Compiled by th entre fo ev 10 ment Research Sou ern Africa for the Division of Early Warning an AT-IONS ENVIRON E United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Division of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA) UNEP Complex, Gigiri, Nairobi P.O. Box 30552, 00100, Kenya Tel: +254-20-7623785 Fax: + 254 -20- 7624309 Web: http://www.unep.org
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Citation: CEDRISA, Droughts and Floods in Southern Africa: Environmental Change and Human Vulnerability, UNEP and SARDC, 2009
Cover and Text Design SARDC: Paul Wade and Tonely Ngwenya Print Coordination: DS Print Media, Johannesburg
2 CONTENTS
CONTENTS 3 List of Tables, Boxes, Graphs, Maps and Figures 4 ACKNOWLEDG EM ENTS 5 ACRONYMS 7
INTRODUCTION 9 Water Resources in Southern Africa 9
DROUGHTS AND FLOODS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA 13 Factors that Exacerbate Droughts and Floods 13
THE 2000-2003 DROUGHTS AND FLOODS 17 Malawi 17 Mozambique " 18 Swaziland 21 Zambia 23 Zimbabwe 25
IM PACT OF DROUGHTS AND FLOODS 31 Droughts 31 Floods 35
NATIONAL RESPONSES TO DROUGHTS AND FLOODS 39 Dealing with Droughts 39 Dealing with Floods 41 National, Regional and International Obligations 44
REFERENCES 47
3 List of Tables Table I Rainfall and Evaporation Statistics of some SADC Countries 10 Table 2 Mean Annual Runoff of Selected River Basins in Southern Africa 10 Table 3 Impact of Selected 2000-2003 Floods on Malawi's Socio-Economy 18 Table 4 Flood Incidences in Mozambique During the Period 2000-2003 19 Table 5 Droughts in Mozambique 2000-2003 19 Table 6 Average annual Rainfall and Temperature in each of Swaziland's Physiographic Regions 21 Table 7 Chronology of Droughts in Southern Africa 32
List of Boxes Box I Types of droughts 13 Box 2 Mbabane's historic flood 23 Box 3 New maize variety resists dry conditions 27 Box 4 International protocols 45
List of Graphs Graph I Water levels for Mnjoli Dam for period 2000-2003 22 Graph 2 Flows for the Usutu River at GS 16 22
List of Maps Map I Path of Cyclone Japhet in March 2003 21 Map 2 Major Physiographic Regions 21 Map 3 Drought-risk map of Swaziland 21 Map 4 January 2003 Rainfall (mm) 26 Map 5 January Rainfall as Percent of Normal 26 Map 6 Total Rainfall as a Percentage of the Long-Term Mean 26
List of Figures Figure I Access to Different Types of Water Sources in Zimbabwe 27
4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Centre for Development Research and Information in Southern Africa (CEDRISA) wishes to recognise the valuable contribution made by a number of individuals, organisations and institutions in southern Africa in the production of this report. The following individuals, organisations and institutions deserve mention:
Malawi Victor Chipofya, The Polytechnic, University of Malawi, Chichiri, Blantyre G. R. Phiri, Senior Lecturer, Mzuzu University, Luwinga, Mzuzu Department of Environmental Affairs, Lingadzi House, Lilongwe Department of Meteorological Services, Chileka Disaster Preparedness, Relief and Rehabilitation, Lilongwe Electricity Supply Commission of Malawi (ESCOM),Blantyre Emergency Drought Recovery Project, Lilongwe Ministry of Agriculture, Lilongwe Ministry of Water Development, Lilongwe UNDP, Lilongwe Chancellor College, University of Malawi, Zomba The Polytechnic, University of Malawi, Blantyre Willey and Partner Engineering Services, Blantyre
Mozambique Department of Biology,Eduardo Mondlane University, Maputo Directorate of Environmental Affairs, Maputo Directorate of Forestry, Maputo Directorate of Water, Maputo Geology Department, Eduardo Mondlane University, Maputo Ministry of Defence, Maputo Mozambique Red Cross Society,Maputo National Institute of Meteorology, Maputo National Institute of Disaster Preparedness, Ministry of External Affairs, Maputo UNDP, Maputo UNICEF, Maputo
Swaziland Jonathan Matondo, University of Swaziland, Mbabane Department of Meteorology, Ministry of Works and Communication, Mbabane Early Warning Unit, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Mbabane Mhlume Sugar Company, Mbabane Swaziland Environmental Authority, Mbabane UNDP Disaster Task Force, Mbabane World Food Programme, Mbabane Water Resources Branch, Ministry of Natural Resources and Energy, Mbabane
Zambia Imasiku Nyambe, School of Mines, University of Zambia, Lusaka Allan Dauchi, Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Natural Resources, Lusaka Anderson Banda, Disaster Management and Mitigation Unit, Lusaka Chama Yoram, Environmental Council of Zambia, Lusaka Charles Chisanga, Department of Water Affairs, Lusaka D. Chilumbu, Advocacy for the Restoration of Environment in Zambia, Lusaka Dominic Mweete, University of Zambia, Lusaka Gilbert Dowati, Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Natural Resources, Lusaka Henry Sichembe, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Lusaka Humphrey Goma, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Lusaka J. S. Musiwa, Water Engineering, NRDC, Lusaka Jonathan Kampata, WRAP,Lusaka Kaingu Wakung'uma, University of Zambia, Lusaka
5 Kenneth Nyundu, Department of Water Affairs, Lusaka R. Kunda Chimambo, Chalimbana Rural Catchment Conservation, Lusaka Rees Mwasambili, Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Unit, Lusaka Richard Mugara, Meteorological Department, Lusaka Robby Kasubika, Meteorological Department, Lusaka Central Statistics Office, Lusaka Farmers Union - Kalimba Farms Limited, Zambia Monze Workshop participants, Monze Office of the Vice President, Lusaka U ICEF,Lusaka Vulnerability Assessment Committee, Lusaka World Food Programme, Lusaka
Zimbabwe Cathrine Mutambirwa, IUCN - Regional Office for Southern Africa, Harare Blantina Mutawarira, UNDP, Harare Chris Hann, World Food Programme, Harare Desmond Manatsa, Rainfall Department, Zimbabwe Meteorological Services, Harare Dominic Kwesha, Forestry Commission, Harare Kuena Morebotsane, Drought Monitoring Centre, Harare George Kwenda, Environment and Remote Sensing Institute (ERSI),Harare Desmond Mudombi, Zimbabwe Red Cross Society, Harare J. Chanetsa, National Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee, Harare Betsera Ndlovu, Civil Protection Unit, Harare Patricia Mamvoto, Southern African Research and Documentation Centre (SARDC),Harare Philip Majombo, Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO), Harare Precious Jeche, Geographic Information Systems (GIS)Unit, Harare Shepherd Zvigadza, Zimbabwe Environmental Research Organisation (ZERO), Harare Tinashe Mandaza, SADC Regional Remote Sensing Unit (SADC RRSU),Harare Tsitsi Bandason, Zimbabwe Meteorological Services, Harare Central Statistics Office, Harare FEWSNET,Harare Institute of Environmental Studies, University of Zimbabwe, Harare Scientific and Industrial Research and Development Centre (SIRDC),Harare
SARDC The review, editorial work, design and print coordination by SARDC is acknowledged. Special thanks are due to the review team of Clever Mafuta, Ronald Chawatama, Wilson Yule,Egline Tauya, Patricia Munemo, Admire Ndhlovu, Tigere Chagutah and Steven Muzarewetu; and the design and print coordination team of Sheila Chikulo and Tonely Ngwenya.
UNEP Special thanks are also due to the Division of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA)at the United Nations Environment Programme in Nairobi Kenya, for having provided funding for the research work and production of this report. The Centre for Development Research and Information in Southern Africa (CEDRISA)is further grateful for the guidance and support offered to it by UNEP for the successful accomplishment of this important sub-regional project.
6 ACRONYMS
AMCEN African Ministerial Conference on the Environment CBDPP Community Based Disaster Preparedness Programme CEDRISA Centre for Development Research and Information in Southern Africa DEAP District Environmental Action Plan DEWA Division of Early Warning and Assessment DMC Drought Monitoring Centre ENSO El Nino Southern Oscillation ESCOM Electricity Supply Commission of Malawi GDP Gross Domestic Programme GHG Greenhouse Gases GWIC Global Warming International Centre IPCC Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change ITCZ Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone IUCN The World Conservation Union LEAD Leadership for Environment and Development MRCS Mozambique Red Cross Society NEAP National Environmental Action Plan NEC National Economic Council NEPAD ew Economic Partnership for Africa's Development NEWU ational Early Warning Unit NGO on-Governmental Organisation REWS Regional Early Warning System RWSC Rural Water Supply Corporation SADC Southern African Development Community SARCOF Southern African Regional Climate Outlook Forum SARDC Southern African Research and Documentation Centre SPI Standardised Precipitation Index UNCBD United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund UNSO United Nations Office to Combat Desertification and Drought WMO World Meteorological Organisation WRAP Water Resources Action Programme ZESA Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority
7 Map of the Southern African Development Community
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8 INTRODUCTION
his report outlines the impact of environment. It is a result of interviews, droughts and floods on the natural and research and analysis of information collected T human environment in southern Africa from various institutions and organisations in during the period 2000-2003,with a particular five countries of the sub-region - Malawi, focus on Malawi, Mozambique, Swaziland, Mozambique, Swaziland, Zambia and Zambia and Zimbabwe. The report is pub- Zimbabwe. lished f[t partial fulfilment of the outcome of the 9t session of the African Ministerial Water Resources in Southern Africa Conference on the Environment (AMCEN) Southern Africa's main freshwater resources which, recognised that the absence of ade- are found in surface water bodies such as dams, quate and relevant information and data is a rivers and wetlands, and in groundwater major constraint to environmental manage- aquifers. The sub-region has 15 major interna- ment planning and implementation of global tionally shared river basins, of which the four and sub-regional conventions in many largest are the Zambezi, Congo, Orange, African countries. Okavango and Limpopo river basins. Major The Ministers further noted that success in ground water resources are found in the achieving global sustainable development Kalahari-Etosha, Karoo, Cape Fold Belt,Eastern would ultimately depend on implementation Kalahari Precambrian Belt and the •.coastal of sound and cost effective national response basins of Mozambique and Tanzania (UNEP policies and measures supported by the col- 2006).Major wetlands in the sub-region include lection and exchange of quality data and the Okavango Delta, the St Lucia Wetlands and information on the environment for use by Lake Malawi. decision makers. Unlike in other parts of the world where National environmental outlook reports water availability is a collective contribution of would therefore play a vital role in this glaciers, snow and rainfall, water resources respect if prepared in the framework of the availability in southern Africa is entirely Africa Environment Outlook report, which dependent on rainfall which is seasonal. has been adopted by AMCEN as a tool for monitoring sustainable development in Rainfall Africa. Most parts of the sub-region receive a 5-7 Southern Africa has experienced and con- month wet season during the October to April tinues to experience a myriad of challenges summer months (Conley 1996). The Western including violent storms (GWIC 1999), Cape in South Africa is an exception, as it has a droughts and floods. Socio-economic devel- winter rainfall regime from April to September. opment in the sub-region has also been affect- The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) ed by the existence of HIV and AIDS. The and the Botswana Upper High are an important social and economic impact of HIV and AIDS influence on the sub-region's rainfall patterns. in all countries of the sub-region has been While the ITCZ brings good rains to most parts enormous resulting in illness among the pro- of southern African, the Botswana Upper High ductive members of society, deaths and an creates unfavourable conditions for heavy or increase in the number of orphans. This situa- widespread rainfall and its frequent occurrence tion has led governments to allocate more always results in drought in some countries in financial resources into the health sector for the region (SADC/IUCN/SARDC 1996). HIV and AIDS prevention strategies, Rainfall distribution is spatially and tempo- resources which could otherwise have been rally uneven within countries and across south- allocated to other social and economic sectors ern Africa, resulting in unreliable water sup- such as education and transport were it not for plies. Surface runoff in the region is seasonal this pandemic. and this has an impact on water resources, as With more HIV and AIDS cases, it has not most of it is not harvestable. Seasonality of the been possible for ill people to devote their ener- rainfall is reflected in both biological and cul- gies to economic production. This has been tural processes such as ripening of indigenous worsened by the occurrence of extreme weath- fruits, migration of wild and domestic animals er events such as droughts and floods, causing between dry and wet season's pastures destruction of crops, homes and property, and (SADC/IUCN /SARDC 1996). slowing down economic growth. Many southern African countries are par- This report examines the impact of extreme tially or largely semi-arid with low annual rain- events that occurred in southern Africa during fall reliability. Rainfall ranges from 10mm in the period 2000-2003,and assesses the impact some parts of Namibia to about 2,800 mm in these events had on the natural and human some parts of Angola, Malawi and Tanzania. In
9 most parts of the sub-region, potential evapora- area (Hirji et al 2002). As shown in table 2, tion is twice as high as rainfall totals (Hirji et al southern Africa's international rivers have a 2002). This has a dominant influence on the total catchment area of 6.76 million sq km overall water balance, with the consequence (SADC/IUCN /SARDC 1996). that generally less than 15percent of the rainfall The Zambezi river, which is the most contributes to runoff, river flow and infiltration shared river basin wholly in SADC, has its to groundwater. Table 1 shows rainfall, evapo- source in the Kalene Hills of north-western transpiration and surface runoff ranges in the Zambia and flows over a distance of nearly sub-region. 3,000 km to its delta in the Indian Ocean. The Surface runoff in southern Africa is depend- river carries more than 75 percent of the mean ent on the sub-region's rainfall patterns. Surface annual runoff of southern Africa's interior and runoff in the northern and eastern parts of drains more than 40 percent of the land mass southern Africa is available in sufficient quanti- (Chenje 2000). ties throughout the year. In the south-western In the arid and semi-arid areas of the sub- parts, surface runoff only occurs with extreme region, rivers are non-perennial and only flow a episodic rainfall events. With such a rainfall few months a year, after the rains. As rainfall scenario, the sub-region experiences floods intensity decreases, transmission losses become mainly in the northeast, and episodes of severe an important component of the water balance. and prolonged droughts. Groundwater becomes the main reliable source of water under these conditions. Rivers An important hydrological feature in southern Aquifers Africa is the presence of 15 transboundary Groundwater is available in variable quanti- rivers, whose combined drainage area covers 78 ties throughout the sub-region mainly in percent of the sub-region's continental land aquifers recharged through infiltration. It is
Table I Rainfall and Evaporation Statistics of some SADC Countries
Country Rainfall range Average rainfall Potential evaporation Total surface (mm) (mm) range (mm) runoff (mm)
Angola 25-1 600 800 I 300-2600 104 Botswana 250-650 400 2600-3700 0.6 Malawi 700-2800 1000 I 800-2000 60 Mozambique 350-2000 I 100 I 100-2000 275 Namibia 10-700 250 2600-3700 15 South Africa 50-3000 500 I 100-3000 39 Swaziland 500-1500 800 2000-2200 11 Tanzania 300-1600 750 I 100-2000 78 Zambia 700-1200 800 2000-2500 133 Zimbabwe 350-1000 700 2000-2600 34
Source Pallet 1997: 14 in Hi~i et ai, Defining and Mainstreaming Environmental Sustainability in IMlter Resource Management in Southern N-ica. SADGIUCN/SARDClWorld Bank: Maseru/HararelWashington DC, 2002
Table 2 Mean Annual Runoff of Selected River Basins in Southem Africa
River Basin Basin area River length Mean Annual Unit runoff (sq km) (km) Runoff at mouth (mm) (106 cu m/ yr)
Congo 2 942700 4700 I 260000 330 Cunene 110300 I 050 5500 52 Limpopo 415500 I 750 5500 13 Okavango 708600 I 100 11000 19 Orange 947700 2300 11 500 13 Save 116100 740 7000 76 Zambezi 388200 2650 94000 67
Source Hirji et al. Defining and Mainstreaming Environmental Sustainabilityin vvste: Resources Management In Southern N-ica. SADGIUCN/SARDClWorld Bank, Maseru/HararelWashington DC. 2002
10 an important source of water in the sub- which have been built for domestic, industrial region's rural areas, and to a lesser extent, for and mining water supply, irrigation and power the supply of water to urban centres. It also generation. Other dams, built for hydropower supports base flows of perennial rivers during generation in the region include Gariep and dry seasons and during periods of surface Vanderkloof dams on the Orange River. water drought. The major natural lakes in the sub-region In Botswana, 80 percent of water supplies is include Lake Victoria, Lake Tanganyika and from groundwater sources. Most rural areas in Lake Nyasa/Niassa/Malawi. Tanganyika and Namibia also rely on groundwater. In the Malawi are the world's second and third deep- Limpopo river basin most farmers depend on est respectively, after Lake Baikal in Siberia, ground water for irrigation during the dry Russia. months. It is sourced from springs or pumped Most lakes in the region are shallow, due to from drilled wells and boreholes (SADC Water the landscape (SADC/IUCN /SARDC 1996). Sector Coordination Unit 2003). Lakes Malawi, Bangweulu, Chilwa, and Mweru In Mozambique, groundwater is found in are entirely within southern Africa, while some the young dune deposits along the coastal strip, lakes are shared with countries outside the the north-eastern region and the alluvial valleys SADC region. These include Lake Victoria of the Limpopo basin, where development of (Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda) and Lake the aquifers is risky due to frequent flooding of Tanganyika (Tanzania, DRC, Zambia and the Limpopo River. Burundi), These lakes are sources of fisheries Although the environmental role of and provide an important source of livelihood ground water is not well-understood and recog- for people living near the lakes. nised within much of SADC and sub-Saharan Current environmental problems in the Africa (Envirotek 2003), it sustains ecosystems region's lakes include alien invasive species directly and indirectly through its interactions such as the water hyacinth, and the transfer of with surface water resources. Some ecosystems fish species from one lake to another. One that depend on groundwater resources include example is the Nile perch, introduced into Lake aquifers, spring-type discharges associated Victoria in the 1970s. This has led to the extinc- with fault zones, dykes and sills, and flood- tion of around 200 fish species through its plains (Envirotek 2003). predatory activity. These include Cichlids Studies in the region have suggested that (Haplochromines) species, of which more than aquifer recharge responds disproportionately 100 known species have disappeared since 1987 to drought. The impact of drought is greater on (SADC/IUCN /SARDC 1996). aquifer recharge than the realised impact on the Semi-arid and arid regions have limited surface (Beekman et aI1996). The sustainability freshwater in the form of non-perennial and of ground water resources depends on the bal- ephemeral rivers, and are characterised by the ance between abstraction and recharge as over- absence of lakes. This is the case in the south- abstraction can lead to the depletion of the western part of southern Africa, including resource. Namibia and parts of Botswana and South Africa. Dams and Lakes Freshwater in southern Africa is found in a Wetlands number of artificial lakes or dams. Dams are Wetlands constitute an important source of built to store excess river run off and provide a freshwater in southern Africa. They have a secure long-term water supply. South Africa great ecological value as they provide a habitat and Zimbabwe have the largest number of for various floral and faunal species. They also dams in the sub-region and are globally ranked sustain the livelihoods of communities who number 11 and 20, respectively, in the top coun- depend on them for survival. Wetlands support tries with large dams (World Commission on river flow, ground water recharge, and are also Dams 2000). These dams are needed because of important in flood regulation and drought mit- the spatial and temporal variability of rainfall igation. in the sub-region. They are built to store water They reduce the flood peaks and reduce during the rainy season for use during the dry flow velocity due to their ability to store large season and they store water in order to convey quantities of water. The release of stored it, often over long distances, to areas such as water into streams and rivers as part of base- irrigation schemes, cities, industries and mines flow maintains dry season water supplies. where water consumption is high and exceeds Thus both people and wildlife converge on the capacity of nearby sources. wetlands during drought periods. Examples This is the case in the Gauteng Province of of important wetlands in southern Africa South Africa, which imports water from the include the Kafue Flats in Zambia; the Lesotho Highlands where the Katse and Okavango Delta and the Makgadikgadi pans Mohale dams have been built for this purpose. in Botswana; the Etosha pan in Namibia; and The Zambezi river basin has more than 30 large various dambos, pans and deltas scattered dams including the Kariba and Cahora Bassa, throughout the sub-region.
11 Estuaries and ecological value to the local communities Estuaries are the interface for tidal exchanges and Mozambique as a whole. Its fertile flood- between the saline waters from the sea and plains are important for recession agriculture, freshwater from rivers. They provide a unique hunting, fishing and for the abundant natural and rich habitat for various species. In addition resources. The delta and floodplain support to the Zambezi, major estuaries in the region abundant wildlife populations, including include the Limpopo, Rufiji and Cunene. The African Elephant, Cape Buffalo, Water Buck demand for freshwater that results in dams and the endangered Wattled Crane. They also being built upstream of estuaries has the poten- provide spawning grounds for riverine and tial to adversely affect the delicate balance brackish water fish, and dry season grazing between marine and freshwater in estuaries. lands for livestock and wildlife. The extensive The lower Zambezi valley, home to more mangroves and estuary support production of than one million people is of economic, social prawn fishery.
12 DROUGHTS AND FLOODS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA
everal factors can be attributed to the occurrence of droughts and floods in Box I Ssouthern Africa. These factors are both nat- Types of Droughts ural and human-induced. The incidences of t1eteao/qjaJJ ctou[/rt refers to a reduction in rainfallsupply compared droughts and floods in the sub-region not only with the average over a specified period. ' cause great suffering among the people but also have a great impact on the economies of the AgricuitJ.JraJ drought is a reduction in water availability below the opti- countries that are affected from time to time. mal level required by a crop during its different growth stages, result- More than 80 per cent of natural disasters in the ing in impaired growth and reduced yields. Agricultural drought sub-region are hydro-meteorological in nature relates to an imbalance in the water content of the soil during the and result from relationships among natural growing season, which although influenced by other variables such as hazards, climate, water management, the envi- the crop water requirement, the soil water-holding capacity and ronment, land use and human behaviour degree of evaporation, is also largely dependent upon rainfall (SADC/WMO,2001). amount and distribution. Drought may be considered in general terms, as a consequence of a reduction in the I-I}duIogiaJl ctou[/rt isthe impact of a reduction in precipitation on nat- amount of precipitation that is received, usual- ural and artificial surface and subsurface water resources. It occurs ly over a season. There are four types of when there is a substantial deficit in surface runoff below normal con- drought as described in box 1. ditions or when there is a depletion of groundwater supplies. Hydrological drought reduces the supply of water for irrigation and hydroelectric power generation. Factors that Exacerbate the Impact of Droughts and Floods Socio-e:rn:rric ctrxg7t refers to the impact of drought on human activ- The frequency and magnitude of droughts and ities.tt relates to a meteorological anomaly or extreme event of inten- floods vary from year to year, and from country sity and/or duration outside the normal range of events taken into to country. Droughts have a great impact on account by enterprises and public regulatory bodies in economic deci- the socio-economic activities and production sion-making,thereby affecting production and the wider economy processes in southern Africa affecting people's welfare, employment, income and health. There Wilhite. DA & Glantz. M.H 1985 are several factors that worsen the impact of droughts and floods. These factors are both nat- ural and human-induced, and they include such, the subsistence farmers are forced to cul- population pressure, poor land use practices, tivate extensively in the hope that they will poverty and climate change. increase output from their fields. Under condi- tions of poor cultivation methods, large areas Population pressure are exposed to wind and water erosion, caus- About 63 percent of the people in southern ing land degradation. The impact of drought Africa live in rural areas, depending heavily on and floods is worse on degraded land than on agriculture for livelihood.Under conditions of fertile land. relatively improved health care services, the population of the countries of the sub-region Inappropriate land use has been rising steadily at an annual growth Management of land and associated resources rate of around 2.6 percent (SADC 2000). In is important for maintaining a healthy environ- some countries, the population growth rate has ment. Conversion of land use such as forests to been higher than the economic growth rate. agriculture and settlements opens up the land The growth in population has meant that and results in the destruction of habitats for there has been increased demand for land on many species. Such land use changes increase which to grow crops and carry out other econom- the erosive force of wind, as well as decrease ic activities.In this regard, many of the previous- the porosity of the soil and its infiltration capac- ly pristine and vegetated areas of the sub-region ity. are now cleared for subsistence agriculture. Due In countries such as Malawi there has been to the relatively poor conditions in which most a sharp rise in the number of burley and flue- families residing on farms find themselves, they cured tobacco farmers. Burley tobacco is cured are unable to increase production through mod- with the sun's heat, while flue-cured tobacco is em farming means and inputs. fire-processed, mainly from firewood. The prices of farm inputs such as fertilisers According to Malawi's laws, burley growers in some of the countries in the sub-region are are required to plant a portion of their farm with beyond the reach of subsistence farmers. As trees for their farm activities. This requirement
13 has hardly been heeded, with many farmers Information regarding policies for environ- resorting to maximising production by opening mental and natural resources management is up more land (Government of Malawi 2000). not easily accessible by the majority of people The resultant land degradation is often blamed in southern Africa. Lack of knowledge about for worsening the impact of drought and what various laws say about agriculture and floods. water resources management result in some people farming on fragile hilltops and along Lack of awareness river banks. The situation is worsened by lack Apart from early warning systems, ineffective of enforcement of laws. In the case of awareness in much of southern Africa con- Zimbabwe for instance, the law does not allow tributes to the devastation with which floods cultivation along river banks, but gold panning and droughts are associated in the sub-region. has instead brought the same environmental Information is a vital tool in development challenges that would have equally taken place as it provides knowledge and awareness on if cultivation were extended to the river chan- critical issues affecting people and is essential nels. Sand mining in Malawi and small-scale for decision-making. However, lack of informa- mining result in serious erosion of river banks tion due to absence of research on the causes of and river catchment basins. and impacts of droughts and floods on the envi- ronment can be one of the factors responsible Poverty for the deterioration of the ecosystems in the The occurrence of droughts and floods in coun- sub-region. tries where people are already poor only exac- erbates their suffering and forces them into a cycle of poverty. Although poverty alleviation programmes have been established in the countries of the sub- region, it is essential that these programmes are adequately financed to avoid failure in some of their components. In Malawi for instance (Government of Malawi, 2003) the government started implementing the Malawi Poverty Reduction Strategy in April 2002and most of the activities under the programme were referred to as the Priority Pro-Poor expenditures. Poverty alleviation will also require increased food production which relies on, Land degradation - hill tops and slopes in Malawi among other factors, reliable access to water resources at the community level (SADC,1998). The provision of sufficient water can be accom- plished by expanding irrigation systems, improving water harvesting techniques ad implementing water and soil conservation practices (SADC, 1998).
Global warming and climate change Many countries in southern Africa are prone to recurrent drought episodes, which are associat- ed with the El Nine-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomena. Africa is the most vulner- able region in the world to the impacts of the Sand deposition in rivers of Thyolo District-Malawi projected changes in climate. A rise in global temperatures will amplify southern Africa's problems and further reduce economic growth, as resources will be diverted to deal with adapting to climate change rather than development. Climate change may also trigger weather patterns such as floods and severe droughts that are already frequent in the sub-region. Climate change will also greatly alter habi- tats, resulting in devastating impacts on wildlife numbers and location. These changes would have an impact on the national parks and would affect the health of grazing species Small-scale mining in Mozambique such as hartebeest, wildebeest and zebra.
14 It has been projected that there would be an nerable assets and resources. However, expect- average global temperature increase of 1.0- ed consequences are likely to be related to: 3.5°C, as a result of global warming induced by • Changes in sea levels; greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by the year • Increased surface temperatures; and 2100 (IPCC, 2001).This rise in global tempera- • Modification of the hydrological cycle. tures is likely to influence a corresponding rise In the case of Mozambique which is one of in mean sea level of about 0.09mm/yr rising to the eight coastal countries in the SADC region, 8.8 mm/yr in year 2100 (IPCC, 2001). The full any sea level rise would cause displacement of extent of climate change impacts on the envi- people. The other coastal countries are ronment in southern Africa may not be clearly Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, definitive due to varying global climate change Namibia, South Africa, Seychelles, Tanzania, scenarios, and the inadequate inventory of vul- Madagascar and Mauritius.
15 16 THE 2000-2003 DROUGHTS AND FLOODS
he period 2000-2003 was mainly a wet velocities attained as the rivers roar down the period interspaced with dry spells and escarpment result in devastating floods. Upon Tdroughts. Despite being spread across the entry onto the lakeshore plain the velocities period, the floods and droughts had significant reduce and huge silt and sediment loads are impacts on the economies of southern African deposited in the river channel restricting its countries. Livestock, property and infrastruc- conveyance. Flooding in this area has in the ture were destroyed. Following research work past damaged roads, bridges and other infra- carried out in December 2003 by CEDRISAthe structure almost every rainy season. impacts that these events had on the environ- The Songwe River which marks the northern ment in five southern African countries, boundary between Malawi and Tanzania is Malawi, Mozambique, Swaziland, Zambia and another system that causes severe flood damage. Zimbabwe, are presented. These impacts call Unlike other river systems, the Songwe is for a concerted effort and decisiveness in deal- renowned for its instability.The river changes its ing with droughts and floods in the region even course from one flood season to another. Thishas though they cannot be prevented. Mitigation devastating effectson both settlements and farm- measures need to be strengthened in order to ing activities along the banks of this river basin. reduce the suffering of people in the sub-region. The frequent changes of the river course also affect the position of the international boundary Malawi between the two countries. A feasibility study to During the period 2000-2003,Malawi faced one stabilise the river course by constructing major drought in 2001-2002and numerous flood upstream flood storage dams and riverbank pro- events. The 2001-2002drought affectedthe whole tection works was completed in 2005. of southern Africa, and is considered one of the The impacts of floods on the natural and major drought seasons in living memory. human environment are similar from country During the 2001-2002 drought season, to country. Flooding causes a lot of national dis- Malawi's national food security situation wors- tress, loss of life and property, destroys commu- ened, forcing the country to declare a food-dis- nication and infrastructure and kills both aster in February 2002. In July 2001, the domesticated and wild animals. Flooding Government of Malawi recognised the national brings about negative impacts to the natural supply of maize was short by 400,000 metric environment, people and infrastructure. The tonnes and decided to buy 700,000tonnes from socio-economic and environmental impacts local sources and import a further 150,000 include the following: tonnes (Government of Malawi, 2002). • Loss of agricultural land and crops e.g. in While floods occur anywhere in Malawi the Songwe River system. The flooding depending on weather conditions, there are five sometimes leads to long periods of water- basin systems in the country that experience logging extending for durations of about 2- severe flooding on a regular basis. These river 3 months. This situation does not enable basins are the Shire-Ruo River system, the Lake people to re-plant their crops (Malawi Chilwa Basin, the Lake Malawi littoral, the SW Government, 2003); Lakeshore and the Songwe Basin. • Damage to infrastructure such as water The Shire-Ruo River system is the only one supply, roads, bridges, and railways lines; that has a flood forecasting network in Malawi. • Loss of wildlife habitat and tourism infra- The network was established after realising the structure; huge magnitudes and destruction of the floods • Loss of homes especially in low lying areas, that occur in the Shire-Ruo river system. necessitating relocation and provision of The Limphasa and Luweya rivers experience relief items. frequent flooding within their basins, resulting in • Stagnant water left by floods increases the loss of life and property, damage to bridges and risk of human disease incidences such as roads, and the water logging of one of the coun- malaria, bilharzia, cholera, dysentery and try's most important agricultural schemes, the other waterborne diseases; Limphasa rice fields. The Limphasa River is • Loss of some vegetation that may be affect- flooded even when the river flows are as little as ed by high water levels or submergence; 40m3/ s. The flat topography of the lower part of • Severe erosion in upper catchments can the basin through which the river makes its way result in heavy siltation of river channels to the lake, does not lend itself to confining the which may affect hydropower generation flow within the river channel. as is the case with Shire River; and The SW Lakeshore catchment basin tran- • Forced government expenditure, usually sects plateau, escarpment and the rift valley accessed through loans, to offset the plains before entering Lake Malawi. High flow unplanned damage.
17 Table 3 Impact of Selected 2000-2003 Floods on Malawi's Socio-Economy
DATE/PERIOD EVENT LOCATION IMPACT 13 March 2
Source Govemment of Malawi (2003)
Table 3 gives an outline of floods that human-induced disasters. Three of the most occurred in Malawi during the period 2000-2003. significant disasters that affect Mozambique are The table also shows the extent of damage caused droughts, floods and cyclones. Droughts and on the environment. The impacts of these floods floods are normally seasonal, cyclical and occur in Malawi are similar to those in other countries in southern and central parts of Mozambique. except that the difference can be in the magni- Tropical cyclone Eline and others such as Delfina tude. In virtually all the instances of flooding, caused extensive socio-economic damage in government along with nongovernmental organ- Mozambique. Table4 below gives a chronology isations, the private sector and the donor com- of major floods that occurred in Mozambique munity assisted with disaster relief items in the during the period 2000-2003. form of food, clothing and shelter. There are six transboundary rivers that are prone to flooding in Mozambique. These are Mozambique the Zambezi, Shire, and Pungwe in the centre; The geographical location of Mozambique ren- and the Limpopo, Save and Incomati/Nkomati ders the country prone to several natural and in the south. Damage caused by droughts
18 Table 4 Flood Incidences in Mozambique During the Period 2000-2003 DATE/PERIOD LOCATION IMPACT 21- 29 Flooding along the Limpopo Damage to crops, vegetation, livestock and housing. 700 people February 2000 and the Incomati/Nkomati rivers displaced and 700 others killed;roads and bridges washed away. Flood described as worst in Mozambique's history
1-16 Flooding in the Zambezi basin Four relief centres opened to accommodate 5,000 displaced February 200 I following opening of two gates at people. Fifteen people died in flood-related incidences.There was Cahora Bassa Dam. This released an improved disaster coordination in 200 I and better advance 3,770 m3 of water per second warning systems compared to the previous years
January - Rivers risingto levels of medium Alternative measures were adopted by government to arrange for February 2002 to high flooding risk in parts of access to central services including educational institutions Mozambique following heavy rains in the central part of the mainland SADC sub-region 31 December Flooding in southern parts of There was localised inundation of crops and vegetation including 2002 Nampula Province and northern Mozambique due to tropical loss of habitat and deaths of a Cyclone Delfina number of wildlife species
28 February - Flooding following torrential rains There was widespread damage to crops, vegetation, livestock and March 2003 as tropical cyclone Japhet houses as the cyclone was characterised by winds with gusts of approached Inhambane, Vilankulo up to I40 km per hour. The crops that were damaged included and Gaza Provinces in southern maize, sorghum, rice and millet Mozambique
6-8 March Rise of the Runde and Save rivers There was a positive effect following the occurrence of cyclone 2003 from the remnants of the cyclone Japhet In the Lower Limpopo valley around Chibuko.The situation Japhet. Rivers rose to about flood helped to ease the plight of people in this area that had been level in the lower catchment of the undergoing through a period of drought in some minor flooding Save River,near the coast which resulted
Source Drought Monitoring Centre, Harare
Table 5 Droughts in Mozambique 2000-2003
DATE/PERIOD LOCATION IMPACT
December- Limpopo River Basin Reduced water availability in the wells, reservoirs and rivers in March 2002 the basin. March 2002 Southern and central regions of Reduction in crop yield, resulting in serious food shortages the country April 2002 Southern and central regions of General food insecurity due to continued El Nino conditions the country November 2002 Countrywide Insufficient rainfall to meet crop needs February 2003 Southern Mozambique Low moisture for crops February 2003 Southern Mozambique Inadequate water supplies for agriculture, domestic and industrial uses April 2003 Most of Mozambique Lower than normal crop yields. Hydrological deficits also affected drinking water and irrigation May 2003 Southern Mozambique Crop yield was negatively affected due to spotty areas of poor performing rains June 2003 South & Limpopo Basin Precipitation deficits of I50 to 400 mm caused water shortages across the sub-region
Source National Institute for Disaster Management (2002).
19 Helicopters rescuing people from floods
Flooding in Maputo after a storm includes degradation of land. This is exacerbat- ed by the local population exerting pressure on the dwindling natural resources during times of drought as communities experience loss of income and livestock. Droughts also result in scarcity of safe drinking water. Table 5 outlines the droughts that occurred in Mozambique during the period 2000-2003. The table also presents the impacts of these droughts on the environment. Droughts and floods can have varying impacts on the environment. The impact People stranded on a broken bridge depends upon magnitude of the drought or flood, and also upon how well systems are put in place to mitigate the disaster prior to its occurrence. In order to address the several dis- asters related to droughts and floods, the gov- ernment of Mozambique has put in place meas- ures to reduce the negative impact of droughts and floods on the environment. These include preparation of national contingency plans, and awareness raising campaigns targeting mainly the vulnerable communities. At institutional level, appropriate coordination mechanisms among government departments, NGOs, inter- national organisations, and the civil society for preparedness, response and recovery have been established through Mozambique's National Water purification plant donated by UMCOR Institute for Disaster Management in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation. problems. The CBDPP was prepared with par- The damage caused by the 2000 floods in ticular focus on the following issues Mozambique was estimated at US$600million (Government of Mozambique 2002): (Drought Monitoring Centre, 2000). The years to inspire the communities to be self-reliant 2000 and 2001 saw massive flooding in in the event of a disaster and refrain from Mozambique, particularly along the Limpopo, depending on external assistance; Save and Zambezi valleys. Reports indicate that to provide training for communities in in 2000alone, about 500,000people became envi- evacuation and rescue operations with the ronmental refugees in their own country as their assistance of the Mozambique Red Cross homes had been destroyed. In addition, 700peo- Society (MRCS); ple lost their lives as a result of massive flooding • to strengthen partnerships among govern- that occurred in the country (OXFAM2000). ment, NGOs and civil society; As a result of the frequency of disasters, • to promote disaster prevention; especially floods in Mozambique, the govern- • to define and allocate clear responsibilities ment has taken steps to establish a Community to communities, individuals, government, Based Disaster Preparedness Programme private sector and NGOs; (CBDPP)whose main objective is to encourage • to provide and access adequate expertise and engage· the community to participate and technology required for disaster man- actively in finding sustainable solutions to their agement;
20 Map I Map 2 Path of Cyclone Japhet in March 2003 Major Physiographic Regions
..
• to develop internal capacities of interest groups; • to provide adequate public education and awareness in disaster management, preven- tion and mitigation; and to undertake a zoning exercise of the most the Lushushwana River,a tributary to the .Usutu vulnerable districts in the country and River. Map 3 shows the drought risk areas in establish rapid response groups for disaster Swaziland categorised into three regions. management. Swaziland is also affected by floods. Floods cause great damage to infrastructure as well as Swaziland property in the country. The damage was par- Swaziland is prone to the occurrences of natu- ticularly severe after the 2003 heavy rains that ral disasters, such as droughts and tropical caused the Mnjoli Dam to spill. Due to high cyclones. The country experienced a major inflows the right river bank at the spillway of drought during the 2000-2001 rainfall season. Mnjoli Dam was eroded and created a 30 meter Over this period, the onset of rains was late and wide channel. The city of Mbabane experienced rainfall totals were below normal. The Lowveld flood-related problems due to the heavy rainfall region of Swaziland (see Map 2) was the most of November 28 2003. The Mbabane River affected, resulting in reduced crop yields. Some which flows through the city flooded the shops communities had to rely on food aid. The land- in the Mbabane Shopping Mall and most places scape in the Lowveld region is essentially bare which are built on the flood plain. and animals find it difficult to graze or browse. The 2002-2003 rainfall season was not good either, causing some Acacia trees to dry up. Map 3 The prolonged 2001-2003 drought resulted in Drought-risk Map of Swaziland low water levels in Swaziland's reservoirs such as dams. This has had an effecton the sugarcane companies which depend on water from the reservoirs. As a result irrigation companies were forced to use only a maximum of 70 per cent of their crop water requirements. The Lupohlo dam which stores water for hydropower generation was also running low due to low inflows from
Table6 Average Annual Rainfall and Temperature in Swaziland's Physiographic Regions
Physiographic Annual Rainfall Annual Temperature Region (mm) (oq
Highveld I 500- 900 17.6 - 16.3 Middleveld 810- 580 20.5 - 19.3 Lowveld <500 22.4 -21.3 Lubombo 710 19,2
21 Precipitation during the year 2000 was above average in most parts of the country and resulted in floods. However, there was a rainfall decline from 2000-2002and people in the severe drought risk region faced acute shortage of food. Drought relief started in July 2002 and by March 2003over 250,000people were recipients of food aid in the country (Government of Swaziland May, 2003). Rivers and reservoirs form the main water sources in Swaziland for domestic, industrial and other uses. The principal rivers are Lomati, Komati, Mbuluzi, Usutu, Ngwavuma, Pongola Impact of drought on communities (south Lowveld) and Lubombo. Pongola and Lubombo basins are small and under-utilised. Two major dams, the Maguga Dam and the MnjoliDam, supply water for agricultural activities, mainly sugarcane, and for domestic and industrial use and for livestock. Since 2001,river flows have been low especially during the winter seasons due to poor ground water recharge in the summer months. Since the Mnjoli reservoir supplies water for irrigating sugarcane, the low water levels reduced the sugar companies capacity to irri- gate their crop. The Maguga Dam, commissioned in 2002, started impounding water but due to the below-normal rainfall that Swaziland had Impact of the drought on the landscape (south east received between 2002and 2003,the dam could Lowveld) not reach its full supply level. The reservoir's storage reached the lowest level of less than 10 percent reservoir capacity in November 2003. Like the Mnjoli reservoir, the Maguga reservoir also supplies water to irrigation schemes for sugarcane and because of its low levels in 2003, this had a negative impact on the sugarcane output.Sugarcane irrigation in Swaziland con- sumes 96 percent of water requirements for agriculture. The crop is mainly grown in the Middleveld and Lowveld regions. Water allocation among consumers decreased with the advance of the season from 70 percent in March 2003to 30 percent of their nor- Impact of the drought on livestock (Siphofaneni, mal supply during the first week of December Lowveld) 2003 (Dlamini, 2003). During the floods of the
Graph I Graph 2 Water levels for Mnjoli Dam for period 2000-2003 Flows for the Usutu River at GS I6
300,------, 360 300 295-----.:. 260 290+------1 200 160 1\ .i1 V 100 60 I 275+------,.----.-----,.------1 o ~ ~~ J"'-" o 50 100 150 200 60 100 160 200 DAYS (JULYTO NOVEMBER) o Days (August to December) -WaterLevel2000-WaterLevel2001 .,--WateLevel20r -WaterLevel200302 1-Flows2oo1 - Flows2002 - FlOWS20031
22 2000 rainfall season, many people drowned while trying to cross flooded rivers and many communities were cut off from other communi- ties because bridges remained submerged for many days. The Mnjoli dam spillway was breached due to prolonged high flows. The left bank was eroded and a big opening was created separating the spillway structure from the bank. The spillway had not been repaired by December 2003. During the same period, it was also reported that 56 people died as a result of the floods. Dams in South Africa were reported to have released water to make Mbuluzi River flow on December 4, 2003 room for the incoming flood waters and this made the situation worse for Swaziland. As a result, flooded rivers in the country blocked vehicles for more than two weeks. Roads and Box 2 bridges were washed away while houses were Mbabane'shistoric flood damaged in the process.
MBABANE - The events of November 28, 2003 or wet Zambia Friday will by no means be forgotten in the near future The drought of 2000-2003 reduced Zambia's as unexpected torrents of rainfall swelled up the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). During this Mbabane River; which in tum flooded the city. The period, it was estimated that about 2.77 million floods caught people unexpectedly. The places that Zambians were deprived of food. In areas most were flooded, including the Mbabane shopping mall,are built in the floodway of the Mbabane River. affected by droughts and floods such as in the Western and Southern provinces, over 75 per- Friday's downpour was not the average terrible storm cent of the population was unable to feed itself. that Mbabane is used to. In fact, rt was reminiscent of the There are four major flood plains in 1984 Cyclone Domonia that resulted in extensive damage Zambia, and these are the Barotse on the of property including the loss of lives countrywide. The Zambezi, Kafue flats on the Kafue, Chambeshi 'angry' Mbabane River;which cuts through the city.was and Luapula floods plains. responsible for a trail of destruction as rt fiercely swept The Barotse floodplains of Zambia are of away everything that lay on rt:sbanks.The storm, accom- great cultural and environmental value. The panied by hailstones, began just after mid-day and sub- Barotse Royal ffi>tablishmentnoticed this value sided after 3 p.m. However; what was eyesore was the around the 18 Century and put in place by- aftermath of that storm. Businesses were greatly affected laws and mechanisms to preserve the flood- in that almost all the trading outlets including the Mall plains. Currently, the Kuomboka Ceremony were temporarily forced out of business. Mbabane resi- practised here by the Lozi people bring to dents were greatly inconvenienced by the floods and many of them headed back home rather disappointed Mongu the provincial capital of Western that they could not make their normal weekend shop- Province, some US$30,000 in food and hotel ping. Crowds of people would occasionally gather just accommodation for 3 days in a year. outside the vicinityof the Old Mall and watch workmen Drought-induced crop failures in Zambia cleaning the roads and clearing tree trunks and dirt that have been the most common disasters experi- came with the flood. enced in the recent past. On a local scale recur- rent droughts have led to the collapse of the tra- Musa Simelane, Mbabane. Swaziland ditional credit delivery system which focused mainly on maize seed and fertilizer inputs, crop
-. -.
The Mbabane River at the Mall with receding flows Siltation "bridges" for elephants on the Chongwe (November 28,2003) River
23 Floods in the Northern Province of Zambia caused significant and diverse effects,with both positive to negative impacts. Areas that were flooded include the Chambeshi River,especially in the Ndesa-Mumba area. Positive impacts brought about by floods in these areas included: • Increased rice yields in the Chambeshi River flats; • Improved food security for the communi- ties in the area; • Growth in fish stocks; • Improved income generation for local peo- ple; Cultural value of floods in Barotse floodplains-the • Increased groundwater recharge for the Kuomboka Ceremony aquifers; • Provision of an easy mode of transport between Mumba block and Chinsali, due to diversification, and contract farming arrange- the increased use of canoes to travel. ments especially for cotton, tobacco, paprika In Lusaka Province, the incidents of flood- and castor oil. Droughts are also associated ing brought with them better pastures for live- with a reduction in sizes of livestock herds. stock. People in the Barotse floodplain have Survival practices such as crop production relied on nutrient-rich silt brought in by the using slash and burn farming systems (locally floods. Every flood season brings with it fertile known as Chitemene), charcoal burning, timber silt from upland and crop production and out- logging and wild product collection e.g. grass, put is better than in other areas of the country. timber, fruits and reeds tend to increase during The Southern Province is the driest drought periods. province in Zambia.Despite its low rainfall, the Development has for a long time been guid- province was affected by floods, the last one ed by economic considerations, where exploita- being in the Gwembe Valley on March 17,2003. tion of resources for maximum benefits has The floods had the following negative impacts: been the norm and little regard paid to the side • displacement of fishing villages from the effects of development initiatives. As a result, valley; development projects impact negatively on the destruction of community dams which are environment causing ecological disturbances, used in small-scale irrigation and watering habitat destruction, and loss of animal and of domestic animals; plant species, desertification, soil loss and • high disease outbreaks, especially diar- floods became more and more prevalent. rhoea; Perhaps an overlooked and indirect conse- • blockage and destruction of road infrastruc- quence of drought is the influence it has had on ture, which hampered school children from the deterioration of health standards among peo- attending school; and ple. Drought affected areas of Zambia have expe- • high cost to government in rehabilitation rienced high prevalence of water-borne diseases works. such as cholera and dysentery. Cholera was offi- As a result of the 2002 drought in the coun- cially first recorded in 1979, became endemic try, the overall food security situation deterio- and resulted in high fatalities. Other non-bloody rated (Government of Zambia, 2002).About 28 diarrhoea cases were on the increase during the percent of the total population was in need of period 2000-2003with the highest cases of fatali- food aid between December 2002 and March ties reported in the Southern Province, and in the 2003. This was two percent higher than was Copperbelt. Disease outbreaks, particularly forecasted during an earlier assessment. anthrax drastically reduced livestock numbers in The beginning of the 2002-2003.agricultural the country in 2001. season was very disappointing as it was charac- terised by poor rainfall in terms of amounts received as well as distribution. After the first rains in late October to early November 2002, almost all parts of Zambia experienced a pro- longed dry spell (agricultural drought) up to the first week of December 2002.This condition was unfavourable for proper germination and crop growth. The early-planted crop that had already germinated suffered severe water stress to the extent of wilting. In many areas of south- ern parts of Zambia there was need to replant while in other areas, farmers delayed planting Chitemene system of agriculture until the rains were fully established. There was
24 a deliberate effort in the 2002-2003 season to Due to drought, maize production was too promote planting using conservation farming low to sustain the entire country and this natural- technology in southern Zambia. ly caused an increase in the price of maize. The As a result of a dry spell, there was reduced increase in the number of people requiring food yield during the 2003 harvest season. By the assistance in a number of areas could be attrib- first 10 days of December 2002, many parts of uted to sharp increase in maize prices after the country recorded below normal rainfall August making the commodity inaccessible to mostly in Eastern, Northern and Southern most households. The critical shortage of maize provinces. The rainfall deficits in these areas in most rural areas also made it difficultfor those were as high as 20 to 74 percent. The rainfall with the means, to purchase the commodity. picked up towards the end of the first 10 days Droughts and floods also caused an of December 2002.Nearly all areas of the coun- increase in Zambia's urbanisation rate. Due to try started receiving rainfall amounts food insecurity in the rural areas, migration to favourable for crop germination and growth. urban areas in search of employment was seen Floods during this period were confined to as a solution. Mbala District in the Northern Province and the southern half of Eastern Zambia. Zimbabwe The availability of cereals at the local mar- Zimbabwe faces many environmental chal- kets as a result of low production continued to lenges, including: be a major concern. ot only was the supply • Growing poverty and its attendant prob- of cereals low but also demand for marketed lems of resource over-exploitation; maize increased due to reduction in harvest. • Land degradation due to both human activ- This perpetuated food insecurity as rural mar- ities and natural phenomena, nd the kets continued having a critical shortage of impact these have on food security; grain. Consequently, people resorted to win- • Continued loss of forests due to over- ter cultivation as a drought coping strategy. exploitation; This strategy, first attempted in 2002 with the • Loss of biodiversity as a result of human aim of sustaining food security in the country, activities; will have serious repercussions on the ecosys- • Threat of alien species such as the water tem. hyacinth in some of the country's water The price of maize increased as the market- bodies; ing season progressed in most parts of the Water scarcity due to variability of rainfall affected areas. Large increases were observed in and ineffectivewater management measures, including pricing and pollution control; southern and south western parts of the coun- Atmospheric pollution due to industrialisa- try that were severely affected by 2001/2002 tion and other factors; drought. The highest price increases of 50 per- • Natural phenomenon such as drought and cent and above was observed in the southern climate change. and western parts of the country. This con- The main natural disasters that Zimbabwe firmed that grain shortage in most of the rural faces are droughts and floods. These have been areas were due to the drought. Consequently mainly linked to climate change and variability the government was compelled to import grain particularly in the last twenty years. Zimbabwe to feed those affected by the drought. is periodically affected by severe and prolonged In most of the food insecure areas, the price droughts, which may be interrupted by equally of livestock went down by August 2002. This devastating floods in some areas. Drought is an was a desperate measure by households in try- overriding factor in degradation of cultivated ing to cope with the food crisis situation that lands and rangelands in many parts of the resulted from the drought. The reason was that country, impacting on plant cover, livestock inadequate water caused the number of live- numbers, as well as on personal wealth of rural stock, particularly cattle, to decline either by people. Drought increases soil degradation slaughter for food or by death from diseases. problems, while soil degradation magnifies the About 38 percent of households could not culti- effects of the disaster. vate part of their land due to shortage of labour. Research shows that drought caused a 25 Only 17 percent of the households used oxen as percent reduction in volume of manufacturing the main source of draught power for cultiva- output, and a six percent reduction in foreign tion while 68 percent used hand hoes. The rest currency receipts during the 1991-92season in used either hired or borrowed draught power Zimbabwe. During that period, the Zimbabwe as the main source of power for cultivation Stock Market was identified by the (Government of Zambia, 2002). International Finance Corporation as the worst Another drought-related coping strategy was performer of 54 world stock markets, with a the adjustment on dietary intake. As much as 46 decline of 62 percent (Benson and Clay 1994). percent of adults were consuming only one meal With respect to floods, Zimbabwe has not per day. The effect of cutting down on eating been a flood-prone country and destruction times included malnutrition, miscarriages in from floods has been infrequent until very pregnant women and marital instabilities. recently. Before the devastating 2000 floods,
25 damage to crops for example occurred in the lowest floods are experienced in the dry western Zambezi Valley in the Muzarabani area due to part of Zimbabwe. This is due to low rainfall, rivers overtopping their banks. Floods are expe- and gentle slopes that are not conducive to rienced during the wet season, particularly in flooding. Floods in Zimbabwe often occur dur- January and February when most of the rivers ing and following storms. These floods usually experience their peak flows. The highest floods subside quickly,and rarely extend for more than are experienced in the Eastern Highlands due to 12 hours even on major rivers such as the high rainfall and steep slopes.As expected, the Munyati, Gwayi, Mazowe, Runde, and Save. During the period 2000-2003, Zimbabwe Map 4 experienced the worst flooding event in recent January 200 I Rainfall (mm) memory. The rainy-seasons of 2000-2001 and 2002-2003saw the country experiencing both drought and flooding events. The dry spell experienced at the beginning of the 2000/2001 season was followed by heavy rainfall which came through cyclone Eline in February 2000. eoo This led to water logging, flooding and loss of SlD crops, houses and household effects and live- 4110 stock in some districts. The 2000 floods caused aoo by Cyclone Eline affected four provinces: 31) Manicaland, Masvingo, Midlands and 100 Matabeleland South. 7U The 2000-2001season was not good either 40 for some areas. For example, the southern parts 10 of the country had their first effective planting o rainfall in January 2002,resulting in yet anoth- er poor harvest for the second consecutive sea- son. As the season advanced with more rain Map 5 coming in, these areas and those in the northern January Rainfall as Percent of Normal districts of the country in the Zambezi valley were flooded resulting in huge losses of crops, livestock and household effects. Muzarabani and Guruve were the most affected districts in the country during this period. Generally the 2001-2002season was charac- 200 terised by a prolonged drought experienced in laD January through to March 2002. The drought MO affected most of the southern Africa region 140 including Zimbabwe. A state of disaster was 1211 declared on 3 April 2002 and the Government 100 of Zimbabwe appealed for food aid. eo The 2002-2003rainfall season was charac- 10 terised by prolonged dry spells and patchy
40 rains particularly in the Midlands, and Matabeleland South and North provinces. However, the latter part of the second half of the season (january to March) saw the develop- Map 6 ment of various rain-bearing weather systems Total Rainfall as a Percentage of the Long-Term Mean including Cyclone Japhet which, led to flooding in Mashonaland Central, southern sections of Manicaland and Masvingo provinces. By January 2003 poor harvests were immi- nent for the 2002-2003 season as poor rains and reduced plantings were likely to reduce ,.•. gross output (see Figure 7). By mid January, ,.. cumulative rainfall was between 32 percent and 80 percent of average rainfall during this period, with large seasonal rainfall deficits in
as the southern and western areas of the country. When rainfall amounts fall below 75 percent of normal for a particular place in Zimbabwe for an extended period of time, a meteorolog- _l>r"' __ -~af-""""'_ -..J/"II ••••••• +M." ical drought is said to have occurred (Government of Zimbabwe 2003).
26 Cyclone Eline significantly compounded the Matabeleland North and South, some parts of effects of the unusually high rainfall in January Midlands as well as areas surrounding Rusape 2000,causing the worst Zimbabwean natural dis- in Manicaland Province to the east of the coun- aster in living memory. A State of Disaster was try. This was however, different from the expe- declared for four of the country's eight provinces: riences of 2000 when Cyclone Eline totally Masvingo, Midlands, Manicaland and changed the climatic and weather picture of Matabeleland South. The cyclone-induced flood- Zimbabwe. The cyclone influenced heavy con- ing was identified as one of the major disasters in tinuous rainfall with high wind speeds. The Manicaland, Matabeleland South and Masvingo areas which bore the brunt of the storms and Provinces (Government of Zimbabwe, 2000).The the subsequent inundation are Chimanimani, cyclone battered the country on the 22nd of Chipinge, Mutasa districts in Manicaland February 2000. Province; Chirumhanzi, Mberengwa districts in According to the Meteorology Services, Midlands Province; all six districts in the Cyclone Eline originated in Sumatra on 8 Matabeleland Province namely, Beitbridge, February 2000 and dragged westwards passing Gwanda, Plumtree, Insiza, Matobo and through Reunion Island. It then weakened Bulilimamangwe; and Chiredzi and Mwenezi whilst over Madagascar but strengthened again in the Masvingo Province. The main basins of before making landfall over Mozambique on 22 the Limpopo and Save Rivers in the southeast February 2000. The cyclone then progressed of the country were intensely affected by the into a strong inland cyclone and continued to impact of cyclone Eline, which came with high bring stormy conditions across southern Africa. winds and surges over a period of 36 hours As shown in Figure 8, the rainfall season of between 21 and 23 February 2000. the period 2002-2003had socio-economic and The cyclic events of droughts and floods in environmental repercussions on the country. southern Africa may point to changes in global The map compares the cumulative rainfall with climate. The observation that there is apparent the long-term mean across the country. The rise in global temperatures may further reveal map suggests a meteorological drought for why the occurrences of these extreme events are becoming frequent. If the predicted changes occur, there will be inevitable changes in Box 3 ecosystems and species are likely to become New maize variety resists dry conditions extinct, at least locally. It is likely that many of the currently threatened plant species will While most people countrywide will reap nothing from become extinct. It is also predicted that sea lev- their early planted maize crop this year, Flora Rusike of els will rise and that drier conditions will Goromonzi is among the few happy ones who will def- induce regional shifts in food production (as initely not starve this year, thanks to her decision to maize becomes unsuitable) and the availability experiment with the "dwarf" maize variety of water. Despite lack of a definite trend, the models used to predict the temperature change The early planted maize crop, which is about 30 per- for southern Africa confirm that the region will cent of the country's national maize plantings for the not escape the effects of global warming and 200 I12002, has been declared a write-off following a that the predicted warming will be less than persistent dry spell from last December. suggested previously by earlier estimates used Rusike says she will be able to feed until next year all in the 1990 IPCC assessment. While there is so eight of her grandchildren whom she does not live with, much weight on the negatives that climate her two workers, her husband Everisto and herself as change is associated with, there are however, she is expecting to harvest about two tonnes from her some positive spin-offs from such a change that dwarf maize crop. She grew the dwarf maize crop for the first time this year.The dwarf maize variety, which is Figure I resistant to dry weather conditions and excessive rain situations, is a fairly recent arrival in Zimbabwe. Access to Different Types of Water Sources in Thousands of farmers from her area have had their Zimbabwe maize crop wilted beyond recovery this year because of dry conditions for the past nine weeks. Deep wells 14,% They used the tall maize hybrid seed varieties. "I plant- ed this dwarf maize variety by mistake and I will not go hungry this year," Rusike said. She told The Daily NelN5 during a visit to her home last Wednesday: "I went to Harare to buy seed and was disappointed to find that Boreholes Pipe wate the SC709 maize seed that I used over the years was 56% schemes not there. Salespersons from the supermarket suggest- ed I buy the Super Dwarf AC71 '' 27%
Source The DailyNew: Monday 4 March, 2002
27 • Capture and translocation of elephants, roan, sable and waterbuck; and • Culling, by selecting the oldest and youngest, and leaving those with the great- est chance for survival. Droughts also influence animal behaviour especially with respect to what they choose as food. During droughts, baboons will resort to damaging vegetation through defoliation and debarking due to lack of other types of food. Extremely high temperatures contribute to bird and bat mortality due to high metabolism and hyperventilation. However, not all wildlife suf- fer negative effects from the drought. Many southern African countries would benefit from predators such as lions, leopards and hyenas including an increase in sardine and anchovy usually survive due to the high mortality rates distribution and quantities, particularly along of the herbivores. Lions in particular, find it eas- the west coast of Namibia. Nonetheless a tem- ier to kill the weak animals at water points. perature rise of 1.50C shows indications that Other creatures such as rodents and insects this would cause: are also witnessed after droughts as they come Drying up of large parts of the sub-region; out in battalions and may waste the very little Decline of grasslands that will be replaced that people may have harvested during drought by thorn savannas, dry forest expansion, periods. The massive build up in population of and general desertification of most parts of these creatures is because of the factthat their nat- the region; ural predators - snakes, frogsand small birds per- Biodiversity in 15-20 percent of national ish during the drought. Therefore, droughts parks affected by changing conditions; result in the breakdown of the ecologicalsystem Variation in runoff; and it can take up to several years for nature's • Crop yields increasing overall, but with balance to be restored. In the case of Zimbabwe, larger variability; impacts of drought on wildlife are most felt in the • Changes in the distribution of disease yield- National Parks particularly Gonarezhou National ing insects. Park due to its location in agro-ecologicalregion Drought problems go deeper than just the V,which is one of the driest in the country. availability of surface water. The water-table is The timber industry in Zimbabwe con- usually lowered if an area is hit by recurrent tributes about eight percent to the total manufac- droughts. Available data also reveals that turing industry and three percent to Gross approximately 50-60 percent of the shallow or Domestic Product. However, the contribution of family wells, which are common in Zimbabwe's forestry to the informal economy in the form of natural regions r. II and m. dried up. fruits, food security,firewood (which accounts for In the urban areas most water service 70percent of rural energyt browse and leaf litter, providers resort to water rationing for domestic rural agriculture, building materials, medicine and industrial use. However, water intensive and woodcraft industry is possibly more than industry's such as beer brewing and food pro- that of the formal sector.Firerisks associated with cessingare severely affected.Reduced runoff, and drought conditions are very high.The high tem- hence water resources also has an impact on peratures experienced create conditions con- tourism, wildlife and water supply for recreation. ducive to devastating veld fires,which apart from Drought events are known to cause high mor- destroying fauna and flora, also destroy forests tality in wildlife. Drought occurrences in and pollute the environment. Zimbabwe have led to an overall reduction in Sawing and drying timber from dying trees species diversity and plant biomass in dryland during droughts or timber from fire damaged ecosystems.Grazing animals normally travel long trees presents problems due to reduced mois- distances in search of food and water due to poor ture content in the timber. Drought affected grazing coupled with water scarcity.Because of eucalyptus timber splits more easily after felling poor pastures, the mortality rate among grazing and does not debark easily. Delayed felling and animals increased during the 2000-2003period, thinning worsen the effects of drought due to especially the larger species like hippopotamus competition for moisture, and it is recommend- and buffalo. In the case of hippopotamus their ed that felling and thinning operations be car- exposure to intensive sun and heat during ried out at the normal times. droughts results in blisters and cracks on their In terms of agriculture, drought mainly caus- skin which lead to dehydration and death.. es land degradation particularly of cultivated Human interventions used during droughts land and rangelands. There is a greater impact to save wild animals have included: from wind after a long dry spell. Subsequently, Provision of sugar cane tops and hay to hip- soil from the cultivated land will be blown away. pos and buffalos; In addition, sheet erosion easily sets in particular-
28 ly at the early stages of the rainy season. During drought periods, the roots of perennial grasses are unable to survive while annual grasses fail to seed. The effects of droughts are worse in areas where there are poor land management practices. Droughts therefore expose the land to the many agents of erosion and act as major catalysts in land degradation. Due to depressed growth of vegetation, ani- mals tend to browse species which they normally do not feed on. Therefore, the ecosystem is great- ly disturbed during drought period and a virtu- Forest plantation in Zimbabwe ous cycle of drought - desertification - more drought may result. Desertification amplifies the impacts of drought by magnifying plant moisture stress because of poor moisture retention capaci- ty of degraded landscapes. The more visible man- ifestations of desertification include accelerated soil erosion by wind and water, salt accumulation in the surface horizons of dry land soils, a decline in soil structural stability with an attendant increase in surface crusting and surface runoff and a concomitant reduction in soil infiltration capacity and soil moisture storage, and replace- ment of forest or woodland by secondary savan- Agriculture nah grassland or scrub. The worst hit sector by drought is agriculture and the impact is most severe in dry-farming areas. Marginal land is river banks are damaged by increased more vulnerable to degradation. Although soil dambo agriculture and gold panning, and loss due to water erosion slows down during trees are felled for charcoal production and drought periods, when the rain comes, erosion firewood provision. rates go up much higher than during dry years The encroachment of human settlements in due to lack of plant cover and the crushed soil. flood prone areas as people decide to locate in Drought can lead to increased poverty of the wetter areas and avert drought effects,combined rural people, as agricultural yields often decline with extensive landscape alteration as seen in the to zero and livestock numbers reduce. In May Save and upper Limpopo catchment in 2003, the Daily News reported that Zimbabwe's Zimbabwe predisposes human settlements to dis- national herd had dropped significantlythreaten- astrous floods. For example the land pressure in ing the viability of the country's beef industry. urban areas such as Harare often results in The decline was partly blamed on reduced out- unplanned settlements occurring in flood prone put due to the teething problems of the country's urban wetlands, which in the urban plans would land reform programme; massive de-stocking by have been set aside as non-residential areas. The farmers evicted from their land; drought; as well conversion of catchment areas to roof surfaces as stock feed and vaccine shortages. and surfaced roads, and reclamation of wetland People in the rural areas are greatly affected areas, causing rapid delivery of catchment runoff by the effects of drought. Their crop production to the stream channel increases the risk to human drops, animals die and this forces them to seek life in such unplanned wetland settlements. alternative sources of livelihoods. The 2000- Consequently, droughts experienced in the 2003period has seen people scramble for what- sub-region have led to the exacerbation of pover- ever resources are accessible and remaining. ty among the communities in southern Africa. Consequently, there is a lot of deforestation for Typicallythe poorest families lack the capacity to the sale of fuel wood as a source of income. cope with stress, and suffer acute difficulties,such Illegal gold panning in Zimbabwe is said to be as sickness and economic impoverishment. on the increase in Matabeleland South, Natural disasters and economic crises claim their Midlands and Mashonaland West during the victims from among these vulnerable sections of drought periods. The main effects of drought on society.Besides the direct humanitarian costs of the lives of communities include: drought, its potential for causing unrest, mal- declining income sources across all strata. nourishment related health disorders and espe- This is mainly because some of the activities cially its synergy with HIV and AIDS and loss of depend on water availability (e.g.market gar- productivity can have far- reaching economic dening, beer-brewing, brick-making etc):and impacts. Hydropower generation is a critical ele- • reduction in incomes during drought is also ment of the development and industrialisation accompanied by an intensification of other activities in the sub-region. For instance, in the income-generating activities, leading to 1991-1992 drought the lost production from increased land degradation. For example, Kariba was estimated at hundreds of million dol-
29 lars in direct revenue, but the ripple effectsresult- tricity usage in the country. ZESAintroduced the ed in loss of over 2000jobs in Zimbabwe. In addi- quota system which entailed some of the follow- tion, when urban water supplies are restricted ing: because of drought, there is danger of cholera Consumers were allocated a monthly quota outbreaks as sanitation breaks down. For exam- of electricity adjusted to available supplies ple, the most severe cholera outbreak for the City and national priorities; of Mutare in Zimbabwe was associated with ZESAwould levy consumers who exceeded drought. their monthly quota an additional charge; An assessment of water and sanitation serv- Load shedding would be used during sys- ices carried out by the Institute of Water and tem breakdown or major loss of generation Sanitation and UNICEF in Zimbabwe in May with or without prior warning; and 2002 highlighted a deterioration in community • The electricity supply authority introduced access to these services particularly in the rural a regular information campaign aimed at areas due to drought, cyclone- induced floods, a assisting consumers to understand the reduction in budgetary allocation and the land power curtailment measures. reform programme. It was found that communi- ties had shifted their attention from rehabilitating damaged structures to spending more time seek- ing food during the humanitarian crisis that was being experienced during the time. Damage to infrastructure was mainly expe- rienced during the floods in the 2000-2003peri- od. In Zimbabwe, most of road systems were designed on historical data concerning proba- bilities of severe flooding. Bridges were con- structed to accommodate anticipated peak dis- charges while road crest heights and drainage were designed to remain above floodwaters at Drinking water from urban water supply source anticipated precipitation intensity. In urban areas, street storm drains were designed to min- imise street flooding during storms. However, the experience with recent floods in Zimbabwe suggests that the design limits of these public works may now be exceeded more frequently. The disruption of the road network and damage to, and sweeping away of bridges cut off the population's life-line of supplies in areas such as food, fuel and services, in general (Government of Zimbabwe, 2000). In addition, falling trees by the storms severed telecommu- nications and electricity lines resulting in loss of Large industries depend on water for their operations contact with the rest of the country and power for driving economic activities. Damage and destruction to clinics, schools, drinking - water sources as well as boreholes and irrigation schemes during Cyclone Eline serious- ly disrupted the lives of the people in the affected areas. Japhet, the cyclone that had traversed from the Mozambique Channel through Mozambique into Zimbabwe, only worsened the situation in Mashonaland Central and Manicaland provinces of Zimbabwe. Roof tops were blown off, roads damaged and crops destroyed. The Chimanimani area experienced a few landslides, Drilling for disaster preparedness in Mozambique however there were no fatalities. The reduction in the inflows to the Kariba reservoir substantial- , ly reduced the level of hydropow- er available to both Zambia and Zimbabwe. As a result of critically low water levels during drought periods, the Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority (ZESA) took drastic measures to curtail elec- Rain harvesting barn and simple conservative irrigation techniques
30 IMPACT OF DROUGHTS AND FLOODS
Droughts • Drought conditions are generally unpleas- Extreme hydro-meteorological events in south- ant, with high temperatures; ern Africa are not a new phenomenon. What • Prices of commodities are usually high as seems to be for certain however is that droughts entrepreneurs want to maximise their prof- and floods are becoming more and more devas- its at the expense of people's suffering; tating especially on the environment including • Corrupt practices may result in the public, their ever-rising toll on people's lives and their private sectors and among ordinary people; property. On the other hand, floods can both be • There is a growing culture among people in beneficial and undesirable. There are those that southern Africa to rely heavily upon govern- occur seasonally in the many flood plains of ments for handouts. Even in the event of a southern Africa and those that are instantaneous good season the dependency syndrome that and often devastating. They can be culturally has been cultivated, has made people to be useful such as in the case of the Kuomboka less creative.The capacity for innovations and Ceremony of the Barotse people of Zambia or creativeness seems to be dwindling away. socially and economically devastating as the var- In September 2000 the Drought Monitoring ious case studies have demonstrated in this book- Centre together with the Botswana let. The incidences of floods in the sub-region had Meteorological Services convened a climate out- multiple effectson the lives of people, their prop- look forum to formulate consensus guidance for erty and also on the economies of the countries in the October 2000-March2001season for the sub- general as well as on the environment. region. The forum reviewed the state of the glob- Droughts in the sub-region have occurred al-ocean atmospheric system and its implications with varying magnitude. Some droughts have for the southern African sub-region. Among the been serious and have occurred for an extended principal factors taken into account were the La period while others have been light and over a ina episode which had been observed to be short period. During the period 2000-2003 dying down and the sea surface temperatures southern Africa received normal to above nor- which were then nearing average and were pre- mal rainfall across the entire sub-region, with dicted to remain near normal for the following six the exception of Lesotho, the central part of months (DMC, 2002). Using ocean-atmosphere South Africa and the northern half of Tanzania. models and physical-based statistical models, the Some dry spells were observed at the beginning experts had predicted that most of the sub-region of the season which were followed by heavy would receive normal to above normal rainfall down pours throughout the countries of the during the period October 2000 to March 200l. sub-region except for Tanzania and the However, for the period October to December Democratic Republic of Congo (DMC 2002). 2000,the northern part of the sub-region includ- Therefore this was a relatively wet period even ing north eastern Angola, the southern half of though there were dry spells existing in some DRC, northern Mozambique and Tanzania, parts of the sub-region. would have normal to below normal rainfall. Droughts in southern Africa have resulted in These predictions were correct and what uncompromising conditions on both people and was to occur was more than the predictions had the environment with many communities suffer- revealed. Heavy rains caused by a tropical ing from prolonged hunger and poor nutrition. depression in January caused flooding and Some of the consequences of drought are: water logging in Mozambique and South • Many people are prone to disease during Africa. This was followed by a tropical cyclone drought periods; Eline which brought in heavy rainfall within the • In cases of deficiency in water supply, peo- sub-region especially in Mozambique. Apart ple especially those in the rural areas turn to from heavy rains the cyclone was also associat- any sources that may provide water for ed with strong winds which caused heavy dam- their needs. However, these may also be the age to infrastructure and crops in parts of same sources where wildlife and livestock Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa and drink, and because the sources are unpro- Zimbabwe. Another cyclone, Hudah, developed tected, users of the water may contract at the end of March resulted in late cessation of water-borne diseases; the rainfall season in the sub-region. However, • Although more research is needed, it can parts of southern and northern Mozambique reasonably be deduced that droughts influ- and Zambezi Valley between Zambia and ence the beginning and growth of desertifi- Zimbabwe experienced drought conditions. cation of land. Under dry conditions soils Droughts in southern Africa are responsible are hard and may crack and bush fires are for a number of changes both on the natural common; and human environment.
31 Surface water Table 7 Droughts have resulted in declining amounts of Chronology of Droughts in Southern Africa both surface and groundwater resources due to inadequate amounts of rainfall to replenish stor- PERIOD EVENT age in rivers and groundwater sources (Malawi Government, 2001).This situation impacts nega- 1800 - 1830 Southern African rivers, swamps and other water tively on water supply schemes which are affect- bodies dried up and some well-watered plains turned into semi-arid Karroo ed by the variability of seasonal run-off, since most schemes rely on direct abstraction from 1820 - 1830 This was a decade of severe drought throughout Africa rivers (Malawi Government, 2001). 1844 - 1849 Southern Africa experienced five consecutive The droughts of the 2000-2003period like drought years those that occurred earlier, are responsible for 1870 - 1890 This period was humid in some areas and former the deficiencies in water supply experienced by Lake Name filled up in the northwest of Botswana both urban and rural areas in the countries of 1875 - 1910 There was a marked decrease in rainfall in southern this study. Due to inadequate rainfall, rivers Africa, and 19I0 experienced a severe drought and streams flow below their normal discharge 1921 - 1930 There was a severe drought in all of southern Africa rates and the remaining runoff is shared between people, and the environment. The high 1930 - 1950 Southern Africa experienced dry periods alternating with wet seasons and in some years the rains were evaporation rates experienced in most parts of very good. The I946-47 season experienced a severe the sub-region makes the situation worse. drought During the year 2002, the water situation in Zambia was said to be slightly better than dur- 1950s There was abnormally high rainfall in some parts of the region ing the previous season as the annual mean flow of most of the rivers was slightly above 1967 - 1973 This period was dry across the southern Afncan average.Following a government policy to region.The equatorial region (including the DRC) expand access to water sources in drought- experienced above-average rainfall. prone areas meant that water availability did 1974 - 1980 This six year period was relatively moist over much of not deteriorate so much during the drought of southern Africa. In 1974,the average annual rainfallwas 2002 to impact negatively on people, livestock I00 percent above normal throughout the sub-region and agriculture (Zambia Vulnerability 1981 - 1982 Most of southern Africa experienced drought Assessment Committee, 2003). 1982 Most of sub-tropical Africa experienced drought Serious shortages of water caused by 1983 This year saw a particularly severe drought for the droughts often lead people to take desperate entire African continent measures that see them survive the occurrence. 1985 Conditions improved These measures may include relocating from a settlement to another, which is close to a river, 1986 - 1987 Drought conditions returned lake or wetland. Migration to these areas breeds 1991 - 1992 Southern Africa experienced the worst drought further negative consequences due to the needs in livingmemory of the people. Often new settlements will lead 1992 - 1993 Conditions slightly improved but the previous year's to clearing of land for wetland agriculture and drought effects carried on settlement which was otherwise left untouched. 1993 - 1994 Conditions improved While people will carry out these actions for 1994 - 1995 Many of the countries in the SADC region were hit by survival, they mayor may not be aware that the worst drought in memory surpassing the effects of these actions would lead to soil erosion and the drought of 1991 -92 in some parts of the deposition in rivers and streams. Consequently sub-region the pressures exerted on the river banks 1995 - 1996 Widespread rains in most part of the sub-region through wetland agriculture may often lead to prompting forecasts of bumper agricultural season drying up of the rivers themselves. People are often not aware of environmental 1999 - 2000 Southern Africa receives very heavy rains as a result of tropical cyclone Eline that caused extensive damage consequences of their actions and public educa- to both primary and secondary road networks, bridges tion and awareness is therefore important. One of and dams in some countries of the sub-region the goals of the Malawi National Environmental Policy is "to enhance public awareness of the 2000 - 2001 Southern Africa receives normal to above normal rainfall across the sub-region, except for Lesotho, the central importance of sound environmental understand- part of South Africa,and the northern half of Tanzania ing of various environmental issues and partici- pation in addressing them." Such a goal would, 2001 - 2002 Southern Africa experiences abnormally high rainfall with appropriate actions, go a long way in edu- and disastrous floods causing damage to infrastructure cating people to understand how intrinsically and loss of lives and property environmental issues are linked. 2002 - 2003 The sub-region experiences normal to above normal Women are the most disadvantaged group rainfall of society during droughts. Households headed Source Chenje, M. and Johnson, P. (eds.), INlter in Southern ,A/rica, SAOGIUCN/SAROC, Maseru/Harare, 1996, p3S. N::RB: Information for 1999-2003 has been added from the by women and children are the most vulnera- results of this research. ble, as they are generally the poorest with limit- ed assets to buy food at inflated prices. In times
32 of water scarcity, they are forced to walk long Due to inadequate sanitation facilities,the bacte- distances to fetch water for their families. riologicalquality of major rivers is poor through- Under conditions of competition for water, out the year. Three quarters of the rivers in women often have to wake up in the early Malawi show faecal coliform counts in excess of hours of the morning to rivers and streams to 500per 100ml in the dry season, which is signif- fetch water; a situation which exposes them to icantly above World Health Organisation guide- attacks by wild animals. lines. About 50 per cent of all illnesses in Malawi Since the water is usually carried in small are attributed to water borne diseases containers on the head, it is not sufficient for (Government of Malawi, 1998). Therefore this cooking, washing and bathing. As a result, dur- condition becomes even more disastrous during ing drought, sanitation is often made much poor- periods of drought as there is insufficient water er resulting in people becoming more vulnerable in river channels to adequately dilute the wastes. to disease. Even where food is available, intake While periods of normal and above normal may be reduced as a result of scarcity or mere flows into and out of the wetlands enable these absence of water. In Mozambique for instance, it ecosystems to self-purify,it is difficult for wet- is reported that conditions are severe."More than lands to carry out this function during droughts. 70 percent of the people of the central provinces Disposal of waste such as effluents and other live below the poverty line - over one million chemicalsinto wetlands during droughts heavily people depended on food aid in early 2003,and pollutes them and may result in eutrophication, that number is rising rapidly." growth of aquatic weeds, death of aquatic plants Recurring floods, drought, and chronic dis- and animals, collapse of fisheries and loss of the ease keep thousands at the subsistence level of aesthetic value of the ecosystem. Generally,dur- farming with few opportunities for growth ing incidences of drought, there is an incr~asein (Oxfam, 2003). Even as farmers cope with the spread of diseases particularly water-borne drought today, aid agencies continue housing diseases such as diarrhoea and cholera. and latrine reconstruction in the wake of the Dependence on wetlands for water supply terrible events of 2000and 2001(Oxfam, 2003). makes people vulnerable to incidences of disease especially where the ecosystems are also deposi- Wetlands tories of waste. These diseases hinder productiv- Wetlands play very important functions in the ity among people and as a consequence, make natural environment including groundwater them dependent on others for their basic needs. recharge, flood control, water quality control, food chain support, storm protection, water Agriculture transport and recreation (Breen C. M. et al, While agriculture is the single largest employer 1997). However, consequences of drought on in southern Africa, droughts result in severe wetlands can be devastating both for the wet- hardships for both the smallholder farmer and lands themselves and the people who depend the large-scale commercial farmer. Water scarci- on the wetlands. ty due to drought leads to loss of soil moisture As wetlands are unable to receive normal essential for plants and vegetation. As a result inflow of water during droughts, their extent farmers are forced to delay planting their crops decreases, as well as the volume of water they in anticipation of good rains. However, intensi- are able to hold. As a consequence, very little fication of dry spells and drought may only recharge of groundwater takes place. While force them to abandon planting all together many people in southern Africa, especially since they are heavily dependent on rain-fed those in the rural areas, depend on groundwa- agriculture (UNEP,2002). ter, the drying up of boreholes as a result of The occurrence of seemingly good rains at poor aquifer recharge means that people are the beginning of the season has many a time unable to gain access to water for purposes of made farmers plant with high expectations of a cooking, bathing, washing and watering ani- good year. However, the creeping in of dry mals. This scarcity leads to animal deaths, poor spells and drought results in wilting of crops or nutrition, poor sanitation as well as added complete crop failure due to loss of the required responsibilities for women to fetch water from moisture. Crop failure is most common in many those areas that are able to offer some. plateau areas of the southern Africa sub-region In Malawi, effluent from industries in where drought occurs unlike in those areas urban areas and agricultural estates in the rural where there is some reasonable water supply areas has created negative environmental con- such as in valleys of the major river systems. sequences. Chemical contamination of stream Communities that solely depend on agri- water in urban and peri-urban areas is becoming culture, especially subsistence agriculture in a common problem due to improper disposal of southern Africa, are most vulnerable to drought waste. The absence of proper biological and since it is the only source from which they are physical conservation in farmers' fields leads to able to secure food and income. Complete crop pollution of the aquatic environment by agro- failure leads to food insecurity for many house- chemicals such as nitrous compounds through holds. As a result, families are forced to secure run-off water (Government of Malawi, 1998). other means of sourcing food. They may be
33 forced to log trees from conservation and pro- tions are a necessary catalyst for loss in soil tex- tected areas for charcoal to sell in urban areas so ture, wilting and drying up of plants and vege- that they can use the income for buying food. tation, and this leads to many areas becoming Consequently, this leads to deforestation of barren. As the land is not protected from its nat- prime areas. Food insecurity also entrenches ural cover of vegetation, crusting and sheet ero- poor nutrition in many households and the sit- sion take their toll. In those communities where uation is most grave in female-headed families. livestock are plentiful, further grazing on Under desperation, families may be forced to already impoverished land aggravates the situ- lose some of their assets by selling them or ation. During rains, these lands are susceptible exchanging them for food. to severe erosion because the soil is unable to Because grazing becomes difficult during hold together resulting in excessive deposition drought periods, families are unable to keep of soil in river channels. large herds of animals and are most often The effects of droughts and floods are com- forced to sell some for income. Such losses lead plementary. With high erosion and severe dep- these families into a situation of further insecu- osition of the load in rivers, the configuration of rity especially among those communities who channels changes, resulting in the rise of the depend on livestock as part of a life-long insur- river bed and making the river channel unable ance and security. to contain any floods that may occur. Most Crime is also rife during difficult times. The often, this is part of the reason why many river absence of food in the home may drive many valleys are flooded wiping the crops, settle- people to resort to crimes such as theft, prosti- ments and people in the near neighbourhood. tution and plundering. These unlawful actions, In societies which entirely depend on land while aimed at solving the immediate chal- for their survival, land degradation is a harsh lenges being faced by families breed other punishment to the people as this is permanent undesirable aftermaths such as imprisonment, dent to the very resource upon which their disease and murder. People are therefore made livelihoods depend. Under conditions of poor even more vulnerable to situations which they soil fertility, eroded fields, coupled with the would not otherwise have gone through. inability to secure appropriate and adequate The failure of crops in agriculture during farm inputs due to their high costs, people are drought leads people into a cycle of poverty as unable to produce adequate food for consump- they may not even have the ability to secure the tion and sale and the land does not offer them necessary income required for the agricultural any promise for advancement. inputs for the following season. As a result, they simply look to the government for assistance - a Forests condition that is becoming common in recent Both natural and exotic forests are an important times. This situation does not allow for people, national asset for southern Africa. The impor- especially smallholder farmers, to be self-reliant tance of forests in the sub-region is diverse as and usurps them of the confidencein agriculture they offer essential products such as timber, leading many male farmers to relocate to urban construction material, fuel wood, edible plants areas in anticipation of employment. and animals, medicinal products, as well as Poor harvests in agriculture for those coun- protect land and are a habitat to wildlife. tries that depend on the industry mean that they The pressures on forest resources are aggra- are unable to secure the necessary quota for vated by poverty characterising southern export to generate the much needed foreign African societies. Loss of arable land due to exchange earnings. Droughts also forcecountries droughts is cause for many people to relocate in the sub-region to import food using those from their otherwise once fertile land, degraded resources which would otherwise be needed in by drought and encroach into forest reserves for other sectors such as health or education. settlement, cultivation, grazing and sometimes for logging trees to produce timber and char- Land resources coal for sale. Even in the presence of standing Droughts are responsible for the malfunction- forest regulations which prevent people from ing of ecosystems and can cause severe changes the wanton cutting down of trees in these on the environment. Due to scarcity of water in reserves, people have no choice but to infringe wetlands, rainforests, marshes, swamps and upon the law in order to survive. lagoons and other such environments, com- The destruction of forests as a result of the plete changes may occur with loss of valuable pressures people face in the wake of droughts, plants and animals. leads to further land degradation in pristine Deaths of wild animals and plants occur as a zones thereby depleting the national potential result of absence of water. Some of these plants of producing or providing essential products and animals may be endemic to particular loca- and services required in national development tions or countries and are an important national and growth. The essential services that forests asset necessary for the tourism industry. offer in environmental protection are therefore Prolonged droughts in southern Africa compromised by people's actions because they expose the region to desertification. Dry condi- are unable to lead a secure and productive life
34 as a result of extreme events such as droughts. year. Other important food crops, such as cow- Often, conflict has developed between people peas, groundnuts, sweet potatoes and pump- and government based on whether there is kins also failed. sense in keeping wildlife in national parks and In Zimbabwe, the mid-season dry-spell in wildlife reserves at the expense of people's life. January 2001 affected crop production in the The land is often dry as a result of drought, southern areas while isolated flooding in and this exposes forest ecosystems to forest February and March dampened prospects in fires. As a result, inferior forest species are the northern districts (SADC,2001).Food secu- destroyed and sometimes fires may cause rity projections for the 2001-2002 marketing deaths to wild animals. year indicated an overall cereal deficit of In times of drought forests may provide for 846,000tonnes. Rainfall in the 2001-2002season the basic needs of rural communities including was characterised by below normal rainfall in food items. Wild vegetables are known to have the October to December period in the northern saved many lives in drought-stricken areas in parts of the country and heavy falls during the Malawi during the 2000-2003period and their first half in the southern parts. protection becomes even the more important. The 2001-2002crop production was the low- est in the 12-yearperiod from the 1990-1991sea- Food security son. The poor rainfall season resulted in stunted During the period 2000-2003, Malawi, growth in most crops, high levels of plant pest Mozambique, Swaziland, Zambia and infestation and temporary and permanent wilt- Zimbabwe experienced both drought and floods. ing of crops (Zimbabwe Herald, 2002). Sixteenmillion people were exposed to hunger in However, a report by the Fami e Early the months that followed one of the worst Warning System Network (FEWSNET in July droughts in a decade. Rainfall had been erratic, 2002 noted that while crops had suffered, the insufficient at best, and destructive at worst condition of grazing livestock continued to be (CARE,2001).Hundreds of thousands of families good throughout the country. The report said throughout the region could not grow adequate that livestock in drought-affected areas, such as food to survive. Farmers had less to sell. parts of Buhera and Beitbridge districts, were The late start of the planting season as a being moved to nearby areas with adequate result of droughts in many parts of Malawi grazing and that water for livestock was gener- caused panic among many and resulted in mas- ally available. sive food shortages that affected as many as 3.2 million people. Households were unable to Floods grow enough maize, the national staple food, to Floods in southern Africa have become more sustain families. As if this was not enough, the frequent and they take different forms. In some occurrence of the tropical cyclone Delfina exac- cases especially in relatively flat areas, flooding erbated the crisis, damaging crops and destroy- involves total inundation of homes and infra- ing infrastructure such as telecommunications, structure and water may be stagnant for weeks. roads, bridges and irrigation canals. A late start Under such conditions,the effectsofflooding to the winter planting season also affected the are not instantaneous but gradual. For instance, winter crop yields. houses may continue being destroyed as they In Mozambique, the government had estab- become weaker at the foundation and animals lished that the effects of the 2000drought were may die due to loss of access to food. For plants still being felt by people where some 1.4million and vegetation that do not like wet feet, they too people were seriously affected. An additional die away. Flooding may also occur along river two million people were at risk as a result of the channels where the flood water overflows the destruction that had been caused by the floods river banks. Under such cases, runoff comes in brought on by the tropical storm Delfina. The sudden gushes and due to changes in cross-sec- government was therefore faced with the chal- tional configuration of the river or stream, as a lenge of feeding a total population of some 3.4 result of mismanagement, proper conveyance is million people. hampered. Such type of flooding may in most The situation in Zambia was not much dif- cases be associated with cyclonicinfluences and ferent from that in Malawi and Mozambique. can usually be blamed for sudden destruction of About three million people, nearly a third of the property and loss of life.Southern Africahas seen total population, were exposed to hunger and some of the worst flood disasters in the world starvation. The major problem in Zambia was during this century.Although it can be expected erratic rainfall which caused the widespread that flooding ought to occurin the senile stages of failure of the country's maize crop on which a a river basin, floods in the youthful and middle huge population of Zambians depend as their stages of rivers and streams are becoming com- principal staple food. The Eastern and Southern mon of late. provinces of Zambia were the most affected. The floods caused extensive damage to The maize crop in Southern and Western both primary and secondary road networks, provinces was failing and most farmers predict- bridges and dams which are the life line during ed harvests of between 1-3 percent of a good drought periods. A number of people lost their
35 • Poor drainage systems; • Silting of drainage channels especially rivers and streams as a result of erosion from the upper reaches of river basins; • Gradual encroachment of flood plain area by human settlements and other activities,lead- ing to loss in the drainage capacity of rivers and streams and reduced infiltration rates; • Highly meandering and unstable rivers (i.e. Songwe and Livulezi): • Sudden failure or bursting of water retaining structures such as dams and barrages can cause untold damage to life and property; • Landslides into river valleys have often cre- Drawing murky water in the Shire River ated temporary dam like obstructions whose subsequent failures cause flooding of downstream areas; • In deltaic areas, floods are usually caused by the sudden diversion of flow from an existing channel into another channel of poor conveyance; and • High lake levels arising from heavy storms such as cyclones cause severe flooding as experienced along the Lake Malawi/Niassa lakeshore areas, in 2003. While floods cause severe problems on the environment, there are also positive elements with which they can be associated. These posi- tive aspects of flooding include: • Replenishment of nutrients especially in the estuaries and coastal regions which come in the form of silt; Restoring a bridge on Malawi's Ml road • Cleaning process of ecosystems that have been laden with hazardous waste; • Resuscitating ecosystems important for the tourism industry; and • Maintaining essential levels for water sys- tems such as lakes and rivers necessary for navigation.
Surface water The floods of 2000-2003had multiple effects on the surface water resources of southern Africa especially in those countries that were affected by them. While it is recognised that floods have positive effects such as replenishment of river- ine systems, the devastation that is associated A commuter swept away by floods, Rumphi, Malawi with them far outweighs the positive elements with which they are associated. Most floods are associated with cyclones. lives, homes were destroyed while crops were As the rivers are unable to contain the vast damaged extensively. A significant amount of amount of water within their banks, large fertile top soil was lost through erosion in many plains and valleys are inundated by flood of the flooded areas. With the abundance of waters submerging water supply points, farms, stagnant water, the risk of the outbreak of settlements and anything in their path. waterborne diseases such as malaria and While most of the essential servicepoints are cholera significantly increased and drinking inundated such as boreholes and dug-out wells, water was highly contaminated. Many bore- families are unable to have access to safe water holes were damaged which again increased the for drinking and are forced to use the flood risk of people contracting water borne diseases. waters. Becauseof the pollution with which they In Mozambique alone, the damage caused by are associated, people are therefore more vulner- the rains and the floods was estimated at US able to disease. Low-lying areas are most suscep- $600million (OMe 2000).Several factors can be tible to flooding in southern Africa and these are attributed to occurrence of floods in southern the same areas where many people are settled in Africa. The factors include: need of fertile land and grazing fields.
36 Agriculture events and precautionary measures that guaran- Floods cause serious loss of crops in southern tee security from disasters. Poor land resources Africa. While all the countries in the sub-region are a permit for loss of agricultural output, less rely on maize as their staple food, the loss of food and income, poverty, disease, vice and con- this crop during floods leads communities to flict. replant usually with little success since the floods may occur only when the growing sea- Forests son is coming to an end. Flooding has not Forests have not been spared from the destruc- affected only the smallholder farmer but also tive forcesof cycloneswith which floods are also large estates where maize, sugar and rice are associated. High winds have pulled downs trees grown. In irrigated rice schemes, floods have in forest plantations. In Zimbabwe, for instance, been responsible for the destruction of as a result of strong winds from Cyclone Eline hydraulic works such as weirs and canals ren- vast areas of trees in the Eastern highlands, dering the scheme unmanageable. where 92 percent of the country's timber planta- The negative effects of floods on agriculture tions are situated, were uprooted or destroyed. are many and related. These include: More than 5,400hectares or 4 percent of the coun- • Destruction to crops and food reserves for try's plantation resources were totally or partly communities; destroyed, bringing down nearly 1.01million cu Loss of initial investment through farm m of timber (FAO,2000).Some factoriesdepend- inputs such as fertilisers and labour; ent on sawn timber were forced to closeor down- • Lack of food and emergence of poor nutri- size their processing activities following the tion; floods. Plantations on hill slopes were the worst Surfacing of nutrition-related diseases such affectedby the cyclone,while ridges and valleys as kwashiorkor especially in young people; suffered less damage. • Loss of food security by communities; A number of dangers are associated with • Indulgence by the government to fend for high-velocity flood-causing wind systems. the people; Because of the ferocity with which cyclones are • Huge investments are required for rehabili- associated, people face the danger of being tation of irrigation systems destroyed by killed by falling trees, falling electricity poles floods; and wires that could electrocute them, destruc- • Injection of financial and other resources tion of their homes by falling trees, forest fires such as seed and fertilisers by government caused by damaged electricity networks. These for distribution to affected families; and dangers are real especially for rural communi- • Provision of health facilities and other ties who most often have no access to radios or essential services and basic needs for the other information networks that would offer affected communities. early warnings. The cyclic nature of extreme events with which the sub-region is associated requires con- Wildlife certed effort towards understanding how vul- While floods may bring positive effects in the nerable different societies are and what meas- wild such as the rejuvenation of plants, they can ures must be taken to mitigate the disastrous also cause much destruction on the environ- effects of floods in those areas. ment. Different plant and animal species are adapted to different ecosystems and any Land resources manipulation or changes in the ecosystem can Much arable land is usually rendered useless result in the loss of reduction of these species. during floods as most or all of it is submerged. Small plants and animals are particularly vul- Although floods can be beneficial in the sense nerable to flooding as they are easily smothered that they bring fertile silt from uplands on to by the floods. Flooding may also result in valleys, they are also responsible for the total changes in the food chain causing many preda- destruction of once planned areas bringing onto tors and herbivores to lose food. them garbage, logs of trees and other rubbish. Similarly, some ecosystems are ideal breed- They can also cause land degradation through ing grounds for wildlife including fish. Floods erosion and complete loss of farmland. therefore are likely to change the natural state Land degradation caused by floods does not of these ecosystems through erosion or deposi- only contribute to food insecurity for the flood- tion thereby wiping out siblings in the process. affectedfamiliesbut also to the whole population Losses in wildlife though not quantified, may in the country. This is why food imports may be significant as to warrant a comprehensive become necessary to cover up for losses during research on the impact of floods on wild plant droughts and floods.A whole nation, rather than and animal species. a community or communities may be vulnerable to food shortages. A long-lasting resolve is there- Infrastructure fore required to reverse the trend of importing Every flood that has occurred in the sub-region food by putting into place those mechanisms that has been associated with destruction of infra- provide for early warning of impending extreme structure. Many houses have been inundated,
37 submerged or destroyed, including clinics, high lake levels also cause serious problems for schools and other buildings offering essential harbours on the lakeshore as ships are not able services. Destruction of these buildings may to dock. As a result they are forced to anchor also mean loss of essential drugs and school offshore and goods and people are offloaded material. using smaller boats. The destruction of power lines during The massive destruction of infrastructure flooding events also put people at risk of being associated with floods necessitates high reha- maimed or killed apart from loss of energy bilitation and reconstruction costs. Being needed in homes and for industry. Many roads among some of the poorest countries of the and bridges are cut off and destroyed making it world, the countries of southern Africa are impossible for movement between centres. In faced with a daunting task of making choices Malawi for instance, floods have cut access between feeding their people affected by floods from one region to another with the destruction and rehabilitating infrastructure. The large of the Rivi Rivi River Bridge which connects the amount of revenue needed to bring the situa- southern with the central region and on the tion back to normal is reason why most of the Dwambazi River which connects the central damaged roads and bridges, schools, dip tanks, with the northern region of the country. Many water and sewage pipelines, and clinics remain other access routes have also been rendered unrepaired for some time. Disasters incur high impassable due to massive destruction of costs due to destruction of income-generating bridges and the road network. activities including tourism revenues and reha- Due to high inflows into Lake bilitation and replacement of damaged infra- Malawi/Niassa/Nyasa as a result of floods, structure and crops (UNEP,2002).
38 NATIONAL RESPONSES TO DROUGHTS AND FLOODS
Coping strategies to disasters in southern army and non-governmental organisations still Africa should recognise the important factors offer the rescue, relief and rehabilitation servic- that are cause of disasters such as droughts and es when droughts and floods occur.On the con- floods. These are the driving forces that have trary, there is lack of active involvement of been elaborated in this report and it is govern- affected local populations in planning response ment responsibility to urgently address those strategies which results in their treatment as areas of concern. In addition to government helpless victims needing assistance. The devel- policy responses, further national responses opment of the relevant policies and strategies to should include the establishment of drought mitigate the effects of drought and floods has levy which must be administered with trans- often been done without comprehensive parency and provide assistance to rural people research on the experiences and needs of the in ways that make their land more productive. local population.They appear to ignore what The following areas need serious consideration: local people do to help themselves in times of • Enforcement of the District Environmental drought, with the unintended effect of under- Action Planning (DEAP) and the ational mining local coping strategies and mechanisms Environmental Action Planning (NEAP) and weakening local institutional capacity. processes; Instead, the situation is perpetuated by • Support for smallholder agricultural devel- policies at national level that favour food aid opment; over proactive contingency planning (UNCCD, • Poverty alleviation programmes; 2000) ignoring the need to build effective miti- • Nutritional programmes; gation and response strategies at sub-national • Research and development; and levels. As a result, planning for drought is fre- • Interventions by GOs and other specialist quently centralised at the national level, and agencies among others. early warning systems are largely designed to The use of short-term interventions such as serve as tools for food aid planning as opposed food handouts, food-for-work programmes, crop to active contingency planning (UNCCD, 2000). perks, livestock schemes, tillage support and An analysis of the status of drought pre- emergency rural and urban water assistance are paredness, the constraints and future needs for good but not long-lasting solutions. the countries in southern Africa was made by Governments in the sub-region should aim at the Office to Combat Desertification and bringing on board long-term solutions that focus Drought (U SO, 2000).Brief summaries of the on both the natural and human environment. status for the countries referred to in this report are provided below. Dealing with Droughts Sub-Saharan Africa of which southern Africa is Malawi part, suffers from some of the most devastating The findings on the status of drought prepared- droughts and floods in the world. While natural ness, their constraints and future needs for disasters cannot be prevented, they can be miti- Malawi reveal that the whole country is vulner- gated, and efforts to deal with these extreme able to drought. There are at present two early events seem to be gaining satisfactory attention warning systems - a national early warning (UNCCD, 2000). Significant efforts have been system and a famine warning system. Drought made by many countries to mitigate the effectsof management is the responsibility of several drought, particularly in setting up early warning ministries which are coordinated by the Food systems at both national and sub-regional levels. Security and Nutrition Unit under the National However, there are still limitations in dealing Economic Council (NEC). with droughts. The acquisition of information A food security and nutrition bulletin is from the early warning systems has not always provided regularly with updates of the food sit- led to early action. As a result, countries have uation in the country. In addition, another body, dealt with the situation as it exists and once the the Natural Disaster Preparedness Committee drought subsides with the onset of a good sea- is mandated with the task of advising on policy son, national efforts to mitigate the effects of issues related to disaster mitigation in the coun- drought often fall by the wayside. Improvement try. The government has also formed structures of the early warning systems in the countries of for the strategic food reserves, introduction of the sub-region would assist farmers in planning irrigation schemes and improvement of credit for their agricultural season as it would save time opportunities for smallholder farmers. and resources (SADC,2004). In direct response to the adverse effects and To date governments through their lead frequency of disasters in Malawi, a National ministries, such as those responsible for water, Disaster Management Plan was developed in disaster relief and rehabilitation, the police, 1996which was directed at the development of a
39 much wider institutional capacity necessary for As a step further in dealing with drought in dealing with drought and other natural disasters the country, Swaziland has been divided into such as floods. However, the traditional practice agro-ecological zones that identify regions in dealing with droughts in Malawihas been pro- which are most vulnerable to drought. In spite viding food for those most at risk and as a result of these efforts, there is currently no legislation of this approach, there has not been a long-term or any institutional arrangements that have approach to dealing with disasters especially been developed or established to guide drought with respect to improved strategies in prepared- management in the country. As a result, there is ness and mitigation. There is therefore need for over-reliance on donor support during disas- greater funding to put these measures in place. ters because of the absence and lack of financial The observation that the whole country is resources that can be raised from within vulnerable to disasters stems from the fact that (UNSO,2000). there is currently lack of emphasis on long-term issues of mitigation and preparedness. The 1996 Zambia plan only highlights measures that need to be In Zambia, disaster preparedness and mitiga- taken for drought such as insurance schemes, tion efforts gained extra momentum in 1991,a improved drought monitoring and the devel- year before the country was to face a severe opment of strategic reserves of seed for pulses drought. This is when a drought preparedness and cereals needed by smallholder farmers and management plan developed a decade (UNSO, 2000). before, was replaced by a programme for the prevention of malnutrition later changed to Mozambique Programme Against Malnutrition. In Mozambique, the responsibility for humani- The main aim of the Programme Against tarian assistance and policy decisions relating Malnutrition is to reduce poverty through to disasters rests with the Department for the improved food security, health and nutrition. Prevention and Combating of atural Disasters To address this aspect, several strategies have which was established in 1980.This body was been put in place which, include (UNSO,2000): mandated to address the impacts of natural dis- • etworking of government, NGOs and asters with respect to national developmental cooperating partners in order to optimise goals and aspirations. Another organisation, human and financial resources, community the National Institute of Meteorology provides empowerment in decisionmaking processes; weather information to farmers. Like in • Providing training of stakeholders in pro- Malawi, there is also a Famine Early Warning gramme management, nutritional and envi- System which is responsible for monitoring ronmental management and disaster man- agricultural and weather conditions and gath- agement and mitigation; and ering data required by farmers. • Building capacities of NGOs to spearhead As a shortcoming in disaster preparedness community empowerment in disaster man- and mitigation, there is an apparent shortage or agement and mitigation and food security low quality of information available in the through training programmes. country that decision makers can access. There Currently,the strategies that are used in deal- is shortage of training for technicians in the ing with drought have been recognised to have field of disaster preparedness and mitigation negative impacts on the environment, and lackof (UNSO,2000). adequate financialresourceshappens tobe a seri- Other challenges that face the country with ous bottleneck in dealing with natural disasters respect to dealing with disasters include poor in Zambia. As a major step towards dealing with conditions of access roads which hampers the droughts in the country, there is need to encour- distribution of relief food to areas of deficit; lack age farmers to move away from their traditional of mapping of vulnerable areas and absence of crop varieties towards those that are more adequate infrastructure such as dams for water drought-resistant and also to diversify agricul- storage. ture. The establishment of an early drought warning system including other disasters would Swaziland be most useful at this stage when the country like Swaziland's drought preparedness and mitiga- its neighbours are constantly battered with tion dates back to 1994 when the country extreme events. Some thought could be given to reviewed its management strategies and exam- the development of cost-effective irrigation ined the linkages that exist between and among schemes, research, crop diversification and the institutions. This review also extended to the establishment of a rural investment fund needed development of national strategies that would for infrastructure projects. The establishment of enhance the coping capacities of local commu- the Zambia VulnerabilityAssessment Committee nities during events of natural disasters. As a is a plus for the country since it has been able to result of this review, the country came up with provide vital analytical information on disasters an all-inclusive plan of action which defined in the country. the responsibilities of each participating party According to the Zambia Vulnerability in disaster management and the procedures for Assessment Committee (Zambia Vulnerability drought declaration. Eight strategies and ten Assessment Committee, 2003) several recom- policy guidelines were proposed. mendations in dealing with droughts have been
40 made both for the short-term and the long- Information flow on drought in the country term. The short-term measures include: is largely upward and little, if any, informa- • Phasing out of freefood reliefprogrammes in tion circulates within the council; most areas with the exception of those dis- There are many players entrusted with the tricts where food should be targeted to the responsibility of implementing relief pro- most vulnerable for up to five months when grammes which results in duplication of the people are most vulnerable to hunger; effort and resources; and • Establishment of a food-for-work pro- • There is usually slow response in dealing gramme which is linked to community with disasters because the Ministry of development. The government's efforts Finance is hardly involved. should concentrate on building upon com- Like in Malawi, Mozambique, Swaziland munity financial capital through supplies of and Zambia, Zimbabwe also needs comprehen- credit, savings and markets, improvement sive institutional development establishment of and management of road networks and the insurance schemes and short- and long-term promotion of good health, education envi- drought mitigation measures. In addition, there ronmental resources, fishing, water and is need for reviewing national guidelines on biodiversity; nutritional requirements for every household. • Strengthen service delivery systems for The national meteorological network HIV and AIDS programmes; required for drought monitoring needs to be • Strengthen cross border initiative pro- expanded and revamped taking on board up- grammes; to-date technology and instrumentation in • Strengthen programmes that are aimed at order to improve early warning capacity at the reducing stigma and discrimination; national level. • Support home-based care programmes; and As one way of dealing with droughts in the • Provide timely delivery of quality agricul- country, the government needs to consider the tural inputs at sub-district levels. option of long-term water resources develop- Similarly, the government has put in place ment especially for smallholder farmers consid- the medium to long-term measures for dealing : ering that the commercialfarmers have a reason- with droughts in the country and these include: able capacity to deal with droughts. Other meas- Livestock restocking programmes; ures would include establishment and expansion Strengthening veterinary programmes and of food storage facilities,research and technology, this entails the review of the animal disease improvement of the road network to facilitate control programme in order to strengthen food distribution during times of drought and the situation in the southern provinces establishment of a strategic grain reserve to extending to the north-west and west; reduce food imports during such times. • Improvement in extension services includ- ing the introduction of early maturing crop Dealing with Floods varieties; Responses to floods at the national level have • Improvement of oil availability by cultivat- not been any different from those to drought. ing oil-yielding crops such as groundnuts, As will have been observed, national responses sunflower and palm oil; to drought are more ad hoc even though long- • Development of cooperative initiatives term strategies have been recommended at the including partnerships with the private sec- national level. The frequency and gravity with tor; which floods are occurring in Malawi, • Reviving development programmes in irri- Mozambique, Swaziland, Zambia and gation, pineapple cultivation, bee farming Zimbabwe calls for the immediate adoption of and providing micro-credit schemes for long-term strategies which are intended at mit- small businesses; and igating the effects of floods on the environment. Improvement in food processing; and reha- The ad hoc measures are more of reactive bilitation and improvement of road infra- than proactive solutions in dealing with natural structure. disasters. The existence of early warning sys- tems for flood forecasting and warning in these Zimbabwe countries is a viable and most useful tool in mit- Zimbabwe's drought preparedness and mitiga- igating flood impacts such as loss of life. tion measures rest with the Cabinet Committee However, there are crucial elements which need on Drought which is presided over by a minis- to be taken on board such as a complete review ter. The committee works closely with the of the effectiveness of the systems, community National Consultative Drought Council com- responses to flood warnings, education and prising NGOs, church organisations and the awareness on the impacts of floods and how to private sector. A review of the structures deal- avert them and the total examination of the ing with drought in Zimbabwe and their effec- structures in place entrusted with the responsi- tiveness showed some shortcomings, which bility of dealing with disasters. included (lJNSO, 2000): • The existence of too many committees and Malawi sub-committees dealing with drought man- In the case of Malawi, only one basin, The Shire agement; River Basin has a flood forecasting system
41 which is used for warning people of any • Preparation for distribution of basic neces- impending floods in the basin. The system sities prior to occurrence of floods that established in the late 1970shas been rendered would be easily accessed by people after the less and less effective due to catchment degra- occurrence of the floods; and dation which has induced changes in the river's • Devising suitable information dissemina- cross-sectional configuration through scouring tion channels for consumption by both the and siltation (Ministry of Water Development, victims and rescue teams. 2003).The ministry responsible for water affairs in Malawi has observed that the calibrated Mozambique flood warning levels in the Shire River Basin are Weather forecasting in Mozambique becomes no longer applicable as they translate into false an even more important tool for early warning flood information. measures considering the extra risk factors such Although a telemetry system has existed as the international rivers that flow through it since the early 1990s, the system has strongly to the sea and the Indian Ocean low pressure relied on gauge readers who walk long distances systems and cyclones that can cause heavy rain from their place of abode to the river to read the (Government of Mozambique, 2001). water level and transmit the information to head- Occurrence of heavy rains in the upland areas quarters in Lilongwe. This system of collecting of neighbouring countries such as Malawi, and disseminating information is both unreliable Zambia and Zimbabwe can cause serious flood- and dangerous especially when the storm occurs ing in parts of Mozambique and therefore early during the night where access to the river may warning and preparedness are essential tools not be possible and render the communities vul- for flood disaster mitigation. For instance, in nerable to sudden floods.Apart from this system, 2003 the Caprivi Region in Namibia was flood- there is no other one in the country that can be ed with most of the infrastructure submerged used in warning people to move to higher and 8 000 people stranded (SARDC2003). The ground in the event of flooding. Zambezi River burst its banks in mid-May 2003 However, measures developed by the gov- destroying homes, schools, crops and livestock. ernment in 1996 to deal with floods could pro- What is unusual about this incident is that no vide new ground for alleviating the suffering rains fell in the region. The flooding had origi- that arises out of the disasters which have now nated from upriver in Zambia. become more frequent. These measures include Such incidences of disasters call for collabo- (Government of Malawi, 1996): ration between states in order to minimise loss- Preparing flood zoning maps showing the es which would unfold as a result of such relationship between river stage and likely occurrences. The floods that occurred in the areas that can be inundated by floods; Caprivi region, demonstrate the vulnerability Improving flood awareness and information of southern African countries to natural disas- generation and dissemination. Information ters and point to the need for collaborative relating to floods could include: efforts in the management of natural resources Raising awareness and making it mandato- including large international rivers such as the ry not to settle and cultivate in flood-prone Zambezi and others (SARDC2003). zones; The Southern African Regional Climate Moving away to higher ground upon being Outlook Forum (SARCOF)has been instrumen- advised of an impending flood disaster; tal in providing rainfall outlook which has been Prohibiting forest logging which influences used for flood forecasting in Mozambique. In land degradation and erosion of most addition, the national meteorological services catchments; and also play an important part in providing weath- • Prohibiting crossing of rivers when streams er data for this function. and rivers are in flood. Flood incidences prompted the government • Undertaking comprehensive research in of Mozambique to institute a contingency plan flood mitigation measures. Such research for dealing with such extreme events. This plan would focus on the efficient use of flood included identification of locations and degree prone lands and how mitigation measures, of hazards that are likely to occur at each loca- flood preparedness, recovery and restora- tion and updating of figures of the population tion can be carried out in the event of a at risk and likely to be affected. The immediate flood; warning and emergency responses reaction to any impending flood disaster was taking into account disciplinary and inter- therefore to include: sectoral responsibilities and developing • The warning phase which would alert com- better flood data and information; munities at risk of the vulnerable locations Preparation of flood disaster plans that take to floods; and into account administration and engineer- • Combating disease. ing aspects; The government was also to participate in • Development of adequate human and tech- search and rescue operations and coordinate nological capacity for accurately predicting humani tarian assistance. flood disasters and their extent; The emergency plan also included the dis- Identifying vulnerable areas as a first stage tribution of supplies in the provinces that were towards relocation of vulnerable societies; vulnerable to flooding prior to the occurrence
42 of floods to allow communities access to their The need to encourage local communities basic requirements even when the floods have and other stakeholders to participate, on a occurred and the road network has possibly continuous basis, in the decision-making been destroyed (Government of Mozambique, processes; 2001).Medicines were also stockpiled in ware- The need to address environmental prob- houses in the areas at risk of disease outbreaks lems of flooding, particularly in flood- such as malaria, diarrhoea, measles, meningitis, prone areas of river valleys such as the dysentery and cholera. Other measures Kafue, Luangwa, Zambezi and others; involved the sourcing and stockpiling of sur- • Promote information sharing through vival items such as tents, tarpaulin, blankets, appropriate networks and channels includ- clothing, kitchenware, plastic sheeting and ing the compilation of necessary data and farming implements and inputs. capacity building for proper maintenance The development of this contingency plan and operation of flood control facilities; has included participatory processes of dissem- Encouraging public participation and com- ination and implementation of rescue and relief munity based-local co-operation in raising operations in the vulnerable provinces and dis- awareness regarding the impacts of floods; tricts coupled with intensified training and Enhancing cooperation with neighbouring public awareness among communities countries and regional centres; (Government of Mozambique, 2001).It has also Developing and strengthening new and been found necessary to decentralise funding existing frameworks for flood management for emergency relief operations during disas- strategies, policies and legislation regarding ters. preventative measures and emergency management from the viewpo.int that Swaziland floods can never be totally eliminated; and Disaster management in Swaziland is the • Adopting effective collaboration mecha- responsibility of the National Disaster nisms with government structures, which Management Secretariat. The principal tenets include the participation of non-govern- applicable to disaster relief and management mental organisations, the private sector, are (Government of Swaziland 2004a): civil society groups and the communities. To ensure effective, efficient and timely These ideas improve upon the present tra- assistance to people affected by disasters, dition of emphasising on provision of relief and that response and relief efforts support measures to people in the event of flood disas- long-term development and vulnerability ters as they would also address environmental reduction strategies; challenges. • Toensure the protection of the nation's nat- ural resources and environment; Zimbabwe • To facilitate regional and international co- The response strategy to floods in Zimbabwe is operation in disaster management; and not any much different from that of the other • To save lives and livelihoods and reduce countries. Following the floods that have damage to property and infrastructure. occurred in several districts of the country,effort The Swaziland Meteorological Services has has been concentrated on providing reliefto peo- provided (Government of Swaziland 2004b) ple in affected areas (UN Relief and Recovery useful information for public consumption on Unit, 2003).Reliefeffortshave included: the Internet, which provides guidelines on • Provision of water treatment facilities and dealing with floods, thunderstorms, lighting tools; and tornadoes. However, this information is • Provision of disease control and treatment only accessible to those that have the required facilities and medicines; and facilities to access it and can therefore not be Conducting field assessment in provinces shared with local communities who are most affected by flooding to determine damage vulnerable to flood risks. caused by the floods. Other response measures to floods have Zambia been the introduction of winter cropping in Flood management in Zambia should concen- affected areas since the floods have at times trate on efforts that provide long-term solutions completely destroyed crops and left families to the challenge especially with respect to peo- highly vulnerable to hunger and malnutrition. ple's vulnerability as well as environmental For instance, in response to 2003 flooding and vulnerability (Nyambe, 2003).The vulnerability destruction of crops in Muzarabani, Guruve of the poor to water-related disasters can be and Kariba the government allowed for dis- mitigated through better planning and re-direc- tricts assessments to identify potential needs for tion of investment to target their needs. In this agricultural support, which was carried out by regard, innovative approaches, using both Save the Children (UK) and agriculture and structural and non-structural measures that can research officials. be supported by physical, social and economic Long-term seed availability has also been sciences, and the compilation of the necessary taken as one measure of reducing the vulnera- data must be developed. The long-term solu- bility of people affected by flood disasters in tions would involve: Zimbabwe. This measure assures that crop pro-
43 duction and output meets national requirement Meteorological Services. Monitoring is done in order to avoid food imports into the country. through observation of weather elements such as Another response measure to the effects of temperature, rainfall, wind speed and direction drought in the country has been the introduc- at different levels, atmospheric pressure, and tion of what has been termed as pilot urban solar radiation. Processing of satellite pictures is intervention. This initiative is targeted at fami- also done to assess the amount and type of cloud lies who have children under the age of five cover, as well as vegetation on the basis of the that demonstrate signs of stunted growth. normalised vegetation index. All these weather These families are provided with monthly free elements are observed over a long period of time food handouts that could include maize, soya and then statistically analysed to determine and oil. In addition, capacity building for non- whether the climate is changing or not. governmental organisations has also been iden- Drought and floods in the sub-region have tified as one of the initiatives that need to be come and gone and each occurrence of either carried out to allow for concerted effort and drought or floods has met different manage- interventions during periods of flood disasters. ment strategies. Response to national disasters has usually been charged to a specific national National, Regional and International committee where at times, important players Obligations such as the ministry of finance have not been One of the most important drought and flood party to that committee. Secondly, response to preparedness measures for the sub-region has drought or flood disaster can either be slow or been the establishment of the SADC Regional may involve too many players whose activities Early Warning System (REWS) that provides are uncoordinated. Nonetheless, different relief member states and the international community organisations, institutions and agencies made with advance information on food security up of donors, NGOs, church organisations, and prospects in southern Africa. REWScomprises a the private sector have played a crucial role in Regional Early Warning Unit and autonomous mitigating the impacts of disasters such as National Early Warning Units (NEWUs)in each droughts and floods in southern Africa. of the SADCmember states. Theseearly warning Disasters such as droughts and floods can- systems offer opportunity for countries to put in not be prevented but can be mitigated. It is place strategies required for minimising losses therefore critical that governments in associa- due to floods which may include training of com- tion with other players such as NGOs, civil munities in disaster mitigation measures. The society groups and communities should put in regional and national units provide early warn- place mechanisms with which they can afford ing and food security information on: to mitigate the impacts of extreme events such • Crop performance, providing alerts in case as loss of life and property. Quite a lot can be of crop failures, and other factors affecting done in this area so long as there is political will food supplies; and commitment towards alleviating the prob- Supply and demand assessments and pro- lems that people face in the event of disasters, jections, including imports and exports; and and adequate resources are allocated for the • Insecure areas and the populations various activities required under the process. involved. Countries in the southern African sub-region An important role played by REWU is the need to be visionary by not waiting for disasters dissemination of a Quarterly Food Security to strike before they take the necessary measures Bulletin which is supplemented by monthly of preventing many losses. There is an urgent updates. The food security situation was there- need to take issues of climate change seriously fore well covered during the 2000-2003period. and include climate change programmes in In addition to the REWU, an operational national policy as well as putting into place Drought Monitoring Centre was also estab- enforcement and monitoring measures for the lished in Harare to provide early warnings and policy. Governments in the sub-region are advisories on the occurrence of drought and required to review their environment legislation other adverse weather conditions in the region, and incorporate climate change issues if this has and to provide specialised training as well as not yet been carried out. A climate change office the famine early warning systems. The objec- at the national levelin each of the countries of the tive of the SADC Drought Monitoring Centre sub-region is required to co-ordinate activitieson (DMC) is to contribute to the reduction of neg- the subject. In addition, the efforts of various ative impacts of drought and other adverse NGOs working in the area should be recognised weather conditions upon agricultural produc- because they could in some way assist the sub- tion and to the rational management of the nat- region in partially fulfilling and implementing ural resources in the SADC region. Early warn- the UN Framework Convention on Climate ing products and advisories are issued regular- Change in areas such as preparing national com- ly to the countries in the region by the DMC as munications, organising and hosting national cli- well as training of personnel through work- mate change workshops and debating climate shops, seminars and on-the-job training. change issues. At national level, climate monitoring falls According to NEPAD's Action Plan of the under the responsibility of the Department of Environment Initiative in Africa (NEPAD,2003),
44 the continent is experiencing serious environ- Box 4 mental challenges and problems. Unsustainable Intemational Protocols exploitation and degradation of forests, soils, wildlife, fresh water, and other natural resources threaten to undermine the region's economic Convention to Combat Desertification (CC D) Malawi,Mozambique, Swaziland,Zambia and Zimbabwe have all ratified development prospects. NEPAD recognises that the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. Malawi rati- many sub-regions of Africa are most severely fied the convention on 6th June 1996,Mozambique on 13th March 1997, affected by desertification that threatens more Swaziland on 7th October 1996, Zambia on 19th September 1996 and than 33 percent of the continent's land area par- Zimbabwe on 23rd September 1997 (CCD 2003).The objective of the ticularly in the Sudano-Sahelianregion, southern convention is to foster intemational co-operation and national and Africa and the Mediterranean. regional initiatives towards combating desertification, and mitigating the Land degradation are mainly a symptom of impacts of drought particularly in Africa.Commitments for parties to the recurrent droughts in the region and in spite of convention include development of national policies and strategies to numerous governmental commitments that have combat desertification; and creation of an institutional framework that been made in respect of environmental protec- builds partnerships at the donor. govemment, community, and NGO level. tion sincethe 1960s,Africa's environment contin- Action programmes should be based on local participation in their for- ues to deteriorate. Existingnational, sub-regional mulation, implementation and evaluation and on an integrated approach and regional environmental laws, plans, policies, that includes environmental, social and economic considerationsThe con- and institutions have proven inadequate to arrest vention's regional annex for Africa emphasises the need for African coun- current trends, including the lack of adequate tries to focus on improving the economic environment with a view to financial resources. The environmental action eradicating poverty. developing measures to conserve natural resources, plan for NEPAD recognises that sustainable improving institutional organisation, education and awareness, and moni- development is about the long-term planning, toring and assessing the effects of drought. and as such policies and strategies dealing with disasters such as droughts and floods should United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) take cognisance of this fact. In this regard, the Similarly all the five countries are also party to the United Nations NEPAD approach to dealing with disasters and Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC, 2(03).The con- their impacts on the people and the environ- vention aims to achieve the stabilisation of greenhouse gas concentrations ment are best illustrated by the objectives of the in the atmosphere at the level that would prevent dangerous human Action Plan which are aimed at complementing interference with the climate system. Such a level should be achieved relevant African processes, with a view of within a time frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to improving environmental conditions on the climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened and to continent. Specifically the objectives call for: enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner. • Promotion of sustainable use of natural Countries are expected to produce national inventories on greenhouse resources; gas emissions, introduce measures to mitigate climate change by reducing Strengthening of public and political sup- emissions by sources and facilitatingassimilation by sinks of allgreenhouse port to sub-regional and regional environ- gases not covered by the Montreal Protocol. Parties are also expected to mental initiatives; promote sustainable management and conservation of sinks and reser- • Support in the implementation of country voirs of all greenhouse gases. Biomass,forests, oceans, as well as terrestri- commitments under the global and region- al and marine ecosystems absorb greenhouse gases. Developed countries al environment conventions and other legal are expected to assist developing countries to prepare national invento- instruments to which they are party to; ries and in meeting costs of adaptation. Therefore support in climate Enhancement of the human and institution- change adaptation strategies willgo a long way in increasing preparedness al capacities of countries to effectively to unpredictable changes. address the environmental challenges that face them; • Promotion of the integration of environ- • Mobilising international resources for the mental considerations into poverty reduc- implementation of the African environmen- tion strategies; tal initiative. • Fostering regional and sub-regional co- These objectives apply to specific pro- operation to address environmental chal- gramme areas of NEPAD which include disas- lenges; ters such as droughts and floods. Droughts are • Building a network of regional centres of blamed for causing desertification in the vari- excellence in environmental science and ous sub-regions of the African continent and in management; dealing with this serious environmental chal- • Mobilising and directing African and inter- lenge, it is recommended that there be a bottom national scientific and technical communi- up approach that entails the involvement of ties to solve Africa's pressing environmen- local populations and communities in decision- tal problems; making and the implementation of the • Enhancing the effective participation of Convention to Combat Desertification. Also of major groups and their contribution to importance is the role that NGOs and inform intergovernmental decision-mak- Community Based Organisation (CBOs) can ing; play in the organisation of local communities • Improving the institutional framework for for effective participation in combating deserti- regional environmental governance; and fication. In Malawi for instance, extreme pover-
45 ty, high population increase and heavy reliance lenges, the SADC Policy and Strategy for on natural resources have been identified as the Environment and Sustainable Development calls principal causes of land degradation and deser- for changes for greater equity and sustainable tification (Government of Malawi, 2001). development with a shift in emphasis in some In dealing with these issues, participatory priorities as follows: efforts and responsibilities need to be extended • Economic development policies - These are to the private and civil society organisations so largely focused on the formal sector. as to assist the public sector in achieving its Governments should reorient their policies goals of eradicating if not at least alleviating so that they support the larger informal sec- poverty, reducing population pressures on nat- tor which is the main source of jobs, income ural resources and improving on the environ- and affordable goods and services for the ment and societal well-being. The UNCCD also poor majority; stresses partnership arrangements between the • Agricultural policies - While agricultural poli- affected people, the government and the donor cies promote large-scale production for community in addressing the causes of land export of food and horticultural crops there is degradation. African countries including those need to accommodate into these policies food of southern Africa have played a leading role in security of the poor rural and urban house- the development and implementation modali- holds and fair returns for small-scalefarmers; ties of the Convention to combat desertification. Land tenure - Laws and policies have tended They have committed themselves to: to exclude women and a shift must be made Adopt an integrated approach in address- towards policies that recognise and expand ing the physical, biological and socio-eco- the rights of women to inherit and own nomic challenges associated with combat- land; ing desertification and drought; • Health - Toshift from policies which allocate • Establish strategies and priorities to combat a disproportionate share of the national desertification and mitigate the effects of budget to specialised medical services and drought; hospitals to policies that focus on primary • Integrate strategies for poverty eradication health care services which are affordable into programmes and projects related to and accessible for the poor majority; desertification control and the mitigation of • Settlements - There must be a shift from poli- the effects of drought; cies that emphasise more planning, research • Strengthen sub-regional, regional and inter- and delivery of unaffordable housing national co-operation, especially in the towards policies that give top priority to areas of information collection, analysis and lethal shelter, water and sanitation prob- exchange, research and development, and lems of the poor majority in the rural and in the transfer, acquisition, adaptation and urban settlements; and the development of technology; • Wildlife and parks - Development of policies • Co-operate within relevant intergovern- that give local people and communities a mental organisations; greater voice in wildlife management and a • Strengthen reforms towards greater decen- significant share of the benefits of wildlife- tralisation as well as reinforcement of par- based tourism. ticipation of local communities in halting These proposals address the pronounce- and reversing desertification process; and ments of the main policy goals of SADC which • Mobilise new and additional national finan- are: cial resources for the implementation of the • To protect and improve the health, environ- Convention. ment and livelihoods of the people of Natural disasters, such as floods, cause con- southern Africa with priority to the poor siderable human suffering and economic dam- majority; age on the continent. As a result, environmental • To preserve the natural heritage, biodiversi- degradation undermines prospects of fighting ty and life-supporting ecosystems in south- poverty, economic growth and sustainable devel- ern Africa; opment in many countries of the continent. The To support regional economic development vicious circle between poverty and degradation on an equitable and sustainable basis for the of the environment needs to be addressed in a benefit of present and future generations; comprehensive manner (NEPAD,2003). • To strengthen the analytical, decision-mak- Dealing with droughts and floods in south- ing legal, institutional and technological ern Africa has focused more on the people capacities for achieving sustainable devel- through provision of their needs only when dis- opment in southern Africa; asters strike. The centre of attention on the imme- To increase public information, education diate, mid- and long-term impact of the disasters and participation on environmental and on the environment has been and is shifted to the development issues in southern Africa; and people. Yet,because of their dependence on nat- • To expand regional integration and global ural resources they are bound to overexploit the cooperation on environmental and natural resources for their survival thereby creating more resources management for sustainable problems for themselves. To address these chal- development.
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