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Deposited in DRO: 17 June 2011

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Citation for published item: Coningham, R. A. E. and Gunawardhana, P. and Manuel, M. J. and Adikari, G. and Katugampola, M. and Young, R. L. and Schmidt, A. and Krishnan, K. and Simpson, I. (2007) ’The state of theocracy : deﬁning an early mediaeval hinterland in Sri Lanka.’, Antiquity., 81 (313). 699-719 .

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Durham University Library, Stockton Road, Durham DH1 3LY, United Kingdom Tel : +44 (0)191 334 3042 — Fax : +44 (0)191 334 2971 http://dro.dur.ac.uk 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 aiiAdikari Gamini ri Schmidt Armin ntebsso igotcptey rhtcua tlsadohrfaue n artefacts. and sites features these other of stratified and categories some deeply styles to main architectural dates and three pottery, occupation sites identified diagnostic attribute of metal-working to and non-urban basis able 2006 shallow the been on completed of scatters, on have we urbanisation We summer ceramic Council, sites. of the urban shallow monastic Research impact in Humanities and sites: the season and pre-urban of field assess Arts model third to the to our and by project archaeologists, Funded plain a of communities. the team developed a within Stirling result, networks and Bradford, a role Durham, of As Leicester the Age Universities of plain. the Iron Kelaniya, nothing from surrounding an almost scientists archaeological its know from and we in growth geoarchaeologists 2006), communities its 1999; by traced (Coningham city have played involved medieval excavations merchants a attracted Although to and trade. village lakes, (Coningham Ocean and 1017 Indian monasteries AD until constructed in years rulers 1500 its archaeological for major 15), capital Asia’s Lankan 1999: of Sri one The is centres. Anuradhapura pilgrimage of and Site Heritage World UNESCO The Introduction was hinterland urban early the how Keywords: about Lanka. Sri clue prominent beyond a most well is the implications Here has which surrounding monasteries. which of the are managed modelling sites period of numerous urban task located the the have Age to in fieldwork Iron moves of now an seasons team from Three research growth the landscape. its largest city, world’s traced medieval the Having a of to projects. one village of research subject archaeological the intensive currently is most Anuradhapura and of city Lankan Sri ancient The Batt Cathy & Coningham Robin Lanka Sri in early hinterland an medieval defining theocracy: of state The eevd 7Nvme 06 cetd 8Jnay20;Rvsd 0Mrh2007 March 30 Revised: 2007; January 18 Accepted: 2006; November 27 Received: antiquity otrdaeIsiueo rhelg,Uiest fKlny,SiLanka Sri Kelaniya, of University Archaeology, Lanka of Sri Institute Kelaniya, Postgraduate of University Archaeology, [email protected]) (Email: of UK Department University, Durham Archaeology, of Department colo ilgcladEvrnetlSine,Uiest fSiln,UK Stirling, of University India Sciences, Baroda, Environmental of and University Biological MS of History, School Ancient and UK Archaeology Bradford, of of Department UK University Leicester, Sciences, of Archaeological University of History, Department Ancient and Archaeology of School 1(07:699–719 (2007): 81 nrdaua r ak,htrrh,mnsiim uvy theocracy survey, monasticism, heterarchy, Lanka, Sri Anuradhapura, 5 5 3 .Krishnan K. , agl Katugampola Mangala , 1 rsat Gunawardhana Prishanta , 6 a Simpson Ian , 699 2 ,RuthYoung 7 er McDonnell Gerry , 2 akManuel Mark , 4 , 1 , 5

Research The state of theocracy

Textual evidence for the Mauryan state The emergence of South Asia’s first centralised empire in the second half of the first millennium BC (320-180 BC) is well recorded in textual and archaeological sources (Erdosy 1988; Allchin 1995; Kenoyer 1997), although alternative interpretations suggest that there is room for debate concerning the nature and extent of the centralisation of power (Fussman 1988; Sugandhi 2003). The Arthasastra or ‘treatise of wealth’ is a description of a South Asian state attributed to Kautilya, the chief minister of the first Mauryan emperor, Chandragupta Maurya (Rangarajan 1992). Although believed to have been altered in the following centuries, most scholars would agree that it serves as a very useful Figure 1. Schematic model of the postulated settlement insight into the administrative framework patterns expressed within the Arthasastra. of the Early Historic world in South Asia (Trautmann 1971). However the Arthasastra may have been written as an ideal or exemplar for many areas of political and social action rather than a record of the actual state of affairs (Sinopoli & Morrison 1995; 206-7). Sugandhi (2003) has explored Asokan edicts as a source of wider information about the nature and extent of the Mauryan Empire, and Fussman (1988) argues that rather than a strongly centralised empire, the Mauryan is in fact a series of de-centralised units, based on local and provincial offices and officers. As the aim of this paper is to explore the nature of settlement in the Anuradhapura hinterland, rather than to offer a summary of position with regard to the understanding of political form of the Mauryan empire, we will here focus on the use of the Arthasastra and the results of Erdosy’s archaeological survey in northern India in order to construct a useful model of urban development to test with our own data. In the Arthasastra, Kautiliya advises the king to settle the people of his kingdom in a strict hierarchy on a base formed by 800 villages of between 100 and 500 families of agriculturalists (Arthasastra IV.i). Every group of ten villages or gramas was to be served by a sub-district headquarters, or Sangrahana.Everygroupof20Sangrahana were then served by a district headquarters, or Karvatika, and every two Karvatika were served by a divisional headquarters or Dronamukha. Finally, the provincial headquarters, the Sthaniya,shouldbe established at the well-ordered centre of the kingdom (Figure 1; Table 1). Formal archaeological evidence of this settlement hierarchy was identified by George Erdosy during his survey of the Early Historic kingdom of Vatsa in northern India (1988). Erdosy recorded five tiers including the political capital (Kausambi) at over 50ha; secondary

700 ihtergtt a ere Prnvtn 90 cx swl stepeetto fsuch 101). of 1983: presentation (Paranavitana 174-196) the AD as (r. Abhaya well Gamani the as Gajabahu to xcix) King royalty of 1970: or (Paranavitana king the ferries from tax duties to right is the administration of state with presence supporting the regime from tax a evident of also presence The 237). 1956: (Rahula villages Cadtefis etr D hc ee otepeec fnmru aeoiso officials of century of categories titles numerous third holding the of the individuals to presence donations the between Recording to to kingdom. refer the dating which within AD, inscriptions century early first the of and corpus BC the within apparent also ra narclua upu oivs nteepoet swl so eiiu n ulcbuildings public and religious on as well scale.’ as lavish projects a these on in century designed invest tenth to the where surplus agricultural in Lanka, an works Sri great irrigation of island’s island the the that provided to declared AD Straits Silva Palk De the K.M. across historian applied the been also has concept This Lanka Sri of state The Historic Early centralised a been of have concept to the 198). appear 1995: support (Allchin functions’ findings who state general their scholars his subsequent of methodology, by range survey accepted the Erdosy’s and to the represent limitations size of they are Erdosy number by that Moreover, a graded and within 107-8). India settlements found 1995: north be of (Erdosy to of also kingdoms 3ha were contemporary below settlement other of villages settlements categories 50ha; and administrative these and 6ha, that primary 10 suggested and 10ha; between and 3 at 6 between functions between at at processing centres and manufacturing administrative minor with towns or centres h tt a iie nopoicso iiin D iv 91 1 n ute divisions further and that 21) suggests 1981: Silva or Silva districts De (De into example, divisions provinces For or of state. provinces made were Lankan into Sri divided extrapolate ancient was to state the literature the of Pali Buddhist subdivisions island’s the the to used have as scholars other and xciv) (1970: Prnvtn 1970). (Paranavitana gentry, or courtier, or aaaiaahmefde oprsn ewe hs ilsadtoei the in those and titles these between comparisons drew himself Paranavitana gamika mahamatra pstv vdneo rseoseooyadawl-raie tt hc a so had which state well-organised a and economy prosperous a of evidence ‘positive aeFnto Number Function Name territory a Arthasastra. of the pattern to settlement according hypothetical The 1. Table Grama Sangrahana Karvatika Dronamukha Sthaniya rvlaehamno onilra elas well as councillor or headman village or radministrator, or D iv 91 12.Teoiiso hswl-raie tt are state well-organised this of origins The 31-2). 1981: Silva (De senapati ayakas oi Coningham Robin ram commander, army or ilg 800 1 Village headquarters Provincial itithaqatr 4 80 2 headquarters Sub-district headquarters District headquarters Divisional Sangha ratas adaka rrvneofiesi ncitosadindividuals and inscriptions in officers revenue or 701 h atrbigsbiie nogop ften of groups into subdivided being latter the , srcre nteGdvy otinscription port Godavaya the in recorded as rsuperintendent, or Sangha tal. et rBdhs re,dnr include donors order, Buddhist or bhandagarika gapati ( ibid. parumaka 0) lhuhthere Although 109). : rha fahousehold a of head or rtreasurer, or itgae networks ‘integrated rchief, or Arthasastra amatya kulina

Research The state of theocracy

Figure 2. Map showing the location of major sites and cites in Sri Lanka.

The city of Anuradhapura Anuradhapura – the heart of the Sri Lankan polity – has become one of the most intensively studied and excavated Early Historic cities in South Asia (Figure 2). Early archaeologists

702 19) u edn oerlal tutrladatfculsqecs nie British a invited growth sequences, city’s artefactual 100m the larger and study a structural to excavate whose reliable to order Deraniyagala 1960s, team more 1980s in the the needing test-pitting in In but of 1986). Deraniyagala city,(1992), programme (1972; walled Siran systematic sequence the Dr a cultural of by deep implemented antiquity 10m investigated a The later structures revealed 1936). only pillared sondage Paranavitana stone was the 1924; exposing surrounding Citadel, (Hocart to fortifications the surface turned clay its attention and soon to brick but close the 1909) (Parker of city course 100ha the identifying upon focused omnte ihntehneln fAuahpr n,a eut h eodphase second the result, a non-urban as of sacred and, nature the the Anuradhapura in of of interest known hinterland antiquarian is the nothing and almost within archaeological Anuradhapura, communities of of years cities 100 secular and over with contrast In Anuradhapura of hinterland the Mapping einloiis hog noRmncnatadit h eivlpro ni h city the until a period 2002). pre-Roman medieval (Coningham of from the AD1017 networks tiles in into trade abandoned and roof Ocean was contact Indian Indo-Roman glazed of through development with sequence origins, with the artefactual regional halls village trace rich to Age pillared extremely us Iron its allowed stone Moreover, small has 2006). square a 1999; 30 the (Coningham from of city site to medieval sequence the structures well-preserved of extremely timber development an circular the yielded tracing ASW2 phases fieldwork, structural of seasons five the h ietn fwtrfo te ie acmnst ag trg ak,sc sthe as such tanks, storage large enabling as to well catchments as river system. agriculture Anuradhapura’s other into irrigation released from and being before drinking water century Nachchaduwa, excess for fifth of allowed stored the system diverting be in hydraulic the This augmented to 1934). were water (Brohier they season canals Wewa, and wet and Nuwara 160 channels the 91, feeder for with Kulam of AD Basavak AD the areas century for covering first BC Wewa century the fourth Nuwara to the from the ranging dates and With Wewa respectively. 1288ha Tissa the Kulam, Basawak remain and the devotion. rulers and its in authority to of available monks resources markers the and physical 5000 labour in surplus of visited the 3000 accumulation presence demonstrate world further an monuments Buddhist the such a the record With with throughout diaries high. monastery from 71.5m their pilgrims stupa and relics, massive Anuradhapura and a monuments on wealth, former of the and 3) (Figure the challenged kings both later orthodoxy, stupa, Jetavanarama Buddhist Mirisavati of centre high A 58.5m BC. its Mahavihara the century by and second dwarfed the stupa in now Ruyanvelisaya built are high monuments 106.5m earlier the of Its stupas, onwards 1999). years BC Coningham 1000 century 1974; third over (Bandaranayake the the of Reflecting from establishment developed stupas. the City with Sacred brick-built this great pilgrimage, and four patronage on focused establishments eodtewlso nrdauassclrcr isafrhr25km further a lies core secular Anuradhapura’s of walls the Beyond h ue ece ftect r endb h rsneo he rica ae,the lakes, artificial three of presence the by defined are city the of reaches outer The satoiyb salsigtenearby the establishing by authority ’s oatr ntetidcnuyA,telte ete nasuao 160m of stupa a on centred latter the AD, century third the in monastery Mahavihara 2 rnh(S2 ls otecnr fteCtdl During Citadel. the of centre the to close (ASW2) trench oi Coningham Robin Mahavihara rgetmnseyb igDvnmiaTissa Devanampiya King by monastery great or 703 Abhayagiri tal. et omnlefrs Anuradhapura’s efforts, Communal . ntefis etr Cand BC century first the in 2 fBdhs monastic Buddhist of Abhayagiri

Research The state of theocracy

Figure 3. The 160m high brick stupa of Jetavana, one of Anuradhapura’s largest monuments.

Anuradhapura (Sri Lanka) Project was launched with the five-year aim of modelling the networks between urban and non-urban communities and the environment within the plain of Anuradhapura over the course of two millennia. Specifically, the project aims to define and interpret the following objectives: the spatial location and sequence of urban and non-urban communities; the morphology and function of urban and non-urban communities; the subsistence base of urban and non-urban communities; the soil and sedimentary sequence within the plain as a foundation for understanding resource patterns and enhancement within the plain. In line with these objectives, a methodology was developed to map the nature and location of non-urban sites, soils and resources, with a sample of sites later subjected to geophysical survey and excavation. Our sample universe extends for a 50km radius from trench ASW2 in the citadel of Anuradhapura (Coningham 1999) (Figure 4). Within this universe we have two parallel methodologies, a randomly generated series of transects, and non-probabilistic survey along the Malwatu Oya or river. The first method is a sample of 24 transects of 20km randomly generated within the survey zone. Each transect is covered by two groups of archaeologists walking parallel 500m apart, who record topography, vegetation, land use, resources and cultural features (Figure 5). Sites are defined as a cultural feature, a lithic find spot or a scatter of more than five ceramic sherds per square metre. Sites were recorded with GPS, photographed and sketched, with diagnostic material, such as debitage, slag and wasters

704 aeoiigstlmn ihntehinterland the within settlement Categorising material imported and exotic 2006). of (Coningham volume city huge the the Anuradhapura for within of conduit north-west found that trading of the main port to possibility the Oya, The the be Malwatu coast. to the the identify of appears non- to to mouth city the order the a to from in close route involved located Oya, arterial Mantai, strategy main Malwatu the the along survey located of were second banks settlements Our the of Anuradhapura. survey at random processing circles for concentric The collected system. river Anuradhapura. Oya of Malwatu citadel the the and in transects ASW2 sites, trench key from showing intervals universe 10km sample at our are of Map 4. Figure oe,1 osbemglti ob,fiestswt erctafiuie,fiesoebridges, stone five figurines, terracotta conical with with other sites sites 17 with five slag, tombs, with comparison sites megalithic been allow 61 possible have sites, 11 to sites monastic holes, 68 archaeological and scatters, our ceramic (1990), discussion, 398 Manatunga into of as and divided such ease agriculture surveys, For support Lankan Sri to hinterland. regional constructed the 235 reservoirs), in All (artificial locations. villages tanks hunting/fishing quarries, are which two 15 features and of sites, blacksmiths landscape The sites, brick-making three features. 108 1082 manufacturers, into landscape of pottery divided are total four be 235 can a and sites recorded ethnoarchaeological, ethnoarchaeological have are modern 153 teams archaeological, the are survey, 694 of seasons three During oi Coningham Robin 705 tal. et

Research The state of theocracy

Figure 5. A survey team walking one of the transects.

Table 2. Breakdown of archaeological sites recorded during the ﬁrst three seasons of the Anuradhapura (Sri Lanka) Project. Type of Site Number of Sites

ARCHAEOLOGICAL 694 Ceramic scatters 398 Monastic sites 68 Undiagnostic sites with stone pillars, blocks and walls 73 Siteswithslag 61 Possible megalithic tombs 11 Stone bridges 5 Annicuts, sluices and irrigation channels 56 Other sites 22

56 annicuts, sluices and irrigation channels, and 73 undiagnostic sites containing stone blocks, pillars and walls (Table 2).

Ceramic scatters In all three seasons, ceramic scatters were the most frequently recorded sites and were deﬁned as those sites at which ceramics were the most prominent feature and were not associated with structures. Ranging in size from one to 60 000m2,theyvaryindensityfromﬁveto

706 cuainadteol nswr orecrmcsherds. ceramic coarse were finds only the temporary a and suggested of occupation also excavation postholes the shallow latter’s by The confirmed (B009). now scatters Siyabalagaswewa 0.3m, site of and scatter sample 0.2 a between of of coring depth Auger occupation impractical. an is indicated cultivation rice irrigated where areas the in agriculture. okn yohssi htteesalcrmcsatr,tpclyfudo well-drained on in Our found engaged other. typically villages each scatters, peripatetic over represent of ceramic cross citadel soils, small north transects the earth these river brown two of reddish that south where the 25km also is along roughly are hypothesis – and areas working present Wewa, these Nachchaduwa clusters However, of several 7). south survey (Figure be the the to within to distributed appear citadel, evenly the do are semi-precious wares, there scatters fine Ceramic although of 6). absence area, (Figure the bone for notable and are glass and stone, metre square per sherds 20 over universe. sample our within scatters ceramic of size and number the showing Graph 6. Figure aaiaa(12,etne vra rao 200 – of scatter area ceramic an largest our over However, 100 extended intermittent. of (F102), area and an low Rajaligama over are extend densities both ceramic B160 their and but B110 Sites exceptions. notable three are ontpntaemr hn0203 nweears h ie–idctn ht iethe like that, indicating – settlement. site enduring the an across not scatters was anywhere ceramic Rajaligama 0.2-0.3m the scatters, than that smaller suggest more site penetrate the not at cores do auger and ( Excavation by linking 2006). reinforced G 10) Type (Coningham is Period Arikamedu site and Ware to scatter (Rouletted site wares this fine of the and nature bone exceptional glass, The of presence hinterland. the the example only within our represent town may a site the of that suggested tentatively have we scatters, other than h atmjrt for38crmcsatr oe nae fls hn25m than less of area an cover scatters ceramic 398 our of majority vast The Chena giutr ssilcmo nteaesaon nrdaua especially Anuradhapura, around areas the in common still is agriculture c. 0 Ct D10 ftec S2i nrdauascitadel Anuradhapura’s in ASW2 trench of 130) AD to BC 200 oi Coningham Robin 707 × tal. et 0m infiatylre n denser and larger Significantly 300m. chena (slash-and-burn) 2 u there but × 100m

Research The state of theocracy

Figure 7. Map showing the distribution of ceramic scatters within our sample universe.

Monastic sites The designation of ‘monastic’ refers to 68 sites associated with Buddhist sculptures, stone and brick monuments and inscriptions (Figure 8). The 68 monastic sites can be further divided into 30 rock shelters or lena (six of which contained inscriptions dating to between the third century BC and the ﬁrst century AD), 18 monastic complexes located on granite outcrops, 13 complexes located on the plain, six double platform complexes and one Pabbata Vihara. One of these outcrop complexes, Thalaguru, consisted of a large stupa 15m high and 30m in diameter. From its summit it is possible to view all the major stupas of Anuradhapura and Mihintale. Five of the six double platform sites were previously known, and are located within Anuradhapura’s monastic suburb. However, an unknown double platform site was located on survey 19.8km south-west of the citadel at Marathamadara (site C112) (Figure 9). Located south of Nachchaduwa Wewa, Marathamadara comprises a large rock-cut cistern and a number of double-platforms with associated bridges and rock-cut moats/cisterns around them. It belongs to a well-known category of site – the Padhanaghara Parivena – that can also be found within the Western Monasteries of Anuradhapura to the north and at Ritigala to the south. Frequently attributed to the Pamsukulika sect of meditational monks, their signature monasteries are generally dated to

708 lc n e ae lc n e aemyb ae obtentebgnigo the of beginning the between to dated and be ware may fine of ware sherds Red and and BC and objects millennium iron Black first slag, ware. evidence of Red with finds and 1m and structures of Black tile sequence and structural brick deep stone, of a provided a (C033) and Sembukulama bottom example, furnace a slag, coin, worn debitage. a quartz twelfth objects, shallow of a iron and fragment indicated included mid-eighth Parthigala artefacts at the and excavations Our between occupation 81). to 1974: stupa. (Bandaranayake dating high AD centuries 1998) 6.5m a Wijesuriya a central and as 1974; a house complex includes (Bandaranayake image this Parthigala complex interpreted halls, south, The have brick pillared season. to we stone wet and Architecturally, north including the stone 440m monuments during and a of canoe west dugout group by to by Defined accessible east Wewa. only 480m Nachchaduwa is some of measuring fringe wall southern perimeter the on situated 1998: Wijesuriya 130; 1974: (Bandaranayake AD centuries 148). tenth and eighth the between universe. sample our within sites monastic of distribution the showing Map 8. Figure rae et focpto a enrcvrdfo w te oatcsts For sites. monastic other two from recovered been has occupation of depth greater A (Z00), Parthigala of site the is survey the in identified complex monastic largest The c. 0 Cadtefiewr obetween to ware fine the and BC 200 oi Coningham Robin 709 tal. et abt Vihara Pabbata c 0 Ct 3 a AD, cal 130 to BC 200 . rRylMonastery Royal or

Research The state of theocracy

Figure 9. View of the double platform site at Marathamadara (C112). confirming the longevity of the site. Finally, the monastic outcrop site of Vehragala (A155) (Figure 10) provided a 3m deep sequence of brick, stone and tile construction complete with finds of glass, bone, Black and Red ware and fine ware (Figure 11).

Sites with stone pillars, blocks and walls A total of 73 sites comprising of worked stone in the form of pillars and blocks have so far been identiﬁed. These sites have the potential to be monastic centres, but are generally badly damaged, robbed or suffer from bioturbation. Due to their undiagnostic nature they have not been included within the monastic sites category but such a function is likely and will be tested by excavation in the ﬁnal season.

Metalworking sites Of the 61 sites where slag has been identiﬁed, 46 were found with an accompanying ceramic scatter, three sites were associated with one of the undiagnostic sites with stone pillars and blocks, and a further six were associated with identiﬁed monastic sites. Initial analysis of the slag has suggested that three of the sites were engaged in smelting, with the remaining slag the result of smithing. The three smelting sites were all located close to each other south of Nachchaduwa Wewa, and one of the sites was associated with a monastic complex. Coring

710 o hti setal radt.Tedt eet h iiino h opee transects completed the of division the reflects above. data outlined data The types vegetation distance data. the area vegetation into distances The linear essentially the record survey. to is river forced include what non-probabilistic are we the not for that on in do problems or presents season also data data pilot traversed’ km’ ‘distance the in per undertaken ‘sites 8, Transect the for Likewise, type. soil etbcuei ra uha ak ad n dense and paddy tank, as such zone. areas each in within because found cent sites the of of of number sections breakdown the a Some with shows along 700km. 3 Table traversed, over and vegetation restrictions, walked and access soils now to due have omitted field we been three have transects, After transect sites. completed of 16 identification well and the as influencing work, seasons is ethnoarchaeological soils vegetation and and soil whether geoarchaeological vegetation recorded ascertaining of our as of teams distribution into modern feeding impact survey the plain, the the map the to so recording within us and with allows sites This concerned types. of also vegetation detection and are our we upon methodology, visibility project archaeological the of part As but shallow all are visibility season. they and final Vegetation as the limited in excavation was by occupation tested that be suggests will assumption sites this these again of outcrop. sample granite a a of top at on located site monastic a (A155), Vehragala of View 10. Figure ti motn ont httesmo h ecnae osntawy qa 0 per 100 equal always not does percentages the of sum the that note to important is It oi Coningham Robin 711 tal. et chena ti fe ifiutt ascertain to difficult often is it ,

Research The state of theocracy

Figure 11. Trench at Vehragala (A155) demonstrating a deep sequence of deposits.

Table 3. Vegetation and visibility data for the ﬁrst three seasons of the Anuradhapura (Sri Lanka) Project. Distance % of total Number Sites Vegetation Type traversed (km) distance of sites per km

Granite Outcrop 39.55 5.8 53 1.34 Granite Boulders 32.60 4.8 23 0.71 Village/Garden 121.00 17.8 160 1.32 Ploughed Field 13.54 2.0 12 0.89 Tank 86.28 12.7 143 1.66 Paddy 138.8 20.4 60 0.43 Parkland 19.27 2.8 18 0.93 Chena 63.26 9.3 38 0.60 Elephant Grass 21.38 3.1 14 0.65 Overgrown Chena 94.00 13.8 42 0.45 Forest/Jungle 70.93 10.4 28 0.39

Table 3 suggests that vegetation can have an effect on the ability to identify sites and, excluding the data from tanks (as every tank is counted as a site), we have located the greatest number of sites within villages, gardens, parkland and ploughed ﬁelds. The low height of vegetation permits greater visibility of ceramics on the ground surface and allows

712 n ergl,idct epocpto n nsicuegas on,bn n fine and bone coins, glass, include finds Galkulama and at monumental as occupation such to sites, deep inscriptions of indicate number Brahmi category a Vehragala, Early at numerous Excavations and with most Parthigala. from at shelters second as material rock such the with constructions, individual are comparisons fresh from sites from on range Monastic as based and Anuradhapura. chronologies well at accurate as more ASW2 excavations of trench the this construction again from of but dates results time, short the radiocarbon a small by for Their tested occupied debitage. were be stone they little or will that was slag suggest there of occupation and finds shallow tile no and or been area have stone there brick, as as manufacturing such of materials glass evidence as monumental is such with goods, it or practicing luxury wares and with communities fine associated site and pastoral not are of and/or they that of farming category indicates hinterland Excavation small numerous cultivation. the represent most within they the settlement that are non-urban assumed of scatters nature number ceramic a the make Firstly, to to position Anuradhapura. a as in now hypotheses are we working fieldwork, of of seasons three first our of basis the On of number heterarchy high and a hierarchy that Hinterland, fact the centres. as monastic well as as utilised due visibility, been (1.34) have underwater. good ratio to surface ensuring kilometre appear ground per vegetation, outcrops the sites of can of highest lack dense, cent the less a per provide whilst to outcrops 90 fields, granite with paddy tanks, bunds whilst from dry line, Aside the a along form traversed and to be villages dense room only as Within and skewed visibility sites. also ground ethnoarchaeological is both modern data of This majority apart. the 10m chena line for a account into also spread gardens to teams survey survey. of the seasons three first the from scatters ceramic of distribution Size 12. Figure oet n lpatgas h egtadteecoe aueo h eeainrestrict vegetation the of nature enclosed the and height the grass, elephant and forests , oi Coningham Robin 713 tal. et chena

Research The state of theocracy wares as well as brick, stone or tile. The three excavated monasteries have also provided evidence of metalworking and lapidary activity. Metalworking sites are also numerous, as are concentrations of stone pillars, although as the latter are usually associated with roof tiles, they are also probably monastic in nature. Clearly, these categories of sites do not correspond with the contemporary settlement hierarchy advocated in the Arthasastra or identified by George Erdosy in northern India. Indeed, it is very difficult to map our categories onto the state hierarchy of king, army commanders, treasurers, courtiers, administrators, superintendents, chiefs, gentry, village headmen and heads of household as contained within Sri Lanka’s early and later Brahmi inscriptions (Paranavitana 1970). Although the concept of settlement or site hierarchy has received criticism in recent years (Cosgrove 1984; see also Fleming 2006), it remains a valuable tool for understanding an archaeological landscape (Wilkinson 2000; 2003; Drennan & Paterson 2004). However, it is important to recognise that settlement hierarchies can be established on a number of criteria – decision-making (political), economic and religious being the most commonly evoked. However, they generally tend to follow the maxim that the bigger the site the more important it was and whilst this may be true in some respects – greater size may indicate a greater population and therefore increased economic or political power – it does not take into full consideration the complexities of social, political and economic frameworks. Within any historic landscape, religious centres such as monasteries and temples, although smaller in size, may wield greater political and/or economic power than spatially larger villages or towns. Evidence for such a suggestion may be illustrated in Figures 12 and 13, which present two very different postulated distributions of rural settlement and monastic institutions within Anuradhapura’s hinterland. Plotted against distance from the Citadel of Anuradhapura, Figure 12 shows the distribution of ceramic scatter size within the 50km of our sample universe. The distribution of ceramic scatters size clearly marks Anuradhapura as a primate city, with the notable exception of F102, located at a distance of 24.3 km from the centre. Figure 13, however, presents the heights of brick and stone stupas within our survey area against distance from the Citadel of Anuradhapura. It is acknowledged that this figure is not a comparison of the monastic site area, but it is argued that stupa height may be directly related to the ability to mobilise an investment in both labour and material (Coningham 1995). In comparison with the primate pattern for ceramic scatters with the 100ha city of Anuradhapura at its centre, the plot of stupa heights demonstrates a far less uniform distribution, although stupas that are represented as 0m were too badly damaged to estimate original height. A second feature is that there appears to be a monastic ‘shadow’ between the Citadel of Anuradhapura and the monastic site of Mihintale, 13.2km from the centre, with only a single stupa being identified on survey in the intervening area. This ‘shadow’, perhaps indicating the direct influence or authority of Anuradhapura’s monasteries, is not evident within the ceramic scatters – and therefore settlements – where there is an even distribution of sites throughout the hinterland. In the light of this discussion, it should be stated that Erdosy’s site hierarchy is based almost entirely upon the postulated size of the sites (1988), with little consideration given to the function or role that particular sites may have played within the society or landscape. Given that most South Asian Early Historic states are considered to be almost theocratic

714 iue1.Hih fsua dnie nsre n itnefo h iae fAuahpr sua eitrda min 0m as registered (stupas Anuradhapura of Citadel height). the original from estimate distance to and damaged survey badly on too identiﬁed are stupas height of Height 13. Figure iue1.Dvtetkn feig oVhaaa(A155). Vehragala to offerings taking Devotee 14. Figure iutnosya niae yFgrs1 n 3 eeoacia praht the to approach hetero-archical A exist 13. may is and power hierarchies that 12 many assume Figures that not acknowledge by do but we indicated criterion that as single ensure simultaneously must a we by but represented hierarchies, only site of concept the oi Coningham Robin 715 fAuahpr,i sipratt invoke to hinterland important is the it understand Anuradhapura, of fully to If are 1959). the we (Leach during AD island century the seventeenth of highlands similar the a in to resources water of alluded management lower-order has Leach Lankan Sri scenario, a to reference state With or allegiances. royal own from divorced and their self- regulating remaining whilst – demonstrate hierarchy religious temples landscape, wider these a Across & 1993). Lansing Kremer 1987; (Lansing immediate surroundings their water within in mediation dispute and roles production pivotal agricultural dispersed management, play that sites demonstrated temple has Bali work Lansing’s in into Indeed, hierarchy. incorporated site be the not would small, or large whether centres, religious that prising sur- structure seems it 1992), economic Rothermund & and (Kulke political their in tal. et

Research The state of theocracy hinterland will allow us to model the dichotomies that exist between the secular and religious elements within the landscape.

Comparative perspectives Whilst generating a unique urban pattern within South Asia, we have found many parallels outside the region. For example, the creation and maintenance of monumental irrigation and water sources by the Maya of Belize was directly linked to kingship and a centralised domination of the landscape. Drawing comparisons with the great stupas of Anuradhapura, Dunning et al. state that ‘While the towering pyramids were visible beacons of Maya political order,thereservoirs...becameintegralpartsoftheurbandesign.Thepoliticalauthorityof the rulers was manifest not only in the monuments dramatising the power of the king, but also in the creation of a source of precious water where formally there was none’ (1999: 657). Moreover, recent studies of urban centres in Mayan Belize suggest that they were designed to accommodate substantial numbers of people within their public plazas. Inomata (2006) has argued that public events and displays held within these plazas created and maintained the idea of community, and strengthened the links between elites and non-elites. In direct parallel, even today the monasteries of Anuradhapura remain a focal point in the religious life of people living within its hinterland. Religious festivals attended by tens of thousands of participants, such as the Jasmine Flower Festival, not only strengthen the urban-rural bond but also acts as a means to redistribute produce throughout the population. Finding such parallels is not new as Coe suggested as early as 1957 that there were many similarities between the Mayan and Khmer landscapes within Central America and Southeast Asia respectively. Deﬁning them as ‘Tropical Forest Civilisations’, Coe later developed this concept and argued that the wide uniformity of crops and difﬁculty of transport in the tropics prevented the emergence of true urban centres on the one hand, but that an agricultural surplus could support craft specialisation and non-agrarian elites on the other – thus at Angkor Wat (Cambodia), agricultural and labour surpluses from the hinterland were diverted to support and maintain temples in the cult centres (1961: 85). Again, this is a practice maintained in modern Anuradhapura, where the major monasteries of Anuradhapura, as well as smaller local temples are sustained through donations, offerings and free labour from surrounding villages (Figure 14). Bronson (1978) developed the work of Coe (1957; 1961) to incorporate Anuradhapura and Prambanan (Indonesia) within the same category as Angkor (Khmer) and Tikal (Maya); however, only further data collection and analysis will allow us to develop comparative models with the so-called Tropical Forest Civilisations (Coe 1961; Bronson 1978), as well as contemporary South Asian Early Historic models (Erdosy 1988; Kenoyer 1997) and later medieval examples (Fritz 1986; Fritz & Michell 1987; Sinopoli & Morrison 1995; Verghese 2004).

Conclusion In conclusion, our three seasons of survey and excavation within the hinterland of Anuradhapura indicate that the expected categories of towns and lower order administrative and manufacturing centres are missing from our region. We are therefore investigating

716 rvdvr hlo n twsaadndb h n ftetefhcnuyAD. century twelfth the of end the by abandoned was deposits it excavated lapidary and its and shallow AD, metalworking centuries very twelfth of proved and evidence mid-eighth has the and between landscape Constructed the work. in feature monumental a was xeiet h eodatmta ubnsn’myb ersne ytecntuto of construction the by represented be may monumental ‘urbanising’ Historic the at Early short-lived attempt a second was The lapidary it and that experiment. metalworking suggests of with deposit evidence shallow associated as extremely well traits its as However, many ceramics, work. ware possesses fine which and glass Rajaligama, as of represented such city, meet be scatter the and may ceramic at hinterland these large attempts of the very separate first of the The two by economy expansion. Anuradhapura’s been the of regulate have demands to may increasing order there the in that centres suggest order to larger possible imposing is it analysis, of under role dual a played centres monastic administrators. hinterland where secular the landscape, and that religious suggest theocratic would a hypothesis was a Knappet more Anuradhapura Such not by control. of if argued political important, as as or was but, economic hinterland than sites a so, over urban control of ideological of expected imposition traditionally the (1999), roles thus vihara merit centres the Such modern religious of pilgrims. many its visiting and and perform at knowledge villagers incumbents, functions materials, its similar building amongst note redistributed observe money, were to to surplus, able agricultural interesting were labour, is role, monastic we as the important it Vehragala, excavating When an of observation, (2000). plays whole site unified this sites outcrop a Buddhist into of stupas the locations between ritual light within the main inter-visibility the possible the that view linking argued usually In to has not plain. possible Shaw is the is that that of it served something vegetation because have summits, would and dense their they communities from as for Anuradhapura outcrops on features of complexes visible monastic highly the to as applied easily is model uuework Future great the to Subcontinent. linked individually the population production mobile still a education, of were serving monasteries hinterland administration, but the literacy, north within these surplus of economic the of that centres accumulation the long-lived and in suggests of that evidence network the a architectural from formed performed and landscape monasteries epigraphical geo-political presenting Archaeological, Buddhist different towns, with numerous very associated usually hinterland’s a functions political the and economic that administrative, possibility the n ilalwu odvlporudrtnigo h ne-eainhp htexisted that inter-relationships the of understanding our develop to excavation and us survey allow geophysical augering, will for targeted and been Anuradhapura. already of have city sites the Additional of lifespan the throughout plain chronology detailed the we a in that build activity means to settlement dates scatters OSL of ceramic and shallow radiocarbon comprising and forthcoming sites features upon the many dependent of are of longevity many The be on objectives. to stratigraphy and remains of aim still lack stated work our much realise and can we hypotheses before working done current course, of are, models These hltsc hortclnsaemyhv ucindfrtemjrt fteperiod the of majority the for functioned have may landscape theocratic a such Whilst u uvywr ilcniu,cmltn h admtascsadrvrsurvey. river and transects random the completing continue, will work survey Our aat Vihara Pabatta rRylMnseya atiaa frylfudto,it foundation, royal Of Parthigala. at Monastery Royal or oi Coningham Robin 717 viharas tal. et ftect fAuahpr.Sc a Such Anuradhapura. of city the of

Research The state of theocracy within the hinterland. Ongoing geoarchaeological investigations are mapping the soils and resources of the plain, as well as projecting the development of the plain’s famous irrigation systems and networks of tanks onto the database of archaeological sites allowing exploration of relationships between the control of water and monasteries. We are also expanding our ethnographic work to examine subsistence strategies and the function of monasteries. Finally, ICP-MS, GC-MS and thin-section analysis is also being undertaken to develop further the initial study of standardisation, function and provenance of ceramic manufacture (Ford et al. 2005) and to reﬁne our chronologies. Lapidary and metallurgical analyses will allow us to further develop initial models for procurement, manufacture and distribution within the plain. Finally, we will continue to conduct our survey along the banks of the Malwatu Oya and feeder canals to investigate the hypothesis that permanent towns or centres, if they existed within the plain, may have functioned as break of bulk points along this major arterial route-way from the great port of Mantai to Anuradhapura.

Acknowledgements We are extremely grateful to the following individuals for their help, guidance and assistance Dr Senarath Dissanayake, Director-General of Archaeology; Dr Siran Deraniyagala, former Director-General of Archaeology; Professor M. Jayantha S. Wijeyaratne, Vice-Chancellor of the University of Kelaniya; Professor Y.M. Sunanda Madduma Bandara, Dean of the Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Kelaniya; Anura Manatunga, Department of Archaeology, University of Kelaniya. We should also like to express our thanks to the many staff and students of the Universities of Durham, Bradford, Kelaniya, Leicester, Rajarata and Stirling for their help in the ﬁeld. We should also like to acknowledge Martin Carver, Roland Fletcher, Chris Scarre, Tony Wilkinson and three anonymous referees for providing extremely useful feedback on earlier drafts of this paper. The ﬁeldwork and project is generously supported by the Arts and Humanities Research Council (www.dur.ac.uk/arch.projects/anuradhapura/).

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Research