PRG. 165.15(N) 1,000
CENSUS OF INDIA 1961 VOLUME III ASSAM
PART VI
VILLAGE SURVEY MONOGRAPHS
15. GONJUNG
A. K. SAIKIA
of the Indian Administrative Service Director of Census Operations, Assam
Printed in India by the Manager, Lakshmi Printing Press, Gaubati-l and Published by the Manager of Publications, Civil lines, Deihi-6 1970
Price: (Inland) Rs. 2·10 (Foreign) 4 sh. 11 d. or 76 Cent
CENSUS OF INDIA 1961 LIST OF PUBLICATIONS, ASSAM CENTRAL GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS
(All the Publications of the State will bear the Vol. No. III) Part I-A General Report Part I-B Report on Vital Statistics Part I-C Subsidiary Tables Part H-A General Population Tables Part II-B General Economic Tables Part II-C Cultural & Migration Tables Part III Household Economic Tables Part IV Report on Housing and Establishments Part V-A Scheduled Caste/Tribe Tables and Reprints Part V-B Tribes and Castes of Assam Part VI Village Survey Monographs Part VII-A Survey of Handicrafts Part VII-B Fairs & Festivals Part VIlI-A Administration Report (Enumeration) } Not for sale Part VIII-B Administration Report (Tabulation) Part IX Maps
STATE GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS 11 District Census Handbooks
Depending on the size, there may be sub-parts to some of the parts. In addition, Village Survey Monographs are published separately for each village. CENSUS OF INDIA 1961 VOLUME III PART VI VILLAGE SURVEY MONOGRAPHS-ASSAM
Names of
Sl.No. Village Police Station District Type of Village ------_------_------1 2 3 4 5 ------1. Titaguri(Jonagaon) Kokrajhar Goalpara Tribal Bodo-Kachari 2. South Salmara South Salmara Predominantly Musilms(Sunnis) " 3. Khara Dudhnai Predominantly Kachari, " Tribal Rabha & Koch 4. Katanipara Kamalpur Kamrup Single Kumar Community 5. Nasatra Barpeta Multi-Ethnic " 6. Batasipur Dhekiajuli Darrang Darrang M ulti-Ethnic 7. Dhepakgaon Majuli Sibsagar Tribal Miri 8. Kumargaon Jorhat Multi-Ethnic " 9. Japisajia Sibsagar Single Ahom " Community 10. Fulertal Lakhipur Cachar Tribal Hmar 11. Re subakra para Tura Garo Hills Tribal Garo 12. Mawnai Shillong United Khasi Tribal Khasi & Jaintia Hills 13. Modymmai Jowai Tribal Pnar " 14. Laisong Haflong United Mikir Tribal Zemi Naga & North Cachar Hills *15. . Gonjung Haflong Tribal Dimasa(Kachari) " 16. Phongjangre Baithalangso Tribal Mikir " 17. Durtlang Aijal Mizo Hills Tribal Mizo 18. Lawngtlai Lungleh Tribal Pawi-Lakher " *Present publication CONTENTS
Pages Preface 1
Foreword .. iii-V
CHAPTER I : THE VILLAGE
Introduction; Physical aspects; Flora & Fauna; Climate; Residential rattern ; Communication; Welfare & Administrative institutions; History of the village 1-5
CHAPTER II : THE PEOPLE
Area of origin; Regional distribution and affinity; House & Housetype ; Dress, ornaments and Household goods; Food & Drinks ; Beliefs and practices concerning Birth) Marriage and Death 6-13
CHAPTER III : ECONOMY
Economic resources; Factors influencing economic life; Size & ownership of land holdings; Agriculture; Industries; Marketing facilities; Income & Expenditure .. 14-19
CHAPTER IV : SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE
Age, Sex & Marital Status of population ; Literacy ; Family types ; Law of inheritance ; Religious beliefs and practices ; Festivals ; Village administration and organisations ; Reforms and Development measures 20-30
CHAPTER V : CONCLUSION 31--32
APPENDICES
A?pendix I Glossary 33-34
Appendix II Table 35-42
Note: Village and Household Schedules, canvassed during the survey, have been printed in 'TITAGURI'- the first of this Monograph-series.
PREFACE
The village Gonjung is inhabited mainly enabled them to keep pace with the changing by the Dimasa Kacharis, a section of the great circumstances of modern times. Bodo family belonging to the Tibeto-Burman stock. The village is situated in the erstwh ile The field work was originally undertaken North Cachar Hills where tribes, other than by a team of Investigators consisting of Shri the Dimasa Kach;;ris, such as the Hmars, the K. S. Lyngdoh and h:te Slni A.B. Pugh during Zemi Nagas, the Kukis and the Pnars, are the period 7.11.62 to 10.11.62. Later on, also found. As such, the village offers ample however, the investigation was carried out scope for the study of the intermingling of independently from 24.11.64 to 30.11.64 by cultures and of the impact of modernism on Shri K. S. Lyngdoh. the social and economic habits as well as the cultural heritage of the hill-folk. The draft was prepared by Shri K. S. Lyngdoh, under the supervision and guidance By and large, the villagers are born to the of Shri F. B. Lyngdoh, the then Deputy Superin soil, live tilling it and are nourished by it. tendent of Census Operations, Assam. Shri They practise jhuming and wet cultivation, N. Philip, Deputy Director of Census 0rera the latter in a more or less Hmited scale. This tions, Assam has acted in more thc:n cr:e W2y is due to the nature of the land as it is only to bring the treatise to its present form. Our in places formed by the interception of hills sincere thanks are due to Shri N. L. Daulagapu, that wet cultivation can be carried out. The Secretary, Executive Committee, District people also rear cattle and other domestic Council, Hafiong, who on more than one animals and this forms a subsidiary occupa occasion has helped to supply the necessary tion to them. Lately they have also learnt data and all that was required for the survey the art of trading in timber and the improve of the village. We are dso 111anUul to ment of communications in recent years has Dr. B. K. Roy Burman, Deputy Registrar opened up new avenues for such trade. Generd (Social S1 udies), Office of the Registrar General, India for offering valuable suggestions Hinduism, it may be said, has had its impact in improving the draft before the monograph on their religion, though they have not done is finalised and sent for printing. away with whatever is good in their time honoured customs and manners : rather they A. K. SAIKIA have accepted new customs and usages and Director of assimilated them with their own which has Census Operations, Assam
( i )
FOREWORD
Apart from laying the foundations of change. It was accordingly decided to select demography in this subcontinent, a hundred a few villages in every State for special study, years of the Indian Census has also produced where personal observation would be brought 'elaborate and scholarly accounts of the to bear on the interpretation of statistics to variegated phenomena of Indian life-some find out how much of a village was static and times with no statistics attached, but usually yet changing and how fast the winds of change with just enough statistics to give empirical were blowing and from where. underpinning to their conclusions'. In a country, largely illiterate, where statistical Randomness of selection was, therefore, or numerical comprehension of even such a eschewed. There was no intention to build simple thing as age was liable to be inaccurate, up a picture for the whole State in quantita an understanding of the social structure was tive terms on the basis of villages selected essential. It was more necessary to attain a statistically at random. The selection was broad understanding of what was happening avowedly purposive: the object being as much around oneself than to wrap oneself up in to find out what was happening and how fast 'statistical ingenuity' or 'mathematical to those villages which had fewer reasons to manipulation'. This explains why the Indian choose change and more to remain lodged in Census came to be interested in 'many by the past as to discover how the more 'normal' paths' and 'nearly every branch of scholar types of villages were changing. They were ship, from anthropology and sociology to to be primarily type studies which, by virtue geography and religion'. of their number and distribution, whould also give the reader a 'feel' of what was going In the last few decades the Census has on and some kind of a map of the country. increasingly turned its effiorts to the presenta tion of village statistics. This suits the tem A brief account of the tests of selection per of the times as well as our politicaJ and will help to explain. A minimum of thirty economic structure. For even as we have a five villages was to be chosen "'ith great care great deal of centralization on the one hand and to represent adequately geographical, occupa decentralization on the. other, my colleagues tional and even ethnic diversity. Of this thought it would be a welcome continuation minimum of thirtyfive, the distribution was to of the Census tradition to try to invest the be as foHows : dry bones of village statistics with flesh-and blood accounts of social structure and social (a) At least eight villages were to be so
( iii ) selected that each of them would contain them an absorbing voyage of discovery and one dominant community with one predomi their infectious enthusiasm compelled me to nating occupation, e.g. fishermen, forest enlarge the inquiry's scope·again and again. workers, jhum cultivators, potters, weavers, It was just as well cautiously to feel one's way salt-makers, quarry workers etc. A village about at first and then venture further afield, should have a minimum population of 400, and although it accounts to some extent for a the optimum being between 500 and 700. certain unevenness in the quality and coverage of the monographs, it served to compensate (b) At least seven villages were to be of the purely honorary and extra-mural rigours numerically prominent Scheduled Tribes of of the task. For, the Survey, along with its the State. Each village could represent a many ancillaries like the survey of fairs and particular tribe. The minimum population festivals, of small and rural industry and should be 400, the optimum being between others, was an 'extra', over and above the 500 and 700. crushing load of the 1961 Census.
(c) The third group of villages should It might be of interest to recount briefly each be of fair size, of an old and settled the stages by which the Survey enlarged its· character and contain variegated occupations scope. At the first Census Conference in and be, if possible, multi-ethnic in composi September, 1959, the Survey set itself the task tion. By fair size was meant a population of of what might be called a record in situ of 500-700 persons or more. The village should material traits, like settlement patterns of the mainly depend on agriculture and be sufficient village; house types ; diet ; dress, ornaments ly away from the major sources of modern and footwear ; furniture and storing vessels ; communication such as the district adminis common means of transport of goods and trative headquarters and business centres. passengers; domestication of animals and It should be roughly a day's journey from the birds ; markets attended ; worship of deities, above places. The villages were to be selected festivals and fairs. There were to be record with an eye to variation in terms of size, pro ings, of course, of cultural and social traits ximity to city and other means of modern and occupational mobDity. This was fol communication, nearness to hills, jungle lowed up in March, 1960, by two specimen and major rivers. Thus there was to be a schedules, one for each household, the other regional distribution throughout the State for the village as a whole, which apart from of this category of villages. If, however, a spelling out the mode of enquiry sugges~ed in particular district contained significant eco the September, 1959 conference, introduced logical variations within its area, more than groups of questions aimed at sensing changes one village in the district might be selected to in attitude and behaviour in such fields as study the special adjustments to them. marriage, inheritance, movable and immov able property, industry, indebtedness, educa It is a unique feature of these village tion, community life and collective activity, surveys that they rapidly outgrew their origi social disabilities, forums of appeal over dis nal terms of reference, as my colleagues putes, village leadership, and organisation of warmed up to their work. This proved for cultural life. It was now plainly the intention
( iv ) to provide adequate statistical support to gical and cultural change. Finally, a study empirical 'feel', to approach qualitative change camp was organised in the last week of Decem through statistical quantities. It had been ber, 1961, when the whole field was carefully difficult to give thought to the importance of gone through over again and a programme 'just enough statistics to give empirical under worked out closely knitting the various aims pinning to conclusion', at a time when my of the Survey together. The Social Studies colleagues were straining themselves to the Section of the Census Commission rendered utmost for the success of the main Census assistance to State Superintendents by way of operations, but once the census count itself scrutiny and technical comment on the frame was left behind in March 1961, a series of of Survey and presentation of results. three regional seminars in Trivandrum (May 1961), Darjeeling and Srinagar (June 1961) This gradual unfolding of the aims of restored their attention to this field and the the Survey prevented my colleagues from importance of tracing social change through adopting as many villages as they had origi a number of well-devised statistical tables nally intended to. But I believe that what was once again recognised. This itself pre may have been lost in quantity has been more supposed a fresh survey of villages already than made up for in quality. This is, perhaps, done ; but it was worth the trouble in view of for the first time that such a Survey has been the possibilities that a close analysis of statis conducted in any country, and that purely tics offered, and also because the 'consangui as a labour of love. It has succeeded in nity' schedule remained to be canvassed. By attaining what it set out to achieve: to cons November, 1961, however, more was expected truct a map of village India's social structure. of these surveys than ever before. There was One hopes that the volumes of this Survey will dissatisfaction on the one hand with too many help to retain for the Indian Census its title general statements and a growing desire on to 'the most fruitful single source of informa the other to draw conclusions from statistics, tion about the country'. Apart from other to regard social and economic data as inter features, it will perhaps be conceded that related processes, and finally to examine the the Survey has set up a new Census standard social and economic processes set in motion in pictorial and graphic documentation. through land reforms and other laws, legisla The schedules finally adopted for this mono tive and administrative measures, technolo- graph have been printed in an appendix.
New Delhi Asok Mitra July 30, 1964. Registrar General, India.
( v )
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A part view of the village
A cluster of houses in the viila2e A typical bouse
CHAPTER I
THE VILLAGE
Introduction: Gonjung is one of the station to the village by a motorable road. Dimasa villages of the North Cachar Hills It is in this light that the village is taken up Subdivision. It lies at approximately 93°l' for survey "to find out how much of a village East longitude and 25°18' North latitude at an was static and yet changing and how iast the altitude of about 2,436 feet. It is situated winds of change were b10wing and from where". north of Hufiong, the Subdivisional Head quarters of the North Cachar Hills. Hafiong Physical aspects: The whole of the North is in the 93°1' East longitude and 25°10' North Cachar Hj]Js Subdivision may be considered latitude, hence the vi1lage is 10 miles as the as a hilly country with the exception of an crow flies from the Subdivisional Headquarters. insignificant tract of level land in the angle The village is connected with Hafiong by a formed by the junction of the Kopili and the motorable road which runs through Mahur, Diyung rivers. The Diyung river rises near the railway station. By this road the distance Mahur and on its right bank it is joined by of the village from the Subdivisjonal Head the Mahur river with its tributaries, the Mupa quarters is about 40 miles and about 24 miles and the Langting. It is on the watershed of . from the railway station. The Hafiong-via the Diyung and the Mahur that the village Mahur road approaches the village from the Gonjung is situated though far away from it south. The road does not terminate here. 011 the hills and spurs behind. East and west It continues to run northwards via lowai to of the village are hilly tracts and ridges inters Shillong, the State Capital. The distance from persed between the Brahmaputra and the Gonjung to Shillong is about 150 miles. Surma Valley. Further west of the village there is a plateau of the Garo-Khasi-North Gonjung is far from being a typical village Cachar Hi11s which, with the Sharply serrated as will be seen from the villagers' present mode range of the Barail and its spurs, constitutes of living. The village was once a SubdivisionaI the Assam Range. The level line formin,g the Headquarters which pride it retained till 1896 horizon of the plateau is 110t broken until the when it was transferred to Hafiong. It is Harail is reached, where the contour becomes now covered by the Community Development ragged and irregular, though the sides are Block having its headquarters at Maibong. precipitous. In North Cachar the landscape As has been stated above, it is also connected is one of undulating grassy hills, with occasional with Hafiong, the present Subdivisional Head groves of pine and oak. It is believed that quarters, and with Mahur, the nearest railway the forests here have been destroyed or kept
( 1 ) GONJUNG
down by the custom of annual burning either Almost every speCIes of wild animal is for pasture or for cultivation, the long grass found in the abounding hills. The gibbon with which the surface is covered. Where monkey is found in the dense jungle and there fires are excluded, thick forest of young pine are also the small common monkeys which, and mixed leafy trees spring up. in large flocks do dire mischief to the crops. Tigers and leopards are not uncommon but Flora and Fauna : The hills in Gonjung and they seldom do harm to a man. The mongoose, its surroundings rise as a rule in steep slopes the brown and red squirrel, the field rat as covered with mixed decidous and evergreen well as the bamboo rat are found in large forests, but where they have been jhummed, numbers. Elephants, buffaloes and bears roam trees give place to bamboo shrubs. The forest majestically in the jungle. Snakes of various is chb-fly of the miscellaneous type. Thick kinds, small and large, are found and python groves of sal and teak occur in small patches is not uncommon. Various species of birds here and there. It appears, no doubt, that such as snipe, wiJdgeese and ducks, pheasants, the area under sal was more extensive in the partridges, jungle fowls, parrots, peacocks, past but due to wanton destruction by burn etc. break the silence of the forest with their ing and jhumming it has been reduced to the sweet melodies. present state. In recent years the importance of these forest products has been realised and Climate: The village, as has been stated deforestation is no longer the practice and already, is located at an altitude of 2,436 feet cutting and felling the jungles are restricted. above the mean level of the sea. It stands But even when this is done, that is, when a on a hillock near the valley of the Diyung and forest is reserved, it is of little value for there Mahur. The clearance of jungles to give pIece is a keen demand for land for cultivation, for cultivation has been, perhaps, one of the and since pressure of population on the soil factors that influence the climate of the village. is felt, it has been found advisable to deforest The valley is undoubtedly very unhealthy at and throw the land open to cultivation. Over certain seasons of the year and fever is prevalent. and above, the habits of the hills people do The c1imate has a warm, wet summer and not permit, except in isolated spots to which a cold brisk winter. Rain usually sets in the their jhums have not extended, of the growth month of May and lasts till September though of valuable timber. In places where in the month of October it falls occasionally. people live, jhumming have demanded a It is usually accompanied by strong and violent large tract under forest. Even with those winds which sometimes do damage to paddy small patches under forests, there is a fields and hence resulting in shortage of food great demand for constructional purposes both grains during the year. The heat of the summer by the public and government departments. sun is counteracted by the surrounding jungles The demand for small timber in the form and river ; hence the air is surcharged with of posts is very high and demand for fire moisture and the climate is but a little ener wood is also very keen and with further vating. During winter the days are cold and developments of means of extraction a dry and the nights are dewy and frosty. good quantity of it wi1l find its way to the market. Residential Pattern : The village is a com-
( 2 ) THE VILLAGE pact one, that is, the houses are built more way to it is but a footpath which is rough, closely together. There is a wide footpath, rocky and steep. Hence the village may be as wide as 20 feet, branching down from the wen connected with important centres of main road, that is, the Haflong-Mahur road, administration, trade and commerce. on both sides of which the houses are situated. The path thus seems to separate the two lines Sources of water: As has been said before, of houses which compose the village. Houses the village gets its supply of water from spring are more or less of the same pattern. On the wells. A masonry well is constructed in a south eastern side of the village there is a wide spring and a rope is used in drawing the water. open space in which is situated the Nodrang There are three such wells in the village. One or Bachelors' house. There are two schools is situated in the east, another in the north and in the village, viz. the Lower Primary School another one in the west of the village. The which is situated a little towards the north water from the wells is meant strictly for drh1k with a football ground near it and the Middle ing purposes and bathing and washing of English School with its hostcl situated in the clothes by the side of the well is prohibited. north of the village. The village boasts of Repairing or construction of a well is done having a Government Hospital with residen by voluntary service of the villagers. As tial quarters for the staff in its vicinity towards regards irrigational purposes, their fields which the west. North west of the village and by are situated far away to the east of the vll1age the side of the main road are found the resi are watered by small streams and rivulets dential quarters of the P.W.D. workers while rising from the surrounding hills. on the other side of the road is the Inspection Bungalow. Towards the north of the village Welfare and Administrative institutions: As there lies a waste land or an old jhum while has been stated above, Gonjung boasts of forest trees are found at some places around being once a Subdivisiona1 Headquarters until the village. The supply of water to the village 1896 when the headquarters was transferred is from spring well and there are three such to Haflong which remains to this day the Head wells in the village. The crematorium lies quarters of the North Cachar HjIJs Subdivision. towards the east. Hence all the welfare and administrative insti tutions are located at Haflong. But Gonjung Communication As has been already is not an isolated village. It has the repu stated, the village is connected with Hafiong, tation of being one of the foremost vjJ]ages the Subdivisional Headquarters, by a moto to be covered by the Community Development rable non-metalled road which runs through Block. In the village there are the Lower Mahuf, the railway station. The road continues Primary School, the Middle English School, and to run northwards via Jowai to Shil1ong, the a Government Hospital. All these institutions State Capital. Hence the village is also connec have been set up to better the life of the villa ted with Shillong by this road. The village gers, that is, to improve their sodo-economic can also be approached from Maibong, the conditions. nearest railway station and at the same time the Block Headquarters. Maibong lies about Market: As a matter of fact, Maibong is 10 miles south-west of the village and the the nearest market and is only about 10 miles
( 3 ) GONJUNG from the village. But unfortunately Maicong during their course of migration in cultivation is not only difficult of access but it offers also that they receded far from their village '\\hich less scope for the disposal of products. MahUf, in due course of time was abunconed by the111. though about 24 miles from the village, has The Kacharis who by then were forced by the with it important shops and godowns. Hence aggressions of the Ahoms, came to the intclior besides being a railway station, Mahur is an of the hills and took up theil' abode at Mai important market place. As such, the villagers bong, on the :lvlahur river. Some of them prefer Mahur than Maibong for disposing of even went further and came to occupy Gonjung their products as well as for making purchases which was already a deserted village. This of other necessities. village gradually grew in size and in 1880 was made the Subdivisional headquarters of History of the Village : It is not precisely the North Cachar Hills which reputation it known when the village came to be inhabited held for 16 years until 1896 when it was tran~ by the Dimasa Kacharis. The following evi fered to Haflong. dence as reported by the vil1agers about the village under review seems at least to support about its early existence. It is reported that Settlement history of the households : The the village was first inhabited by the Kacha following table shows the period of settlement Nagas who named this village after the name of the 62 surveyed households in the village of its founder. The Kacha Nagas are we J] so far as it was possible to ascertain during known for their cycle migration and it happened the survey.
Table No. 1.1
Number of households settled for
Caste/Tribe Community 5 generation and 3 and below Above 1 and 1 Generation and Unspecified above 5 below 3 below
Dimasa Kachari 38 18 3 3
Usually, one generation is equated to 25 the absence of emigration from and immigration years. From the table above it is seen that to the village as there was no record of the 38 households out of 62 households surveyed same during the time of the survey. Although have settled in the village since more than 5 no conclusion can be arrived at regarding generations. 18 households have settled in when and how these people came to inhabit the village for 3 but below 5 generations. the village, the light thrown by the table above The number of households who have settled and the settlement history of the households in the village above 1 and below 3 generations and is sufficient to clear our doubts about its early 1 generation and below are 3 in each case. The existence. number of households in the last two categories might be the result of split of the old ones III Size : According to the 1951 Census the
( 4 ) 'THE VILtAGt number of households in the village was 61 holds also increases and vice versa. But here (31 households in Purana Gonjung and 30 it is found that the number of households households in Nutan Gonjung) with a popu decreases while the number of population in lation of 287, 147 males and 140 females. creases. The number of households decreases The Census count for 1961 shows a community by 2 or 3.3 p.c. in the 1961 count. The average of 59 households with a population of 345 of size of a household for the village as a whole which 178 are males and 167 females. This works out to 5.8 persons per househoJd in shows an increase of 58 souls or 20.2 percent 1961 as against 4.7 persons per household in during the last ten years. Generally with the 1951 which indicates an increase in the average increase of population the number of house- size by 1.1 persons per household.
( 5 ) CHAPTER IT
THE PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL EQUIPMENTS
Area of orIgIn, regional distribution and leaves whereunder thousands of beasts and affinity: S. K. Chatterjee in his bqok "The birds took shelter and where lay a vast beach Indo-Mongoloids" wrote that the Kacharis or of sand full of colourful flowers. It WaS in Dimlsas as they now call thems.elves are a this beautiful place that both men and gods section of the great Bodo horde of the Tibeto dined and danced together and held assemblies. Burman stock. This populous and powerful It was from this place that the Dimasas claim group is believed to have come down along to have come upwards with thousands of the tributaries of the Brahmaputra, viz. the soldiers and spread towards northern Bengal Dihang (Dai-hong meaning big and long river), and Assam and as far as the borders of China. the Dibang (Dai-gobang meaning river with full or plenty of water) etc. till they settled Rev. S. Endle in his book "The Kacharis" down in the plains of Assam. Originally their has aptly remarked that it was and still is seat of power was further to the north along a matter of conjecture that the Kachari race the south bank of the Brahmaputra apd along which was once united under one name should the Dhansiri river and they have preserved the have ever become separated as the western memory of their original abode through their (Bodo) and southern (Dimasa) sections. Al own name-Di-ma-sa, Great-river-folk (di means though the languages of the two sections, the 'river' or 'water') or sons of the Big river, that western and the southern, have much in is, the Brahmaputra. The capital city which common, yet in the-ir modern form they widely they built after they came within the pale of differ from each other and this barrier of Hinduism which probably happened about the language prevents them from connection by 13th century was known as Dimapur. The intermarriage. The reason for th!eir final and following legend wh1ich is prevalent among them complete separation from each other as told from times immemorial supports this claim in Endle's book "The Kacharis" may be and is not altogether without a certain historic summarised as follows :-A long time ago value. Tradition goes that at the confluence the Dimasa Kingdom Was attacked by the of the Brahmaputra (Ditao) and the Ganges Ahoms and after full resistance the Dimasa (Sangi) there were great banyan trees having King with his forces retreated. Ther etreating rope-like roots and forming huge canopy of party at last came aCross a wide and deep
( 6 ) THE PEOPLE
river which could in no way be crossed. The 4 Phonglo 4 2 Raja was now facing a dilemma-the river in 5 Serongphong 4 front and the enemy behind. Finding no 6 Daulakajaw 7 16 solution of the problem h~ resolved to fight 7 Langthasa 1 10 the enemy to the last man on the following 8 Longmaileh 9 1 day. At night however a god appeare'd in a 9 Thawsen 6 9 dream and told him that he and all his people 10 Dibrakadi 2 should proceed up to the spot where he would 11 Phonguwsa 3 4 find a h:eron standing in the water and a11 12 Daulakaphoo 5 5 should go straight acros's the river and in 13 Hakhmongsa 1 9 doing so no one should look back. The 14 Naringsa 2 10 following morning the Raja led his [cople to 15 10hari 3 the spot where they found a h,eron and went 16 Warisa 6 7 straight into the water which they found harl 17 Barthuri 2 2 shoaled enough to form a ford and so it was 18 Hojaisah 6 15 possible for them to wede across. As they 19 Nanisah 1 5 were crossing some one among th'.e advanced 20 Khersah 9 group which had reached the other tank turmd 21 Maibangsah 3 back to as.sure himself whether his son was 22 Bodosah 3 4 following him. Al1 at once the water began ------rolling in and everyone had to save oneself Total 168 170 and those who had been in the micltJle of the ------_------"------river were wash,ed down to different place~. Some saved themselves by catching hold of House and housetype : Houses are more or khagris (rush~s) growing on the rank and less of the same pattern. The dwelling heuse are to this day known as 'Khagra}:aria'. Others is simple measuring usually 60ft. X 30ft. cnd is caught hold of nals (reeds) and are thus called built on the ground. The houses are ger:erally 'Nalbarias'. The Dim~sas Were the _reop]e one storeyed only, the walls being of ekra reeds who crossed in safety. or split bamboo and the roof of thatch usually of two slopes, fastened by cane and surrcrted The following list shows the names of by wooden posts. The side wa]]s as well the gotras/clans of the Dim2sa Kachcris of as the floor are plastered with mud mixed with this village as far as could be ascertained cowdung. The hous.e, as a rule, is built as from the villagers. one big spacious hall which is then divided by a partition wall made of bamboo in two parts or sometimes three according to convenience. Number of persons Generally the house contains two rooms known Name of gotra/ clan Males Females as 'nokhong' and 'noringh', the outer part or chamber and the inner one respectively. The 1 Haflongbor 86 27 outer chamber is used for all purposes such 2 Kamprey 25 22 as dining, s'leeping, and sitting while the inner , 3 Hapila 1 1 one is used as kitchen and also as dOImitcry I ( 7 ) GON1UNG for the unmarried girls. All articles of daily Dress and Qr;naments: The dress of the us'e are kept in the same house at different Dimasa Kacharis in th~s village varies from places meant for particular item. Their houses one person to another. Some of the most have no furniture except 'pira' for sitting and sophisticated among them have adopted the bedsteads for sleeping. In the 'noringh' a Assamese or the Bengali dress using rnekhela big fire~place of three embedded stones is made chadar or sari according to economic statuS: at one corner. In the same room and a little Others still retain their traditional dress. The away from the fire place are two or three beds typical female dress consists of 'rajam-rai' worn teads made of bamboo and ra.ised acc-ut 2 feet round the breast reaching to the waist and from the floor. Usually the house has two round the waist is 'regu' extending to the doors, one at the front and the other L:t tl~e knee and OYler it is another sheet of cloth known back each measunng 6ft. x 3f1. The front as'rakaosa'. They weave themselves all th~se door serves as the m8in ~ntrance to the house. cloth,s and they prefer to wear the dress which There are no windows. Neither is there any they themselves Weave out of their O\\n genius chimney to let out the smoke. Natmal1y, the and distinct designs. The Women also wear inside of the house is very dark. garlands of corals strung with white beads at intervals.. They also wear bracelets of silver A shed for cattle or Digs is tuilt seplatdy on the waist. Bangles of silver wit11 some from the dwelling heu Sf but always inside engravings are worn and on the ear is hung the compound. Except in few cases sheds a round-shaped ornament of silver. Finger for poultry are built clcse ('f attached 10 the rings of s'iiver are worn by both men and dwelling house. The ccmrcllnd ne nEat;: women.. The hair is worn tied in a knot at fenced by bamboos whiCh thus mark the the back of the head. The male dre.ss consists boundary of each house. A small garden is of a waist cloth or dhoti, shawl and turran of generally seen either infrcnt or behind each white cloth or of eri silk. Shirts are also house where some vegetables are grown. A worn by 1hem. In some cases a round-shaped small pit in which is stored cowdung etc. for ornament of silver or brass is inserted im;ide manure is also found i~1 the garden. There the lobe of the ear. With the excepticn of is no drainage system and foul water, usually earrings and finger-rings, the men wear no from the kitchen. finds its way 10 the garden. other ornaments. The hair is. cut short and It may also be noted th2t all waste things are beard is not as commonly worn as moustache. thrown in the pit in the garden which are Young boys wear pants and shirts while yeung then preserved fOf manure. girls put on frocks or shirts wlth blouses ano wear 'regu' over the latter. Shoes are occa No ceremony is usually rerfGl med by the sionally worn by both men and women. It villagers in constructing a neW house, But it may be mentioned that no particular dre~s is, however, obligatory for a person who builds is put on ceremonies like marriage or death a new house and who is heIr ed by ffiends 8nd except that in the former case new or rather relatives to entertain them with fcod and clean clothes are put on. drink. On such occasions, the owner invites all those who help hinl and pigs are killed Ho!usehold gOods: In addition to earthen and rice-beer prepared to en1ertajn them. ware vessels which are llsed largely fOf rre-
( 8 ) A villager coming out of his house A sophisticated Kachari lady POPULAllON .BY P I: Persons AGE-GROUPS & SEX M= Males (SCALE: J UHlT='2 PIiRSONS) F =FelltAl.\
_.-~~------~~_~r. ------~80 ~E4 7O~-----ft~~~------..------.------~---il0 .,~. 601---- ~;t',:,...'---- ...... ------.-..oi60 I~~:*::j ~ _1----' 1l :fil',;;jr _------450
4O't-----ti~. i%:Jo,~ ------i40 .'.,." ~.~~~:: -- I-·:..,.;~ir":{.--- ),~i:I-~-~-""i_;-~.------130
201---- ':- 1~~~~.,.., ___ -_---f20
~------~IO '2t---it---- ~------~8 41----- ·~------~6M"""!'!'I=::------I4 21----- 1---~--,-__I2 01-.---- ~~~~~~~-- 0 PMF PMF PMF PMF AGE-GROUPS 0-14 15-24 25-59 80-+ ... AGE-GROUPS_
THE PEOPLE paration and distribution of rice beer, they taken freely and deliciously by every Dimas also use utensils made of bronze and brass. Kachari of this village. Meal is usually taken They also use alluminium pots in large numbers three times a day; in the morning, noon and as also enamel plates and dishes. Hurrjtane evening. Early in the morning cefore going lanterns are used and lighting by fuel js dorie. to the field they would take their meal and In their houses are also to be found d30, hoe, wrap up some of it for midday refreshment spade, spear, SWOJd, etc. Varlovs khlCS of in plantain leaves. After returning from the baskets of different uses are found. There field late in the evening another meal is taken. are baskets for storing rice, clothes, 2nd ether Tea is not unknown. It is usually taken articles of daily use. There are ,Jso fiE:.hir,r. twice a day, early in the morning and in midday. baskets of various kinds. Ar:otho 1 asl<,(f wb;( 11 Friends and relatives are general1y enteliain(d is called 'longkai' is used fe] ranying lhings with tea. Mustard oil or ghee is used in the especially by wemen. It is ern ied ell the preparation of curry though the former IS back with a thick belt woven of fine split used also as hair oil. The use of s'plces IS bamboo or cane hung bbovc the forclJe3d. not unknown in the preparation of ·curry. Men also carry the S~\me kind of ba~Jft by bracing the belt arcllnd the arms ~l:r;d acrOt;S Beliefs and practices concerning birth: No the chest. Bamboo pip;:;s cue used for storing delivery case in the hospital was recorded water as well as for storing rice boor. Each during the survey. Delivery of a child is house has a simple tension Jocm for ..vomen generally and preferably done by a local dhai to weave and spin. known as 'hojaijig' who is usually paid either in cash (between Rs. 10 and Rs. 20) or in Food and drinks: Rite js lheh s1q Ie food kind (in the form of clothes, a basket or more supplemented by various scrts of vegeiables of paddy etc.) Any elderly woman who has including wild yams and herbs. The Dimasa experienced in the Jelivery case can assist in Kacharis are more or less Hindus [;8 wen be child deliveiry but no such dhai or 'hojaijig seen from their religion and hence l-ercf is not live on such profession which is but her part taken by them. With the CXCC111( 1) of beef time job and in fact she does not occupy any they eat meat of a varie1y or animals. Pork special position in the society. Her services is their great delicFcy l f(: (~urinr fesdvnIs it are required only when necessary but which is their favourite food. Dried fhh is their she is obliged to. delicious food and is kC'I t in b:c'n'lloc pipes (chunga) or in SD1[;l1 basld_;ts 1mr,£, ~;r(,\c 1he A pregnant woman is always looked upon hearth. Rice beer or Zl1 is their favourite with care and respect. She is not allowed to drink and each household) rcw~ the technique do heavy works and is helped by hel[ husband of its preparation. Rice beer [i}so features or relative in this respect. After she has well during festivds ,'nd is sou\(;limes l::"ken given birth to a child she is kept in isolation. to excess by the male [c]1<5. Previcllsly milk This confinement lasts till the peifformance was not a favourite drink ard ally orthodox of the 'daosathaiba' ceremony which is usually Dimasa would never touch iL They beiievcd held after the removal of the navel from the that by taking milk they deprived the calf child. This removal of the nave.! from the of its sustajning fcod. NCJw,J.dDYS milk is child is done with a sharp splitted bamboo
( 9 ) ~ "GONJUNG
in the shape of a knife by the 'hojaijig' who, l'4arriage with one's wife's younger sister (after in'this case, receive~ no payment ,but is held the death of the former) is permitted but not in high honour.:at the time of the Daosathaiba the elder. Miss Dipali Ghosh in her paper ceremony. The naming of the child is also entitled 'Descent And Clan Among the Dimasa' performed by the 'hojaijig' who breaks an published in 'Man in India' in its July-Sep egg and sees whether the name given to the tember, 1965 issue has studied the nature of child is agreed by the gods (madai) invoked. descent and marriage of Dimasa in details. The child's name is usually selected by its For bringing out the implications of asymme parents ,or grand parents according to their trical descent among Dimasa Kacharis under liking. A feast is held on this occasion in review, the following accounts descri1:ed in which friends and relative)s are invited and her paper is reproduced here : zu and pork or. other meat excepting beef are abundantly supplied to the invitees. "The male children reckon the ( 10 ) THE pEoPLE Da Da all belong to the 'jaddi' of the M04 Mo ascertaining the wishes of the boy. On this and MoMoMo, i.e. all the daughters of all occasion the boy's father takes one seer of the sisters belong to the same 'jaddi'. It is salt to the girl's parents. This is known as clear from what has been stated above that 'sauai dang singpha' or formal engagement. both the patrilineal and the matrilineal forms In othel word~, this vjsit is merely to ascer of des,cent are present in the Dimasa villages tain whether tl~e gill'S parentS agree to the ovserved ; each being restricted to the sexes proposal ('.1' whethcl the gil] herself has any separately. objection". If the salt offered is not returned within a reasonable (me, then the proposal As has been said, the clan from which a is accepted. Thercaftcl the boy's father goes man is descended is called his 'sengfong', whlIe to the girl's p,,"rems with two or three gourds the one from which a woman is desccnded is of rke beer to seHle the mardage. This is called her 'jaddi'. ]t is the etiquette to put known (t~ '}ao-thail-langba' or final engage the following question to a man and woman ment. 0:1 this occdsion the price of the bride regarding their parent's clan. To a man : knowlt ,1S 'kalli' is fixed. The amount of the What is your 'sengfong' and what is your kalti varies frNfi RS. 20 to Rs. 200, according mother's 'jaddi' ? To a Woman: What i~ to the mC",IlS oj the bridegroom as well as your jaddi and what is your father's seng the status of the girl's clan. The number of fong ?" .... animals to pe sacrificed during marriage as well as the quantity of rice beer is finally decided It may however be mentioned here 1hat and settled along with the kaW. The proposal the old rules of primary and seconoa1), rela being t11:1S finalif,ed, the dale of marriage is tionship to clans are more or less strictly main fixed accvrc:.ing to the convenience of both tained in regard to marriage. No case of parties. The ka]tl is paid on the date fixed breach of this old rule in regard to either the and b01h parties as~en,ble together in some 'Sengfong' or the 'Juddi' was reported to have open i> p~ce jr tl' e village The sitting arrange taken place in the vi11age. The rule regarding ment io;: so mc:de that the 'khunang' or village breach of the custom of exogamy is punishable hcaumap si~s at the centre, the groom's party by excommunication, sit 011 the right hand side, the bride's party on the left and the invitees in front. When Child marriage is noi known and no girl this is done, the bridegrcom is summoned to is forced into marriage by parents. Matri bow dowr. to each relative of both parties monial alliance with a member of another and each 01!e c: thtH: touches him on his tribe is not allowed and is considered a dis head and 'blc.::-scl' him. The} coft er the bride grace on the part of the offender. The above groom accompar:ied by the girrs rclatjves gees rules are strictly enforced and any breach of to the housc of his [., ( 11 ) GONJUNG groom with h~s bride and relatives return to Beliefs and practi~es connected with death : the parents' house. This is known as 'phira The Dimasa Kacharis never bury their dead phoiba' or the visit of the daughter-in-law. but cremate it except in the case of a child After staying for sometime he along with his and persons dying from unnatural deaths. On wife again returns to his faiher-in-Iaw's house the death of a person all friends and relatives to stay with him asr long as is required and are informed to eriable them to present them fixed. This period, of staying with his father selves before cremation takes place. The cere in-law is known as' 'min ha bha'. During mony starts with killing of a fowl. The dead this period, the newly couple help the girl's body is then washed and dressed in good parents in j humming and other domestic clothes and is then put on a mat on the floor duties making themselves useful. At the The deC;td body is placed to lie flat with the end of the perio-d (min habha) they build head towards the west, the hands close by a separate hb-use and start life at their own the sides and the eyelids drawn over the eyes. accord. Each guest is taken into the chamber where the dead body lies and each places a gift, a piece of cloth or money by the side of the A man may divorce his wife on any ground dead body and cal~ing out, at the same time, but he will not get back th~ k.alti paid by him the deceased's name eXpressing his or her on the day of marriage. ", If the' wife commits regret at not having met or seen him or her adultery and she is divorced she should return before death. When all the guests have seen ,the 'kalti' to the injured husband. She has the dead body it is taken in a bier (dolai) to also to pay to the husband Rs. 40 or Rs. 45 the cremation ground (mankulungJing) which as a fine and all presents given to her must is generally on the bank of the river or stream. also be given back. Should the husband Seven layers of dried wood are raised to -form commit. adultery the wife may divorce him the funeral pyre (thairik) and over this pyre and he will not be entitled to get back the the corpse is placed and fire lighted by the 'kalti' as well as the presents which he has male relatives on the father's side. In case given to the wife either on the day of marriage the body does not burn well it is stated that or during their stay as husband and wife. the cause is due to the absence of ~orue relative If husband and wife agree for separatjon the or friend. In such case any of the male rela 'kalti' is not returnable but may be kept by tives standing 011 the side of the pyre throws the wife or her parents. The children invari sungrass and states the reason of the relative's ably belong to the wife if the husband does absence. This practice is known as 'dohongsuba' not care to claim them. In all cases of divorce (throwing sungrass) which is usually done re-marriage is allowed and both parties are when two-thirds of the body is burnt. When free to re-marry with all the ceremonies as the body is thoroughly burnt the bones and is the case with a first marriage. The question ashes are collected and thrown into the near of divorce always comes through tb'e 'khu by stream excepting the frontal bone (tain) nang' Whose decision is final and he' announces which is retained and placed in a monumental it publicly that so and so are separated. Other house (mankulung) raised on the cremation wise the divorce is inc'omplete and null and spot. The bone so placed is allowed to re void. maIn in the 'mankulung' till the next Btlsu ( 12 ) THE PEOPLE or harvest tIme. Sometime it is kept for on and the death ceremonie& are now com year from the date of death and all along pleted. this time the family is considered to be in mourning. The bone is then carried to the The body of a chile: less than two months neighbouring river where it is thrown. is buried and no ceremony is performed. The rule is that a child who has no teeth yet is All presents placed beside the corpse are buried while one tooth having appeared qualifies burnt along with it. The cremation is usually the body for cremation. A Woman dying in followed by 'jumangsao-kainba' that is, a childb;rth is buried and no feast is held and ceremony in which friends and relatives who friends and relatives do not assemble but only took par t in the cremation are entertained. elderly persons may attend the burial. An On this occasion, only rice beer is served. the personal belongings of the Woman are After this function, the sradha ceremony is thrown out in the jungle or burnt. A person performed according to the relative's conve killed by a tiger is t.uried on the spot where nience. Generally such ceremony is, perfor he is found. All the wearing apparel is med during the dry season before the Busu thrown away. The idea is that if anyone festival. Until this ceremony is performed, takes it the same fate will befall on him. A the bereaved family is considered to be in man dying outside his village is cremated in mourning otherwise the mourning is observed the village which he died but the frontal bone only for a year. Sradha is usually held with is brought to the villa ge to be placed in the great pomp and ceremony and lasts for two 'mankalullg' until the next Busu. days. Animals like pigs and fowls are killed and rice beer is prepared and aU these are On the death of her husband, a wife takes served to the invitees. But even when this off all her ornaments and remains in mourning -Sradha ceremony is performed, the family has till the next harvest festival. For the first to perform 'makham garba' or· ofiering of three days after death she is not allowed to food (pinda) to the deceased either at the take rice. Similarly, on the death of his wife, 'mankulung' or in their house till the next a widower remains in mourning until the harvest Busu when the Makham garba ceremony is festiva1. On the death of parents children are held for ofiering the food finally. This cere not allowed to eat until the following night. mony is held in the same manner with great During a period of mourning neither widow pomp and show as the Sradha. Thereafter the nor widower can remarry. 'pinda' is no longer oBered to the deceased ( 13 ) CHAPTER III ECONOMY Economic reSOUrces : The econcmic life of Factors influencing economic life in the the vilJagers is simple and the whole po[ulation village: There are several factors, compara depend for their livelihood on cultivation which tively of recent origin, which have been at is, however, an important factor that deter work influencing the ec'onomic life of the mines the well-being and prosperity of the village,.s. The most important of these is land villagers. With cultivation paddy is the most improvement which means increasing the ferti important crop and other crops such as maize, lity of land, that is, the yield per acre of land. millet etc. are only grown as s.ide lines along To achieve this object the improvement of with paddy. The rearing of lives:tock may be land depends upon various factors, viz. reclama considered as anothe~ important source of tion of cultivable waste land, consolida,tio,ll of wealth to the villagers. Livestock such as holdings, availability of better irrigationaJ pigs and fowls are also important in their facilities, provision of better seeds, manures ceremonial occasions. Though weaving, bas and better tools and implements for cultivation. ketry etc. are practised by them th~y do not As regards reclamation of waste land, consoli depend for their livelihood mainly or partially dation of holding~ and avaHability of better on any of them. This is due to the f~ct that irrigatinoal facilities no attempt has yet been the availability of finished and cheap factery made in this direction by the authorities COnCer~ goods from the market has done away with ned. So far as the USe of better types the value of these. local products of weaving, of seeds, manures (in the form of chemi~ blacksmithy etc. Except weaving which is not cal fertilizers) that there is a definite dying out in the face of fac10ry competition tendency among the villagers to use these but the products are rather meant for personal to improve the productivity of land. WhHe use than for sale in the market. The survival most of the cultivators., irrespective of the of this importa.t cottage industry is due to size of their holdings, are going in for the fact that weaving is a 'must' among the better types of seeds and manures, those Dimasa women and a Woman who does not with com_paratively larger holdings are know itle art of weaving is looked down upon going in also for better types of tools and in the society. Basketry is practised by male implements. The use of the wooden plough folks and that also is done in their spare time is now common among those who practise for their own use. wet cultivation while the use of hoe, spade ( 14 ) ECONOMY etc. of the modern type is common among Draught bullocks 35 40 those who pursue dry cultivation. Goats 17 58 Pigs 48 104 Another improtant factor which influence Fowls 59 382 the economic life of the viI1age is communi cation. As has been mentioned earlier in Chapter I, the village is connected with imror The domestic animals are restyjcted to a tant centres of administration and commerce few varieties. The ai-ove table shows that 8 by Haflong-Mahur road. The imj:rovement households own 13 milch cattle which indicates in transport and communications has tenefited that milch cattle are not commonly reared by the vi1lagers in many respects. For eXEmple, the villagers. This is rerhars due to the f~ct as a result of these improvements, it has that beef eating is 110t the custom in so far as become easier for the viY~gers to go out of their religion is concerr:ed, thcugh milk is the village for higher education, and for lhat taken. It was found that 35 households which matter to take up service, for marketing of practised wet cultivation also cwn draught their agricultural rrcd\lt'e etc. As a matter bullocks for ploughing the fields The cullccks of fact, one of the important factors on which are allowed to roam at will in the jungle except agricultural economy depends is the availa during the ploughing season when they are bility of marketing facilities. The jmproven:ent properly kept and fed. The rearing of goats: in transport and communications has to a pigs and fowls are important 1:oth large ext€1nt facilitated the vj}Jagers on trar: for food and religious sacrifices. Pigs and sacting business with Mahur and Hafiong, fowls also figure prominently during feast especially with the former which is the nearest days such as in marriage and death cere market to them and being at the same time monies. an important railway station. Livestock: As has been pointed out else Workers and Non-workers: For the purrme where the rearing of livestocks is considered of study of the economic status of the villagers as an important source of income though not the population (of 62 households surveyed) as the main but the subsidiary income. The may be divided into workers and non-workers. following table gives the livestock statistics of The workers are the total of all persons of all the 62 households surveyed the vi11age:- ages actua11y engaged in occuration while the non-workers are the persons who are not TABLE 3.1 engaged in any occur-ation and are defendent upon the working force. The following table Particurars Number of hOuse Total shows the nllmber of workel's and non-wor holds owning number kers of the 62 households surveyed in the village :- Mi1ch cattle 8 13 ( 15 ) Table 3-2 Total Total Workers Total Non-workers-- Age-groUp Persons /Males Females Persons Male~ Females persons Males Femalea 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ---AIl ages 338 168 170 195 96 99 143 72 71 0-14 159 79 80 19 9 10 140 gO 70 15-34 110 49 61 107 47 60 3 2 35-59 61 33 28 61 33 28 60 and above 8 7 1 8 7 1 The above table shows that out of the total of female workers of all ageS exceed that of persons of 338 only 195 or 57.7 per cent are males and this shows that females are hard workers While 143 or 42.3 per cent are nOn workers though as a rule women work hand workers. Of the non-workers the number of in hand with men in the fields besides attend school going children belonging to age~group ing to household duties. There is not one 0-14, is 16.6 percent of the total persons(of33S) person who depends for his living entirely while the number of dependents jn the same eitheT on service or any other occupation age~group is larger comprising 24.9 J:cr cent except cultivation. This indicates that about of the total persons enumerated during the all households have got sufficient land to survey. (Table 11 in Appendix II). Hence the cultivate. However, with the increase of above table clearly indicates that the largest population the area of land required for culti number of non-workers comes frem the age vation also increases and vice verSa. The group O~ 14. In this same age-group it is seen village is free from problems of unemployment, that the number of male non-workers is equal as everyone reaps his own field however poor to that of females. The dependants in this the yield may be. age group are merely idling away their time in doing odd jobs either at home or in the Size and ownership of land holdings : The fields~ The number of workers in the same following- table shows the size of cultivable age-group is comparatively less comprising of land of the 62 households surveyed in the only 9 males and 10 females. The num1::er village. - Table 3-3 Size group Nnmber of house· % of the total Total area % of the total Average size of the (in acres) holds (in acres) area holding in acres Below 3 acres 47 75.8 121 64.4 2.6 3-5 acres 12 19.3 52 27.7 4.3 6-8 acres 3 4.9 15 . 7.9 5.0 9-11 acres Total 62 100'0 188 100'0 3'0 ( 16 ) EDUCATION .. ~ . BY AGE- GROUPS &. SEX 50~------~-- (SCALE: 7 UNIT:: 2 ,':>t?F?S ON.s) ------.50 iUiterate 40 1------: 40 M F ~------·--~------~~o 251----- 20 ...... -- 1------120 1-·------i15 10 -----~---___4 10 51--~-- 41----- 31-----21------O....;_---,1----- ------r30 ------~20 c------i- 10 --~---___i5 ------14 ------f3 ------12 ------flO M F t.... F M F M F AGE-GROUPS I -14 15-3 4 35-59 60- + AGE-GROUPS ECONOMY The above table shows that the average I could be resorted to. Usually, the land was size of the land h01dings of the 62 surveyed ., put to cultivation for two or three consecutive households is 3 acres.. The majority of these seasons after which it was left to lie fallow for land owning households is in the size-group atleast 8 to 10 years to recover enough. below 3 acres which constitutes 75.8 per cent During such periods, the cultivators shift their of the total number of the households surveyed. jhumming to another fresh plot of land and The largest extent of land, that is, 121 acres come back to the old plot only when it becomes or 64.4 per cent of the total area of 188 acreS fit for cultivation. But as the population in is owned by the 47 households whcse hcldings creases, and the demand of land becomes are below 3 acres, Out of the 62 households acute, it becomes necessary to stick to the owning land 19.3 per cent whose holdings are old land by converting it into a permanent between 3-5 acres own 27.7 per cent of the one SO that the same population C2n live on total land and only 4.9 per cent whose hold- a fraction of the acreage needed for jhumrning. ings are between 6-8 acres own 7.9 per cent of the total land. Hence it is seen from the Usually the jungle is cut in January or above table that the majority of the house February and it is left to dry until March holds have got just sufficient land for culti- April when it is set fire to. The earth is then vation. scraped a little with a hoe after whiCh paddy is planted. When the land has ceen rl2nted It is to be noted that the above classifi twice or thrice before or when the soil is not cation of land holdings is only for dry culti fertile enough manures such as cowdung, vation or jhumming. Although the Dimasas chemical fertilizers etC. are arplied. Along with of this village practjse wet cultivation at the paddy other crops such as maize, millet, foot of the surrounding hills no data are avai mustard etc. are also grown as side lines. There lable· regarding the size of their wet fields. are usually two princip2.1 kinds of rice, the It is reported by the villagers that their wet one red and the other white and both kinds fields exist only in small patches and even are planted at the same time of the year. then they are scattered in fragments separated Subsequently twice or thrice during the rains by hills and terrain. Out of the 62 house the crop is weeded. Weeding is done with holds surveyed in the village only 35 of them the help of a dao or kodali to remove grass, were found to practise wet cultivation along weeds, bushes etc. that grow along with the with dry cultivation. main crop and sap the fertility of the soil. It may be noted that each household culti Agriculture: The village population still vates its own piece of land and does not com derives its means of livelihood from cultiva bine with 01hers to open out a larger space. tion which is their main occupation. It may The harvesting season begins in Novemcer. be noted that one of the peculiar characteris The plants are cut with a sickle and are collected tics of the village economy is the adherence at one place in the field. The sheaves are of the villagers to traditional occupaticn, that thrashed out on the spot by beating them is, jhumming. Previously, when the popula against a stone until the grains are separated tion was not on the increase as it is today, from the chaff. The grains are then carried there was plenty of land in which jhumming home in baSkets. ( 17 ) GONJUNG In case of wet lands, the land is thoroughly Next to weaving, basketry is another im~ tilled with the help of a wooden plough drawn portant industry in this village. It is practised by buffaloes. The land is then levelled with by men only in their spare hours and the a hoe and at the same time water channels products are meant not for sale but for their / are also carved out for watering and draining. own use. Baskets of various kinds are The seed is sown broadcast when the soil is made of either bamboo or cane. These consist moist. No transplantation is done by them of carrying baskets and baskets for storing but plants which are blown off by the wind rice and oth,er things. Mats, fishing traps are carefully replanted. Great care js also and baskets are also made by them. taken that weed or grass may not prevent the growth of the plants. Marketing facilities: Mahur besides beint:, an important railway station has also with it Village Industries: Among the industries an important market centre. The villagers known to them weaving is the most important. depend on this weekly market fot obtaining Weaving is tradWonal and it is the art which their domestic requirements and other necessi each and eVery woman must know. It is, ties as well as disposal of their products such therefore, the skill and the pride of the wOmen~ as paddy and other cash crops. People from folk. The weaving machine is a simple tension other neighbouring villages also gather in this loom and the products of the loom are not market place for disposal of their products as sold but are rather used by the weavers them~ well as for purchasing their necessities. Hence selves. The chief products such as 'regu' (a there is free contact among them. The medium waist cloth), 'rajampai' (a cloth used to cover through Which they speak with each other is the breast) etc. are full of artistic designs and broken Assamese or Bengali as the market is colours. In fact, Kachari cloths are noted monopolised by the two dominant neighbours, for their beauty of designs and colours. It the Assames'e and the Bengali, espeCially the may be noted that as cotton is not produced latter. The following table shows t Name of thO Distance from Transport Commodities disposed of in the Commodities obtained in the market place the viiIage market markot Remarks Item Approximate Approximate Item Approximate Approximate quantity value ------quantity value Mahur 24 miles By road 1. Paddy 5 mds Rs. 100'00 Sugar 20 srg. Rs. 25'00 (week1Jy) (jeepablo) 2. Vegeta- 10 mds Rs. 50'00 Salt 10 srs. Rs. 1'82 bles Dal 5 srs- Rs. 24'38 3. Maize 10 mds RS. 30'00 Clothes Rs. 50'00 4. Fowls 45 nos. Rs. 112'50 Brass or Rs. 20'00 5. Eggs 100 " Rs. 10'00 allumi 6. Hand Uncertain nium pots. loom Other products necessities Rs. 30'00 Paddy is the chief product of this village the year the quantity of paddy exported to which is sold at a good market price of Rs. 20/ the market is great bringing with it a good per md. When good harvests turn out during return of money. Besides paddy and maIze, ( 18 ) A woman is busy in ber loom The unfinished piece of material in the loom. ECONOMY vegetables are also grown extensively and sold and it is only after the cultivation season that in the market. Of the domestic livestock, the women devote most of their time to weaving. fowls are sold more often than any other at Of the 62 surveyed households, there are 2 a rate of Rs. 2.50 p. each. Sugar, salt, dal whose main occupation is agrkultural labour, and other foodstuff are the chief imports from though Some of thelr tjme is also devoted to the market. Cooking pots, clothes, etc. are homestead gardening and weaving. One such also purchased occasionally. household engaged in agricultural labour is in the income group of Rs. 901-12PO and Income : The villagers] are not willing another one in the income group of Rs. 300 to disclose their income as well as the amount and below. of expenditure. They sometimes give a lesser amount of their income which do not sound Expenditure: Table 14 in the Appendix II reasonable a1 all compared with theh standard shows the annual expenditure of different occu ofliving. Moreover, they have the tendency to pation groups and of income groups. Ex over rate the amount of expenditure. Table penditure on foodstuffs, revenue and house 13 in the Appendix II shows the annual income construction is separately shown. The expen by main occupation as well as by other sources diture on foodstuff is also included along with so far as can be ascertained from the villagers that on other necessities of life. It will appear themselves. As will be seen in the Table, from the table that among the higher income the greater number of households in the village groups, the expenditure is comparatively high is in the income group Rs. 301-600. The than that in the low.er income groups. The second great number of households is in the expenditure incurred by each household in income group Rs. 601-900 and the number the village for paying revenue is Rs. 3/-and of such households is 16, while 7 households this house tax is paid to the District Council are in the income group Rs. 901-1200 and annually. only 6 households are in the income group Rs. 1201 and above. All the above hOUSe Households which are in the highest income holds of different income group eke out their groups of Rs. 1201 and above usually spend living mainly from cultivation. Though some a larger amount on food and other necessities. of them also derive their income from service As the amount of income increases in SUcce either in the village schools as teachers or ssive group the amount of expenditure also from some unskilled jobs in the Public Works increases and vice versa. The amount of ex Department Sub-office and the Government penditure on house construction or repairing Hospital, the amount of such income is insig old ones increases also with the increase of nificant com pared with the amount of income income excepting in the income group of derived from cultivation. It is only when the Rs. 1201 and above where the expenditure on cultivation season is over that they look for such heads is less. The village as a whole is some other jobs that would give them some free from poverty and there is none living in earning. Weaving is only a part time job of acute want and dire poverty. The economic the women and the income derived from it standard of the people is, therefore, exceptionally cannot be certain. It depends on the quantity fair compared with other neighbouring viJIages of cloths produced by the weavers in a year of the subdivision. ( 19 ) CHAPTER IV SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE Population by age and Sex : It is difficult which by itself is an indication of likelihood to ascertain the age of the people as they keep of increase of population in future. There no record for the purpose, Hence reference is also a slight diference in the numter of to certain important events within the know boys and girls in this same age'-group and ledge of the people was necessitated which hence from these figures there is no problem by no means falls short or otherwise of their in sex matching in future. In the age-group exact age. The table below shows the popu 15-24 which is a marriageable age the females lation in the village by seX and age group of outnumber the males by four only and on the 62 households surveyed. the face of it the question of matching roys and girls in this age group is not so much dis Table 4-1 turbed. Again, in the age-group 25-59 the ------~------~~~~------0-14 15-24 25-59 60 and above females outnumber the males by three only Persons Males Females while in the age-group 60 and above the MFMFMF M F number of males exceeds that of the females 170 79 80 28 32 54 57 7 1 338 168 by six. All this shows that the population is often negligibly disturbed by non-matching It is seen from the above table that the of sex partners, leaving other factors. population reaches the highest stage in the age~group 0-14 which is 47 per cent of the Age and marital status : The following table total population. It thus appears that the shows the population by age and marital status number of children is larger than the average of the 62 households surveyed. Table 4-2 POPULATION BY AGE, SEX AND MARITAL STATUS Total population Never married Married Widowed Divorced or separated Age-groups persons------~------. Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 All Ages 338 168 170 111 105 54 54 3 U 0-14 159 79 80 79 80, 15-24 60 28 32 28 22 9 25-59 111 54 57 4 3 49 45 9 60 & above 8 7 1 5 2 ------~------ ( 20 ) SOCIAL AND CULTUttAL LIP:!. There is not a single person who is married to married life only after they have reached in the age-group 0-14 which clearly shows full manhood. Although remarriage is allowed that early marriage is not [the practi~e. in case of divorce or separation or death, Nine female persons are found to be married the number of widows and widowers is not in the age-group 15-24 and also in this age lost sight of. This is in general due to the group there is found to be one widow. Again, fact that a widower can only marry a widow in the age-group 25-'59 ninety-four persons are as no parents would allow their children to • • J married of whom 49 are males and 45 femaJ~s marry a wIdower or Mdow. and also in this age-group there is only 1 widower and 9 widows. The largest number The foUowing table shows the population of married persons is found in this age-group by age, sex and education of the 62 households which indicates that people of Gonjung take surveyed. Table 4-3 Literacy ------Total Illiterate Literate without educa- Primary or Junior M.E. or Senior Basic tional standard Basic Age-groUp in year" Total No. Males Fe- Total No. Males Fe- Total No. Males Fe- Total No. Males Fe- Total No. Males Fe- of persons males of persons males of persons male, of person! males of persons males 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 0-14 156 76 80 100 42 58 _------53 32 21 3 2 1 15-24 63 29 34 7 4 3 16 4 12 11 5 6 29 16 13 25-59 110 56 54 2 2 108 56 52 60 and above 9 7 2 9 7 2 Total 338 168 170 109 46 63 133 67 66 64 37 ------_27 32 18 14 A literate person has been defined as one and one M. E. School. The vilJagers send who can read and write. According to this their children to these two schools and after definition, the number of literate persons found that they proceed their further studies in the in the village is 229 and this works out to H. E. School or College at Hallpng but the 67.7 per cent of the total population of 338. number of such stud(mts was not recorded Among these literate persons 133 or 58 per during the survey. As it appears the whole cent are literates without educational standard, picture shows a remarkable trend towards 64 or 28 per cent are reading in the Primary education among the villagers. They have School and 32 or 14 per cent are in the M.E. growing thirst for education and the village School. The last two categories consist of is far advanced in comparison with the nearby pers,ons in the age·group 0-14 and 15-24 while villages in the subdivision itself. the first category of ]iterate persons without educational standard consists of those Social status : The Dimasa society is some from 15 years of age and above. As already what different from thosle among the other mentioned in a previous chapter, there are hill tribes of Assam. Although there is no tw_o schools in the village, one L. P. School distmction between high and low classes, the ( 21 ) Gc)NJUNG position of women do not perhaps occupy of the hill tribes, they at times consume it in the same influential position as is apparently large quantities especiaUy during festivals, enjoyed by their sisters in the hills, especially marriage or funerals. This makes a man the Khasis and the Garos, where a matriarchal negldct his work, find fault with a neighbour family holds the field of social and domestic or his wife and spend the day idling away his life. This may be due to the fact that the time at home. Rev. Endle in his book 'The Dimasa Kacharis had long been unde,! the Ka,charis' has praised the Kacharis as being influence of the Ahoms and teing surrounded honest, truthful, straightforward and trust by the patriarchal neighbours likethe Assamese worthy. He goes on to say that 'his innocence and the Bengalis, their social status is shaped is the inpocence of ignorance, not the and moulded according to their patwn. But innocence of experience...... when con the Dimasa women of the North CachaI' Hills taminated by civilization, e.g. when brought enjoy a larger measure of freedom than that into contact with our civil and criminal courts, of the Kachari ws>men of the plains. A much of this innocence must inevitably disa:r: woman is held with respect and she is regarded pear, and of this sad deterioration of character equal with man. She has her own part fo any man who has been long in the country, play in the society. She takes part along with and learnt to know the people well, must her husband in weeding and seedling of the have experienced many melancholy and pain fblds be"sides being the caretaker of the home. ful illustrations". In fact, she is considered with leniency for her' weakness and is exempted from such Typ('s of family: There are three types of heavy work as requires a man's strength. family in this vi11age, viz. simple, intermediate and joint families. The fol1owing table shows One weakness in the menfolk is that they the types of the 61' families as found in the are addicted to drink or rice beer. Like most \tillage during the survey :- Table 4-4 TRIBE/COMMUNITY AND NATURE OF FAMILY Types of family living in the households Tribe No. of house- Remarks holds Simple Intermediate Joint Others 2 3 4 5 ------6 7 Dimasa Kacharis 62 59 2 ------ Out of the 62 households" 59 are of the simple a man gets married he leaves his parents' house type, 2 of the intermediate and 1 of the joint and lives with his wife and that also away type of families, It is thus seen that the from the girl's parent, building up a separate majority of the households are simple. The house of their own. reason for the presence of2 intermediate families and 1 joint family is perhaps due to the fac1 Law of inheritance : The Dimasa society of economic hardships of the households being of a patriarchal system, the son is always concerned. Usually the custom is that whell the inheritor of the property. That is, on the ( 22 ) SQ)CIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE death of a father, the son inherits the property. not available as the vIllagers are reluctant to The eldes't son gets the lion's share while the disclose their indebtedness and the Eal:ilities rest of the property is divitied in different pro incurred therein. portions among the other sons. The daughter can only inherit the property, i.e. the jewellery Religious beliefs and practices: Though the and the clothes, of the mother but not the real Dirnasa claim themselves to te the follQwers estate. On the death of a mother, the jewel1ery, of Hinduism their religion can hardly be clothes and ornaments go direct to the daugh regarded as such. It appears as if their religion ters and cannot be retained or sold by any was an outcome of the reactionary forces of of the relatives. If the deceased father has their traditional complicated tYI e of religion no son, t he property passes to the nearest and Hinduism. The general conversion of the male relative who may either be his paternal Kachari people into Hinduism took place in uncle or brother. The son of the divorced the latter part of the eighteenth century. 1t is wife inherits pror:er1y equally with the second said that Raja Krishna Chandra and his brother wife's son. II1egitimate children cannot in Govind Chandra were placed ins-ide the body I' herit ;;my property. It is customary that the of a copper image of a cow, and thence pro- dal\ghter or daughters after the death of their duced by the Brahmans who declared them to mother should move to the house of their be Hindus and Kshatriyas. The -people follc'Wed female relative, e.g. their grandmother or the example, of this prince and nearly an the their mother's sisters and stay there perma Kacharis n'ow describe themselves as Hindus. nently. But the father carr at any tjme pu a stop to this and he can retain his daughters The Dimasas have many gods and goddesses in his own house. Should the father marry of which there is one Supreme M~dai. Under into a different fe,male s~cts, the daughter him there are many other Madais, some are can leave his house at will and the father has family deities and some are evil spirits. The got nothing to do during the marriage; of his progenitor of these family deities or madais daughter though the 'Kalti' paid by her hus is known as 'airekhidima' who is supposed band goes to him. to have the form of a big femaJe bird. Accord ing to tradition the bird (airekhidima) after It is also reported that the sucCessor to looking for a suitable place for her nest at the estate is liable for all debts whether these last came to the banyan tree and built her debts amount to more or less than the value nest there. In course of time the bird laid of the estate. In the event of a man dying seven eggs. The first one to come out of these without property, the next heir is nevertheless eggs WaS 'braisibrai'. It Was then followed in still liable for any debts due from the deceased. succession by 'alooraja' (also known as dooraja), There can be no exception to this hard and 'nairhuraja', 'waraja, 'morangraja' and fast rule. This law very often bears heavily 'hamiado'. The last egg was not yet matured on a man who, though no fault of his own, and hamiado being impatient kicked at it. merely from being the next of kin, perhaps The egg broke and the liquid content fell very distantly connected with the deceased, hither and thither on land and water and find himself with a heavy burden of debt to ~hu's turned to evil sp~rits or madais. These payoff. Data supporting the above fact is madais or evil spirits torture men and hence ( 23 ) GONJllNG they were deprived of being treated as deities. mistake in the arrangement of the mounds Braisibrai being the eldest one is worshipped and the leaves. After arranging the mounds as a common god by all the Kacharis and the in order, the 'jonthai' puts the animals and last one 'Hamiado, because of hig misdeed the birds~ i.e. pigs and fowls, against each was not worshipped a.S an ancestral god. The mound and pray. When the prayer is oVer remaining four became nokhoni madais or the 'dainyahs' kill the animals and birds one family deities and are still worshipred as such after another. The blood of the slaughtered by the respective khels or group of sengrhcng animals is then poured on the mounds. The or sects of the Dimisa Kacharis. In course animal is usually killed at one stroke and the of time thes~ deities got children some of whom omen is judged by the position of the head are worshipped :: ancestral gods. fallen on the leaves and the intestines of the animals killed. The feast is then made with Community worship is done reriodically the flesh of the slaughtered animals and birds at an interval of three or more years when along with rice and zu. Before parting from 'maisangba' or sacrifice of animals is offered the gathering, the 'jonthai' distributes the holy to a presiding deity, at a 'daikhoo' or a god's water (dithar) to all those who attend the func house. The priest 'jonthai' and his assistants tion. The water is also taken to those who 'dainyahs' and 'barowas' perform the cere could not attend the ceremony. It may be mony.. Such ceremony is usually held at times noted that the expenditure for such a ceremony of famine which bring succes~ve failure of is met with by voluntary contributions either crops due to drought e~c. A date is fixed and in cash or in kind by each household in the the place apPointed where such ceremony is village and hence everyone has the right to to be performed and the representatives bring demand a share for the holy water. their animals and birds to be sacrificed. Gene rally the sacrifice is ofFered to the presiding Among the family deities in the family deity of the 'daikhoo' but along with it other level the 'nokhone madai' is the most impor sacrifices also are offered to the other members tant. The performance of the ceremony is or deities of the 'daikhoo' family. A small different from that performed in the com mound is built for each deity covered with munity level. Here any man who knows the plantain leaves. These mounds are then sancti technique from among the 'khe.}' can per fied with holy water (dithar) collected from the form the rites in the same way as the 'jonthai' stream in a new bamboo pipe (chunga). The performs in the 'misengba'. Such person mounds are So arranged that the presiding though he has a 'barowa' as his assistant, he deity is at the centre and the others are placed himself kills the animals beside,S performing according to the nearpess in their relation to the duties of prayer and rites. This ceremony it. The size of the m~unds and the number is usually performed just before the sowing of plantain leaves also Vary accordingly. The season and its object is for bringing about the mounds and the leaves should be arranged welfare .of the family. Another performance very carefully or otherwise they may spell which is performed for the welfare of the disaster to the commenity. The 'adeodhain' individual is known as 'madaima daimba' (religious men) dance with the rhythm of the where only few main deities are seated on the 'muri' (flute) and 'dhol' (drum) to correct any mounds. It is frequently performed when a ( 24 ) MARITAL STATUS BY 50.--- AGE - GROUPS & S£X 50 (SCALE :- 1 UNIT =2 PERSONS) -1 C]- Never-Married - ~ [fi]_Married I ~_ Widowed --1 40 M _Males ~ -=- _ Females 351---- - 35 ~30 2S ----i 25 -- -~~20 15 101'---- r------~10 M F M F 15 - 24 25 _ 59 A Village 'Nodrang~ or boys~ dormitory Smoking tobacco pipe in his leisure A woman is pounding rice SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE 'person tikes certain undertaking, litigation mother to daughter. It is also be]jeved that (25 ) GONJUNG Priesthood: Jonthai is the head priest of parakhoba etc. To be elJgible for 'the post a 'daikhoo'. He must be one of the members of 'hojai' a man must possess physical fitness of a 'khel' to which a 'daikhoo' is assigned. and must stay separately in the house during He is usually selected by the mutual consent the pre\lious evening of the day on which of the leading persons of the 'khel' and holds the ceremony is to be held. The hojai has the post at the pleasure of the coinmunity. one assistant known as 'barowa' who is also But the 'jonthai' can also resign from or renounce elected in the same way as the hojai. In the post <]f prieS'ts.hip for valid reasons. selectjng both the 'h0jai' and the 'barowa' the' The 'jonthai' must be perfect in physical com members of the 'kbe.1' generally take and position and must also know the prayer and offer a gourd of rice beer to the person Set the art and technique of sacrificial ceremonies. chos\en. If the gourd of rice beer is accepted After having been aJIotted he is sanctified by by the proposed priest, the appointment is the administration of holy water (ditbar) after complete and final. which he is conferred to be the highest priest of the particular 'daikhoo'. From thence onward Festivals : The most important festival of he is to lead a holy life. He must not crop the Dimasa Kacharis is that which is called his, hair or shave his beard. He must not dine 'busu' the cele bratlOn of which is known as with others nor sit in other's seat. At the 'busu jiba'. The festival is observed every time of the 'maisangba' ceremony it is he year after the harvest. The village councif who must preside and do all the prayers fixes the date of the festival and then elaborate of the ceremony. At the ordinary times it is preparation by the villagers is made for the he who draws the holy water for administration purpose. Each house prepares zu, husks on behalf of the whole village or to the special paddy, plOcures fish and meat and individual who suffers either from illness or other edibles for enjoymen~ during the festivals. misfortune. It is also he who gives the advice Each house must donate about one seer of and guidance to the members of his 'khel' as rice for the preparation of rice beer in the and when necessary. house of the 'khunang' (Village headman) and also about Rs. 2/- for the purchase of Next in importance to 'jonthai' COmes his animals like pigs, foy.rls etc. to be killed on assis'tant known as 'dainyah'. He is also the occasion. The animals are killed on the selected from among the members of his appointed day for enjoyment on the subsequent 'khel' and he is to live just as the 'jonthai' days of the festival. Ordinarily the festival does but he has less responsibility. His duties lasts for three days. The first day on which are only to help the 'jonthai' and kill the the animals are kil1ed is called 'staiba'. The animals and birds required to be offered at second day is the biggest one when the people the 'maisengba' ceremony. enjoy to the full. Each one visits each other's house and drinks and eats as much as he likes. Another important priest is known as On the third day a dance is held at the court 'hojai. The 'hojai' performs the duties of a yard of the village nodrang. All young men priest during the family worship to the deity and women take part in the dance to the (madai khimba) and also during other sacri accpmpaniment of the flute (muTi) and the fices such as madai huba, sagainzik huba, drums (dhol). ( 26 ) SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE In the year in which unmarried young boys family deity. The ancestral god of the 'seng and girls form the 'hangseow' or a labour phong' who first established the village is co-operative the busu festival lasts for at least believed to preside over the village. It is five days. The preparation on such occasion therefore a practice to select the 'khunang' is much wider so as to last for a longer period. from that same 'sengphong' so that the same The dance is held day and night in the court deity might continue to be worshipped, as it yard of the hangseow's president (gejabao) is the khunang only who IS eligible to perform under a specially decorated pandal but not this function. On the appointed day the in the nodrang's courtyard. The killing of khunang gets up at dawn and takes bath in a animals and the visit of villagers to each other's nearby stream before sun rise. He will then house are performed in the same ordinary fix two bamboo sticks on the ground cross way. After nve days the festival comes to wIse and after splitting the egg he makes seven an end with the performance of a special marks on the ground by his s'Word used for classical dance and the carrying of the bamboo sacrificial ceremonies,. After all this has been door of the gejabeo's house in a formal pro done by the 'khunang', the 'habaisagao' pro cession to the stream. The door is usually claims that the whole village should do no carried by the 'naga bhoja' (leader of the work during the day and must remain inside hangsleow) and his assis1ant 'naga pharai'. the village. All the male members assemble They are followed by pipers and drummers at the outskirt of the village for the ceremonial and boys and gjrls of the village. Whjle sacrifice. Thereafter the feast is held and proceeding on to a stream the boys and girls lasts till Jate in the evening by a formal decla throws mud at each other and make a great ration that the function is over. On the merriment. On reaching the stream, the door same night or on some other night as is fixed in floated down and all of them bathe in the by the vilJage council the 'sani garba' is held. stream. Everyone then returns to the village The same formalities are followed and only in wet clothes to touch a bundle of leaf hung the deities are different. Tn this funcTion On a pandal. On the same night of the fifth 'heremdi' and her associates are worshi~:ped. day a]] members of the 'hangseow' visit each other's house and eat and drink merrily. The The above two functions are pel formed "hangseow' is also dissolved on that night for the welfare and prosperity of the peor-Ie which thus marks the end of the festival. of the whole village. They are also observed on other occaSIOns when there is a threatened There is another imrortant function per calamity or whlen there are epidemic diseases formed by the Dimasa Kacharis every year like cholera and small pox. For all such fun before cultivation begins and that is known ctions the expenditure is met out of voluntary as 'rajini garb a' . Two lmpor1ant different subscriptions of all the households in the fUnctions are held on this occasion. The one village. which is held in the day time is called 'saini garba' and the other in the night is known as Village organisation: The most important "horni garba'. The 'saini garba' which is held institution in the villege is the 'nodrang' or in the day time is performed in the name of bachelor'S house. As has been stated earlier, the deity which the 'khunang' worship as his it is situated in the south-eastern side of the ( 27 ) GONJUNG village. The house is constructed as one big getother, known as 'hangseow' This associ spacious hall. It is supported by strong wooden ation last only for one year and is organised posts (about 5 inches in diameter) and is thus by them for working together during culti raised from the level of the ground. The roof is vation. The leader known as 'naga hoja' is covered with thatch intertwined together, the the guiding spirit of the asscdaticn and com whole spread resting on strong bamboo beams. mands implicit respect and ocedience from The side walls are also made of thatch fastened each member. Under him is his assistant with split bamboo. There is only one door of known as 'naga pharai'. There are also the split bemboo (6' X 3' approx) which serves as girl counterparts known as 'matta hoja, and the main entrance into the house. The construc 'matta pharai'. These male and female leaders, tion as a whole is approximately 30 feet in assist the president ca11ed 'gejetao' who is length, 18 feet in breadth and 15 feet in height. to preside over a meeting of the association which is usually held in his own house. The To become a member of the hOllse one busu festival also is held in his house and the should reach the age of 9 or 10 years and dance during such festival in his courtyard. as soon as he becomes a member of the club, Throughout the year the members of the hang-· he ceases to sleep in his parent's house at night. seow work together in jhurn by rotation in A man loses his membership as soon as he every member'S fields. During such arrange-· enters married life. The members gather to ment of mutual help no member is allowed gether at night in the club and discllss matters to be absent from the work. In cas!; any of common interest, telling stories, sing songs member doeS not turn up without adequate' and play drums and dance. It is here that reasons, he or she is liable to a fine of one they learn the spirit of mutual understanding basket of paddy known as 'bangki' which is and cooperation. Social servkes like cleaning to be stored in the gejacao's house for the the village footpaths, wells etc. are obhgaCcJ1s preparation of Zu during the festival. A which every member must partake. basket of paddy is also demanded for the work done in the field of each memcer which is Besides being a dormitory for boys, the collected at the end of the year for expenses 'nodrang' also serveS as an assembly ha]] of to be incur.red during festivals. They may the 'khunang' and the village elders. No also work for a non-member family on payment woman is alIowed to enter inside the ncdrang, of some baSkets of raddy which varies accorc it being a matter of shame and indecency to ing to the yield cf the lar:d of the owner. It see a woman inside it. Young unmarried may be noted that this association is dissolved girls have their own special dormitory in their immediately on the last night of the busu houses on one side of the kitchen. But they festival which may again be formed just before always meet in each other's house by turn to cultivation begins in the coming year. New discuss matterS of general interest like spin office bearers including the president (gajetao) ning and weaving, composing songs and telling of the hangseow are also elected every year stories etc. in which the hangseow is formed. There is, however, another remarkable Besides the hangseow, there is another association of both unmarried boys and girls association known as 'surem,. In form and ( 28 ) SOCIAL AND CU~T:{JRAL LIFE size it is smaller than the hangseow. It IS cuss matters relating to the village, e.g. cons usually formed among persons cf similar age tructing a vmage rath or repairing old cnes, groups and sexes for a joint venture in culti cleaning the wells etc. fixes the date of festivals vation. It may consist of twelve or fifteen or and estimates the eXfenditure incurred therein, even more persons and is dissolved immediately and settles minor disputes like quarrels between after cultivation is over. Members cf this neighbours, theft or robbery, and divcrce or association also help each other in the fields. separation etc. Disputes like those relating Boys or girls or men or women of similar to inheritance of property are referred to the age group may form themselves into serarC'te District Council at Hafl'ong if the village surems and they are not mixed together. assembly cannot settle them. Thus there may be more than one surem but there can be only one hangsecw in the vmage. Other reforms and de'Velopment meaSUres : As has been mentioned earlier there is one ViHage administration: A village is calltd Government hospital in the \tillage. But the 'noblai' meaning a cluster of houses wble presence of this hospital there is for catering the village with its population is known to the needs of the government officials Jike as 'raji'. There is a village headman known P.W.D. workers, Block employees, etc. rather as 'Khunang'. Under him there are the than that of the vil1agers. This is Sb because senior and the junior headmen known respec villagers usually take recourse to their own tively as 'dilig' and 'habaisagao'. All of them indigenous medicines which cost them nothing. are elected by the village elders at a formal Medicinal herbs are found in the surrounding meeting usuaUy held at the pleasure of the jungles and the villagers are well acquainted 'raji' at the 'nodrang' or boys' dormitory. with this free gIft of nature. Moreover, their AU of them hold office at the pleasure cf the i11ness is also taken to be the cause of e:vil 'raji'. The three together constitute a sert of spirits like 'sagain nizik' and sacrifice of animals an executive body entrusted with srecial powers is o:lfered to propitiate them. The holy water for running the administraticn of the entire (dithar) which has been administered by the village The 'djlig' acts as the vice-chaiJlr"n priest during the 'maisangba' ceremony is also and sometimes performs the duties cf the considered as the best kind of medicine to the 'khunang' during his absence while the ha1:31- ailing persons. Even if these people know the sagao does the duty of announcer or village modern methods of contraceptive and the crier. It is his duty to call the villagers to beneficial effects derived from it they are the meeting by shouting at the top of his voice reluctant to discard their superficial superstition from one end of the village to another. It is which has its deep and firm roots in their aiso his duty to announce the decision of the religion. vil1age council. All these duties are performed by the direction of the' 'khunang'. It may There is no denying the fact that literacy be noted that withGut the consent cf ihe is the watchword of the villagers and as many 'khunang' no meeting can be held and no as 133 of them are reported to be literate function can take place. Even then he acts without educational standard and 96 who are only as chairman of the assemcly and he still continuing in their stUdies either in the cannot take any decision alone without the junior or senior basic schools in the village. consent of the assembly. The assembly dis- It is evident that the vil1agers re2lise the need ( 29 ) GONJUNG of education and children are not barred froin may be safely said that these students being attending school in their early age. Those in urban town like Haflong may in the near who have completed the M. E. standard are future shape and mould the society in their also reported to have continued their further village with new ideas and notions of urban studies in schools or college at- Haflong. It life. ( 30 ) CHAPTER V CONCLUSION I Though the vjIJage can no longer claim leaving no trace of deciduous trees ar;d after to be typical, the people still stick to thelT two or three years' cultivation the rich soj1 old customs and manners. The Dimasas of is laid bare. The area of cultivation has this part of the Barail hills are quite different extended outside the boundary of the village from those Kacharis of the plains. The hill as far as the bank of the Diyung as reported Dimasas stIll speak the language of their by the villagers themselves. The ques,tion of forefathers which is known as the Dimasa land is therefore becoming acute and the language while with those of the plains the same plot is cultivated for four or five seasons. language has undergone changes intermmgling with the language of the Assamese neightcurs. Weaving which has been a pride of this Moreover, the Kacharis of the plains have section of the Bodo tribe seeIps to have lost lost their national dress and their customs its importance. The products of the mills have and manners have been partially transformed. deteriorated this proud cottage industry of 11 is but natural that under the dominating the Dimasas. The villagers now prefer to influence of their plains neightours they have purchase the different varieties of clothes avail foresaken not only their traditicnal dress end able in the market at a cheap rate rather language but also the religion of their ancestors. than weave their own which require much The wave of influence and change sWeeps far skill and labour. Besides, their loom IS simple and wide and even Gonjung, it is believed, and primitive and facilities to better their art will, in the near future, be effected ty this and technique of weaving is totally absent. change. This is so because there are alreacy Their cottage industries such as canework and symptoms of change in the village as has been smithy lack imtiative and encouragement. described in the previous chapters. These industries are practised ly the vjllagers in small scale and that also in their spare The main occupation of the peorle is jhum time when needs arise. The competItion of the ming although wet cultivation is practised here factory-produced articles retard the growth of and there in open fields at the foot of the hills. these industries and the difficulty to rrocure But the majority of the villagers are jhummers. charcoal and iron ore is also the factor that The method of cultivation as well as imple abate the importance of these small industries. ments of the same are primitive. Hence the yield is poor. Besides, the surrounding jungles Gonjung is situated on the Hafibng via have all been cleared down for jhumming Mahur Road and so it is easily accessible ( 31 ) GONJUNG either tram Haflong, Mahur or Jowai and of the Dimasa Kacharis of this part of the Shillong. ,Henoe there is every possibility of Barail hills is no ]onger traditional but it is its being urbanised. The occasional visits rather a mixed form of Hinduism and their of the urban people to the village as well as own traditonal type of religion. A number of of the villagers to the urban areas in turn gods and godgesses have a place in their influence them with urban notions and habits. worship and sacrifices. The names of these Urban ways of life are gradually adopted by gods and goddesses are varied and some of the people as can be seen in their use of them are similar to those found in Hindu clothing, consumer goods etc. Most of the pantheon. As for example, 'heremdi' has houses are far from being typical and the the place of the goddess 'Kali' among the presence of the Hospital, P.W.D. quarters, Hindus. The majority of the Kacharis especially Sericulture centre, Weaving centre, Schools, those of the plains are rapidly becoming Inspection Bungalow etc. are positive proofs Hinduised. Time will not be far when the of a departure from rural to urban life. Kacharis of this subdivision also will probably embrace Hinduism and forget all they can It is interesting to note that the religioPl of their tribal religion. ( 32 ) APPENDlX-f GLOSSARY religious man Adeodhain a junior priest .. ~ Barowa a festival held after harvest Basu-jiba a god's house Daikhoo an assistant priest Dainyah the splitting of eggs Daodi-daimba a ceremony which is held after the removal of Daosathaiba the navel from the child. .Dhol a drum Dithar holy water .Dohongsuba the throwing of sun grass to the pyre Dolai a bier for carrying the dead body Gejabao the president of the hangseow Hangseow a labour ccroperative of unmarried persons Hojaijig a dhai or female attendant Horni garba a ceremony held during the night time a name of a female clan Jooluk J umangsao-kain ba a ceremony in which friends and relatives are Jonthai entertained_ after cremation Kalti a priest Khel a bride price. Khunang the name for a clan Lao-thai-langba the village headman Madais a final engagement for marriage a general name of gods and goddesses ~lakham garba a ceremony in which food is, offered to the dead Maisangba a sacrifice of animals M ankulangling the cremation ground Min-habha the period in which the son-in-law stays in his father-in-Iaw's house Muri a flute Nagabhoja a leader of the hangseow Nagapharai an assistant leader of the hangseow Nokhong the outer chamber of the house Noringh the inner chamber of the house Nodrang a bachelor's house Paradose divine displeasure a soothsayer -Patri •••.1 Pinda a food offered to the dead Phira-phoiba the visit of the daughter - in -law to the house of her husband's parents after marriage Rajampai a cloth worn by women round the breast Regu a cloth worn by women round the waist Rekaosa a cloth covered over the waist cloth (regu) 33 Glossary (concld) Rajini-garba a ceremony held before cultivation Saini-garba a ceremony held during the day time Sagain-hijik witches Saudi-dang-singpha a formal engagement for marriage Sangphong a name:; of a male clan Sradha a cerewony which is performed sometime after cremation Tain the frontal bone of the deceased Thairik the £Un~ral pyre 34 APPENDIX II TABLES TABLE 1 RA.NGE OF INFORMATION BY HOUSEHOLD-HEADS AND CASTE/TRIBE/COMMUNITY. No. of household-heads who know the name of CastefTribe/Gommunity Total No. of Name of Principal house-holds Thana Sub-Division District River flowing (Surveyed). through the Dist. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Dimasa-Kachari 62 62 62 62 62 TABLE 2 SIZE AND COMPOSITION OF THE HOUSEHOLDS Single Member Two or three Members Four to Six Members Seven toNine Members Ten Members and above