Durham E-Theses Identity and Identication: Femininity on Hadrian's Wall FLEMING, MATTHEW,KIERAN How to cite: FLEMING, MATTHEW,KIERAN (2019) Identity and Identication: Femininity on Hadrian's Wall, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/13119/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 Identity and Identification: Femininity on Hadrian’s Wall Matthew Kieran Fleming MA by Research Department of Archaeology Durham University 2019 1 Abstract The archaeological record has failed to acknowledge the contribution of women in the male dominated spaces of Roman military sites. Recent studies have helped to uncover the most accurate socio-spatial account of the gendered nature of Roman forts in Britain. This thesis focuses on the presence of women in the region of Hadrian’s Wall, and in particular, at the forts of Housesteads and Vindolanda while they were occupied by the Roman military (c. AD 122/4-410 and c. AD 85-400 respectively). Textual, skeletal, and artefactual evidence from both sites provide the basis qualitative and quantitative analyses drawing upon a total of 789 artefacts (150 from Housesteads and 639 from Vindolanda) within the artefact catalogue. This evidence is used to idenitfy the socio-spatial distribution of women at both sites as well as what can be said about the lives of the women present there. By collating different strands of evidence and creating a more holistic approach to the analysis of the presence of women, this thesis supplements the existing archaeological discourse of Housesteads and Vindolanda as well as the wider subject area of gender in Roman military sites. The findings of this study include, first, the presence of women of different socio- economic status at these two sites within both the extramural settlements and the forts themselves. Second, through the 3rd into the 4th century AD there was an increase in the evidence associated with the presence of women within the forts of Housesteads and Vindolanda. Third, the possibility that the increase in evidence was not necessarily a result of an increase in the presence of women, but rather it reflects the lack of meticulous clear up immediately preceding abandonment of the sites. Fourth, this thesis has highlighted the need for further excavation at Housesteads. 2 Acknowledgements I would like to thank Prof. Anna Leone and Dr. Catherine Draycott for their supervision, advice, and support throughout the production of this Thesis. I also thank Mr. Richard Owen for igniting my passion in Roman history and archaeology. I would also like to thank Ms. Emma Burroughs and my family for their continued support throughout the completion of this Thesis. Furthermore, a special thanks go to my parents Prof. Scott Fleming and Mrs. Beverley Fleming for their unwavering help and support – this Thesis is dedicated to them. 3 Contents Abstract 2 Acknowledgements 3 Contents 4 List of Figures 8 List of Graphs 14 List of Tables 16 Declaration 17 Statement of Copyright 17 Chapter 1 Introduction 18 1.1 Background 18 1.2 Site Selection 19 1.3 Absorption of and Progression from P. M. Allison’s Work 20 1.4 Research Question 23 1.5 Objectives 23 1.6 Methodology 24 1.8 Thesis Structure 26 Chapter 2 Identifying Women in the Archaeological Record of Roman Frontier Military Sites 28 2.1 Introduction 28 2.2 Identification of Women Through Artefacts 28 2.3 Categorisation of Roman Artefacts 32 2.4 The Data 32 2.4.1 Artefacts 33 2.4.1.1 Artefacts Associated with Activities 33 2.4.1.1 .1 Spindle Whorls, Spindles, Distaffs, and Awls 33 2.4.1.1.2 Mirrors and Cosmetic Palettes 34 2.4.1.2 Artefacts Associated with Personal Adornment and Dress 36 2.4.1.2.1 Hairpins 37 2.4.1.2.2 Finger Rings 38 2.4.1.2.3 Bracelets, Bangles, Armlets, and Earrings 39 2.4.1.2.4 Beads and Bead Necklaces 40 2.4.1.2.5 Footwear 41 2.4.2 Textual Evidence 43 2.4.2.1 Funerary Inscriptions 43 2.4.2.2 Writing Tablets 44 2.4.3 Human Skeletal Remains 45 2.5 Summary 46 4 Chapter 3 Roman Forts and Fort Life on Hadrian’s Wall 47 3.1 Introduction 47 3.2 Use of Space in a Roman Fort 48 3.2.1 Fort 49 3.2.2 Extramural Settlement 55 3.3 Notable Historical Events of the First to Early Fifth Centuries AD 57 3.3.1 1st Century AD 58 3.3.2 2nd Century AD 59 3.3.3 3rd Century AD 61 3.3.4 4th and Early 5th Century AD 63 3.4 Summary 64 Chapter 4 Housesteads 66 4.1 Housesteads Background 66 4.1.1 Introduction 66 4.1.2 History of Excavation and Fieldwork 69 4.1.2.1 Fort Excavations and Fieldwork 70 4.1.2.2 Excavations and Fieldwork of the First Extramural Settlement 73 4.1.2.3 Excavations and Fieldwork of the Second Extramural Settlement 75 4.1.2.4 Chapel Hill Excavations and Fieldwork 78 4.1.3 Housesteads Periods and Phases 79 4.1.4 Military occupation of the site 82 4.2 Presence of women at Housesteads 83 4.2.1 First Extramural Settlement 83 4.2.2 Second Extramural Settlement 84 4.2.2.1 Artefacts 84 4.2.2.2 Skeletal Remains 85 4.2.3 The Fort 88 4.2.3.1 Building IX 88 4.2.3.2 Building XII 90 4.2.3.3 Building XIII 92 4.2.3.31 Centurion’s Quarter 93 4.2.3.3.2 The Contubernia 97 4.2.3.4 Building XIV 104 4.2.3.5 Area HSE 107 4.2.3.6 Building XV 108 4.2.3.7 Area H20 109 5 4.2.3.8 Area H21 114 4.2.4 Textual Evidence for the Presence of Women 117 4.2.4.1 Tombstone H.145 117 4.2.4.2 Tombstone H.139 120 4.3 Summary 124 Chapter 5 Vindolanda 130 5.1 Vindolanda Background 130 5.1.1 Introduction 130 5.1.2 History of Excavation and Fieldwork 133 5.1.2.1 Fort Excavations and Fieldwork 134 5.1.2.2 Extramural Settlement Excavations and Fieldwork 135 5.1.3 The Periods and Garrisons of the Complex 138 5.2 Presence of Women at Vindolanda 147 5.2.1 First Timber Fort (c. AD 85-105) 147 5.2.1.1 Period II (c. AD 92 – 100) 147 5.2.1.2 Period III (c. AD 100-105) 150 5.2.1.2.1 Tablets 150 5.2.1.2.2 Artefacts 155 5.2.2 Second Timber Fort - Period IV (c. AD 105 – 120) 160 5.2.2.1 Tablets 160 5.2.2.2 Artefacts 163 5.2.3 Third Timber Fort - Period V (c. AD 120 – 130) 165 5.2.4 First Stone Fort (c. AD 130-212) 169 5.2.4.1 Period VI (c. AD 130 – 165) 169 5.2.4.2 Period VIB (c. AD 205-212) 170 5.2.5 Second Stone Fort (c. AD 213-400) 175 5.2.5.1 Period VII (c. AD 213 – 300) 175 5.2.5.1.1 The Extramural Settlement 176 5.2.5.1.2 The Fort 186 5.2.5.1.2.1 Praetorium 186 5.2.5.1.2.2 Granary Area 188 5.2.5.1.2.3 North Eastern Quadrant 190 5.2.5.1.2.4 Western Rampart Area 194 5.2.5.1.2.5 Southern Rampart Area 196 5.2.5.2 Periods VIII & IX (4th century, stone fort II) 198 5.2.5.2.1 The Extramural Settlement 198 5.2.5.2.2 The Fort 199 5.2.5.2.2.1 Praetorium 199 5.2.5.2.2.2 Granary Area 202 5.2.5.2.2.3 North East Quadrant 205 6 5.2.5.2.2.4 Western Rampart Area 210 5.2.5.2.2.5 Southern Rampart Area 213 5.2.6 Funerary Evidence for the Presence of Women 215 5.2.6.1 Tombstone V.1 215 5.2.6.2 Tombstone V.3 217 5.2.6.3 Tombstone V.4 219 5.2.6.4 Tombstone V.5 221 5.3 Summary 224 Chapter 6 Conclusion 231 6.1 Introduction 231 6.2 Limitations of the study 232 6.3 Women linked to Tombstones and Tablets 233 6.4 Socio-spatial Distribution of Women 238 6.4.1 Where Women Were Present Summary 239 6.4.2 Dataset Comparison 242 6.4.3 Pattern in the Socio-spatial Distribution of Women 246 6.5 Future research 251 Appendix A – Housesteads Artefact Catalogue 252 Appendix B – Vindolanda Artefact Catalogue 266 List of References 307 7 List of Figures Fig.