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• CLASSICS 181: CLASSICAL WORLD CIVILIZATIONS

• FAMILIARIZE YOURSELF WITH THE WEBSITE

The in 117AD

Senatorial provinc es C:::JImperial provinces C J Cl ient states

O c e a n u s ·1.--·--

Tributaries • Capital City Other Ciies Edic ts of Ashoka Buddhist Sites Synchronous Collapse of Ancient World Systems

Civilization Synchronous Conservation Collapse Collapse Roman 235-284 AD Later Roman Invasions of Mediterranean Barracks Empire 284-565 outsiders (Huns, Principate 27 BC Emperors BC Germans, Arabs, – 180 AD etc) Kushan India ca. Collapse of Gupta Dynasty White Huns 150 BC – 200 AD Kushan Empire 320-535 AD Ca. 200-320 AD Han Dynasty Era of Disunity Sequence of Tang Dynasty ca. 200 BC 220-588 AD Disturbances 618-907 AD – 220 AD PREVIOUS ERAS OF SYNCHRONOUS COLLAPSE

• EARLY CA. 2100 BC • LATE BRONZE AGE CA. 1200 BC • ROMAN ERA COLLAPSE CA. 500 AD Working Definitions:

• Culture • State Formation • Civilization • World System • Globalism • Resilience Theory Seven Criteria for Civilization

 URBAN CENTERS, Cities or large dense settlements

 PROFESSIONS or the separation of population into specialized occupational groups

 ELITES or a social hierarchy that was exempt from subsistence labor

 PUBLIC WEALTH or the ability to extract and store surpluses in the form of taxes and tribute

 CANONICAL EXPRESSIONS OF AESTHETIC ACHIEVEMENT (fine arts and monumental architecture)

 CREATURE COMFORTS or the development of permanent forms of domestic shelter

 LITERACY or a System of Writing Resilience Theory – Societal Development Resembles Patterns in Organic Life

Conservation

Release

Rapid Growth

Reorganization

Memory (Recursive Institutions) • Long Fore Loops of Growth and Conservation; Rapid Back Loops of Release and Reorganization Archaeological Means of Dating 1. Remote Sensing 2. Pedestrian Field Survey 3. Field Excavation 4. Artifacts 5. Features 6. Assemblage 7. Absolute chronologies 8. Carbon 14 dating 9. Relative Chronology 10. Stratigraphy 11. Seriation • WRITTEN TEXTS • literary texts, inscriptions, and coin legends • Survival of texts • Literacy • Aristocratic bias – “great men; great events” • Archaeological data eventless, la longue durée Chapter 3: Prehistory

Paleolithic Era (6.5 million – 10000 BP) Neolithic Era - 8000 – 3300 BC Pleistocene Era (2 million – 12000 BP)

Modes of Inquiry DNA Mapping Language Families Primates 35 million BP

Baboons 30 million BP

Gorilla 10 million BP 97%

Chimpanzee 8 million BP 99%

Hominids 6.5 mill. B 100%

Significance of upright posture – larger brains, fashioning of tools DATA FOR PLEISTOCENE ERA (2 MILLION - 9000 BP)

AMOUNTS OF OXYGEN 18 ISOTOPE CAPTURED IN ICE CORES IN NORTH ATLANTIC (LAST GLACIAL ERA

the more Oxygen 18 in the Ice, the colder the climate) EXTENT OF LAND SURFACES AND ICE MASS DURING DNA Mapping – Anatomically correct humans (homo sapiens sapiens), ca. 200,000 BP, Eve and the 10 male haplotypes

3 Waves of out of Africa: 150000 BP, 80,000 BP, 50000 BP

71000 BP 40000 humans total

Genetic Drift / Genetic Bottlenecks

Origins of Race – 500 generations

LGM – 20000-18000 BP Glaciers 3 miles tall Sea level minus 130 meters

Younger Dryas 12900-9500 BP Warming trend 10000 BP => dessification Geographic Determinism

two thirds of domesticable cereals and grasses occur naturally in western Eurasia, only 6 grow naturally in east Asia, and only 2 in Australia and South America. Of the 14 domesticable animals, nine resided in the Near East, 1 (the llama) in S. America, and none in N. America, Australia, or sub-Saharan Africa. Prepottery Neolithic A (PPNA, 9500-8500 BC) Gobekli Tepe

(PPNB, 8700 - 6000 BC). Tel el Jarmo; Gobekli Tepe (11-10000)

Oldest Cities Jericho (10-9000 BC), Chatal Huyuk (7300-6200 BC) I. POLYTHEISTIC COSMOLOGY - PANTHEON OF GODS

SKY GODS (Olympic); EARTH GODS (Chthonic): Anthropomorphic deities • NUMINA – spirit forces • HUBRIS – arrogance, to deny the existence of the gods • SYNCRETISM = merging of religious world views

II. Principle Means of Communication with Ancient Deities: Ritual, Sacrifice, and Divination • Oaths – combined prayer and curse • Templum – ritually cleansed precinct for divine communication

III.AFTER LIFE BELIEF SYSTEMS – Ancestor Cults, Hero Cults, Mystery Cults Sumerian gods:

Anu - sky god (Uruk) Enlil (Marduk, Zeus) air god (Nippur) Inanna (Ishtar, Aphrodite) - love and fertility Enki (EA) earth and water, life giving (Eridu) Utu (Shamash) - Justice Nanna (Sin) - mood goddess (UR) Hadad - storm god Bronze Age World Chronology Early Bronze Age 3100-2100 BC – and Akkad Middle Bronze Age 2100-1600 - Babylon Late Bronze Age - 1600-1200 BC

Bronze Age Near Eastern Chronology Pre-Dynastic Sumer: Uruk Phase 3700-3300; Jemdet Nasr Phase 3300-3000 [Early Bronze Age 3100-2200] Early Dynastic Sumer 3300-2300 BC (Death Pit at Ur, 2600 BC) Akkadia 2300-2150 (Sargon the Great, 2334-2279 BC, Naram-Sin 2190-2154) Climate flicker - Akkadian regional collapse 2150 (Collapse of Old Kingdom 2180) 2119-1940 Early Bronze Age Regional Collapse ca. 1940-1750 [Middle Bronze Age 2100-1600] Rise of , , and Mari ca. 1800 Hammurabi's Babylonia ca. 1790-1750 (dynasty lasted until 1590) Middle Bronze Age Regional Collapse ca. 1600-1500; More Invasions, , , (Indo-Europeans) (Collapse of Egyptian Middle Kingdom, ca. 1720; Invasions) Minoan destruction c. 1600) [Late Bronze Age 1600-1200 BC] Competing Territorial States, Mitanni (1600-1400), Assyria (1800-through end of Bronze Age) and Kassite Babylonia (1600-1200), New Kingdom Hittite Empire (1450?-1100), New Kingdom Egypt (1550-1070), the Mycenaeans (1600-1200 BC) Collapse of Late Bronze Age world system ca. 1200-1000 BC • Hydraulic Civilizations • Sumerian Kings’ List and Sargon of Akkad • Language Families • , Sumerian, Elamite, Indo-European

• Hammurabi’s Law Code: status / women Writing Technology – cuneiform Language families: Sumerian – agglutinative languages Akkadian Semitic languages Hittite- Indo-European languages Elamite – Dravidian languages.

The Behistun inscription of the Persian King Darius I (522 BC) discovered by Sir Henry Rawlinson, in 1838. Mesopotamian social organization: Households – ration bowls Hammurabi’s Law Code, ca. 1750 BC Mesopotamian Social Status According to Hammurabi’s Law Code

KING

NOBLES CITY COUNCIL PRIESTS

SCRIBES, HIERODULES, SOLDIERS MERCHANTS, ARTISANS, TRADERS SERVANTS

FARMERS FARMERS FARMERS

Dependents and Slaves Dependents and Slaves Dependents and Slaves Mesopotamian Society:

Farmers – laoi – Corvée labor

Slavery – warfare, debts, impoverishment

Women - separate but parallel - women were not regarded as equals, but they were recognized as crucial to the wellbeing of Babylonian society.

Marriage – contractually based trial by ordeal; women outside the family were of “ill repute” • women enjoyed social status best described as separate but parallel in this era. Since women could not serve in the military nor engage in public life, they lacked commensurate socio-political status. However, they were recognized as the social agents most responsible for the reproduction of the family, the maintenance of household, and the preservation of society. Respectable, free-born, property- holding women were accorded enormous respect. • in marriages were arranged and the agreements were decidedly contractual, with women being exchanged as commodities. In essence, the woman was sold to the husband to furnish him with children and to establish and maintain his household. The tendency of early agricultural societies to view women as property appears to explain the uniquely separate” character of female status. • most ancient societies were patriarchal; the oldest surviving male controlled everyone and everything in his household. The male patriarch was the dominant figure at the core of most ancient social structures. • the range of freedom enjoyed by a woman in ancient society depended very much on her status. Female aristocrats and members of royal dynasties, enjoyed considerable freedom and opportunity; those in the middle of society were constrained by norms of propriety, but their status was protected and accorded respect. Those living at the bottom of society survived at a low threshold of existence. CHRONOLOGY OF BRONZE AGE EGYPT

Old Kingdom - 2700-2200 BC (dynasties 4-6; era of pyramids; and the godlike Pharaoh)

First Intermediate Period (collapse of unified kingdom, anarchy, return to nomic levels of hierarchy)

Middle Kingdom - 2120-1780 (dynasty 12; the classic era of Egyptian scribal culture)

Second Intermediate Period (the period of Hyksos Invasions and the likely time of Hebrew infiltration of Egypt, as recorded in the Old Testament)

New Kingdom (1550-1069) (dynasties 18-20; era of external empire, expansion into and Mesopotamia, mercenary armies and imported wealth from conquest and tribute)

Collapse of Bronze Age Mediterranean Societies (abandonment of external empire; invasion of ; survival of Egypt as isolated population EGYPTIAN POPULATION ESTIMATES THROUGH TIME Before 3100 BC, less than 1/2 million 3000 - 1 million 2500 - 1.5 million New Kingdom (1400 BC) - 3 million 100 AD - 7.5 million 1882 AD - 7 million Today - over 90 million Hieroglyphics - Rebus script – Rosetta Stone – Champollion

Egyptian Ruler cult –sympathetic transference: Ma’at, Creation Myth (Atum), Cult of Dead Pharaoh (Osiris Cult)

Ka – vital essence or soul; Akh – glorified being of light Ba – personality, name, heart, shadow – possibility of afterlife – mastaba tomb, mummification

Pyramid – ramp and step to the sun, leads to the Akhet or horizon between world of light, and world of darkness; the Ba kept the spirit grounded to the earth, through supplication and ritual

By Middle Kingdom , Osiris the Judge of the Dead, afterlife possible for people besides pharaohs 2nd IM – Hyksos migrations New Kingdom – Egyptian world empire; great warrior pharaohs, Tutmose III (ca. 1450), 17 military campaigns in 30 year career Canaan, Canaanite jars FLOW CHART OF NEW KINGDOM HIERARCHY 1550-1069 BC

PHARAOH

GENERALS AND OFFICERS 2 VIZIERS CHIEF PRIESTS OF LUXOR AND

CHARIOT WARRIORS MINISTERS AND LOCAL SUBORDINATE ADMINISTRATORS ADMINISTRATORS

SCRIBES SCRIBES SCRIBES

INFANTRY WARRIORS SERVANTS SERVANTS AND ARTISANS

FARMERS AND SLAVES FARMERS AND SLAVES FARMERS AND SLAVES Religious Turmoil – Hatshepsut (1450) and Akhnaton (1350) The Aton Cult, Akhetaton the new capital in the desert Evidence of calamity, royal deaths, renunciation of cult by Tutankhamon; military coup of 19th Dynasty Despite professions of strength, evidence of military weakness during 20th Dynasty, Ramses II 1279 BC, Treaty of , Sea Peoples (1220 BC) BRONZE AGE AEGEAN CIVILIZATIONS:

• Minoan (c. 3000-1500; high period 2000- 1500); Main site: Knossos; West Semitic (Canaan)

• 2200-2000 Indo-European Invasions

• MYCENAEAN CIVILIZATION (c. 2000-1100, high point, 1600-1100 BC); ; Indo- European

• THE HITTITE EMPIRE (c. 2000 - 1200); Bogazkoy (Hattusas) Indo-European Minoan Crete (c. 3000-1500; high period 2000-1500) Sir Arthur Evans Knossos, Palace-based economy Writing: Linear A script

INDO-EUROPEAN MIGRATIONS, 2200-2000 BC – , Mycenaeans, Hurrians (Maryannu) MYCENAEAN CIVILIZATION (c. 2000-1100, high point, 1600-1100 BC) Mycenae, , Megaron, Grave Circle A, Tholos Tombs, Cyclopean Walls, Stirrup-jars Mycenaean Hierarchy Flow Chart

King King among King kings Retinue of Retinue of Retinue of Warriors Warriors Warriors Artisans and Artisans and Artisans and scribes scribes scribes Farmers and slaves Farmers and Farmers and slaves slaves Mycenaean Stirrup Jars THE HITTITE EMPIRE (c. 2000 - 1200) Bogazkoy (Hattusas), the Panku King Suppiluliumas I (c. 1344-1322 BC) conquered , defeated the Mitanni, and sent his son, Zannzannza, to marry daughter of the New Kingdom Pharaoh Akhnaton Treaty of Kadesh 1258 BC

The Ahhijawa and Alaksandar of Wilusa, ca. 1250 BC CRITERION MINOAN MYCENAEAN HITTITE CITIES KNOSSOS MYCENAE HATTUSAS ARTISANS, PROFESSIONS TRADERS ARTISANS, TRADERS ARTISANS, TRADERS ELITES KINGS KING AMONG KINGS KING AMONG KINGS SCRIBES SCRIBES PETTY KINGS NAVY WARRIOR BANDS SCRIBES ARTISANS ARTISANS ARMY FARMERS FARMERS FARMERS TAXES AND PUBLIC WEALTH TRIBUTE TAXES AND TRIBUTE TAXES AND TRIBUTE AESTHETIC ACHIEVEMENTS PALACES PALACES PALACES FRESCOES THOLOS TOMBS FORTIFICATION WALLS MEGARON FORTIFICATION WALLS CREATURE COMFORTS STONE HOUSES STONE HOUSES STONE HOUSES WRITING SYSTEM LINEAR A LINEAR B HITTITE CUNEIFORM HIEROGLYPHICS of Late Bronze Age Empires 1250-1100 BC

The International Hierarchies – a family of nations, hierarchies distanced themselves from their subjects (walled precincts. Three likely scenarios:

• -an amalgam of pastoralists, renegades, runaway farmers, and hiding in the deserts and mountains of the Near East at the end of the Bronze Age • Sea Peoples - Aegean and south Anatolian tribal population that migrated along the sea routes of the , invading , Canaan, and Egypt at the close of the Bronze Age (1250–1178 BC); widely recognized as one of the fundamental contributors to the collapse of Late Bronze Age Near Eastern societies • Climate Change • Treaty of Kadesh 1258 BC • Fall of – 1250-1220 BC • of Pharaoh 1220 BC – Sea Peoples, • Cyclopean Walls ca. 1200 • Sea Peoples, 1180, 1096 BC, Named: • Ekwesh (Akaiwasha) Ahhijawa, Achaioi • Peleset, , Kaphtor (Crete) • Tursha, Tyrsenoi, Etruscans, => King of

Fired destruction of numerous sites; collapse of BA Aegean, Hittite realms, break down in regional trade and interconnectivity

Assyria, Babylon, Egypt survive, but diminished; new generators would be elsewhere Ramses III and the Sea Peoples 1086 BC CIVILIZATIONS: (Iron tools, Aramaians, the camel, horse cavalry)

• (1100-600 BC, high point c. 1000-800 BC) • The Assyrian Empire (1000-612 BC, high point c. 850- 612) • Neo-Babylon or (626-539 BC) • Persia (c. 640-331 BC)

• ANCIENT ISRAEL • Era of the Patriarchs, c. 1850-1000 BC • 1200-1000 BC, Period of Judges; Settlement in Canaan • United Kingdom (1000-922 BC) • King David 1000-961 • King Solomon 961-922 • Divided Kingdom 922-721 BC Phoenicia (1100-600 BC, high point c. 1000-800 BC) • reconstruction of the trade lines • the first true alphabet (22 letters • important innovators of material comfort and style The Assyrian Empire (1000-612 BC, high point c. 850-612) Neo-Babylon or Chaldea (626-539 BC) Persia (c. 640-331 BC) • Persepolis, Ecbatana, Susa • Satrapies • Royal Road • Eyes and Ears of the King • Zoroastrian Religion • Iranian Hegemony

• ANCIENT ISRAEL • Era of the Patriarchs, c. 1850-1000 BC • 1200-1000 BC, Period of Judges; Settlement in Canaan • United Kingdom (1000-922 BC) • King David 1000-961 • King Solomon 961-922 • Divided Kingdom 922-721 BC • Omri, Ahab, Jezebel, Elijah, Jehu (c. 885-852) • Assyrian Destruction of Samaria 721 • Babylonian Destruction of Jerusalem 586 BC • Babylonian Captivity 586-539 BC • (ration tablets of King Jehoiachin in Babylon) • Restoration of Judaea – Judaism, 539- ca.300 BC Pastoral Origins => Settled agricultural Existence; Decalogue of “J” 12 Tribes, suffetes, Yahweh, prophets; austerity, transhumance, autonomy United Kingdom flow chart; prytany system, taxes, foreign hierarchy

KING

MERCENARY GENERALS FOREIGN PRINCESSES PRIESTS

OFFICERS AND ADMINISTRATORS ROYAL ATTENDANTS PRIESTLY ATTENDANTS

FOREIGN FINANCIERS FOREIGN FINANCIERS FOREIGN FINANCIERS

FOREIGN ARTISANS AND TRADERS FOREIGN ARTISANS AND TRADERS FOREIGN ARTISANS AND TRADERS

CITIZEN/SOLDIER/FARMERS CITIZEN/SOLDIER/FARMERS CITIZEN/SOLDIER/FARMERS

SLAVES AND NON CITIZENS SLAVES AND NON CITIZENS SLAVES AND NON CITIZENS Indian Chrolonogy Indus Valley Civilization 2600-1900 BC Invasion of Indo-Iranians ca. 1700 BC Vedic Era – 1200-1000 BC Epic Era 1000-600 BC Magadha Empire 500-300 BC Mauryan Dynasty 300-200 BC Kushan Empire 50 BC -200 AD Gupta Dynasty 300-500 AD Mahajanapadas – Tribal entities of Epic Era India (rajahs, maharajahs; sanghas (councils)) Upanishads – Proto-Hindu Philosophy c. 1000-700 BC – yogis, Bhaghavad Gita – Kuru, Battle of Kurukshetra Shramana – Renouncing Philosophies – gurus, Jainism, Buddhism (Gautama’s Initial Debate – 61 opposing speakers) The classic statement of Buddhism is that we do not talk about atman, but anatman, or no self. (Kharma, the law of moral consequence) Buddhism contains three basic doctrinal principles: 1. Self? No, there is no self, there is only anatta. 2. No self means that there is dukkha, that is, trouble, pain, and suffering. 3. There is impermanence to all life.

Buddhists wrote dialogues with numbers in them to furnish a mnemonic system of memorization. Thus there are the Four Noble Truths: 1. Life is dukkha, suffering, pain, trouble, toil. 2. The cause of dukkha is desire. 3. Cessation of desire results in the cessation of suffering. 4. The way to the cessation of suffering is the eight-fold path. and the Eight-Fold Path: 1. Right View 2. Right Intention 3. Right Speech 4. Right Action 5. Right Living 6. Right Effort 7. Right Mindfulness 8. Right Concentration Si\ M A v M agad h a E m pire (ca. 330 BC) ·- K u s h an E m pire ( ca. 1 00 A D ) Upanishads – Proto-Hindu Philosophy c. 1000-700 BC – Bhaghavad Gita – Battle of Kurukshetra Vedic Hymns – Brahman caste – highly ritualistic

Caste system – During the Epic Era, 1000-600 BC, they organized a strictly ordered caste system of social hierarchy. The caste system originally recognized the supremacy of the warrior caste, the Kshatriyas, followed by priests or the Brahman caste (who served as teachers, judges, assessors, and ministers), merchants and farmers (Vaisyas), and subsistence laborers (Sudras). A fifth group, the Dasyas or untouchables, gradually evolved outside the recognized orders. The Dasyas consisted of Dravidian elements that failed to merge successfully with the Indo- Iranian In the Mahabharata the events of the Battle of Kurukshetra were related to the Kuru King by his minister Sanjaya. Below is dialogue that occurred between Krishna and Prince Arjuna regarding the need for action. Seeing his relatives arrayed for battle against him and recognizing the grave implications of his decision to send his forces into combat, Arjuna contemplates the adverse consequences of his action (not least of which to his soul) and the possibility of suicide.

"The Holy One said,--'Thou mournest those that deserve not to be mourned. Thou speakest also the words of the so- called wise. Those, however, that are really wise, grieve neither for the dead nor for the living. It is not that, I or you or those rulers of men never were, or that all of us shall not hereafter be. Of an Embodied being, as childhood, youth, and decrepitude are in this body, so also is the acquisition of another body. The man, who is wise, is never deluded in this…Do thou, therefore, fight, O Bharata. He who thinks the soul to be the slayer and he who thinks it to be the slain, both of them know nothing; for it neither slays nor is slain. It is never born, nor doth it ever die; nor, having existed, will it exist no more. Unborn, unchangeable, eternal, and ancient, it is not slain upon the body being perished. That man who knoweth it to be indestructible, unchangeable, without decay, how and whom can he slay or cause to be slain?…Then again even if thou regardest it as constantly born and constantly dead, it behoveth thee not yet, O mighty- armed one, to mourn for it thus. For, of one that is born, death is certain; and of one that is dead, birth is certain. Therefore, it behoveth thee not to mourn in a matter that is unavoidable…The Embodied soul, O Bharata, is ever indestructible in everyone's body. Therefore, it behoveth thee not to grieve for all those creatures. Casting thy eyes on the prescribed duties of thy order, it behoveth thee not to waver, for there is nothing else that is better for a Kshatriya than a battle fought fairly. Arrived of itself and like unto an open gate of heaven, happy are those Kshatriyas, O Partha, that obtain such a fight. But if thou dost not fight such a just battle, thou shalt then incur sin by abandoning the duties of thy order and thy fame. People will then proclaim thy eternal infamy, and to one that is held in respect, infamy is a greater evil than death itself. All great -warriors will regard thee as abstaining from battle out of fear, and thou wilt be thought lightly by those that had hitherto esteemed thee highly. Thy enemies, decrying thy prowess, will say many words which should not be said. What can be more painful than that? Slain, thou wilt attain to heaven; or victorious, thou wilt enjoy the Earth. Therefore, arise, O son of Kunti, resolved for battle. Regarding pleasure and pain, gain and loss, victory and defeat, as equal, do battle for battle's sake and sin will not be thine. This proto-Hindu world view gradually supplanted the minimalist world view of the Vedic tradition while reinvigorating it at the same time with complex concepts filled with high spiritual content.

Shramana – Renouncing Philosophies – Jainism, Buddhism (Gautama’s Initial Debate – 61 opposing speakers) The classic statement of Buddhism is that we do not talk about atman, but anatman, or no self. Buddhism contains three basic doctrinal principles: 1. Self? No, there is no self, there is only anatta. 2. No self means that there is dukkha, that is, trouble, pain, and suffering. 3. There is impermanence to all life. Buddhists wrote dialogues with numbers in them to furnish a mnemonic system of memorization. Thus there are the Four Noble Truths: 1. Life is dukkha, suffering, pain, trouble, toil. 2. The cause of dukkha is desire. 3. Cessation of desire results in the cessation of suffering. 4. The way to the cessation of suffering is the eight-fold path. and the Eight-Fold Path: 1. Right View 2. Right Intention 3. Right Speech 4. Right Action 5. Right Living 6. Right Effort 7. Right Mindfulness 8. Right Concentration

The Buddha confirmed belief in the cycle of lives. In Buddhism moral actions add positive and/or negative values to one’s existence and determine one’s place in the next life. Dharma or kharma represents the law of moral consequences