Air pollution in the From biomass burning in Eastern

Per Erik Karlsson, Lars Robert Hole, Hans Tømmervik & Elena Kobets

/Policy brief Air pollution in the Nordic countries from biomass burning in – Policy brief Per Erik Karlsson, Lars Hole, Hans Tømmervik & Elena Kobets

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Nordic Council of Ministers Ved Stranden 18 DK-1061 Copenhagen K Phone (+45) 3396 0200 www.norden.org Air pollution in the Nordic countries From biomass burning in Eastern Europe

Per Erik Karlsson* Lars Robert Hole** Hans Tømmervik*** Elena Kobets†

This report describes the effects on air quality and possible vegetation damage in Northern Fennoscandia due to a combination of biomass burning in Eastern Europe and unfavorable weather conditions. A pollution episode in the spring of 2006 is de- scribed in detail. These situations can be avoided in the future with the right political actions. Here, the following recommendations are given to policy makers in , EU and Fennoscandia:

▸▸ to develop the legislation, law enforcement and management responsibilities of authorities concerning the use of fire on agricultural and pasture lands, as well as on abandoned agricultural lands; ▸▸ to promote alternatives to agricultural burning through the development of con- sulting service for farmers; ▸▸ to institute subsidies for supporting the crop production sector in agriculture to apply alternative technologies, following the examples of subsidies in the Europe- an Union.

* IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute, Box 53021, SE-400 14 Gothenburg, Sweden ** The Norwegian Meteorological Institute, Allégaten 70. 5007 Bergen, Norway. *** The Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA). Framsenteret, 9296 Tromsø. Norway † Bellona, Russian branch. Summary

Polluted air with impacts on human late matter causing health problems agricultural producers are very small health and ecosystems in the Nordic were documented from Edinburgh, in comparison with those available countries, is transported with the Stockholm and southern Finland. in the European Union. There is winds over very long distances. Monitoring with e.g. remote legislation existing in the Russian Large-scale biomass burning is sensing methods have shown that Federation pertaining to the prohibi- an important source for polluted large-scale wildfires in Russia have tion of burning agricultural waste. In air over the . continued until today and that the practice, the enforcement of the ban During the spring of 2006, biomass area burnt in 2006 was not excep- is very lax, and there is practically burning occurred on approximately tionally high as compared other no control over agricultural fires. 2 Mha (20 000 km2) forest and recent years. However, in order to Furthermore, there are decreased agricultural land in Russia and severely affect the air quality in fire management capabilities as a neighbouring countries. Due to the the Nordic countries, the biomass consequence of the transition of anti-cyclonic high pressure weather burning in Russia have to coincide national economies. situation, this highly polluted air an anti-cyclonic, high pressure The Nordic countries, as well as was transported towards north- weather system over Russia which other EU member countries, have to west across , from favours northwards transport. Also, support Russia and neighbouring Scotland to Finland and even all the when the air masses are not subject countries in order to increase their way to Iceland and Svalbard. High ot precipitation, the atmospheic life efforts to restrict the widespread air concentrations of black carbon time of the particles is much longer. wildfires. The most important and ground level ozone as well as In Russia alternative utilizations activities include preventing the high deposition of nitrogen were of agricultural residues are seldom burning of agricultural waste as well measured in forests in mid- and applicable due to the weak econom- as fire-prevention activities in the north Fennoscandia. Furthermore, ic state of agricultural enterprises. forests and providing acquisitions of high air concentrations of particu- Existing governmental subsidies for fire-prevention equipment.

4 1. Introduction 2. Background

Emissions from the large-scale Over the past decade, improved re- land. The between-year variation is biomass burning represent an im- mote sensing has permitted a more large. Furthermore, it can be seen portant component of the northern accurate assessment of the annual that the area burnt in 2006 was not hemispheric air pollution. During fires in Russian boreal forest, reveal- exceptionally high as compared to the last decade there have been ing that Russia in general has the e.g. 2003 and 2008. several large-scale biomass burning largest area burned among boreal The extent to which the polluted events in Eastern Europe, in particu- forests. Annual estimates of burned air from Eastern Europe biomass lar in , with severe areas over the Russian Federation burning is transported to the consequences for the human health are presented in Figure 1. The mean Nordic countries depend on the of the local population as well as for annually burnt areas range 8-10 Mha prevailing wind directions, which the local ecosystems. for total land and 4-6 Mha for forest in turn depend on the large-scale In addition to local impacts, the large-scale biomass burning also



has substantial consequences for /yr Total area burned - Agency 2

m Forest area burned - Agency the air quality and ecosystem im- k  pacts in the Nordic countries due to Total area burned - Satellite long-range transport of the polluted  Forest area burned - Satellite air. The Nordic council of Ministers  (NMR) initiated a study in 2011, NitrOzNor, with the aim to describe  the impacts of the eastern Europe  biomass burning on the nitrogen deposition to northern ecosystems  (Karlsson et al., 2013). Furthermore,                NMR initiated this policy-orient-                               ed article with the aim to give an  overview of the impacts on the air Fig. 1. Annual estimates of burned areas over the Russian Federation derived from three different quality and northern ecosystems sources, separated for total land and for forest land. Data for 1996-2006 were from Goldammer et al. caused by the long-range transport (2013), in turn based on Russian Agency reports (Avialesookhrana of Russia) and satellite-derived of polluted air from large-scale bio- data (NOAA AVHRR). The second source based on Agency reports from 2007-13 was from JRC 2014. mass burning. The third source with satellite-derived information from Landsat and MODIS data from 2007-2011 was from Bartalev et al. (2013). The satellite derived information for 2012 was based on Goldammer et al. (2013) and include only the Siberian/Asian part of the Russian Federation.

5 weather situation. Hence, in order to northern North Atlantic and a prom- The situation in 2006 was unprec- severely affect the air quality in the inent anticyclone was located over edented, leading to record high air Nordic countries, large intensities northeastern Europe (Stohl et al., temperatures and pollution levels of biomass burning in Russia have 2007). This pressure configuration in the Norwegian (Stohl et to coincide with air mass trans- corresponds to a positive phase of al., 2007). However, predictions for port patterns from Russia towards the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) the future of the NAO is still highly northwest, i.e. when there is a weather pattern, which is known uncertain since the NAO is related to anti-cyclonic, high pressure weather to enhance pollution transport into the tracks of Atlantic storms, noisy system over Russia. the Arctic (Eckhardt et al., 2003). mid-latitude phenomenon, and During the pollution episode in Air from the European predictions of storminess changes April/May 2006, the Icelandic low was channelled into the Arctic are also currently uncertain (Hurrell, dominated the circulation over the between the two pressure centres. 1995).

6 3. The impacts of the 2006 large scale biomass burning in eastern Europe

3.1 Transport of the polluted air Forcers, SLCF. The polluted air from for ammonia deposition was esti- In May 2006 severely polluted air the large-scale biomass burning that mated to have exceeded 1 kg N/ha. from large scale biomass burning passed over mid-Sweden in the April The normal deposition of inorganic was transported from eastern Euro- and May 2006 contained unusually nitrogen (NO3+NH4) in this region is pean countries towards northwest, high levels of black carbon (Figure 1-2 kg N/ha/yr and the critical load all the way to Spitsbergen (Stohl et 3). for nitrogen deposition to coniferous al., 2007, Figure 2). Snow at a glacier forest is Sweden is set to 5 kg N/ha/ on Spitsbergen became discoloured 3.3 Nitrogen deposition to forests yr (3 kg N/ha/yr in mountain areas). due to the soot in the polluted air. in mid-Sweden Hence, a monthly deposition of 1 kg The air concentrations of black The polluted air passing over N/ha represents a substantial addi- carbon and ground level ozone at mid-Sweden during the spring and tion to the load of nitrogen to these Svalbard and Iceland were the high- summer 2006 caused a record high northern forest ecosystems. est ever recorded. measurement of ammonium deposi- tion to Norway spruce forests at two 3.4 Tropospheric ozone 3.2 Contribution to the levels of observation plots with the Swedish On May 6th 2006 the information black carbon Throughfall Monitoring network concentration threshold above Black smoke is one important com- (www.krondroppsnatet.ivl.se) (Fig- which the EU directive requires ponent of the Short Lived Climate ure 4). The elevated monthly value the general public to be informed,

Fig 2. Trajectory analysis for air masses arriving in the afternoon on May 2nd 2006 at Zeppelin on Svalbard Trajectories calculated using the Flextra model were derived from NILU (http://www.nilu.no/projects/ccc/ trajectories/). Triangles show trajectories for air arriving at the desti- nation at between 0 and 500 m above ground, circles 500-1000 m above ground and squares at 1000-1500 m above ground. The colour shows height above ground during air mass transport.

7 )  3 Fig. 3. Daily mean air concentrations of

 black smoke during 2006 for the EMEP (µg/m monitoring site Bredkälen, positioned ons 

at i in the middle of the county of Jämtland,

ent r  Sweden. From Karlsson et al., 2013. on c c

r  A i





j r r v g n a kt a p ec o ep u a - ju n - j - o - a - d - n - s - a          - ju l  -ja n  - m  - m

Date

h  Nymyran

on t

/ m was exceeded at Aspvreten on the 2006 received a lot of attention in a  May / h

g southeast coast of Sweden (Figure Swedish media, even though it was

 5). Trajectory analysis confirmed not recognized at that time that the that the polluted air with the ozone polluted air originated from eastern  precursors originated from eastern European biomass burning. European countries. During the  same period, record high ozone 3.5 Particulate matter concentrations were measured on The polluted air from the eastern Iceland and Spitsbergen, with the European countries biomass burning        polluted air also originating from caused high concentrations of PM eastern European countries (Stohl et in several northern European cities,

h  Fiskåället al., 2007). among them Stockholm, Figure 6. n t o The exceedance of the EU infor- The particle size with the largest im- m /

a  mation concentration threshold for pacts on human health is the PM2.5, h /

g ozone is a relatively rare event in and these concentrations were sub- July  Sweden, so this event during May stantially elevated in the Stockholm



 Fig. 4. Monthly ammonia deposition in throughfall to Nor- way spruce forests in the county of Jämtland in mid-Sweden. A, the low altitude site Nymyran, 75-year-old Norway spruce forest at an altitude of 300 m a.s.l., B, the high altitude site        Fiskåfjället (600-800 m a.s.l.). From Karlsson et al., 2013.

8  Fig. 5. Hourly ozone concentrations measured at Aspvre- (ppb ) ten in south-east Sweden. Also shown with a horizontal  o ns i line is the information concentration above which the t a EU directive requires the general public to be informed. r  Furthermore, the trajectory analysis for air masses arriv-  ing in mid-day on May 6th 2006 at Aspvreten is shown. on e c o ncen t Finally an example from a major Swedish newspaper  o z from 7th May 2006, with headlines stating that “Sunny, spring weather conditions resulted in dangerously high  ozone levels”.              

area in the beginning of May 2006. The WHO air quality guidelines state that the concentrations of PM2.5 should not exceed 25 μg/m3, as a 24-hour mean concentration, and this level was clearly exceeded in the Stockholm area during the air pollution episode in the beginning of May 2006.

Figure 6. Daily PM2.5 mass concentrations at sites across Sweden. a, Stockholm area; b, southern Swe- den. Shaded areas indicate the influence from polluted air from the eastern European countries biomass burning. From Targino et al, 2013.

9 4. Nitrogen and ozone vulnerability combined with climatic change in the northern latitude ecosystems

4.1 Vulnerability N deposition (Carrol et al. 1999, A situation with increased nitrogen Atmospheric nitrogen (N) deposi- Vinebrooke et al. 2004) potentially deposition through precipitation in tion together with ozone might be a exacerbating vulnerability to winter nitrogen poor vegetation may create threat to biodiversity and ecosystem temperature fluctuations. Arctic eco- favourable living conditions for function. Critically, even low dose N systems are clearly threatened by vascular species. During the winter deposition has been shown to have multiple stressors like winter warm- 2005- 2006, winter warming events large impacts on plant community ing followed by frost chill periods occurred (Bokhorst et al. 2012b) development of N-limited ecosys- (Bokhorst et al. 2012,) which com- on northern Fennoscandia. Addi- tems, which are typically found bined can enhance species respons- tionally, the spring started early in at higher latitudes (Phoenix et al. es (Vinebrooke et al. 2004) or lead May with subsequent frost chills in 2012). Effects of climatic warming on to unexpected outcomes (Bjerke et mid-May which in combination with cold hardiness in northern woody al. 2014). Contrasting responses to the mid-winter warming can have plants and trees have been reported extreme winter warming events have resulted in an increased suscepti- (Ögren 2001). The combination of N been reported between deciduous bility for wooden plants and trees pollution and a climatic or a distur- versus evergreen shrubs (Bokhorst and hence foliar injuries (Mortensen bance event can cause major shifts et al. 2011), lichens versus mosses 1999) such as reported in Manninen in community composition across (Bjerke et al. 2011). The impacts of N et al. 2009 and Karlsson et al. 2013. multi-trophic levels (Power et al. pollution typically include decreases 1998). Moreover, plants have been in cryptogams and increases in vas- 4.2 Arctic ecosystems reported to be more drought and cular plants (Nordin et al. 1998, Gor- Payne et al. (2013) assessed the frost susceptible at sites with higher don et al. 2001, Phoenix et al. 2012). critical loads of nitrogen on acid

10 grassland species throughout Eu- availability on recovery based on an concluded that Arctic ecosystems rope and they found the even small experimental site in Svalbard. The are slow to recover from even small loads of nitrogen could harm differ- empirical critical load of N for tundra N inputs, particularly where P is not ent species. Change points (reduced is set at 3-5 kg N ha-1 yr-1 (Bobbink limiting. Hence, fragile and nutrient biodiversity) strongly converged at & Hettelingh 2011). The experiment limited ecosystems in mountains an N deposition of 14.2 kg N ha−1 was established in 1991, in which N and in the Arctic and Polar y−1, indicating a community-level was applied at rates representing should be considered as vulnerable ecological (critical) threshold of atmospheric N deposition in Europe and included in future monitoring 15 kg N ha−1 y−1. Approximately (10 and 50 kg N ha−1 yr−1; ‘low’ and systems. On the other hand, the 60% of the species change points ‘high’, respectively) for 3-8 yr. They amount of nitrogen deposited in occur at or below the range of the found that Arctic ecosystems are northern Fennoscandia has not currently established critical load strongly nutrient limited and exhibit the yet reached the critical load of 10 to 15 kg N ha-1 h-1. Based on dramatic responses to nitrogen (N) for nitrogen deposition for most these results they could not rule enrichment up to 18 years after the species and types of Arctic vegeta- out ecological impacts from even treatment, hence the reversibility of tion, 5-20 kg N ha-1 yr-1, and is not relatively small increases in reactive which is unknown. High N, with and expected to increase significantly N deposition in such ecosystems. without P, has many lasting impacts. in the future (Bobbink et al., 1998; Recently, Street et al. (2015) unique- Importantly, N + P has caused Aerts and Bobbink, 1999, Hole and ly assessed the potential for tundra dramatically increased moss abun- Enghardt, 2008). heath to recover from N deposition dance, which influences nutrient and the influence of phosphorus (P) dynamics. Street et al. (2015) finally 5. What are the causes for the large-scale biomass burning in eastern European countries?

5.1 Europe without Russia reduction in previous years. The lessness was the cause of 36.7% Regarding fire causes for the large- identification of the fire cause is, of the total number of fires in 2013, scale biomass burning there are however, extremely complex and, of- which is an increase of 1.2 times not consistent or overall annual ten, it is not possible to distinguish compared with the data of 2012 (JRC statistics back in time covering both elements or proofs (JRC 2007, 2014). 2014). Wild fires caused by lightning Europe and Russia. Wildfires caused This explains the large number fires was very active in 2013 and caused by burning of crop remnants (arson), with unknown cause that in 2006 25.4% of total forest fires, up 2.3 carelessness e.g. incorrectly extin- represented 21% of the total num- times in comparison to 2012 (JRC guished fires of hikers, berry pickers ber of fires in Europe (JRC 2007). 2014). In 2006, 33.7% of fire causes and illicit agricultural fires are the Amongst arson fires, the most im- were unknown, but the majority of main causes in East Europe (JRC portant motivation was profit (more them was considered to be caused 2014). For the whole Europe, 60% than 40% of arson causes). by carelessness (JRC 2007). of the fires in 2006 (JRC 2007) were There is a lack of legislative regu- due to the burning of crop remnants 5.2 Russia lation in Russia and there is no clear (arson) and 15% were unintentional. Arson is a widespread practice with- definition of public responsibility for Regarding unintentional fires, main in modern arable farming in Russia fire management on various lands, reasons are inadequate agricultur- (Goldammer et al. 2013, Shevchenko especially at the intersections of al and forest management (40%) 2013). The current excessive and natural areas, residential areas, and such as use of fire for cleaning and unnecessary practice of agricultural agricultural lands. Weakened capac- elimination of forest and agricultural burning is recognized as one of the ity over forestry and decreased fire residues. Cigarettes and match- main sources of wildfires. These management capabilities in Russia es abandoned in sensitive areas fires spread to forests and other – as a consequence of the transi- constitute 31.7% of fires of uninten- areas. On average, 30% of large tion of the national economy, often tional origin (JRC 2007). Natural fires forest fires in Russia around 2006 associated with the uncontrolled represented 3% of the total number arise due to agricultural burning (JRC or illegal forest use and increase of of fires in 2006 and mostly attribut- 2007). In 2013, however, agriculture related wildfires (Goldammer et al ed to lightning (JRC 2007). burning was a cause of 4.2% of fire, 2013). Although, arson is still the main in comparison with c. 11% in 2012 cause there is a slight tendency to (JRC 2014). On the other hand, care- 6. How can large-scale biomass burning in eastern European countries be prevented?

The burning of crop remnants In addition to the various meth- the Government of the Russian continues unaltered due to the fact ods of embedding of crop residues Federation of 25 April 2012, № 390 that it is challenging to effectively into the soil (for example, ploughing “On the Fire Prevention Regime.” use agricultural waste, and lack of under, low and zero tilling of the Clause 218: “Burning of stubble viable business models to harvest- soil (no-till)), there are also other and crop residues and lighting fires ing, transportation, and storage. alternative methods available, such on fields is prohibited”. Whereas At the international level, there are as the burning of straw in boilers “the questions of environmental approaches to the utilization of in order to obtain heat energy, the protection and ecological security agricultural resides that serve as processing of straw in order to are placed under the joint authority alternatives to their burning. Howev- obtain biocoal, and etc. However, all of the Federation and its subjects” er, in Russia these alternatives are of these methods require additional (Art.72 of the Constitution of the seldom applicable and cannot be investments into more sophisticated Russian Federation), the superior realized due to the weak economic techniques of soil treatment, addi- legislative bodies of the subjects state of agricultural enterprises. As tional expenses for fertilizers, and of the Russian Federation have the it stands, Russia is not able to use more fuel for technical equipment. right to adopt their own legal acts more than half of its annual agricul- Moreover, it is necessary to set up containing regulations for burning tural wastes. As a result, burning and finance consultation services agricultural waste (grass, stubble) seems to be the only economically for farmers in order to help them and assuming legal responsibility in appropriate way of utilizing crop with the implementation of these the case of violation of these regu- residues. Today’s governmental methods. In order to use straw as a lations. Some regions in Russia has subsidies per ha for agricultural biofuel, it will also be necessary to own legislation for ban of agricultur- producers are very small (€ 15-20 invest in the industrial production of al burning. Despite the existing leg- per ha) in comparison with those boilers. islative ban on agricultural burning, available in the European Union. The regulations of Russian Feder- in practice enforcement of the ban Furthermore, there are no struc- ation pertaining to the prohibition of is very lax, and there is practically tures for the sharing of agricultural burning agricultural waste respon- no control over agricultural fires. knowledge, nor is there the capacity sible for air pollution are set by the This is due weak or non-existent to support the use of methods other Rules establishing Fire Prevention delegation of responsibility between than burning. Regime, ratified by the Decree of the different agencies. In the other

13 European countries, information to 7. References the public in order to prevent fires seem to be an important measure since the main causes for the wild fires seem to be carelessness and illicit agricultural burning. In order to reduce the negative impact on the environment, human Aerts, R. and Bobbink, R., 1999. The Bobbink, R., Hornung, M., and Roelofs, health and climate, the extent of impact of atmospheric nitrogen deposi- J. G. M., 1998. The effects of airborne unnecessary burning in agricultural, tion on vegetation processes in terrestrial, nitrogen pollutants on species diversity in non-forest ecosystems. In Langan, S. J. natural and semi-natural European vege- pasture and steppe ecosystems in (ed.), The Impact of Nitrogen Deposition tation. Journal of Ecology, 86: 717-738. Russia should be prevented by ap- on Natural and Semi-Natural Ecosystems. Bobbink R, Hettelingh J.P. 2010. Review plying the following actions: Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, and revision of empirical critical loads 85-122. response relationships. In: Proceedings ▸▸ to develop the legislation, law of an expert workshop, Noordwijkerhout, Bartalev S.A., Egorov V.A., Efremov V.Yu., 23-25 June 2010. Netherlands: National In- enforcement and management Flitman E.V., Loupian E.A., Stytsenko stitute for Public Health and Environment. responsibilities of authorities F.V. 2013. Assessment of Burned Forest concerning the use of fire on ag- Areas over the Russian Federation from Bokhorst, S., J.W. Bjerke, L. Street, T.V. ricultural and pasture lands, as MODIS and Landsat-TM/ETM+ Imagery // Callaghan, and G.K. Phoenix. 2011. Im- well as on abandoned agricultur- In F. Achard & M.C. Hansen (Eds.) Global pacts of multiple extreme winter warming Forest Monitoring from Earth Observa- events on sub-Arctic heathland: Phenol- al lands; tion,CRC Press, Taylor& Francis Group, ogy, reproduction, growth, and CO2 flux ▸▸ to promote alternatives to ISBN 978-1-4665-5201-2,, 2013. CRC Press. responses. Global Change Biology, 17, agricultural burning through P.259-286. 2817-2830. the development of consulting service for farmers; Bjerke, J. W., Karlsen, S.R., Høgda, K.A., Bokhorst, S., Tømmervik, H., Callaghan, Malnes, E., Jepsen, J.U., Lovibond, S., T.V., Phoenix, G.K. & Bjerke, J.W. 2012a. ▸▸ to institute subsidies for sup- Vikhamar Schuler, D. & Tømmervik, H.. Vegetation recovery following extreme porting the crop production 2014. Record-low primary productivity and winter warming events in the sub-Arc- sector in agriculture to apply al- high plant damage in the Nordic Arctic Re- tic estimated using NDVI from remote ternative technologies, following gion in 2012 caused by multiple weather sensing and handheld passive proximal the examples of subsidies in the events and pest outbreaks. Environmental sensors, Environmental and Experimental European Union. Research Letters, 9. 084006 (14pp). Botany, 81, 18-25

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This report describes the effects on air quality and possible vegetation damage in Northern Fennoscandia due to a combination of biomass burning in Eastern Europe and unfavourable weather conditions. A pollution episode due to wild fires in the spring of 2006 is described in detail. These situations can be avoided in the future with the right political actions. This policy brief recommends the Nordic countries to support neighbouring countries in restricting the widespread wildfires. The most important activities include preventing the burning of agricultural waste as well as fire-prevention activ- ities in the forests and providing acquisitions of fire-prevention equipment.

ANP 2015:766 ISBN 978-92-893-4296-4 (PRINT) ISBN 978-92-893-4297-1 (PDF)