genetic Technologies and considered for diverse women. Some have the Boston Women's Health Book argued that these new technologies offer Collective (BWHBC). This talk was later potential for resistance and building new turned into an article and posted at family forms. Others have argued these www.ourbodiesourselves.org. A shortened technologies can help infertile couples with version of this paper was presented at no gametes. While this may be the case for the AWID conference on 4 October 2002. a few, I am concerned that many more A version of this article will also appear women will be harmed than helped. in Medical Anthropology Quarterly, special Overall, women - not men - will bear the edition in honour of Professor Joan major physical, psychological, social, Ablon, my mentor from the joint New genetic technologies and their impact on women 123

Berkeley-UC San Francisco Medical 7 Pre-implantation diagnosis or genetic Anthropology Program. testing is an experimental method 2 The Raelians are a religious sect based in designed to identify genetic defects or Canada, who believe that humans are chromosome abnormalities at two clones of extraterrestrial scientists and different stages: either in an ovum that human cloning is the key to eternal (unfertilised egg) before fertilisation or life. in an embryo before fertilisation. Both 3 Human reproductive cloning is asexual Marsha Saxton, a researcher at the reproduction. An egg is removed from a World Institute on Disability (WID) in woman's body. The nucleus is removed Oakland, California and Debra Kaplan from that egg which, after it has been have written extensively on this subject. stripped of its genetic materials, is called Also, please see publications by Gregor an ovacyte. The regular body cells (skin, Wolbring including Science and the hair etc.) or undifferentiated stem cells Disadvantage)! published by the of another individual (man or woman) Edmonds Institute in Canada, 2000. are inserted into the ovacyte. (Stem cells 8 Diethylstilbestrol, a powerful synthetic are undifferentiated cells that can later estrogen, was a drug prescribed to an develop into other body parts. Stem estimated 4.8 million women in the US cell research is at its earliest stages, and between 1938 and 1971, in the mistaken stem cells of different origins, including belief that it would prevent miscarriage. embryos and fetuses, are being explored Instead, it was found to be linked to for research purposes.) A clone does not many reproductive health injuries, have a genetic mother or father, as in including increased rates of vaginal sexual reproduction when an embryo cancer, and infertility in the children gets half its genes from the woman's egg born to those women. and half from the man's sperm. It has a 'nuclear donor' and also gains some genetic material from the original egg. References 4 Council for Responsible Genetics (CRG), Annas, G. (1998) Some Choice: Law, Medicine located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and the Market, New York: Oxford has been a forerunner of important University Press policy statements on genetics and social Handwerker (1994) 'Medical risk: implicating responsibility. poor pregnant women', in Social Science 5 Founded in 1975, The National Women's and Medicine, 38( 5): 665-75 Health Network's mission is to advocate Hayes, R. (1999) Appendix D in for national policies that protect and Reproductive Human Cloning: Key promote all women's health and to Arguments. For this and other published provide evidence-based, independent and unpublished publications, please information to empower women to refer to the Center for Genetics and make fully informed decisions Society, 436 14th Street, Suite 1302, (www.womenshealthnetwork.org). Oakland, California, US, 94612. The 6 Rich Hayes first brought these concerns website address is: www.genetics-and- to my attention at a groundbreaking society.org and e-mail is: meeting on human cloning in early 2000. [email protected]. Currently, he is the director of the Hubbard, R., and E. Wald, (1997) Exploding Center for Genetics and Society. the Gene Myth, Boston: Beacon Press Lemonick, Michael D. 'The DNA revolution: a twist of fate', in Time: A Special Report, 17 February 2003 49-58 124

Mahowald, M.B. (2000) Genes, Women and Equality, New York: Oxford University Press Roberts, E. D. (2001a) 'Race and the New Reproduction' GeneWatch 14(1) Roberts, E. D. (2001b) Interview conducted on 'Cloning Babies: It Is Only a Matter of Time', ABC World News, February 13 Rothblatt, M. (1997) Unzipped Genes: Taking Charge of Baby-making in the New Millennium, Philadelphia: Temple University Press Turkiel, J. (1998) Beyond Second Opinions: Making Choices about Fertility Treatment, Berkeley: UC Press. The Boston Women's Health Book Collective (1998) Our Bodies, Ourselves: For the New Century, New York: Touchstone Wolbring, G. (2000) Science and the Disadvantaged, Canada: Edmonds Institute 125

Trafficking and women's human rights in a globalised world An interview by Pamela Shifman

According to the United Nations, the global industry of human trafficking generates an estimated 5-7 billion dollars annually, with at least 700,000 victims every year} By all accounts, trafficking in human beings is increasing at staggering rates. Increased , with its discriminatory impact on girls and women, ensures a supply of desperately poor women and girls willing to do anything to survive. Within continents and across oceans, women and children are bought and sold to serve the demands for exploitative sex or cheap labour. In this interview, Pamela Shifman talks to four women involved in challenging the international traffic in women which is a feature of globalised poverty and unemployment.

ocal sex industries have gone global: Ruchira Gupta (from India), Esohe Agheteste expanding rapidly, and filled with (from Nigeria and Italy), Aida Santos (from Lgirls and women from the global the ) and Colette DeTroy (from South and newly independent states of Belgium) came together to explore the eastern Europe. Traffickers and pimps no challenges that globalisation poses to end longer need rely on the traditional routes the trafficking of women and girls and the into sex work, as women and girls can now opportunities it opens for activists to fight be sold on the Internet. Globalisation has, it. Below is an edited version of that in short, encouraged new routes and new conversation. methods to exploit women and children for profit. Ethiopian women are trafficked for Pamela: domestic work to Lebanon; Nepali girls are What do you think the relationship is trafficked to the brothels of Mumbai; and between trafficking and globalisation? Russian women to the red light district of Colette: Amsterdam. Globalisation is mostly concerned with the But globalisation has also allowed globalisation of trade, of goods and unprecedented collaboration between services. All over the world, women, feminist activists in source countries, sexuality, and sexual services are considered transit countries and countries of destination. as good trade for people who have money. In order to explore the links between So a big trade in human beings - mostly in trafficking and globalisation, I facilitated a women - has developed. discussion following the Association for Women in Development (AWID) Forum Aida: between four leading activists involved in Globalisation has a specific impact on the struggle against trafficking in women. developing countries, like the Philippines. 126

One of the key features of globalisation is are going to be exploited in these ways. the use of technology. In the Philippines Because they might be in Delhi, and they and other Asian countries, the use of can't comprehend that they would end up technological advances has been an avenue in New York through the Internet as virtual for a serious rise in trafficking of women goods. So that is one part of globalisation and children. For example, a lot of the which has been very advantageous to negotiations for 'mail order brides', [now traffickers. also called Internet brides] are happening The other is that globalisation has through Internet technology. So, while changed the definition of choice itself. So, there may be some good features of for people in the First World, or from richer globalisation (a debatable point of course) countries, globalisation just means checking in terms of our experiences it does not serve into a hotel room anywhere. For people our women and children well. from the Third World, or poor countries, globalisation could very well mean that Esohe: there are certain rules imposed by the I see globalisation in a much broader way, World Trade Organisation (WTO), or the as including not only the economic aspects, World Bank which say that the public but also the cultural and the political sector unit has to be closed down, because aspects. With regard to most African it's not making a profit. Many people in a countries, it's been in terms of acquisition household lose their jobs, and the girl in the of cultural, economic and political models, family has to travel further to look for which have not been able to be transformed work. And, because it is not efficient or into something useful for the African productive to be in the place where she is, people. And so you find a distorted trans- she becomes vulnerable to traffickers. formation of these models in these countries. And this has led to a distorted Colette: view of the Western world. In addition, globalisation has resulted in And then, on the other side, in the free exchanges of goods and services, but Western world, commodities, services and there are strong obstacles to persons and also people from other countries are seen as therefore no easy entry to Western countries. something that the Western world has to The borders are simply closed, particularly acquire. And so the trafficking of women to Western Europe. This provides a good and children, and young persons, is seen way for traffickers to make money. They within this context. can 'help' people to enter a country, where there is no opening for people to enter. Ruchira: The tools of globalisation are beneficial to Aida: traffickers. For instance, technology is One aspect that is very problematic is the helping them use the Internet to market discourse within globalisation about a girls all across the world, through all kinds 'level playing field'. A lot of our migrants of Internet sites which auction girls. It has who eventually will be trafficked think that made it easier for traffickers to operate their there is a possibility of a better life in the trafficking networks, keep in touch with future. And so migration has been an avenue each other, and find out the sites where for bettering their lives. And then there is the girls can be sold cheaply, and it is easy for consumer's attitude of 'I have to have this.' buyers and clients to log on to Internet I look at globalisation and trafficking in portals to find out where to go. At the same terms of the abuse of the right to mobility; time, it has made it more difficult for girls of the right to travel; of the right to better in the Third World to understand that they one's life; of the right to development. Trafficking and women's human rights in a globalised world 127

Ruchira: Ruchira: I want to add something to what Aida is One of the positive aspects I have found saying, on the issue of sex tourism. Because personally as an activist is that I can some- everything becomes marketable, and times bypass the pressure of my own everything becomes a commodity in the government, and link up with an activist in new world of globalisation, men can travel Europe, or in America, and get them to put thousands of miles just to buy girls from pressure on the Indian government, to do poorer countries. And countries are actually more work on trafficking, or to create better promoting some of their cities as sex laws to improve the lives of women. tourism sites. Pamela: Esohe: I want to go back to something Ruchira There is a general tendency to black-mark said earlier about how globalisation has globalisation in itself, as something negative. changed the nature of choice. Do you think I personally don't think of globalisation, the idea of free choice, particularly in terms itself, as something negative. It's rather an of women who are trafficked into the sex abuse of globalisation. Right now, we have industry, has been detrimental to the anti-trafficking movement? huge movements of goods and services, these highly facilitated communication Aida: systems that are spreading all over the I have just finished a five-country research world - but there are no checks and controls. project with the Coalition against Trafficking And I believe this is where the problem in Women (CATW). I asked my respondents starts. all over the Philippines about whether they As Aida just said, I think it's right, and chose to migrate. Many of them did know proper that people should try to develop, that there was a large potential for being to try to attain to a better life for them- trafficked into prostitution. They said, 'I chose selves. And I'm afraid that if we give this to migrate despite the risk of being negative idea of globalisation this will trafficked.' block that possibility. And that is over- And then I look at their vulnerabilities - looking what causes the negative aspects of the vulnerabilities of being poor, with low globalisation, and just looking at the education, being enticed by the possibilities damage that its abuse is causing. of greener pastures - being enticed by the possibilities beyond their little villages. Pamela: Some of them said, 'Nobody put a gun to One example of the women's movement my head', but when I examine their actual using globalisation toward a good end was lives, I saw that there were severe vulner- the passage of the Transnational Crime abilities that they face as women - poor Protocol on Trafficking in Women. Despite women - in a Third World country. What the efforts of powerful governments and was the real choice of these women, even if NGOs who advocated for a very narrow they knew they could be trafficked? definition of trafficking, which would not I don't think that women choose to be protect women or facilitate traffickers being exploited. I think that they would choose to punished, the international women's rights migrate despite the potential harm, because movement was very successful in organising there are no other possibilities for them. for a broad and protective definition. This In my country particularly, the women did is just one example. not have a real choice. When you speak of choice as if it were about free will, in the way we know free will, in the context of 128

human rights, then I pose big questions Ruchira: about this kind of discourse in relation to Choice also has to be seen in the context of women migrants who are trafficked. I think time, of space, and also of economic models it's a dangerous discourse for women who of development. For instance, in America, have no choice, really, in their lives. when I was living there I noticed that a lot of feminists used the pro-choice arguments Esohe: for the pro-prostitution arguments. And There is also the issue of cultural colonialism, they would say that a woman should have when television programmes create a the right to control her body in any way certain image of the Western world. And she wants to. This is true with regard to then you compare it to the kind of life abortion, of course. But then they say that she women live, in which there are very few also has the right to sell her body for sex. possibilities. Every day, they can choose This is a superficial and fallacious only whether to eat once or twice a day. argument, because a woman actually loses When somebody comes and offers you control over her body in prostitution. In the possibility of leaving that misery, that rich countries they understand and manage poverty, to go to this wonderful world, I globalisation differently from people in don't think the person has all the info- poor countries. When people do choose to rmation necessary to make a real choice. be trafficked or get into prostitution, And, from this point of view, I don't think they're choosing it as a survival strategy for we can call it choice, really. It's more of an a very limited period of time, under imposition by somebody who has experience tremendous pressure - economic pressure, and complete information, and uses this to pressure from the family, from children convince another person who does not crying for food, husbands beating up have information. Most of these girls know, wives, and no income in the village. And of course, that they may end up in prosti- once they choose, the degree of choice tution, in very violent situations, but they exercised by a person in prostitution say, 'Yes, I choose.' changes according to her stage in a cycle. I put this word 'choose' in quotation When a girl is about seven or nine years marks. In reality, there is no choice. It's like old, she always talks about the fact that she a blind person who is led into some place, wants to go back home, and she's sick of and told: 'Look you're going into heaven', being in the brothel, and she blames her and taken into hell. trafficker as the biggest villain, and the first client who raped her repeatedly. After five Collette: years inside a brothel, there is a period of This word 'choice' is coming from the new socialisation within the brothel, and this liberalism. In the neo-liberal economic girl is allowed to keep half of what she model, everybody has a choice and is earns, and she also becomes dependent on responsible for their success. That's what is drugs and alcohol. She is forced to have a presented. That's totally false, and ignores couple of babies by the brothel madam. And the difficulties, and the imbalances, both at that point, when you talk to her, she sees among and within countries, where not no way of going back home. She begins to everybody has the same choices and the suffer from the Stockholm syndrome, almost same chances. But it is presented like it is beginning to love her kidnapper, which is an individual choice. But I think this word the brothel Madame. She is desensitised, 'choice' has to be analysed in the context of she is dependent on drugs and alcohol, and the economic model we are living in, and at that point if you talk to her she will say, the consequences in the lives of millions of 'Yes, I choose to remain here' because she women. doesn't see a way of going back home. Trafficking and women's human rights in a globalised world 129

Another five years down the road, They talk about economic opportunities for when her earning capacity comes down, a better life, of being able to help their she is disease-ridden, she has two or three families. children, and then you talk to her about So, again, when I look at the data and choice, and she says, 'I want to get out of the actual interviews with the women, I see here, I want to acquire some skills so that I a problem with this discourse of choice. can earn a living some other way. I want to It seems to me the choice is a false notion, keep my daughter from getting into when you have an environment where prostitution.' So again the choice changes. there is a real lack of many things. And of course, in the last five years should she survive, she is completely disease- Esohe: ridden, she is thrown out of the brothel, I was just thinking about ways that she is on the sidewalk, and she is just globalisation itself could be used to change dying. And she has no pension scheme, some of these aspects. For instance, with no home to return to, no extended family regard to trafficking, what is being done on structure, nothing to protect her daughters an international level, using pressure on an or sons from prostitution. international level to change internal policies on women, to give more respect to the At that point, of course, she regrets that rights of women - I think this is also an she was ever sold into prostitution, or aspect of globalisation. trafficked into prostitution. So in a life span And there are various other aspects, of 20 years, for about five years a girl may especially economic aspects. You see cases say that she chooses to be in prostitution. where money is being given to corrupt And that's true, but her choice is in a very leaders in developing countries, when they limited context, where she sees no other know that money is not being spent to way out. So choice does vary, from different develop the countries. And they keep doing parts of the world, in different times of it. This is something that, for instance, life, and also just different economic happened for more than 30 years with the circumstances. European Union which gave money to develop the ACP (Africa, Caribbean and Aida: Pacific) countries. The European Union In the Philippines, there is a continuing kept pouring in money, even knowing that erosion of what I would call national most of this money didn't go to those consciousness, a sense of national identity. projects it was supposed to go to. And so, For example, one form of trafficking is 30 years later, you still find that the trafficking of women to become brides. countries are even more behind than before. When I talked to a number of mail order We need a change of attitude on a political brides, they said it is better to marry a level. Because as long as their interests are foreigner. To marry a Filipino is down- being protected, as long as profits are being grading their potential opportunities. A lot obtained with the rules on the market being of the women, not just involved in manipulated whenever it's convenient, prostitution locally, but women who have then the situation is going to remain like graduated from universities and colleges, that. have articulated this. And so there is a sense of a loss of pride in being a Filipina. Collette: The Philippines is a centre for mail I think Esohe's is a very good example. If order brides. Thousands of women marry the European Union had given the same foreigners, and in the research that I did, not money to women, there would be quite one of my respondents talked about love. different development. Women know that 130

it's more important to develop basic needs Why do we accept this? Why is this not and to have money for education or health being challenged systematically? than to develop monoculture and industry. Given the way that women could work Esohe: to make a globalisation which has different There is this myth that men will be men. values and is not just about the market And so they have their needs, which must economy, it is important to support the be satisfied and so on, and so forth. This is women's movement. I agree with Esohe a myth that has to be destroyed. It all that it's a struggle between those who have comes down to what men see as culturally power and those who don't have power. and socially acceptable. I don't believe that And even if all women are not poor, men cannot do without paid sexual services women still don't have power, although any more than I believe it's 'the women they are the majority. So we need to unite who choose'. These are ideas that have been bastardised to increase trafficking and and to exchange and to develop capacity to the commercialisation of women's bodies. limit globalisation or exert pressure for These aspects have to be addressed. globalisation which is based on different things. Collette: Pamela: Yes, I think we have to deconstruct the myth, but also this analysis. The presentation of I want to move in a different direction and prostitution as linked to sexuality, is so ask you all to talk about the demand for wrong. Male sexuality is also associated sexual services that comes from men in rich with power. It's the same with rape. It countries, or among richer men, in poor doesn't have anything to do with sexuality, countries and the link to globalisation. or desire. It's just power. Prostitution and Aida: rape show that men control women. A man We need to look at the issue of the middle- can pay for sex and use her as an object. man. For a long time, we have always I think it's really important to deconstruct this myth, in this framework of power looked at the women and the children, and relationships between a man, who could sometimes the men, in prostitution. We've purchase his wife or another woman or a got to turn the table around and ask the child. Equality between women and men question, why is there so much demand for cannot include the possession of a body. sexual services? I think governments must begin to look at the way that they are not Pamela: only promoting patriarchal values, and Sweden has been groundbreaking in this patriarchal socialisation processes, but how regard. Colette, can you talk about the the commodification of sex and sexuality Swedish law? has been part and parcel of the negative side of globalisation. Collette: We need to go back to a universality of For the first time in the world, in Sweden, rights. No one should be selling her body legislation has been enacted under which it just to be able to eat a meal a day. It's is forbidden to buy sexual services. It is beyond human dignity. One of the issues punishable. It's only the man, the buyer, that can be tackled internationally, in terms who is responsible. Prostitution is seen as of reinventing globalisation from a feminist violence against women, violence against a perspective, is addressing the issue of male human being. It is part of broad legislation demand and asking the hard questions. We on violence. all know that international peacekeeping The legislation has been in effect for two forces have been involved in buying sex. years. The pro-prostitution lobby says it Trafficking and women's human rights in a globalised world 131 doesn't work. That's the main argument. confronted with the statement that prosti- They never say that the legislation against tution is the oldest profession in the world. torture does not work since there is still torture in the world. They just say that the Pamela: Swedish legislation doesn't work. This is I like to say it's the oldest oppression. actually not true, but it's also important in itself as a symbol -1 believe that legislation Esohe: has a very strong symbolic power. Euro- The myth of prostitution being the oldest pean women are trying to lobby for this profession in the world has to be decons- kind of legislation in different countries. tructed. It comes to my mind, for example, that murder has always existed and is It is important that we address the myth heavily punished. I don't think there's any that Esohe spoke about earlier. The myth of country in the world that accepts it as part men's sexuality - that they need to go to of the social order. And it continues to prostitutes - we need to challenge that in happen, but nobody resigns him or herself the context of the legal framework of to it and says 'you know, human beings human rights. In this sense, we are not will always be human beings, and so there helped by the pro-prostitution lobby, who is nothing we can do about that.' speak about choice. Men want to hear about the choice of prostitutes. They don't Aida: want to hear that the woman doesn't have We must begin to pose the question about a choice, and does not want to be there, and the harms of prostitution. For it to be seen is in a vulnerable position. They don't want as a choice, when there is inherent violence to know that. in it and inherent human rights violations in it, is something that we must resist. Ruchira: Sexuality is, of course, rooted in concepts Pamela: of power and violence. And men are Does anyone have final comments about re- constantly trying to reinforce their sexual inventing globalisation in the context of beings by reinforcing their sense of power, trafficking? or by being violent. And this is something that they're conditioned to believe in, from Aida: the time that they're boys, as individuals, We need to seriously address - at the as members of a family, as members of a practical as well as strategic level - the community, and as part of the state. And issue of reinventing globalisation, vis-a-vis so, they sometimes don't even know any sexual exploitation, migration, and mobility. other way of expressing their sexuality. We need to push governments to look And they connect all these three things in seriously at the strategic impact of their head: power, violence, sex. trafficking and sexual exploitation in terms So, while women are taught that there is of its cost: the loss of of an appropriate time and place to have sex, nations and individuals. men are not. And it's almost accepted at every level of society, that men have to Esohe: have sex when and how they want to. So if I very much support the last statement, and they don't have a woman around, and they I would also like to add that there is a don't have the social skills to actually build practical need to create strategies and a relationship with a woman, they go programmes based on this analysis. And looking for prostitutes. then there's also the issue of beginning to Again and again, when I try to do my work on deconstructing myths that tend to work on trafficking and prostitution, I am create space for continued exploitation of 132

women, and the destruction of women's Pamela Shifman is Project Officer at UNICEF rights. on sexual exploitation and abuse in humani- tarian crises. Address: 364 8th street, Brooklyn Collette: NY 11215, USA. [email protected] We will continue this struggle between the more vulnerable and the more powerful. We have to unite and see the powerful Note complementarities between us, and the 1 United Nations figure, quoted in power of our being together. And we have Arlacchi (2000) to lobby and to exert pressure on the institutions, and the places of power. Reference Esohe Aghatise is the Executive Director of Arlacchi, P. (2000) 'Against all the Associazione Iroko Onlus, based in Turin, Italy. godfathers: the revolt of the decent She is a lawyer and ethno-cultural mediator by people' in 'The World Against Crime', profession and has been an activist working Special Issue of Giornale di Sicilia, 7 against the international trafficking of women and children for prostitution for the past ten years. Address: Via Ceva, 40 10144 Turin, ITALY, [email protected]

Colette De Troy is the co-ordinator of the European Women's Lobby (EWL) Policy Action Centre on Violence against Women. Address: 18, rue Hydraulique, B-1210 Bruxelles. [email protected] www.womenlobby.org

Ruchira Gupta is Trafficking Expert for Development Alternatives Incorporate. She is also the Executive Director of Apne Aap Women Worldwide, a not-for-profit organisation set up in Bombay and Kolkata's red-light area to end sex-trafficking. Address: do 364 8th Street, Brooklyn, NY 11215, USA.

Aida Santos is a board member of the coalition against trafficking in women for the Asia Pacific region and works as a gender and development officer with WEDPRO (The Women's Education, Development and Productivity and Research Advocacy Organization), and other institutions. Address: Building 15, Unit 41, BL Condominium, Road 3, Pag-Asa, Quezon City 1105, Philippines. [email protected] Part IV Building a global voice to protect women's rights

135

The women's movement in the era of globalisation: does it face extinction? Andrea Medina Rosas and Shamillah Wilson

77iis article is based on an inter-generational dialogue between younger and older women regarding the future direction of the women's movement. Like other social movements, the women's movement is currently experiencing tensions as feminists of different ages negotiate their place within it. In this article, we will highlight some of the issues raised in this session, and relate them to our personal experiences and points of view, as young feminists.

he contributions and gains made by At the AWID Forum, an attempt to the women's movement1 over the develop the dialogue among young women Tpast 20 or 30 years have assisted in and older women in the women's move- creating a very different world. Currently, ment took the form of an inter-generational there are many new challenges for the panel. The structure of the engagement was movement. One is the issue of ensuring that an open and honest exchange among commitments to women's rights are turned participants about the tensions that seem to into reality for every woman, and another the participants to exist between the comes from the new global political generations of women in the movement. situation, which threatens to unleash a new We then moved on to discuss the . But there is another key challenges and strategies for inter- challenge, which comes from inside the generational activism. When we came to movement itself. This challenge - which is distil this article from the discussions we felt in other social movements too - is how had had, we decided to focus it around to deal with inter-generational tensions three main questions raised most often by within the movement. Young women, either the panel. These questions are, first, 'Is the already in the movement or considering women's movement "missing in action"?', entering it, are asking questions about the second, 'What are some of the tensions movement, including where it is headed. between different generations of women in We think this creates several distinct the movement?', and third, 'What strategies tensions and experiences that have not been can we use for inter-generational organising?' sufficiently discussed and addressed. The article aims to reflect on all these questions and put forward some suggestions for action. 136 Is the women's movement Sometimes we hear criticism about the 'missing in action'? emphasis currently being given to diversity within the women's movement. One The question 'Is the women's movement particular criticism is that in focusing on "missing in action"?', as well as the title of only one aspect of the multiple agenda (for the panel 'Is the women's movement on the example, the rights of young women), we way to extinction?', are both important, and risk forgetting about the global agenda, and represented radical starting points for the betraying the women's movement. We discussion. In reflecting on these questions, think it is important to state explicitly that some of the women at the workshop felt, all the context-specific issues we bring up that in fact, the movement is in some state are informed by the same feminist vision, of paralysis. Evidence for this includes and contribute to the global feminist stronger right-wing and fundamentalist agenda. We feel that through focusing on groups who obstruct our actions and goals; specific issues affecting us as women in a feeling of inability to draw more people particular contexts, we strengthen our into the movement; and a sense that the capacity and ability to challenge existing women's movement has entered a period of relations of power in our situations. This relative inaction in comparison to the success- focus also strengthens our ability to ful mass mobilisations of feminists that contribute meaningfully to the global took place around the world in the 1990s. women's movement. It is important that we We feel that before anyone pronounces do not lose sight of this, given the new a final verdict on the current state of the challenges that women are facing in a women's movement, it is very important globalised world. In the end, it is most that we take a look at the diversity that can important to be explicit that all these currently be found in the global women's specific issues have the same feminist movement, and consider the possibilities vision, and contribute to the global feminist open to us to organise as a women's move- agenda. ment. The issue of diversity kept emerging Nowadays, there are more women who throughout the panel at AWTD. The agenda identify themselves as feminist or have a of women within the movement seems to commitment to equality and women's widen every day. Women's experience of rights than ever before, across all inequality does not only depend on gender, generations. but also on other factors including their This presents us with a choice: we can age, race, and culture, their political, either develop a strong global movement economic and social situation, their health, which supports women in their diversity, their erotic preferences, their education and and is able to act, influence and advance experience, and so on. The differences even further; or we can forfeit a unique between life in different contexts, and the opportunity through our own short- inequalities between regions and countries, sightedness. affect the way in which we engage with As a first step, we think it is important issues. The state of the women's movement for all women within the movement to differs in every place, according to history acknowledge that the movement is and current conditions. Even in the same advancing, in many very different ways country, we can find radical differences in because of the diversity of women within it. women's situation from one region to In the end, the critical issue is to analyse another, because of differences in access to and evaluate the advances, rather than information, services, the condition of civil dismissing them if they are not in line with and political rights, and the presence or our own vision of feminism. We think that absence of war. women within the movement sometimes The women's movement in the era of globalisation 137 try to find some signs of the movement intense work, While it did not result in - advancing, but only look for signs that it is and was not intended to result in - any advancing in the way that we want it to. If 'universal truths', it did enable us to they are not there, we conclude that the challenge ourselves and each other to movement is not advancing at all. We have create global evaluations and strategies. not necessarily looked more widely and These need to be based on acknowledge- asked others how they see the progress of ment of the diversity and complexity of the the movement, in awareness that we are all movement, and its current challenges. inventing and reinventing ways to live as feminists. What are some of the inter- The discussion at the AWID workshop focused on questions such as: 'How can I generational tensions? use feminism?'; 'What are the final or Generalising about older and younger principal goals of feminism?'; and 'Who is women feminist?' During the discussion we Acknowledging that age is one aspect of realised firstly that there are still strong diversity is useful for the women's move- prejudices against feminism, what it is and ment; thinking of women of all ages as the what it has been doing. These prejudices same hinders our ability to move forward, are often related to specific intentions to in a number of ways. In this section, we are disqualify feminism and create confusion going to describe several of the main around it. Secondly, inside the movement tensions that young and old women talked there are notions about people's loyalties, about during an inter-generational meeting. and the essential identity of a feminist. Of course, not all women of a particular Discussions need to be had about these generation think the same way, but as the notions. At present, they make access to the panel discussion aimed to be a space in movement more difficult. This affects the which all participants could focus on the nature and potential of activism, by tensions which divide us in order to ensure limiting different, creative approaches to we could move forward, we will deal with achieve our goals. It is important to keep in these issues in a general way. mind that the feminist approach is about One of the first contributions from respecting non-lineal processes, which are women in their forties and older was how not restricted in terms of time or space. It is uncomfortable they feel with the labelling also important to remember that we are all of 'older' and 'younger' women. Many felt syncretic women - that is, we are mixing that old is considered less fashionable, as in traditional and modern ways of being beauty and fashion. These concerns were women, and living out innovative ways of actually echoed by younger women who being. We are moving all the time, said that in meetings with older feminists sometimes in a more contradictory way they have doubts about how to refer to than at other times. As a global women's them. Although talking about younger movement, our challenge in trying to move persons generally does not present a is to recognise that we are moving to the problem, the term 'older' appears to be same beat, even if it is not at the same pace. offensive, and most of the time is met by a Evidence of this is the AWID Forum range of comments, including: 'But I'm still itself. It attracted more than one thousand young!' or, 'But I'm still young at heart!' women from all over the world, who We agreed at the panel that it is therefore wished to meet each other and share their important to keep in mind, that all of actions, thoughts and concrete experiences these words represent vital cycles, and are with other women. This sharing was very not used to denigrate or devalue anyone. 138

We all need to be aware that there are earlier generation are a reality, if no one stereotypes or prejudices which are based talks to us about the struggle and history of on an idea of youth and older age as achieving those rights, we take them for dichotomous, so some qualities are granted and assume that they were always attributed to one and excluded from the there. It is true that to approach feminism is other. Generalising about people according still a matter of a personal desire, a decision to their age can have the effect of causing to research, to read, to search. But women's discomfort, without gaining anything. For history and feminism are not yet included example, older people are generally in school curricula. Instead, as mentioned considered more experienced, knowing earlier, the term 'feminism' is often accom- and wise, in relation to their longer life panied by ignorance, confusion and experience. However, this generalisation prejudice. Some young women stumble has resulted in some inter-generational across feminism in their own search on tensions in the movement, since it leads to their personal journey of making sense of assumptions that young women don't have the world we live in. Others are introduced the experience and ability to make to feminism by their own mothers, or decisions or be leaders. through a teacher at school, a conference at So, at present the existing tensions university or a course of study they around age have some positive and undertake. But although university-level negative aspects for each of the gener- courses on women, feminism and gender at ations. In future, we need to keep the university level are very important advances, positive aspects, while rejecting what is these are not enough, and they are constantly negative. Firstly, we need to acknowledge under threat. that words give meaning which in turn Should young women adopt the label of leads to action. They are not politically 'feminist'? We feel it is important to adopt neutral. It would be good to find a word the identity of 'feminists', in recognition of which could be used instead of 'older', to our history, and the fact that the struggle avoid the negative connotations of that ahead is a political one. But our diversity as word. If we only talk of 'older' and a movement should allow us to look for 'younger' feminists, we forget that there are people with similar views for the purposes not just two generations. Individual of building alliances, instead of resorting to women may not consider themselves as the usual tendency of questioning the fitting into either of these categories. identity of a 'feminist' and thus creating Past struggles are unappreciated points of difference and a means to cause Another big issue, which includes many divisions. Our discussion about these variables, is the feeling that the struggles issues at AWID related the question to the and achievements of older women are ignorance and prejudices we have talked not appreciated by young women. Some about. It does us harm to close our doors to veterans of the movement feel that younger collaborations with people who perhaps do women do not know much about the not use our words or references, but are history and creation of feminism. As 'proof close enough to us in terms of feminist of this they say younger women are less ideals. willing to call themselves feminists, and Finally, it is important for young and that there is no sharing of feminist values. older women to acknowledge that 'education' Creating a bridge between our own in feminism is also necessary for older lives and past feminist action is a challenge women. Sometimes the impression is given for many young women. As we were born that all the women in the older generation into an era in which the gains made by the were supportive and part of the feminist The women's movement in the era of globalisation 139 movement, and that the gap appears only Perceptions about the way young women in later generations. But there are older should work women who are only now discovering or There seems to be a perception that young reconsidering feminism. Some of them are women's contribution should continue doing this because of young women close what has already been started, but only in a to them, who have integrated feminist prescribed way. But in fact young feminists activism into their daily lives. Others are are taking what has already been done or doing it because they are working in initiated, and continuing feminist action, institutions which require them to integrate even if it is not in the way that some older a gender perspective or analysis into their women would like. We are doing it in the work. way we understand it, with our possibilities and resources, and often we are doing it The movement is a 'reserved club' with older women. For example, in many One participant at the workshop recounted countries now it is not so easy to organise that she felt that the movement was like a mass marches of thousands of people, but reserved club to which she could not get in those places where it is possible and access, even though she was keen to necessary, the young women are there, at become part of it. The sensation of feeling the forefront. We are writing our songs, like an intruder, and hearing criticisms playing our guitars, painting our murals, about other people who are 'not feminist and we are creating in very different ways enough', has prompted us and others like of expression the same feminist horizons: us to run away many times. We feel that some times out in the streets, at the we might not measure up to the movement. congress, other times writing and studying, One challenge for all of us is to and at other times living and testing our formulate and spread feminism in a freedom, travelling, or simply through the positive way. In order to do this, it is way we live our lives to the full. important that the advances that we make as younger women, in our own lives, as As young women, our desire is not to well as the benefits of earlier feminist take anyone's place. 'Older' women occupy action, are seen as part of the history of the some important spaces in the movement, feminist movement. If this were the case, and we have no intention of shutting them we would recover a sense of politics in our off. We should focus on the challenge of actions and lives. It is also important to how to draw more women of all ages into acknowledge that there are different ways the movement and to generate relations of being feminist. The act of criticising this based in sisterhood, rather than on parent different way of being or doing is a and child relationships. Sisterhood means destructive one, which is contradictory to the encounter of different and equal the objective of creating a movement of women characterised by friendship, who diverse energies and visions. Focusing on meet to accomplish objectives and in the issues and challenges that we face as recognition of feminist principles. It also young women does not mean that we do means listening to others, and being not care about the achievements of the last listened to, and taking criticism with generation. Instead of criticising, everyone respect, without remarking on the age in the women's movement should be differences, or the generation gap. Older engaging with everyone else, building our women often behave as controlling mothers, individual and collective capacity to seeing us as daughters, in need of guidance. achieve change. Sisterhood would mean older women introducing us to meetings and conferences where we can meet the women who made 140

it possible for us to be where we are today, lives. But the destructive aspect of it, the see how they live, learn our own history in guilt and sacrifice, at work and in our lives flesh and blood, related to us. We want to more generally, is a tremendous challenge. read their books, watch them act, and Young women are trying to pick up this support their proposals which inspire us. challenge and do something about it. We But, we are also writing, and we also have want to find alternative ways of engaging opinions on all of the goals of feminism, so that does not cause so much sacrifice and we can also offer learning and inspiration unnecessary pain. We know that if we are to them. Because we are also adult women, tired and burnt-out, we will be unable to and we are part of this movement. continue doing the work we do, and will deprive the movement of valuable members Young women's skills are under-used and contributions. Secondly, the freedom and Returning to the issue of competition, one humanity that we are striving for should participant at AWID stated that: 'We do not also bring us some autonomy and pleasure. want to just be photocopies of the move- ment.' It is not that younger women want to decide everything, or that we want to be What strategies can we use 'the bosses', but some of us do feel that for inter-generational our capacities are not used to their best organising? advantage by the movement. Our sense of being on the margins is In the end, to be true to the political ideals made more difficult to understand, since of the movement, and in the spirit of we often hear affirmations from older moving forward, it is imperative that we women that young women are the hope meet the internal challenges to become a and new life of feminism. In fact, we think movement relevant to women of all ages we are in the same boat as the older women. and generations. The AWID workshop As young women we are not only inter- gave some of us a chance to analyse this ested in the future. We are going to continue issue a little more, and identify what needs with the feminist movement, and we are to be done. The challenge we face is to start finding and experimenting with new ways talking, sharing and so forth with each of being in it right now, all together. But it other, for the achievement of an inclusive sometimes seems difficult to recognise this movement. when we are dealing with inter-generational Having recognised the challenge to facilitate diversity and inclusiveness in the issues. women's movement, some of the recom- The high cost of activism mendations which came out of the AWID Another issue young feminists have panel are: pointed out is the cost of activism in the • to recognise the diverse ways of being a movement, which has taken a toll on feminist and engaging with feminism women who have preceded us, and is now taking a toll on us. Many of us experience • to intensify our efforts to form and illness, depression, poverty, anger and spread feminism, including its vision conflict. Many of us are struggling with and strategies, to ensure all generations addictions, not just to substances but also gain from it to obsessive work regimes which do not • to acknowledge the fact that the allow us time to reflect, or breathing space. women's movement contains women Being a feminist means we have many from different generations, contexts and fascinating, complex experiences, trying to schools of thought. This diversity is create a new culture, and re-create our own fascinating in itself The women's movement in the era of globalisation 141

• at the same time, to bear in mind that Andrea Medina Rosas is a lawyer. She is younger women are not the 'only hope' Director of the Centre for Research and of the women's movement in future, Attention to Women (CIAM) in Guadalajara, and that the agenda is not already Mexico. andreagdl@infosel. net. mx formed. In fact it is open to reflection and evaluation to ensure relevance and Shamillah Wilson is the Young Women and responsiveness to the needs of all Leadership Programme Manager for the women Association for Women's Rights in Develop- • to confront openly, and challenge, ment. Address: 221 Lawrence Road, Crawford, notions of 'competition' between Athlone, Western Cape 7764, South Africa. generations of feminists, and the spectre [email protected] of the controlling parental figure • to create opportunities for open and Notes honest dialogue about the tensions that 1 In this article, we use the terms women's still cause divisions in the movement and feminist movement interchangeably. • to promote the development of an When we refer to the movement, we are agenda that can include the movement talking about the organisation of efforts in all its diversity, and create an ideal (advocacy, mobilising, resistance and so of feminism which is non-essentialist on) toward achieving gender equality (that is, which recognises many ways and social justice. of being a feminist) • to promote ways of being an activist which minimise sacrifice or damage to Reference ourselves in our work and personal Marcela, L (1989) 'Enemistad y sororidad: lives hacia una nueva cultura feminista', • to share and continue the good inter- Memoria 25, Centro de Estudios del generational experiences and actions Movimiento Obrero y socialista, Mexico which already exist in the women's movement • to recognize the role of pioneers at the beginning of the women's movement, but build alliances between the generations to ensure we achieve our goals in future • to promote links with other movements. In a movement that has accomplished so much for women globally, it is an appro- priate time to reflect on where we are and where we are headed, and think about some of the barriers holding us back from achieving our goals. 142

Institutions, organisations and gender equality in an era of globalisation Aruna Rao and David Kelleher

Development organisations can play a significant role in supporting women in the communities where they work to challenge unequal gender relations. The authors of this article argue that the majority of development organisations fail to do so because they pay insufficient attention to the importance of social institutions in perpetuating inequality. Two prominent approaches to gender mainstreaming emphasise organisational infrastructure and culture. Ideas in these approaches are necessary, but insufficient, to enable organisations to play a part in transforming the social institutions that perpetuate gender inequality. Gender at Work is a new global capacity-building and knowledge network aiming to promote institutional change through encouraging development organisations to analyse gender relations in the societies in which they work, and in the institutions they need to challenge. It reviews past efforts of development organisations to mainstream gender into their work, and develops programmes and processes to challenge institutional norms which work against women's interests.

lthough much has been accomplished influence. That awaits the change of by now in the name of gender (largely informal) institutions that constrain Aequality, it is still true that in no women's political participation and region of the world are women and men influence in local decision-making. equal in legal, social or economic rights To clarify, the terms 'institution' and (World Bank, 2001). We believe that this is 'organisation' are often used synony- because the bulk of development and mously, but we find it useful to distinguish human rights work toward gender in- between the two. We understand institutions equality ignores the role of the institutions as the rules for achieving social or economic (formal and informal) that maintain women's ends (Kabeer, 1996). They determine who unequal position. There is a growing gets what, who does what, and who consensus among feminists across the decides. The rules that maintain women's world that to make a significant impact on position in societies may be stated or gender inequity, we must change institutions. implicit. These rules would include values In India, for example, over one million that maintain the gendered division of women have been elected to local level labour; prohibitions on women owning governing bodies, as a result of a 1993 land; and restrictions on women's mobility. amendment to the Indian Constitution Perhaps the most fundamental is the requiring that one-third of the elected seats devaluing of reproductive work. to local governing bodies be reserved for Of course, changing institutions is far women. This motion gives women a from easy and our global understanding of legitimate space to participate, and possibly it is far from sophisticated. At the same a voice, but this does not guarantee their time, there are changes in a promising Institutions, organisations and gender equality in an era of globalisation 143 direction. Women leaders around the and institutional rules, and discuss the world, whether they work on economic elements of a new approach. But first, let's policy, legislation, education, organi- look briefly inside organisations themselves. sational change or grassroots health care are initiating ideas and practices that have the potential to change institutions, but Gender-biased these innovations are not getting into the organisations mainstream. Organisations are sites - like families, One clear understanding that has markets and the state - where institutional emerged is that institutions change (in large rules are played out. As mentioned above, part) as a result of the actions of organi- these rules specify how resources are sations. Whenever an organisation intervenes allocated, and how tasks, responsibilities in the life of a community, it has the and values are assigned. In other words, ongoing choice whether to challenge or institutional rules determine who gets support existing community gender-related what, who does what, and who decides. norms. For example, BRAC ( Although institutions vary within and Rural Advancement Committee) is one of across cultures, and are constantly evolving the world's largest indigenous rural and changing, they are embedded in development organisations, working with relational hierarchies of gender, class, , over two million poor rural and urban and other critical fault lines, which define women in Bangladesh. When members of identities and distribute power - both BRAC village organisations began to raise symbolically and materially. the issue of arbitrary divorces or unjust These institutional rules operate in actions regarding inheritances, BRAC chose organisations. They are often below the to start a para-legal programme which surface, but are nevertheless interwoven advised village women on their rights, into the hierarchies, work practices and thereby supporting them in challenging the beliefs of organisations. And they constrain authority of men in the village to act the ability of these organisations to outside the law. This action, and others like challenge gender-biased institutional it, requires challenging the power of those norms within the organisation and in who benefit from the status quo. Most communities. organisations have neither the inclination There is good theoretical as well as nor the capacity to challenge institutional empirical work on the gender-biased norms. This is why organisational change nature of organisations and how these work is so critical to the enterprise of constrain their functioning.1 In our work, achieving gender equality through we focus on understanding the 'deep development interventions. structure' of organisations, and how to To promote organisational change that uncover it (Rao, Stuart and Kelleher, 1999). will enable the organisation to challenge By 'deep structure' we mean the collection gender inequality, change agents must of values, history, culture and practices that understand and link organisational change, form the unquestioned, 'reasonable' way of institutional change and gender equality. work in organisations. A good deal of effort has gone into The most important of these is changing organisations themselves, in exclusionary power, and how it is used to order to enhance their ability to challenge keep women's interests and perspectives and change gender-biased rules in a variety out. Very few organisations have mechanisms of institutional arenas. In this paper, we or ways of balancing or restraining the look at approaches to changing organisations power of those at the top. Very few enforce 144

accountability mechanisms. Although most workplace childcare, increasing the number organisations pride themselves on partici- of women staff and managers, and pation, this is almost always the type that increasing resources devoted to program- keeps the authority structure of people, ming targeted at women. ideas and decision-making intact. What we call the gender infrastructure Power hides the fact that organisations approach here is very close to what has are gendered at very deep levels. More been implemented in many development specifically, women are prevented from organisations under the rubric of 'gender challenging institutions by four inter- mainstreaming'. Gender mainstreaming is a related factors: phrase popularised by the United Nations Lack of political access: There are neither agencies. It was originally conceived as a systems nor powerful actors who can bring way to bring about institutional trans- women's perspectives and interests to the formation. It is seen as a means to achieve table; gender equality, in the equitable access to Lack of appropriate accountability systems: society's resources, opportunities, education, Organisational resources are steered toward and equal participation in the shaping of quantitative targets that are often only decisions, influencing what is valued, and distantly related to institutional change for so on. There are many ways to work gender equality; toward it, including integrating gender Cultural systems: The work-family analysis into programme planning, imple- divide perpetuated by most organisations mentation and evaluation; including prevents women from being full partici- women's voices as well as men's in pants in those organisations as women decision-making; addressing women's continue to bear the responsibility for child interests; securing women's access to and elderly care; and benefits, and making both women's and Cognitive structures: Work itself is seen men's contributions to development visible. mostly within existing, gender-biased However, while gender mainstreaming norms and understandings. was transformatory in its conception, experience has shown that it has had limited success in its implementation. The Gender and organisational track record of gender mainstreaming change approaches within development agencies (public and The table below highlights two prominent private) has been poor primarily because it organisational approaches to working on has been reluctantly adopted by 'mainstream' gender equality: a gender infrastructure development agencies, whose top leader- approach, and an organisational change ship has not adequately supported this approach, and delineates elements of a agenda. It has too often been an 'add third approach, which we call 'gender and women and stir' approach, which does not institutional change'. question basic assumptions, strategic objectives, or ways of working. Gender Gender infrastructure approach mainstreaming has been implemented in an This involves putting into place a basic organisational context of hierarchy and infrastructure, typically including an agenda-setting that has not prioritised organisational gender policy, a gender unit women's rights. It has focused over- of technically skilled change agents to work whelmingly on promoting women's on organisational programmes, gender perceived 'basic needs', and not on meeting training and developing gender analysis the strategic concerns of women themselves tools, adopting family-friendly policies in terms of supporting them to give voice to such as flexi-time and provision of their interests, or to mobilise and change Institutions, organisations and gender equality in an era of globalisation 145

Table 1: Gender and organisational change approaches

Approach Outcomes Change strategy Notes

Gender infrastructure • Gender policy, • Reference to • This 'formal' including family- international architecture is friendly policy covenants and necessary but far • Gender Unit agreements from sufficient • Increased female • Management support • This approach may staff and managers • Internal constituency leave organisational • Increased resources • External pressure attitudes intact, for programme work from women's making overworked gender staff fight targeting women movement and/or uphill battles UUI IUI O • Unlikely to develop new programme oriented to changing institutions

Organisational change • Changes in the 'deep • A mixture of • This is the 'informal structure,' such as organisational architecture' required power relations, development, to change institutions work-family balance, pressure from internal • This approach risks instrumentality, etc. and external creating a black hole • Accountability to client constituencies, of organisational constituency management support, change processes in gender training which gender equality work may be lost

Institutional change for • Organisational ways of • Gender analysis of the • This approach gender equality working to facilitate institutions relevant to grounds the change change in social the organisation's effort in the work and institutions beyond programme, maintains the focus the organisation itself developing where it should be (families, programmes and • Difficult to sustain communities, markets processes to without strong and the state). challenge these external pressure institutional norms, and high commitment changing reward from within the structures, building organisation. organisational capacity

unequal gender power relations. Finally, in first step. In a range of organisations, it has some cases, gender mainstreaming has got opened up a space for gender inequality to lost in traditional organisational develop- be discussed and addressed, ensured ment concerns, with inadequate analysis of resourcing, and granted greater legitimacy the issues, context and power dynamics - to gender equity concerns. In a few both internal and external - that are instances, change agents have been able to perpetuating women's disempowerment. parlay these resources into systemic On the positive side, many change change. But in most cases, it is clearly not agents see putting the infrastructure in enough to challenge institutional norms. place to support gender work as a necessary 146

Organisational change approach organisational processes.) To achieve its This approach involves changes that build aims, the gender team's initiative aimed to the organisation's capacity to challenge change organisational norms, systems, and gender-biased institutional rules, including: relationships. BRAC's initiative used a democratising relationships between basic organisational development approach employees in the workplace; making to change, as outlined earlier. women's voices more powerful in the After two years, the most important organisation; finding ways to make the outcomes were: a loosening of rigid power organisation more accountable to women imbalances within the organisation; better clients, and more amenable to the partici- communication across levels of the hier- pation of women staff in decision-making; archy; greater space to raise and discuss and finding ways of building relationships 'taboo' issues; more attention to women's with other organisations to further a voices and their needs; changes in gender-equality agenda. relationships between women and men and Much of the work on organisational across programming silos (non-integrated change for gender equality has adapted programmes); and a resultant improvement practices of organisational development in the quality of the work environment, and organisational learning, particularly and in programme-related problem solving with regard to the importance of the (ibid.). learning process and of participation. However, the intervention did not Organisational development typically specifically focus on BRAC's relation with focuses on ensuring that information communities, or on the organisation's collection, analysis and action planning are potential as an agent for institutional change; participatory; and there is a focus on issues that is, it did not connect BRAC to village of communications and relationships, and women members in a way that could have increasing the equality of managers and transformed gender power relations staff. But, unlike traditional organisational between the organisation and village women, development, the organisational change for and within the community at large. gender equality approach holds that a new political alignment, which ensures that new Institutional change for gender equality gender issues are put on the agenda, is as If our organisations are to help transform important to the change process as rational social institutions to bring about gender analysis. The challenge is to develop equality, a new approach is needed. methods to bring about organisational Serious questions are being asked about the change that combine politics and partici- efficacy and outcome of 'traditional' pation with an understanding of the part approaches to mainstream gender into organisations can play in bringing about organisations. Putting infrastructure in equality. For many practitioners, this place to advance women's interests is not means linking organisational and feminist proving adequate. Increasingly, we are theory. aware that efforts in private human rights The work of the Gender Team at BRAC and development or public sector agencies is a good example of this.2 Eight years ago, to change gender-biased institutional rules the BRAC gender team was charged with have proceeded (by and large) without leading a long-term effort to improve connection to initiatives to support women gender equality, both within BRAC itself as to mobilise and give voice to their shared an organisation, and in BRAC's provision of concerns. In other words, the 'supply' side services to poor rural women in Bangladesh. of the institutional change equation has been (In contrast, many organisation development divorced from the 'demand' side of the 3 (OD) interventions focus solely on equation. Institutions, organisations and gender equality in an era of globalisation 147

Gender and organisational change picture. Significant, sustainable advances efforts are also proving inadequate; many toward gender and social justice can only have become mired in the intricacies and be made by redistributing power and dynamics of internal organisational change, privilege, as well as resources. Adopting and in the process, the real purpose of these the approach would enable organisations changes has vanished from sight. In to ensure their work contributes to addition, many such initiatives remain upgrading women's position and voice, not unconnected to the larger contextual forces only their material condition. Focusing on that are changing women's opportunities the wider picture of challenging unequal and threats, morphing unequal gender gender power relations in society will force relations into new forms without attention (because of their importance to challenging the underlying inequality, and women's interests) on a variety of organi- eroding gains. We have seen that the entry sational forms including public systems, of larger numbers of women into decision- labour unions, and political parties, in making structures has not transformed addition to the set of more traditional either the nature of those structures (in governance, development and human terms of decision-making power, trans- rights actors. parency, accountability, or accessibility), Linking the 'supply' side of the institu- nor the policies emanating from them. tional change equation more clearly to the Voice and representation do not necessarily 'demand' side requires that we go beyond translate into influence. asking how organisational values, power We can draw two important impli- relations and practices need to change in 4 order to actively take on, and respond to, cations for our work from this analysis. the voice and perspectives of poor women. First, only those who work consciously to We need to ask a more profound question: change social rules, and to redistribute that is, what are the key fulcrums and change power and privilege as well as resources, processes that organisations can adopt, to can make significant and sustainable enable them to interact with the wider advances toward gender and social justice. environment in a way that results in positive Second, to enable organisations to contribute outcomes which ensure justice for women? towards this process of social change, they For example, accountability is a key fulcrum need a new approach to gender issues, around which we can examine interactions which re-focuses our attention onto the big between supply- and demand-oriented issue - that is, the need to ensure that our interventions, and analyse and change work helps change social institutions to power systems. support equality between women and men. Adopting this new approach requires The 'Institutional Change for Gender organisations to ask some key questions: Equality' approach is being developed in response to this. It has potential to help • Are programme strategies consciously organisations play a part in challenging designed to change the way resources, gender-biased norms and values through- power, and privilege are distributed out society, as well as within themselves. between men and women in their It links the 'supply' side of the equation societies? (internal organisational commitment and • Are programme strategies changing actions relating to gender inequality) to the gender-biased social rules and the 'demand' side (the broad range of efforts institutions that enforce them, overtly aimed at women's mobilisation, citizenship or even covertly? and voice). It brings these two critical • Are organisations accountable to their dimensions back together into the same . constituencies for equity and gender 148

justice outcomes; do women have a practice (the strategic 'hows'), specifically means of recourse if they are not? highlighting key aspects of strategic interventions that challenge and change Addressing only one of these basic changes power relations and promote better through a programme is insufficient. For accountability to women's interests. This example, the easiest kind of programme to work involves analysing past efforts to instigate and fund is one that promotes effect organisational change to bring about changes in the access to and distribution of gender equality. It also involves devel- resources. Yet strategies that address the oping ideas about how to do this work need for changes in power and social rules more effectively, in a way that is relevant to are more critical in promoting positive developing country contexts, and social change in gender relations. In the absence change organisations. We will examine the of a clear focus on gender relations and the assumptions at the heart of 'feminist' institutions that shape them, programmes organisations, particularly with regard to can end up either reinforcing existing social leadership and decision-making processes, arrangements, or creating new male elites. and ask 'what happened?' We will look for Work that does not address women's stories of innovation, as well as challenges, interests and gendered power relations will ruptures, and contradictions at the nexus of not achieve transformative social change. gender equality, organisational effective- To turn to organisations themselves, only ness and institutional change. We plan to moderate gains in gender equality have initiate action-learning processes, to change been achieved because of the resistance of gender-biased institutional rules and male managers, organisational culture, and change organisations. Through these lack of accountability including monitoring processes, we hope to develop a collective mechanisms and mechanisms to prevent voice, rooted in successful on-the-ground gradual backsliding. We believe that experience, to change international organisations that intend to change power thinking and work for gender equality. structures and biased gender and social relations have to put their money where their mouth is. They have to mirror these Aruna Rao is Convenor of Gender at Work. principles in their own structure and She is a gender and institutional change expert functioning in order to be effective. with over 20 years' experience of addressing gender issues in a variety of development organisations, primarily in Asia. Address: 3/23 Conclusion Shanti Niketan, New Delhi 110021, India. [email protected]; www.genderatwork.org To conclude with a critical question: how can we all develop better understandings of how to transform power hierarchies and David Kelleher is Convenor of Gender at Work. institutional biases embedded in our David is an independent organisational organisations, and enable them to become consultant. For more than 30 years, he has more effective engines of social change? worked with numerous non-governmental and For Gender at Work - a new global know- public organisations helping them build their ledge and capacity building network on capacity to further their social mandates. He is gender and institutional change - this is the currently the Afghanistan, Pakistan and driving question. Bangladesh Co-ordinator for Amnesty Inter- national (Canada). Contact information: Gender at Work is currently working in Box 467, Maxville, Ontario, Canada. India, South Africa and Latin America, in [email protected]; www.genderatwork.org partnership with a variety of social change organisations to build new knowledge for Institutions, organisations and gender equality in an era of globalisation 149

Notes References 1 See, for example, the work of Naila Goetz, A.M., J. Gaventa, et al. (2001), Kabeer, Anne Marie Goetz, and Joan 'Bringing citizen voice and client focus Acker. into service delivery', IDS Working Paper 2 For a more complete description of 138, Brighton: IDS principles, concepts, strategy, and tools, Kabeer, N. (1994) Reversed Realities: Gender see Rao, Stuart and Kelleher, 1999. Hierarchies in Development Thought, 3 This disconnection is obvious in other London: Verso fields as well - citizen voice initiatives Rao A., R. Stuart and D. Kelleher (1999) around the world, for example, are often Gender at Work, West Hartford, Conn., considered quite separately from efforts USA: Kumarian Press to deal with public-sector efficiency World Bank, Engendering Development, problems. See, for example, Goetz, 2001. Through Gender Equity in Rights, 4 This analysis draws on work done with Resources and Voice, Washington: World Srilatha Batliwala in 2002 on women's Bank, 2001 leadership for social change. 150

Compiled by Ruth Evans

Publications sustainability of gender issues on the political agendas of individual countries, Marketisation of Governance: Critical Feminist based on case studies from the Dominican Perspectives from the South (2000), Viviene Republic, Romania, and South Africa. The Taylor, DAWN Secretariat, The University effects of international legal instruments of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji Islands. such as Convention on Elimination of www.dawn.org.fj / publications / index.html Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) This analysis strongly criticises global and donor funding for gender equality are financial and trade institutions for re- examined. modelling the state to support global economic, financial, and trade liberal- Globalization, Gender Equality and State isation. Based on the findings of regional Modernization (2001), Noleen Heyzer, research and consultations, the analysis Gender Series No. 2, Third World Network, highlights the challenges and dilemmas for 121-S, Jalan Utama, 10450 Penang, . social movements pursuing economic and www.twnside.org.sg/title/gender2.htm gender justice in the era of globalisation. It This paper authored by the Executive sets out a number of key recommendations. Director of the UN Development Fund for An accompanying 30-minute video, MarketisationWomen (UNIFEM) examines the links of Governance, is also available from DAWN. between processes of globalisation and gender equality. It discusses key questions Engendering the Political Agenda: The Role ofsuch as the relationship between economic the State, Women's Organizations and the growth, poverty, and gender equality, the International Community (2000), INSTRAW, role of government and market liberal- Cesar Nicolas Penson 102-A, Santo Domingo, isation. The paper also assesses the progress Republica Dominicana. of women in reshaping globalisation. www.un-instraw.org; [email protected] Globalization and its impacts on indigenous This publication from the United Nations women: the Philippine experience (2001, International Research and Training Institute Victoria Tauli-Corpuz, Gender Series No. 1, for the Advancement of Women (UN- Third World Network, Malaysia. INSTRAW) assesses the impact of inter- www.twnside.org.sg/title / genderl .htm national activities on gender at local and Written by the director of an indigenous national levels. The report discusses how people's international NGO based in the this interplay shapes the introduction and Philippines, this paper examines globalisation Resources 151 and its impacts on indigenous women, with An Alternative View of Gender and examples from the Philippines, Mexico, and Globalisation (2002), ILRIG Globalisation Colombia. It examines issues such as the Series No.6, International Labour Resource feminisation of labour in industry and and Information Group, PO Box 1213, services, the liberalisation of agriculture, Woodstock 7925, South Africa. the social, health, environmental, and http://aidc.org.za/ilrig economic impacts on indigenous women, This introductory booklet raises important and dilemmas in tackling the globalisation questions about how globalisation agenda. processes are gendered and in particular, how they affect women in Africa and Gender, Globalization, and Democratization women workers in South Africa. It provides (2001), R.M. Kelly, J.H. Bayes, M.E. an introduction to the key concepts of Hawkesworth, B.Young (eds.), Rowman gender and globalisation, and then examines and Littlefield Publishers Inc., 4720 Boston the relationship between gender and Way, Lanham, Maryland 20706, USA. globalisation in three areas - the changing www.rowmanlittlefield.com role of the state, feminisation of manu- Taking an historical approach, this book facturing industries, and the gendered shows how the impact of globalisation on implications of the World Trade Organi- women throughout the world has been as sation's Trade-Related Intellectual Property negative and undemocratic as it has been Rights (TRIPS) regulations. It concludes by positive and liberating. Drawing on the exploring the gendered challenges to perspectives of contributors from around globalisation. the world, this book discusses the prospects for democratisation and gender equality, Feminist Futures: Re-imagining Women, and studies the successes and failures of Culture and Development (2003), Kum-Kum mobilising efforts to achieve change. Bhavnani, John Foran and Priya Kurian (eds.), Zed Books Ltd., 7 Cynthia Street, Gender and Global Restructuring: Sightings, London Nl 9JF / Room 400, 175 Fifth Sites, and Resistances (2000), M.H. Marchand Avenue, New York, NY 10010, USA. and A.S. Runyan, Routledge, 11 New Fetter www.zedbooks.demon.co.uk Lane, London EC4P 4EE. Feminist Futures challenges established www.routledge.com approaches to development, and argues for This book provides a theoretical analysis of a new paradigm, Women, Culture, and globalisation and its relationship to gender. Development (WCD), that places women Feminist experts from a range of disciplines and gender at the centre. New theoretical, show the complexities and contradictions of feminist perspectives are brought to chapters ongoing global transformations (or global covering sexuality and the gendered body, restructuring). They criticise the gender- the environment, science, and technology, blindness of neo-liberal and critical and the cultural politics of representation. accounts of globalisation, and offer feminist approaches which stress women's agency. Gender Justice, Development, and Rights The book reveals how states, markets, civil (2002), Maxine Molyneux and Shahra society, households, and gender identities Razavi (eds.), United Nations Research are simultaneously being restructured in Institute for Social Development/Oxford different ways in various regional and University Press, Great Clarendon Street, national contexts. It also shows how Oxford OX2 6DP, UK. www.oup.co.uk women's resistances connect the global and This book reflects on the global shift the local, the public and the private. towards greater emphasis on rights and 152

democracy. It discusses why many of the World Survey on the Role of Women in positive changes in women's rights and Development - Globalization, Gender and political representation have not been Work, (1999), UN Division for the Advance- matched by increases in social justice. ment of Women, Department of Economic Through theoretical reflections and regional and Social Affairs, New York. case studies, contributors address issues www.un-instraw.org such as neo-liberal economic and social This UN World Survey reflects on recent policies, democracy, and multiculturalism labour market trends within the context of from a gender perspective. globalisation, and also on how the world of work is being transformed from a gender Women, Globalization and Fragmentation inpoint of view. It discusses the globalisation the Developing World (1999), Haleh Afshar of trade, capital, and finance, and the and Stephanie Barrientos (eds.), Macmillan effects on employment and displacement Press Ltd., Houndmills, Basingstoke, from a gender perspective. It also analyses Hampshire RG 21 6XS, UK. the re-organisation of work and 'flexi- www.palgrave.com bilisation' of labour, changing patterns of This book explores the gendered rural women's work, and gender dimensions implications of globalisation at the grass- in the public policy environment. The roots level in the South. It discusses the report concludes with recommendations conflicting interactions between the global and suggestions for developing a gender- and local political economies, cultures, and aware policy framework throughout faiths. Drawing on case studies from Asia, economic policy design and implement- Africa, and Latin America, it demonstrates ation. the contradictory and fragmented impact of globalisation at the local level, and its impact on the lives of women in the developing world. Trade Liberalisation, Poverty, and Livelihoods: Understanding the Linkages (2002), Nazneen Trade Myths and Gender Reality - Trade Kanji and Stephanie Barrientos, Institute of Liberalisation and Women's Lives (1999), Development Studies (IDS), Working Paper Angela Hale (ed.) Global Publications 159, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK. Foundation, Box 1221, 75142 Uppsala, www.ids.ac.uk Sweden, www.globalpublications.org This paper (which is also available in print) This booklet examines the gendered reviews and assesses key analytical impacts of trade liberalisation, drawing on approaches that are used to understand the case studies from Asia, Africa and Latin linkages between trade, poverty, and America. The reports demonstrate that livelihoods, and their relevance in the poverty associated with trade liberalisation context of sub-Saharan Africa. The paper is threatening the livelihoods of some discusses two theoretical approaches to women and involving others in new and poverty analysis within the context of sub- highly exploitative forms of employment. Saharan Africa, and examines different Providing an overview of conceptual and perspectives which assist researchers to policy links between trade and gender, this integrate social, economic, market and non- publication also gives recommendations to market forces into an analysis of trade and integrate a gender perspective into the poverty. trade liberalisation process. Resources 153

Globalisation and Gender-Development impact on women compared to men. The Perspectives and Interventions (1996), authors call for policy and action-oriented A. Keller-Herzog, Canadian International organisations to document the ways in Development Agency (CIDA). Available to which women and men in different regions download from: are affected by trade liberalisation and set www2.ids.ac.uk/genie / search research priorities for issues and case study This discussion paper explores the complexity sectors. of the concepts of globalisation and gender, and the dynamics of their interaction, Global Trade Expansion and Liberalisation: including the uneven distribution of costs Gender Issues and Impacts (1998) M. Fontana, and benefits according to gender. The S. Joekes, and R. Masika, BRIDGE Report paper argues that both governmental and No. 42, IDS, Brighton, UK. non-governmental institutions can play a [email protected]; www.ids.ac.uk/bridge. key role in mediating between vulnerable Print copy also available. groups and the risks from globalisation. Commissioned by the UK Department for International Development (DFID), this Trade, Sustainable Development and Gender report argues that gender analysis is (1999), papers presented at the Pre- important in understanding why some UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on countries, sectors or regions are unable to Trade and Development) Expert Workshop capitalise on potential trading oppor- on 'Trade, Sustainable Development, and tunities. The report shows how the benefits Gender', 12-13 July 1999, Geneva, of trade expansion differ between women Switzerland. Available to download from: and men, as well as between different www2.ids.ac.uk/genie / search groups of women, with implications for The Pre-UNCTAD Expert Workshop on both gender equality and poverty reduction 'Trade, Sustainable Development, and goals. Based on evidence from Asia, Latin Gender' focused on the role of employment America, the Caribbean, and sub-Saharan in the eradication of poverty and on Africa, the report offers recommendations women's empowerment. Experts from a to achieve greater gender equality in the range of organisations and institutions labour market. bring a gender perspective to three main areas of concern: globalisation, trade- Gender and Economic Globalisation: An related issues, and specific problems faced Annotated Bibliography (2002), Emma Bell by low-income countries. with Paola Brambilla, Bibliography No. 12, BRIDGE, IDS, Brighton. Engendering International Trade: Concepts,[email protected]; www.ids.ac.uk/bridge. Policy and Action (1995), L. Beneria and A. Print copy also available. Lind, Gender, Science, and Development This bibliography focuses on the economic Programme, Women in Global Science and aspects of globalisation and their impact on Technology (WIGSAT). Available to gender relations. The key texts cover the download from: impact of globalisation; trade agreements, www2.ids.ac.uk / genie / search policy and financial institutions; and This paper maps out the relevant issues for responses to globalisation. The overview future policy research on gender and trade discusses the impacts of globalisation, trade by identifying the gaps in mainstream agreements, policy and financial insti- trade policy research. The paper argues for tutions and the different responses by the a new conceptual approach in theory and women's movement. Ways to incorporate practice, which recognises the differential gender into theory, policy, and practice 154

concerning globalisation are explored, with Local Action/Global Change, Learning about suggestions for future research. the human rights of women and girls (1999), Mallika Dutt, Julie Mertus, and Nancy Flowers, UNIFEM and Center for Women's Global Leadership. Available from Women, Women Challenging Globalization: A genderInk., 777 United Nations Plaza, New York perspective on the United Nations InternationalNY 10017, USA. www.womenink.org Conference on Financing for Development, This accessible training manual provides March 18-22, 2002, Monterrey, Mexico, tools for women and men to critically (2002) Joan Ross Frankson (ed.), UNIFEM examine the framework of human rights. and Women's Environment & Develop- It includes information about the human ment Organization (WEDO), 355 Lexington rights of women in the areas of violence, Avenue, 3rd Floor, New York, NY 10017- health, reproduction and sexuality, 6603, USA. Available to download: education, the global economy, the www.wedo.org/ffd/ffdreport.htm workplace, and family life in relation to Based on the 2002 UN International international women's human rights Conference on 'Financing for Develop- agreements. Suggested training activities ment', Mexico, this accessible report include discussion, role-play, storytelling, discusses the conference from a gender expression through art and music, to relate perspective. Contributors discuss issues, human rights principles to women's process and outcomes of the 'Financing for personal experience. Development' conference. They analyse the roles and situation of women in the global economy and suggest advocacy action at country and global levels. Feminist Economics journal, Carfax Publishing, Taylor and Francis Ltd., Rankine Road, Financing for Development Gender Policy Basingstoke, Hants. RG24 8PR, UK. Briefing Kit (2002), United Nations www.tandf.co.uk/journals Development Programme and Women's Feminist Economics is a leading academic Environment & Development Organization journal that attempts to develop an inter- (WEDO), 355 Lexington Avenue, 3rd Floor, disciplinary approach to feminist perspectives New York, NY 10017-6603, USA. on economics and the economy. Articles [email protected] cover analysis of macro-economic policy, www.wedo / org/ ffd / kit.htm micro-finance, gender budgets and This toolkit is a practical guide to gender globalisation from a gender perspective. and financing for development. It covers issues such as gender analyses of macro- Agenda, PO Box 61163, Bishopsgate, 4008, economic policies, gender and economic South Africa. Tel: (+27 31) 304 7001; Fax: decision-making, gender budgets and (+27 31) 304 7018; [email protected]; further resources. [email protected]; www.agenda.org.za Agenda is a quarterly feminist journal published by a women's media project in South Africa since 1987. Selected articles are available online. Of particular relevance is issue 48, 'Globalisation: Challenging Dominant Discourses', June 2001. Resources 155

Lola Press, Greifswaler Str.4, 10405, Berlin, (Women's Learning Partnership), CIVICUS Germany; San Jose 1436-11.200, Montevideo, (World Alliance for Citizen Participation), Uruguay; PO Box 1057, Lenasia 1820, and UNIFEM (United Nations Fund for Johannesburg, South Africa. Women). The organisation works with www.lolapress.org development and human rights practi- Lola Press is a bilingual (English/ Spanish) tioners, researchers, and policy makers. It international feminist magazine published aims to develop new theory and practice on three times a year (two printed issues and how organisations can change gender- an electronic issue). November 2002 issue biased institutional rules, values, and contains several articles based on the 'Re- practices. It also aims to change the inventing Globalization' AWID 2002 political, accountability, cultural and Forum, Mexico. knowledge systems of organisations to challenge social norms and gender Organisations inequality. The website contains an up-to- date collection of resources on Institutional Association for Women's Rights in Change for Gender Equality. Development (AWID) 96 Spadina Ave., Suite 401, Toronto, Ont., Canada M5V 2J6. Development Alternatives with Women for a Tel: (416) 594 3773; Fax: (416) 594 0330; New Era (DAWN) DAWN Secretariat, PO [email protected]; www.awid.org Box 13124, Suva, Fiji Tel/Fax: (679) 314770; The Association of Women's Rights in [email protected]; www.dawn.org.fj Development (AWID) is an international DAWN is a network of Southern feminists membership organisation connecting, and activists working for economic and informing, and mobilising people and gender justice and political transformation organisations committed to achieving at the global level. One of DAWN's key gender equality, sustainable development, research and advocacy themes is the and women's human rights. AWID's 9th 'Political Economy of Globalisation'. The International Conference, 'Re-inventing website provides a range of publications Globalisation', held in October 2002 and resources on trade, globalisation, and focused on the key question: 'How can we gender. re-invent globalisation to further the rights of all women?' Papers explored the Women's Environment & Development economic, political, social, ecological and Organization (WEDO), 355 Lexington cultural implications of globalisation and Avenue, 3rd Floor, New York, NY 10017- proposed alternatives promoting gender 6603, USA. equality. AWID also launched the [email protected]; www.wedo.org 'Globalize This! Women's Rights in WEDO is an international advocacy net- Development Campaign'. work that seeks to advocate for women's equality in decision-making in governance Gender at Work, Aruna Rao, Convenor, and in policy-making institutions, forums 3/23, Shanti Niketan, New Delhi, India. and processes, at all levels, to achieve Tel: (91-11) 2410-8322; economic and social justice. Key pro- www.genderatwork.org; [email protected]. gramme areas include 'gender and Gender at Work is a new knowledge and governance', and 'economic and social capacity building network focused on justice', and WEDO participates in the UN gender and institutional change. It was 'Financing for Development' initiative. created in June 2001 by AWID (Association for Women's Rights in Development), WLP 156

European Women's Lobby, 18 Rue Hydraulique, UN-INSTRAW (United Nations Inter- B-1210 Bruxelles, Tel (+32 2) 217 90 20, national Research and Training Institute Fax (+32 2) 219 84 51; for the Advancement of Women), Cesar [email protected]; Nicolas Penson 102-A, Santo Domingo, www.womenlobby.org Republica Dominicana Tel: +1 (809) 685 The European Women's Lobby (EWL) aims 2111 Fax: +1 (809) 685 2117 to achieve equality of women and men in www.un-instraw.org (English/ Spanish/ Europe and to serve as a link between French) political decision-makers and women's [email protected] organisations at EU level. The bilingual INSTRAW aims to promote gender equality website (English/ French) contains a range and women's advancement worldwide of resources, including position papers, through research, training and the collection policy documents, and publications. A key and dissemination of information. Website focus of Policy and Campaigns is 'Women contains information about many publi- and Globalisation', which provides a range cations on gender and globalisation issues of papers on engendering international (some available in a range of languages) trade and the impacts of trade liberalisation available to order through INSTRAW. and globalisation on women's lives. Videos WIDE (Network Women in Development Europe), Rue du Commerce 40,1040 Brussels, Life (2000), Robert Lamb (series editor), Belgium. Tel: (+32 2) 545 90 70; Fax: (+32 2) Television Trust for the Environment. 512 73 42; [email protected]; Available from Bullfrog Films, PO Box 149, www.eurosur.org / wide. Oley, PA19547, USA. www.bullfrogfilms.com; WIDE is a European network of gender [email protected] specialists, women active in non-govern- mental organisations, and human rights This 30-part series looks at the effect of activists. A key focus of their advocacy and globalisation on individuals and commun- lobbying work is on International Financial ities around the world. It looks at progress Institutions (World Bank, IMF etc.), the since the 1995 Copenhagen Social Summit World Trade Organisation, and Liberal- when world leaders promised action on isation and Globalisation. Recent poverty, employment, and social inte- publications include the WIDE bulletins, gration. The series examines how people's 'Instruments for gender equality in trade lives are affected by globalisation in Africa, agreements' (2001), available in English Asia, North and South America, the Middle and Spanish, and 'Globalisation, develop- East, and the Pacific Islands. ment and sustainability: A WIDEr view' (2002), which discusses the UN Conference Who's counting? Marilyn Waring on sex, lies on Financing for Development (FfD), and global economics (1996), Terre Nash, March 2002, Monterrey, Mexico and the National Film Board of Canada. Available World Summit on Sustainable Develop- from Bullfrog Films. ment (WSSD), August 2002, Johannesburg, In this film, Marilyn Waring, one of the South Africa. leading voices in the field of feminist economics, demystifies global economics from a feminist perspective. She challenges the myths of economics, which ignore the unpaid work of women and damage to the environment, and offers new approaches to Resources 157 political action. Accompanying study guide Conferences is available. 2003 Conference on Feminist Economics, Remote Sensing (2001), Ursula Biemann. International Association for Feminist Available from Women Make Movies, 462 Economics (IAFFE), June 27-29, University Broadway, Suite 500 L, New York, NY of the West Indies, Barbados. 10013, USA or Ursula Biemann, Schrennen- www.iaffe.org gasse 21, 8003 Zurich, Switzerland. The conference themes include: gender www.wmm.com (N. America) dimensions of macro-economic policies; www.geobodies.org (rest of world) globalisation; work; women's human This video essay traces the routes of rights; and women's international feminist women who travel across the globe for alliances for social and economic change. work in the sex industry. The film investi- Conference papers may be available from gates the consequences of the US military individual presenters after conference. presence in South East Asia as well as Contact: IAFFE, 100 D. Roberts Hall, European migration politics. It links Bucknell University, Lewisburg, PA 17837. Fax to: 570-577-3451. [email protected] processes of globalisation and new technologies to the sexualisation and displacement of women on a global scale.