Cultural Dynamics in a Globalized World – Budianta et al. (Eds) © 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-62664-5

Variety of distinct style scripts in inscriptions found in Mandalas of the late era: An overview of the paleography to mark religious dynamics

N. Susanti Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities, Universitas , Depok, Indonesia

ABSTRACT: The late Majapahit era is found to mark the decline of Saivaism and Bud- dhism. In the late 15th century, Buddhism started to decline, whereas Saivaism was still developing, despite experiencing a decline. Trailokyapuri II and Trailokyapuri III inscrip- tions, which were issued by the King, mentioned names of figures and gods other than Siva, namely Sang Rsiswara Bharadhwaja, Bhatara Wisnu, Bhatara Yama, and Bhatari Durga. Literature works have also suggested life perspectives and “indigenous” religiousness as well as the establishment of religious buildings with mountain top features (punden berundak) and pyramidal architecture, such as the constructions in the slopes of Mount Penanggungan and Mount Lawu. Distinct script styles found in brief inscriptions in several sites that served as centers of religious activities (mandala) may confirm the assumptions regarding the religious life lead in the late Majapahit era. The content of the inscriptions provides hints of holy places/mandala, names of figures and gods, and moral teachings of the time. Paleographic analyses carried out using a dynamic method for the distinct script styles found in brief inscriptions from the late Majapahit era may provide information regarding the types of the currently existing mandala. Previous studies show that every mandala normally possesses a unique script style together with its diacritical symbols. The analysis of the content of the inscriptions reveals the figures, gods, and moral teachings of the era. Ultimately, the variety of distinct script styles may contribute to the information related to the life outside the pal- aces of the late Majapahit era, especially the religious life.

1 INTRODUCTION

The late Majapahit era has marked the decline of two religions, namely Saivaism and Bud- dhism. In the late 15th century, the role of Buddhism as an official religion started to decline, whereas Saivasim sustained and flourished up to the late 15th century, despite experiencing a decline. The inscriptions and literature works of that time have also revealed the existence of figures and gods belonging to neither Saivaism nor Buddhism. For instance, the content of Trailokyapuri II and III inscriptions issued by King Gir- indrawarddhana Dyah Ranawijaya mentions the existence of other figures and gods, such as Sang Rsiswara Bharadhwaja, Bhatara Wisnu, and Bhatari Durga. Literature works have also suggested views of life pertaining to an “indigenous” religion and the establishment of religious structures, including those with mountain-like and pyramidal shapes, such as some constructions found in the slopes of Mount Penanggungan and Mount Lawu. When Hinduism and Buddhism were introduced in Nusantara, they grew in an environ- ment that had developed its own faith system, namely the worship of the spirit of the ances- tors. Together with the development, these three systems of faith influenced each other, which was reflected in not only the system of the ideas but also the ritual activities and the material manifestation of the objects used to support such activities (Sedyawati & Djafar, 2012, p. 286).

585 Centers of religious development from the early stages were distinguished into three cat- egories based on the environment where the religious teachings were developed, namely the palace area, the hermitage area, and the village area. Two groups of religious leaders were involved in palaces, namely the court priests and the high officials in charge of religious affairs. Hermitage sites that were later also referred to as mandala are religious activity sites located somewhat away from the living areas, normally deep in the forest, in mountain slopes, or in caves. The caves, for example, which were situated in the high plateau of Dieng and Ratuboko, are assumed to be the oldest centers of worship in . The word Dieng or Di- hyang (ancient Javanese language) would possibly indicate the dwelling place of the spirit of the ancestors or hyang. The proximity of such caves and the oldest Hindu religious building compound and the finding of prehistoric ritual equipment, such as copper drum (nekara), possibly indicate the area having been used since prehistoric time by a group of people (Sedyawati & Djafar, 2012, pp. 286–295). The description of hermitage life was obtained later, especially from the ruling era of King Airlangga and the era of the Majapahit Kingdom through the content of inscriptions and literature works conducted in the two eras. On the basis of manuscripts of the Janggala-Kadiri era, namely Bhomantaka and Suma- nasantaka, and those dated from the Majapahit era, such as Nagarakrtagama, Rajapatigun- dala, Arjunawijaya, Tantu Panggelaran, and Pararaton, some terminologies are indicated to relate to the naming of such religious centers, namely mandala, kut.i, dharmasala, karĕsyan, wanaśrama/asrama, patapan, and kadewagurwan. Santiko (1990, p. 159) assumed that wanas- rama or dormitory refers to a sacred place of hermits or karĕsyan, whereas mandala is another term for kadewagurwan (Sedyawati & Djafar, 2012, p. 292). Soepomo (1977, pp. 66–67) distinguished patapan from mandala and stated that patapan is a quiet place of retreat that a person visits and stays for a certain period for a certain intention, whereas mandala is a compound of housing for hermits that is more of a perma- nent base and the occupants are referred to as tapaswi and tapi (Sedyawati & Djafar, 2012, p. 293). Religious centers that flourished during the ancient Javanese era as well as served as places of learning and teaching are referred to as widya gocara as mentioned in the book Sutasoma. The book Sarasamuccaya describes a place of hermitage or patapan as the one that served as the dwelling place of a master (Mpu) and his students (sisya). Furthermore, it is described as being surrounded by a fence made of solid walls and having a gate, a pond, and a large banyan tree, under which the students played (Sedyawati, 2012, p. 302). Several types of other religious centers are also described in the literature works, for instance, kadewagurwan is described as being located at the base of a mountain and was occupied by a family of reli- gious leaders or dwija (Brahmana) and holy women. The educational system followed was similar to that of gurukula, with a single student being directed by his teacher at a hermitage. Literature works denote an interactive learning– teaching process, involving direct verbal communication between the teacher and the stu- dents. The materials taught were related to religion and the literature. The book Pararaton lists the subjects taught to the students, which included scripts, knowledge on the use of vocals, consonants, and change of sound of scripts or candrasangkala; elements of calendar system; and so on. It also includes the teaching of good characters, truth, and proper behav- iors (Gonggong, 1993, pp. 101–117). Further studies on the inscriptions of the late Majapahit era would find that there are several inscriptions that have distinct characters, indicated in their size and shape. These inscriptions are not as large as other inscriptions in general, which have a height of >1 m, and the shape is less regular. Examples include inscriptions made on natural stones that are relatively small. Scripts carved on these inscriptions are short, and their form has spe- cific motifs different from those used to record king’s announcements. The language used is ancient Javanese of Middle dialect. Unlike that of inscriptions issued by the royal palaces, the content of these inscriptions is not related to king’s announcements, the elements of which are arranged chronologically. These inscriptions contain names of places, gods, and priests, as well as moral teachings, which leads us to assume that these inscriptions were made and 586 issued by people who lived in mandala, comprising priests, students, and sages (Susanti, 2008; 2011, pp. 3–4; Rahayu, 2016, p. 13). On the basis of several previous studies, it is assumed that there were religious centers, such as mandala, kadewagurwan, kuti, and patapan, during the late Majapahit era, as mentioned in the manuscript of Nagarakrtagama. By linking the sites where these inscriptions were found, the information obtained from Nagarakrtagama, and the journey of Bujangga Manik, the locations of those religious centers can be deduced. The chronological data of the mandalas may be concluded from the hints found in the content of the inscriptions and the develop- ment of the shape of the scripts. The development of the script style can be observed by two methods, namely static method and dynamic method. According to the static method, introduced by de Casparis, the script is a hierarchy of lines. Thus, in analyzing, observing the scripts one by one is sufficient. The simplest script is the latest (de Casparis, 1975, p. 66). According to the dynamic method, introduced by Jean Mallon, the script is not just one line, rather a result of hand movements. The script consists of real and unreal elements. For example, in order to make a real line to attract a specific direction, the hand needs to be lifted first to make a real line on the differ- ent sides. The script changes can be seen from the combination of real and unreal elements (duktus). Increasingly complicated ductus indicates the younger characters of script style (van der Molen, 1985, pp. 9–10). Bujangga Manik was a Sundanese Hindu priest who lived in the late 16th century. He went wandering overland from his place of origin in Sunda region to the eastern tip of Java and to Bali, and went back to . He wrote his experience in a kind of travelogue (Noordijn, 1984, p. 1). Anton Wibisono (2006) studied the development of scripts of different styles using the dynamic method, that is, by studying scripts on the basis of their shapes, script typeface (ductus), corners, size, and thickness. Inscriptions discussed at the time were Gerba, Widodaren, 1371 Śaka Damalung inscriptions, and Pasrujambe inscriptions. This research concluded that the oldest scripts with distinct styles found in various sites in and Central Java were those of the Sukuh group of inscriptions. From the temple compound of Sukuh, 10 inscriptions and statues as well as independent reliefs were found. According to the experts, the inscriptions and construction elements were of the same era, namely between 1361 Śaka, as mentioned in one of the reliefs, and 1363 Śaka, as written on the rear part of the statue of Bhima. In the travel journal of Bujangga Manik, he mentioned that during the westbound trip he went past villages in the southern part of Mount Wilis and Mount Lawu. Despite the names of the villages mentioned here being not recognized as the Sukuh temple compound is situated in the slope of Mount Lawu, there would most probably be scriptoria/mandala near the temple compound (Susanti, 2010, p. 6). Figure 1 shows the shapes of the scripts of inscriptions found in the compound of Sukuh temple. More recent mandalas were believed to be located near based on the finding of Gerba inscription in the village of Gerba in the regency of Malang and the finding of Wido- daren inscription in the village of Widodaren. The names of these two inscriptions come from the villages where they were found. The shapes of the scripts used in these two inscriptions are the same, and so is the language used, namely ancient Javanese with Middle dialect. The content of these inscriptions is about moral teaching. Gerba inscription deals with sincerity in marriage life that is described as having the weight of heaven and earth and balance. Wido- daren inscription addresses religious teachings and marriage life. Bujangga Manik shows that, on his return from the east, he went past the east–west part of East Java, east from Pan- arukan that covers the Ijen mountain compound. The journey expanded to Mount Raung in the area (lurah) of Telaga Wurung and straight to Balungbungan, where he stayed for more than 1 year to meditate (Noordijn, 1984, p. 26). Kasturi, Kukub, and Sagara are the names of three mandalas located near Mount Mahameru () as mentioned in Nagarakrtagama (Pigeaud, 1924, p. 33) as well as in Batur inscription that is made of metal. The deciphering of Batur inscription reveals that the mandalas in Kasturi, Kukub, and Sagara indicate the same school of religious teachings (Hardianti, 2015). Is there any possibility that Gerba, 587 Figure 1. Figure 2.

Widodaren, and Batur inscriptions were issued by the mandala located in the slope of Mount Semeru? Figure 2 shows the shapes of the scripts of Gerba and Widodaren inscriptions. Both Gerba and Widodaren inscriptions do not bear any year. However, on the basis of the paleographic analysis using the dynamic method, it can be estimated that the scripts of the two inscriptions originated from a period between Sukuh inscription and Damalung inscription. Damalung inscription was found in the village of Ngadoman near Salatiga, Central Java. This inscription bears the year 1371 Śaka. It mentions that the word Damalung, which implies a mountain, is assumed to be Mount Merbabu (Wiryamartana, 1993, p. 1), one of the man- dalas visited by Bhujangga Manik to deepen his religious knowledge (Noordijn, 1984, p. 7). Several mandalas were found in Mount Damalung and were spread in the base, slope, and top of the mountain. These mandalas continued their existence as proven by the finding of 400 palm leaf manuscripts containing literary work. Unfortunately, the Damalung inscrip- tion was the only inscription found at the site. The shape of the scripts indicates their unique characteristics (Figure 3), and the language used is Ancient Javanese with Middle dialect. The content of Damalung inscription included praises to goddess Saraswati and moral teaching on recommended human characters (Susanti, 2010, pp. 6–7). Pasrujambe inscriptions were found in the village of Pasrujambe, the regency of Luma- jang, comprising 19 inscriptions with distinct styles. The content of these inscriptions con- sists of names of Figures (2) and names of gods and goddesses (6). Three of the inscriptions mention names of holy sites (rabut pĕthak, rabut walang taga); seven contain brief sentences; two bear the year of 1391 Śaka; and one of the inscriptions contains advice on life. In his travel journal, Bhujangga Manik revealed that he took a route along the southern beach of Java through Padangalun and reached Mount Watangan that faced the island of Barong (Nusa Barong). From there, he reached Sarampon, mentioned in Nagarakrtagama as Sar- ampwan, a place where King Hayam Wuruk stopped over while he was visiting Sadheng for several days (1359 Śaka). Afterward, Bhujangga Manik went past the village of Cakru on the beach south of Lumajang and reached the lurah of Kenep (not yet confirmed) and the area of Lamajang Kidul. Lamajang could probably have been the present Lumajang. It is assumed that there were several mandalas used as religious centers in Lamajang, judging by the numerous brief inscriptions found in this location. Figure 4 shows the shape of the scripts of Pasrujambe inscriptions. The four groups of inscriptions mentioned above would most probably describe religious centers in the late Majapahit era as they all bear similar characters. This assumption is supported by the information contained in the literary works of the same era, at least in Nagarakrtagama and the travel journal of Bhujangga Manik. Nevertheless, the precise locations of several other inscriptions with scripts of distinct styles that were found sporadically in East Java, namely Tem- puran, no. D 62, and Condrogeni inscriptions, as well as several brief inscriptions of distinct style scripts that are housed in the Majapahit Museum in Trowulan remain unknown. Condrogeni inscription is part of the collection of National Museum and has not been clearly deciphered. The scripts are of ancient Javanese with a unique style, and the lan- guage used is ancient Javanese of Middle dialect. The content of the inscription is believed to 588 consistconsist of religious teachings and adviceadvice that includeinclude praises to goddess Bathari. It was foundfound inin thethe village of Condrogeni, thethe regencyregency of Ponorogo. Other discoveries inin thethe proximity of thethe inscriptioninscription includeinclude pieces of thethe statue of goddess Durga andand stonestone inscriptioninscription thatthat bears thethe year of 1376. FigureFigure 5 5 shows thethe shapeshape of thethe scripts of Condrogeni inscription.inscription . The place where D 62 inscription was found remains unknown. ItIt has a quasi-linga shape and is part of the collectioncollection of the Majapahit museummuseum in Trowulan. This inscription has distinct style scripts and uses ancient Javanese language of Middle dialect. It contains several wordswords implying the existence of religious rituals and is assumed to have dated in 13 (12) Saka.Śaka. Several brief inscriptions of a rectangular shape with unique style scripts and measur•measur- inging approximately 2020 em cm x× 60 60 em cm cancan be seen at thethe Majapahit museum.museum. These inscrip•inscrip- tionstions bear thethe names of places suchsuch as prapyanga,prapyanga, reksaguna,rĕksaguna, and resirĕsi bhalajangidhwang.bhalajangidhwang. Mount Penanggungan or Pawitra (holy)(holy) isis mentionedmentioned inin Sukci inscriptioninscription (929(929 M) M) and inin thethe ancientancient JavaneseJavanese manuscriptsmanuscripts of Nagarakrtagamaand Tantu Panggelaran.Panggĕlaran. According toto thesethese sources,sources, thethe Hindus and Buddhists treatedtreated thethe mountainmountain as a sacred place. Numerous archaeological artifacts were found in the mountainmountain constitutingconstituting constructionsconstructions and bath•bath- inging facilitiesfacilities (petirtan),(petirtan), cavescaves (ceruk),(ceruk), and hermitage (Aris(Aris Munandar, 1990). Hence, suchsuch brief inscriptions that constituteconstitute part of the collection of the Majapahit museummuseum would most probably have originated from the sites of Pawitra or Mount Penanggungan. The different shapes of the scripts in these inscriptions maymay have resulted from several fac•fac- tors,tors, such asas automatic intrinsicintrinsic changes,changes, or changeschanges takingtaking place inin thethe writing instrumentsinstruments or materialsmaterials used to makemake them, intentional factors such as the creativity of the writer in manifestingmanifesting the values developed during certain eras, with the innovation mademade by a person or a group of persons who created newnew scripts, and the creationcreation of new variations in the shape of the scripts offered by a group of people living far away from the center of the kingdom (the(the coastalcoastal communitiescommunities or thethe mandala communities).communities). According toto a study conductedconducted on thethe writers of Ulu manuscriptsmanuscripts inin Bengkulu, inin every scriptorium or centercenter of literaryliterary work, writers pay special attention to the creation of the shape of scripts and the punctuation marksmarks inin theirtheir manuscripts.manuscripts. As such,such, itit would be highlyhighly possible thatthat a person who understood thethe scriptscript of Ulu would yet faceface difficulties inin deciphering andand distinguishing such differences.

Damalung inscription Pasrujambe inscriptions

FigureFigure 3. 3. FigureFigure 4. 4.

Condrogeni inscription 062 inscription

FigureFigure 5. 5. FigureFigure 6. 6.

589 On the basis of the content of inscriptions with unique style scripts that originate from the mandalas of the late Majapahit era, a conclusion can be drawn on the different functions of the inscriptions. In general, they served as markers or reminders of names of places or indicators of the years when the inscriptions were written. Some also contain the names of gods to remind the readers (individuals or communities) of the gods people worshipped at the time. The names of gods also served as a means of concentrating in performing yoga exercise. Inscriptions such as Gerba, Widodaren, and Damalung served as reminders as they contain advice (Rahayu, 2016, p. 20). Various unique style scripts in inscriptions originating from the late Majapahit era may contribute to the reconstruction of religious activities and religious centers located outside the royal palaces. For instance, a study conducted by Andriyati Rahayu on brief inscriptions containing unique style scripts in the temple compound of Sukuh describes the inaugura- tion ceremony and religious rituals, namely the inauguration of Bagawan Gangga Sudhi to become a better person. The manuscript of Rajapatigundala mentions an obligation for conducting such ritual, whereas the manuscripts of Tantu Panggelaran and Calon Arang mention that, in order to become a priest, a person would possess an inauguration robe, an umbrella, and a pair of earrings (Rahayu, 2016, p. 18). A close observation of the Pasrujambe inscriptions led to the following three assumptions. First, the existence of three places had different functions in terms of religious life, namely rabut that might have been the residence. of religious community, samadi that served as a place for individual meditation, and paηyaηηan sarga that was an object of certain worship. Second, artifacts found at the Pasrujambe site consisting of ritual instruments, such as jewel boxes, bowls, bells, plates, pots, and trays, also serve as indicators of the existence of religious activities at the site. Third, on the basis of the content of the inscriptions and the mentioning of names of figures such as Sang Kurusya and Sang Kosika, it can be assumed that the religious concept observed by the community was of the Pasupata school because the above-mentioned figures were students of Lakulisa, the founders of the Pasupata school (Rahayu, 2016, p. 20). Studies of the inscriptions that have unique style scripts in terms of a variety in scripts and the language as well as the content play important roles in supporting the reconstruction of religious life that existed at a certain era, particularly the Majapahit era. The spread out locations of the inscriptions with unique style scripts may also provide us with the description of the identifica- tion and chronological data about the sites and enrich us with information about the religious life at that time far from the center of authority that remains rarely discussed to date.

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