Published by MEMBER OF:

P R E S S Issue 1 : October 2018

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International Journal Introduction 1-3

Dehumanization in the Novel of Socialist Realism Socialist Novelof Dehumanization the in 4-10 by Lirim Sulko,PhDLirim by

Islamic Lexic and Terms in Bosnian Language 11-25 by Enver Ujkanović, PhD

The Alternative and Traditional Methods by Josilda Papajani 26-40

Albanian Literary Circle in Italy 51-50 by Leka Ndoja

Beyond the Known Dimensions of Edith Durham 51-58 by Majlinda Ziu1

Verbal Irony as a Communicative Mode of Persuasion by Zorica Trajkova and Silvana Neshkovska 59-77

Confession as a Form of Social Liberation and Seduction by Zorica Jelic 78-88

Developments and Theoretical Approaches on Public Diplomacy by Ngad hnjim Brovina , Phd 89-110

Political Systems and a Continuing Account for Elusive Peace in Republic of Macedonia by Hyreme Gurra 111-125

Teaching Politeness Strategies to Advanced References 126-136 Students in ESP Courses by Irina Petrovska

The Motif of Motion in ‘Ulysses’, ‘Lolita’ and ‘On the Road’ by Sandra Sumonja 137-148

Creative Teaching Methods in English Language Teaching by Kamberi Spahiu, PhDc 149-171 Dehumanization in the Novel of Socialist Realism by Lirim Sulko,PhD

Abstract

Yuri Lotman affirms that the concept of the text is not absolute, but makes sense in a relationship with a historical, cultural and psychological structure that accompanies it. He considers every text "... determined by those socio-historical, national and psycho-anthropological reasons, which form the artistic models of life” So in a totalitarian regime, in other words dehumanized, the novel of socialist realism not only avoids the modern literary tendency, but manages to show dehumanization even in its formal-narrative aspect. Thus, in the conditions when the totalitarian regime aims at installing a 'new man', the novel of socialist realism also through censorship aims its promotion ('the new man’). In the formal-narrative aspect, the novel of Socialist realism emphasizes the authoritative mode of confession, in the sense of full submission of the character (meaning the reader, who is identified with the character throughout the reading process) to the total information within the literary work owned by the author in cooperation with the narrator, but at the same time proclaims as 'heretic' the narrative ways that liberated the character from the submission without glory of the pair author-narrator. As such, it (the novel of socialist realism) is/becomes thus a direct expression of dehumanization.

Key words: dehumanization, social realism, formal-narrative aspects.

4 Dehumanization in the Novel of Socialist Realism by Lirim Sulko,PhD

I. Totalitarian reality and literary fiction in the novel of socialist realism Dehumanization, as a manipulation scheme in the novel of socialist realism, is based on total submission to the knowledge in circulation, Marxist-Leninist ideology, in alliance with the absolute power of the party and its leader, a symbiosis according to which the reason of ideology (in the function of knowledge) was to promote and legitimize the monopartian power, balanced by the reason of this power to preserve, defend and spread Marxism-Leninism. Consequently, all kinds and levels of knowledge should be integrated into the Marxist-Leninist ideology, and knowledge holders should be integrated by being identified with the power to serve it, otherwise they are considered enemies of the power to the extent that it is considered natural that the power mistreats, isolates or eliminates them.

Such a relationship between Marxist-Leninist ideology (in the function of knowledge) and the monopartian power (party-state) hardened knowledge, placing it in the function of maintaining the unity of all the society through the application of common truths in the form of quotations and slogans the veracity of which was considered indisputable, absolute. Also such a relationship (between knowledge and power) monopolized knowledge in the hands of the power, thus, in the hands of the party-state and its leader, giving them an indisputable authority, regardless of the veracity of such statements in quotes or slogans. This made for most members of the society the observation of real and the search for truth to be impossible, undoubtedly unmanageable.

So, massively, the society is oriented to have common truths where the role of its institutions (in fact, the party's levers) is to avoid, preserve, neutralize individual engagements in serving the truth and at the same time to attribute all the determination of the credibility to the criterion of authority, to the party-state, with the aim of maintaining unity (party-people). The attainment and preservation of this unity serves as a criterion of credibility and imposes an obligation that only what serves this unity and which coincides with the 'high' interests of building socialism must be true. And that is what guarantees the conditions for people to live together, but now with the big sacrifice of the truth.

5 Dehumanization in the Novel of Socialist Realism by Lirim Sulko,PhD

As a result of the defense of this structure, it was made available the attempt to impose Marxist- Leninist knowledge to all the society, not through argument and conviction, which in fact constitutes the true nature of knowledge, but through confrontation and violence, including the novel art, through censorship. In the context of socialist realism, it can easily happen, in fact it is impossible for it not to happen, as long as the fictional worlds of novels are conceived (through the mimesis) as a sequel of the world of reality, thus the boundaries between the worlds are opened and we consider naturally their penetrations and melting to one another. Violence (torture, exile, surveillance), indoctrination, aimed for the truth to be in one version, total (designed according to Marxist-Leninist ideology) and the identities to be automated (designed in the new man), totally observed (said otherwise enslaved) and in such conditions the totalitarianism results as identical to the world of fabrication. As such, the truth, whether in the totalitarian reality, or in the literary work, ceases of having as its values the correction and improvement of the individuals and the society where they live, and the spiritual solidarity between them, but as it is specific it makes inevitably the observation within identity, in addition to external observation.

This accordance between totalitarian truth and literary fiction in literary work is accomplished through its narrative techniques. The External observation in the worlds of literary fiction (specifically novels) is accomplished by subject events and dialogues and the internal observation through psychological analysis and internal monologues. As a specific feature of the novel of socialist realism is the fact that both the events (actions) and the dialogues (words) are exaggerated, while the parties that circulate the observed information may try to use this information in their favor and to the detriment of others. In this way, the novels of socialist realism dominated by authorial interventions, with the above mentioned pact to serve the power, realize this alliance with the narrator who self-corrupts, manipulates the characters by taking advantage of their unconsciousness (characters).

6 Dehumanization in the Novel of Socialist Realism by Lirim Sulko,PhD

It is quite different in the social-psychological novel, where external observation (of events, dialogues) is performed collectively,while the narrative has no other possibility than to be performed individually by the narrator or by the character himself, who is forbidden in advance to narrate the event without being consulted with the characters participating in the event. The only difference is this: when the narrator narrates the character observes (or the characters participating in the event) when the character narrates he/she narrates something observed by himself/herself, with the help of the narrator and other characters participating in the event. That means that the participants in the event require a minimum time, necessary to standardize the information obtained from observation performed collectively and the narrator or the character in the role of the narrator, is obliged to confess this minimum package of information to which they agreed as long as the value of this information and the time of its announcement are jointly defined: - the narrator (or the person in the case of narration in the first person or in the case of the replies during the dialogues) is obliged to announce this information immediately, after the arrival of the consensus for it.

This instant proclamation makes everyone equal to this information, possessing the same information and all at the same time. In other words, at the moment when the characters collectively observe together with the narrator, it is impossible for the narrator to narrate himself what he has observed himself, without being consulted with the other participants at the event. With the exception of the novel of misunderstandings and parodies, where each character observes himself, the narrator also independently narrates what he observes, and as such, the existence of the subject would be an endless solution to these misunderstandings. In fact, this kind of novel in the form of a labyrinth is developed in the postmodern context and is not part of the corpus of works we are addressing in this treatise.

7 Dehumanization in the Novel of Socialist Realism by Lirim Sulko,PhD I. Narrative aspects in the novel's poetry of social realism

In the novel of socialist realism, the differences in the amount of information and the time of its possession are immediately reflected as a cause for favor or disfavor between the pair: author- narrator and the characters. Within the limits of mimesis, the subject events come from the totalitarian reality observed in advance by the author (as a real-world resident) and then they are recounted by the narrator where the characters are only in the décor role of this pair relationship (author-narrtor). So the characters lose the opportunity for prior access and consensus in the later narrated information. So to those (characters) it remains merely the dedication to participate in such subject events, observed by the author and narrated by the narrator, without affecting the subject at all, being functionalized according to the preliminary information modeled by the pair author-narrator.

This pair does not hesitate to penetrate even in definig the way in which the heroes feel and think through psychological analysis (inner observation) in the novels of socialist realism. According to the scheme in the novels of socialist realism, they (the characters) are direct images of the new man, who has to face the negative characters, triumph over them, and get tempered on the ever- present challenges for building the socialism. Thus, the triumph of positive characters or the failure of negative characters occurs depending on the laws of the society (the new, the progressive triumphs, the old, the reactionary is punished) and in this case, the measure of observation that goes into confession is defined by the author and it is narrated by the narrator, as in the subject events.

Such an application makes the hero extremely artificial, so the censorship continually asked from the writers that the characters were more real, more plausible, that they also had their dilemmas.

8 Dehumanization in the Novel of Socialist Realism by Lirim Sulko,PhD

In such conditions, the events that they receive directly from the reality undergo some specific fictional development, in order to individualize the characters. By making this preset of the circumstances, and then engaging the character to be functionalized according to them, through the reactions in his interval appearances - disappearances, where in fact he (the character) has no choice but to adapt to the next circumstance. As such dilemmas that reveal the characters through inner monologues, paradoxically are foreseen by the circumstances that the narrator feigns to enable (read) their inner discourse. And in this case, in such conditions, the measure of observation that goes into narration is defined by the narrator and it is narrated by the character in the first person (technically the words of the character are given in quotation marks).

It is a fact that in both cases the one who observes within the characters is the author or narrator, but at least along the inner monologue, the narrator's individual observation seeks to be homologated, although formally, by the character, since it is the latter who narrates. Whereas in the psychological analysis there is no possibility of this formal involvement of the character, because the author observes within the character and the narrator narrates it. As such, it is very clear that the consequence of the presence of psychological analysis and the monologue, the so- called internal, in the novel of the socialist realism is the consumption of the model of mutual service of knowledge (Marxist-Leninist ideology) and the power (the party-state) thus, the guaranteeing of the continued power of the pair author-narrative over the characters. At both observation levels, internal and external, thus in all four observation techniques (subject event, dialogue, monologue, and psychological analysis), the srategy of the pair author- narrator is essentially the same, so to avoid compromising his gift as an information administrator (in the role of knowledge) in the novel of socialist realism.

9 Dehumanization in the Novel of Socialist Realism by Lirim Sulko,PhD Conclusion

Dehumanism in the novel of socialist realism is an expression of the fact that how the pair author- narrator intervenes in advance to the ability of characters’observation by usurping this flair by diverting or routinizing it. Realizing this control, then authorial interventions from the world of truth and the gift of the narrator in the administration of information within the world of the novel is inviolable at any moment, as long as case by case the narrator in a preliminary alliance with the author knows the next information before the character knows it himself. As such, the characters are characterized by the lack of devotion and knowledge acquisition, which in fact is an absolute feature in the typical novels of socialist realism. This is due to the controlled mode of information dissemination within the literary work by the pair author-narrator, the total exclusion of the characters from the truth not only of the world of the literary work, but also of their own worls, having no external or internal motive to motivate the dissemination of information within the literary work.

Bibliography

1. Aristotle: Poetics. Translated by Hajri Zotomadhi. Uegen, Tiranë, 2004. 2. Arendt, Hannah: The Origins of Totalitarianism. Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace, 1980. 3. Dado, Floresha; Uninterpretated Literature. Onufri, Tirana, 2011. 4. Foucault Michel; Power and Knowledge. Tirana, 2014 5. Nikolla, Albert P. The new Albanian man. Onufri, Tirana, 2012. 6. Gerard Genette: The Figure. Translated by Sabri Hamiti, Binak Kelmendi. Rilindja, Pristina, 1985.

10 Islamic Lexic And Terms In Bosnian Language by Enver Ujkanović, PhD

Abstract

Islamic lexic in the Corps of Oriental vocabulary is not negligible. This breakthrough into the Bosnian language area is related to the penetration of Islam and his acceptance by the local population. The system of educational institutions that are formed within Islam, has implemented all aspects of the study of Islamic sciences, and opened the way processes in language interferences. Islam has given their faithful an appropriate characteristic that is reflected in various forms of cultural, public and private life. Subsequent to the conversion of the local population to Islam were extralinguistic factors that went in favor of linguistic interference, opening the way to intensive borrowing vocabulary from the religious sphere, but also in the lexic that follows the customs and daily life, the lexic of personal names.

Key words: islamic lexic, linguistic borrowing, language interferences, orientalism, phonetic adaptation, morphological adaptation.

11 Islamic Lexic And Terms In Bosnian Language by Enver Ujkanović, PhD

Introduction1

It is known, the Turkish language, at the time of the centuries-long domination in the South-Slavic territories, leave visible traces on Bosnian language. These clues pointing to a Turkish source, first reflected in the dictionary Fund. All of these lexis applications are included in the category of words of Turkish origin, despite the fact that has been confirmed by numerous studies, that has a significant number of words of Arabic, Persian and other Oriental languages .

Teufik Muftić, saying the reasons for this phenomenon, according to the word of Oriental origin, called „turcizmi“, because they are foreign words of Arabic and Persian origin, and the entrance to Bosnian language adaptation of the last spelling and phonetics of the Turkish language. From a total of 6500 words included in the first edition of the Škaljić's Dictionary Turkish loanwords in Serbo-Croatian , Muftić found that about 3800 words origniate from an Arab etymological source.

Milan Adamovi also writing about this issue highlights the limitations of the term ''turcizmi'' , which many interviewers gladly serve. It was, in his opinion, too narrow - since it only includes words that are etymologically bound to the Turkic language family, while the aforementioned Arabic and Persian based vocabulary is not covered.

Asim Peco regarding the time emphasized that "Words of oriental origin, which in various ways, and at different times, entered the lexical fund, here called the common name turcizmi , although it is clear that all those not belonging to the Turkish lexical fund, nor we all come from the Turkish mediation." (Peco, A:1971,201) With the arrival of the Turks and the spread of Islam in Balkan countries, except for breaking a large number of words of Turkish origin, who became part of the vocabulary of the Bosnian and other South Slavic languages, the Bosnian entered a special kind of vocabulary, that is etymologically almost entirely belongs to the Arabic language. It is the vocabulary of Islam or Islamic terminology, whose fate this research attempts to explain through their representation in printed periodicals of the Islamic community („Glasnik" IVZ1 , „El- Hidaja"2, „Preporod“3 and „Islamska Misao“4), and indicate the existence of a specific process of adaptation and adjustment of this kind of vocabulary mores of the Bosnian language- the phonetic, morphological and semantic level. Islamic terminology in previous studies and scientific processing were located in the numerous studies Turkisms or oriental.5

12 Islamic Lexic And Terms In Bosnian Language by Enver Ujkanović, PhD

When the literature defines terminology in relation to other lexical systems, it is known that she is special lexicon or vocabulary layer, which is specifically used; she is the unmarked style, devoid of emotional and other connotations. However, outside of the context of the terminosystems, term takes the value of the style.

The formation of terminological systems have some influence external factors: socio-political, cultural, historical and religious. Without the influence of the unavoidable external factors, opportunities for optimal construction of certain terminosystems would be quite different, „because of the inherent nature of terminological systems is that they tend intellectual automatism, precision- strict semantic and functional uniformity. Relation fully inclusive rights and label them becomes more constant and almost always uniquely determined ( request for monosemantikom term ) and precisely defined." (Stančić, Lj:1982, 125).

It is known that, the term „terminology“ is a Latin - Greek compound. Latin terminus means end, border, boundary , and the Greek logos means word, science, wisdom, the cosmic law. So, the term is a lexical vessel, the border, the area in which it had put a higher conceptual content , and the terminology is the study of the process of making , meaning and use of the term".(Kalezić, D:1955,6) In this sense, the terminology system of Islam classifies the corpus of terms that refer to concepts that are related to the sphere of the religion of Islam. The basic characteristics of this lexical layer are isolation and the absence of any coordination in their quotation and classifying in a separate fund terminology. Islamic terms are a lexical layer of the Bosnian language, which has remained largely beyond the reach of lexicographical treatment , unlike oriental other lexical fields.

“Glasnik "was first published in 1933, in Belgrade, that right after its launch headquarters of the Supreme seniority IVZ moved to Sarajevo.

Ilmije organization runs its list of the same name "El-Hidaje" whose first issue came out in December-January 1936/37. Since then, with short breaks (November in 1938. - April 1939), the newspaper was published until February in 1945. year.

"Preporod" information bulletin of the Islamic Community in Bosnia and Herzegovina, which is published by Rijaset, began dating in 1970. Published twice a month in Sarajevo, and is distributed throughout the territory of the Islamic community in Bosnia and Herzegovina and beyond.

13 Islamic Lexic And Terms In Bosnian Language by Enver Ujkanović, PhD

"Islamska misao", Journal of islamology, start with the release of December, 1979. The last issue of this journal was published in May in 1992. year.

The study of this topic is written and S. Petrović, History and the condition of the study of Turkish loanwords in Serbo-Croatian, Belgrade, in 1993.

14 Islamic Lexic And Terms In Bosnian Language by Enver Ujkanović, PhD

The reason for theabsence of codification in the terminology of Islamic lexic lies in the fact that it, from the perspective of linguistic norms, was given little attention, because it was known to a narrow circle of users of the Bosnian language. It has found its place in our area, and also with other non-Arab peoples by Islam. In the text Pedagogical thought the Muslims of Bosnia and Herzegovina, published in the „Glasnik IVZ", N. Šukric highlights an opinion:“Arabic terms: te'ddub, terbije, ta'lim- almost are synonymous with all Muslim nations, the process of education and good behavior. Their denial – džahil- ignorant (plural: džuhela), are known till today in the nation.“ (Šukrić, N:1990, 47)

In our linguistic literature, we have no lexical editions exclusively focused on the treatment of religious terminology of Islam. In addition Škaljić, which is the term turcizmi registered a significant number of lexemes, which belong to the sphere of Islamic terminology, there are several publications, that only slightly touching on this issue and only partially affecting Islamic religious terminology. (Nerkez Smailagić: Leksikon islama (Sarajevo 1990); Rade Božovic and Vojislav Simić: Pojmovnik islama (Beograd, 2003) ; Đakovac Aleksandar: Leksikon hrišćanstva, judaizma i islama, (Beograd,2006), Slobodan

Karanović: Pravoslavni, katolički,islamski,jevrejski i protestantski pojmovnik, (Beograd, 2003) .

Borrowing the vocabulary should be considered useful in the context of specific socio-historical and political circumstances. Interference of this kind of vocabulary, in this complex linguistic, has not flowed equally, which is closely related to earlier and later acceptance of Islam and the establishment of the educational system, which included the study of numerous Islamic disciplines, each of them with its own terminology instruments.

The period that this study covers is the time when stopped the direct and indirect contacts with the Turkish language, which is also the mediator of borrowing vocabulary of Arabic and Persian origin into the South Slavic languages.

15 Islamic Lexic And Terms In Bosnian Language by Enver Ujkanović, PhD

It is a period when the fate of the Bosnian language was set through new socio- political, cultural, historical and linguistic events, in the second half of the 19th century. Later, there was a shift of power between the two big empires (the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian), followed by the arrival of a new Yugoslav system, which has caused the process of standardization of Serbo-Croatian language, to be standardized as common to the four distinct socio-cultural areas of the former Yugoslavia. Then, it was a period of political and ethnic turmoil and turbulence, when the Muslim intellectuals sought through the press and literature to preserve their cultural heritage and religion. Therefore, it is the period after the termination of direct contact between the Turkish and South Slavic languages in our region, and from this point of view, diachronic - synchronic point of view, an interesting fate of Islamic vocabulary, by Serbo-Croatian lexic, and its national variants are treated as a layer of lexical items characteristic to extract the third, "Muslim " (central) variants, in addition to the eastern (Serbian) and western (Croatia).

Muslims in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Sandžak, through Islamic education and religious practice are the best to save and preserve this kind of an oriental vocabulary. While many word of Oriental origin, which refer to other aspects of life (administration, crafts, everyday life) have become extinct, missing from the use, religious vocabulary is held to the same extent in Bosnian language, motivated management members of the spirituality of Islam.

Vocabulary in this sphere is not so many compared to other vocabulary semantic fields, but, considering that the narrowed scope of its presence in the language user's knowledge of the Bosnian language, mostly present in publications and periodicals institutions of the Islamic community .

16 Islamic Lexic And Terms In Bosnian Language by Enver Ujkanović, PhD

Analyzing this kind of vocabulary, in the selected corpus, it is possible to note the following :

• The number of islamic vocabulary terms that are in corpus evident, is not negligible

• Its frequency and the presence of almost the same in all listed publications

• It is identical continuously repeats in each issue of media

Often Islamic vocabulary translations, and its source equivalent is written in parentheses, written in Latin alphabet, traditional, or transcribed (or in reverse order, the original equivalent, then the translation in brackets: "Today's teachers Hifzi at a madrassa (muhafiz) "(IM:1989,7)

The publication sometimes do not translate and interpret all the words thatbelong to the sphere of Islamic terminology, so it is written as a lexical unit adapted someone else's origin: "The destruction dzehalet must be the ultimate goal for us." (El-Hidaje:1936, 46)

The authors were guided by their own assessment and determined which of the words were less or more known, more in use. Probably, the authors of the texts in this way sought to introduce readers to the original name for the appointments that are important in the life of believers, or perhaps terms that they met in the religious literature. Additionally, it is not possible to determine the editorial policy which leaves no intention that the presence of more numerous vocabulary is paramount, but it is as if their place in them were an indispensable vocabulary of many of the texts.

Sometimes, the authors borrowed the words in brackets written in Arabic:"...it inherited, primarily, religious teachers ( ) (IM:1989, 26)

From these observations is not entirely possible to determine whether an editorial policy of newspapers existed with the intention of frequent useage of the lexicon. The lexicon has its place in them as an indispensable vocabulary bank of many of the texts of these publications, and is similar to the texts of hadith (Hadith - are taught the Prophet of Islam Muhammad), and less frequently the Qur'an. For Muslims, the Qur'an is the supreme revelation of God's word in writing that etymologically, the word Qur'an (a1 - Qur'an) - is the reading, recitation, use of authentic Qur'anic vocabulary natural discourse life in Islamic spirituality.

17 Islamic Lexic And Terms In Bosnian Language by Enver Ujkanović, PhD

Often, the Arabic text of the hadith, or sometimes the Qur'an itself, was written in Latin script, as in this example: " Ešrafu ummeti hameletul-Quran." (The best among my followers are those who memorize the Qur'an), or "Huden ve zikra il ulil-elbab." ( instructions and warnings for reasonable).(Pr: 1970, 13)

Islamic terminology recorded in Islamic editions that have entered the body of the Bosnian language, divided into three general groups :

1. Vocabulary which includes general Islamic terms:

General Islamic concepts: islam, iman, šehadet, zekat, hadž, farz, vadžib, sunet...

Prayer: fedžr , zuhr , asr , magrib, vitr, nafila, džuma ...

Titles and occupations:halifa, sultan, muftija, imam, muezzin, muderris, mualim...

Islamic disciplines: akaid, kiraet, tedžvid, tefsir, hadis, sira ...

Religious buildings and their parts: Kaba, mesdžid, džamija, mihrab, munare...

2. Names of the Qur'anic sura and proper names :

Fatiha, Bekare, Ali Imran, Nisa, Al – Maida, Abdullah, Adem, Ibrahim, Junus, Muhammed ...

Toponims: Mekka, Medina, Kuds , Bedr, Uhud ...

18 Islamic Lexic And Terms In Bosnian Language by Enver Ujkanović, PhD

Islamic terminology , as confirmed by its treatment, etymologically the most part of his corps, belonging to the Arabic language, which is, with the expansion of Islam, spreading its influence into other languages. Arabic language among the Muslim population used as the language of religious ritual and to write numerous works of theological science.

Writing in Arabic meant to fit into the mainstream of Islamic culture and civilization, the love of the language of the Qur'an and the Prophet Muhammad, his simple folk expression and preservation of traditions that were contrary to Islamic religious law.

Borrowing words from foreign languages can not just leave a mark on the lexical level, but those words pass process modifications, which is expressed primarily in the substitution of the phoneme, adjusting the category of grammatical gender and number, accepting extensions and similarly. Islamic religious vocabulary, as most of Orientalism, when entering Bosnian language has undergone certain phonetic and morphological adaptations.

The changes that are observed in process of adaptation Arab vocabulary used are highly expressed, which is understandable, considering regard to major structural, phonetic and other differences between the Arab or Bosnian language that served as a mediator integration of the lexicon of our language. But, the inconsistency of phonetic systems of Arabic and Bosnian language is reflected in the lack of equivalents in 13 Arab consonants, that are transcribed as follows : t ğ ḥ h d ṣ ḍ ṭ ẓ‛ ġ q w

The analysis of transformation some examples comparing forms of the language: sender - transmitter - receiver , it is possible to discern the interference of Islamic vocabulary, mostly carried by bilingual speakers , who knew Turkish and Arabic, which contributed to the borrowed word is phonetic character closer to the model original languages (for example - Arabic: halal

19 Islamic Lexic And Terms In Bosnian Language by Enver Ujkanović, PhD

In the analysis of phonetic, morphological appearance of the term adaptation, observed changes in the sphere of use of vocals, substitutions, insertions and loss of phonemes : - u>o: Omer< (ar. ‛Umer); Osman< (ar. ‛Uṯ mān); e>u: munara< (ar. menāre); e>i: minare< (ar. menāre). - Sabur<ṣ abr,vakuf Abdurrahman, ‛Abdusselami >

Recorded the occurrence of the loss of consonants, metathesis, addition and insertion of consonants: ğāhilun>džahil, muderrisun>muderis, muftin>muftija; tawhīd>tehvid, -lawḥ a>lehva, marhūm>mehrum; du‛ā >dova, - siḥ r>sihir, -sağāde>serdžada.

Also , the voice of "h" is the linguistic expression of members of Islam preserved. The fate of the voice "h" in the speech of Muslims had a different course, which guided the process of Islamization and the influence of oriental languages. This voice is primarily stored in the linguistic expression of members of Islam the use of Arabic as the language of the Qur'an.6

Arabic language in his sound system has three types of voice, "h" and all the power voiceless consonants, but differ in place of articulation. All types of Arabic "h" in the Bosnian language transcribed as our "h" which is consistently reported in the Islamic edition, where he was on the etymology and place: hutba, merhum, tespih... In the lexicon of Islam we can observe a phenomena and the insertion loss of voice, "j" where it is not etymologically place: beitul-mal

„Upućivanje dozvoljenih molitvi i traženje dozvoljene pomoći čini se u ime Rabba, Gospodara svjetova.“ ( IM:1988,109)

-„...hadd, odreĎena propisana šeriatska kazna...”(,,El-Hidaje“:1941,8)

“Muslimani treba da se vrate Kur'anu i da se ugledaju na divne primjere iz slavne prošlosti kada su bili jedan saff...” (IM:1981, 26)

20 Islamic Lexic And Terms In Bosnian Language by Enver Ujkanović, PhD

Among the recorded vocabulary in the corpus we find compositions or so izafet, who is from the Arabic language into Bosnian language came through Persian and Turkish language: re'isu-l- ulema

„Danas proslavljamo Lejlei-miradž, noć kad je naš pejgamber Muhamed (a. s.) putovao na Nebo... „ (,,El-Hidaje”:1940, 35)

The rights of the Arab genitive connection unlike other term frequently is in own names ' ‛Abdu- llah>Abdullah, ‛Abdu-ssalām>Abdusselam, and the like.

In the Arabic language is an integral part of the word, and it presented morpheme "el" in broad phonetic transcription prevalent and in the corpus, and morpheme "al", in transcription, which is in the form of the written word prefix. In Islamic periodicals evident record of a the member. Also notable is his loss in compounds such as: meharidži-huruf

More about: A. Peco: Jedan aktuelan problem naše fonetike-izgovor i pisanje fonema h / u: ,,Naš jezik“

(Beograd). - XVIII (1971), 201-219.

More about it: R. Djordjevic: Još o geminacijama u srpskohrvatskom jeziku s posebnim osvrtom na stanje u Bosni i Hercegovini/ u: ,,Južnoslovenski filolog“ (Beograd). - LI, 95. Institut za srpski jezik SANU

21 Islamic Lexic And Terms In Bosnian Language by Enver Ujkanović, PhD

These structures came into our language from Persian, Turkish and through third aspect, which, unlike the Arabic language words are connected in reverse.

This is another form of construction, where the first word is added the suffix „i“ (Persian izafet).

Where lexemes close to the original language, orthography definite article is not always

Recorded as recommended checking.10

El-Mudessir

In the use of Islamic vocabulary, abbreviations are also present in the corpus, and in their use, are notable variations, which may be the impact of literature, translated, or in terms of the decision taken in other languages. Principles of shortening religious vocabulary is not unique, and why we find some examples of arbitrariness in their formation .

For these Islamic publications, the following abbreviations have been noted : dž. š . - dželle šanuhu! - An exclamation that popraća excuse or mention of God's name („Let's glorious His Divine being!“). In the body of this acronym usually stands in front of the name of God, whether in or outside the parentheses : "This is from Allah ( swt ) revealed truths .(“To su od Allaha (dž.š.) objavljene istine.”), (IM:1989); and "“Istina je da se Allah dž.š. u biti ne može spoznati ...” and „Abduhu razmišlja o mutezilitskom učenju o spoznaji, zatim kur'anskim i hadiskim osnovama spoznaje Boga dž. š...“11( IM:1981). as - alejhisselam - epiteton that the Muslims say after the name of each prophet . “Sa ovim istinama Musa (a. s.) odlazi Faraonu; “ (IM:1981).

(s.a.v.s. ) / s.a.v.s. - . – sallallahu alejhi ve sellem – „Neka je Božiji mir i spas na njega“; “Božji poslanik Muhammed (s.a.v.s.) je imao oko četrdeset popisivača vahja“ (IM:1988). aš - azimuššan – Kur'ani azimuššan, u Kur'anu (a.š.).

“Interesantno je da Kur'an a.š. nigdje za riječ faraon nije upotrijebio množinu (faraine);” ( Glasnik VIS:1979).

22 Islamic Lexic And Terms In Bosnian Language by Enver Ujkanović, PhD ef.- titles Muslim cleric or religious educated Muslims. The Corps is often encountered ;

Hfz . - Hafiz Qur'an - title of the person who was able to learn a whole Qur'an text by heart ; h./H. – hidžret, hidžra - the beginning of the Muslim era of computing (Accessed 16 July . 622 no). The name came from the fact that Muhammad moved from Mecca to Medina. The body of this abbreviation is used in many ways - po h., po H., hidž., hidžret. godine, hidž. godine: “U stvari muslimani su nakon prvog stoljeća h. učinili svojstva Boga dž. š.problemom, nakon što su potpali pod uticaj neoplatonizma i hrišćanske filozofije trojstva” (1 IM:1981).

-(r. a.) / -r.a. – radijallahu anhu. As short a. s., r. a. can stand in parentheses or outside, but be sure to come to the name of the Prophet's Companions and direct descendants: „Lično je Omer r. a. spavao na goloj zemlji,..” ( Preporod”:1984).

The tradition of learning and study of the Arabic language in our country is long-term and continuous. Along with Islam and the Arabic language, the Arabic alphabet spread the dominance of the growing and increasingly diverse area of speech communication. Even the languages of Western Europe wear the tracing of his influence in a number of loan words, which is discussed by A. Wafi in his book Al -Luga wa-l-Muğtama'a (Language and Society), citing the example of Regis Basel from Rio de Janeiro, which is the Arabic loan words filled four cards, giving it a name Lexicon of Portuguese words taken from Arabic. Lexicon was published in Cairo scientific journal, „Al - Ahram", in 1944.

More about: D. Tanasković: Pisanje arapskih reči u srpskohrvatskom jeziku/u: ,,Naš jezik“ (Beograd). - XXI, 4-5 (1975), 241-267. i S. Janković: Transkripcija i adaptacija imena iz orijentalnih jezika/u: ,,Radovi“ (Sarajevo). - IV, (1980), 9-95.

23 Islamic Lexic And Terms In Bosnian Language by Enver Ujkanović, PhD

His progression is based on the fact that the Qur'an as letter writing became Islam and Islamic culture and civilization. The most Islamic nations non-arabic origin adopted the Arabic alphabet, which belongs to the family of Semitic alphabetical scripts that are mostly consonants, but which, thanks to a variety of conditions and influences, relatively quickly developed into a final, which is familiar form today, and its spatial spread geographically is the second letter, which was assumed the Latin alphabet of the New World .(Muftić, T:1982,32)

Also is interesting the fate of the Arabic orthography expression in the Bosnian language , marked by the alhamijado literature. This name was first used by Dr. Fehim Bajraktarević, in his work Serbian song about birth of Muhammad . Aslhimijado is a word of Arabic origin ( al-' ǧ amijj - ). In today's phonetic character, modified through the Spanish language (j = h ) aljamiado meaning: non-Arab, foreign.

In the process, they created a new graphic design – graphemes for phonemes that Arabic are not known, such as the existing Arabic letters mains supplied additional diacritics marks. Custom phonetic needs of the Bosnian language, this letter was used in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Sandžak , called arebica.

The most successful, but also the last reform of arebica, made the exertion of Džemaludin ef . Čaušević, in the early 20th century, (he become the Reis-ul-Ulema after) He made the so-called matufovica, matufovača, which were made letters for printing books, and owing to the religious school classes, called the mektebica . This letter is use in the period 1907 to 1941 (when a Muslim cultural Sarajevo obtain the necessary letters to print this letter). For printed 40 works in total circulation of 520,000 copies, which explicitly refers to the frequency of use of arebica and emphasized the need for the existence of this letter, which is much more than formal ties of Muslims to the original Arabic.

Explanation of the presence of Islamic vocabulary in Bosnian and other South Slavic languages is found in the fact that linguistic borrowing (interference) characteristics of all languages. Islamic lexicon is given to its Arab origins, its place in the South Slavic languages found through the Turkish language and the spread of Islam. Because the only vocabulary in the field of religious and customary life of Muslims is less explored part of Oriental vocabulary, and this study is an

24 Islamic Lexic And Terms In Bosnian Language by Enver Ujkanović, PhD attempt to partially in the first step, highlighted this lexical layer. The fact is, that the survival of Oriental lexicon in the South Slavic languages (Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian), caused by different sociological and historical circumstances.

Contemporary social developments have contributed to that in some language communities formed a negative attitude towards the achievements of oriental culture which, no doubt, were but the other, a relevant factor in the historical development of cultural and civlizacijskih determinants in the area of South Slavic languages. Despite the existence of such a tendency, many orientalisms and words of Turkish language, do no have an adequate replacement in the lexicon mentioned South Slavic languages, and therefore permanently remain part of their vocabulary .

In the context of emerging linguistic realities, after the breakdown of Yugoslavia, the future prospects of Islamic vocabulary is significantly changed. Its fate and future status of lexicographical works determine the processes of language engineering, because their terminological value, necessarily associated with Islam and Muslims life in South Slavic areas, primarily in Bosnia and Sandžakand are stable layer vocabulary of Bosnian language.

LITERARY SOURCES

,,Glasnik“, Sarajevo, (1933-1992)

,,El-Hidaje“, Sarajevo, (1936-1945)

,,Preporod“, Sarajevo, (1970-1992)

,,Islamska misao“, Sarajevo. (1979-1992)

25 Islamic Lexic And Terms In Bosnian Language by Enver Ujkanović, PhD

Reference Lists

ĐorĎević, R: Još o geminacijama u srpskohrvatskom jeziku s posebnim osvrtom na stanje u Bosni i Hercegovini/ u: ,,Južnoslovenski filolog“ (Beograd). - LI, 95. Institut za srpski jezik SANU.

Filipović, R. (1967): Jezici u kontaktu i jezičko posuđivanje, Zagreb

Janković, S. (1980): Transkripcija i adaptacija imena iz orijentalnih jezika/u: ,,Radovi“

(Sarajevo). - IV

Kalezić, D. (1995): Pravoslavna dogma i njena terminologija / u: Osnovni principi prevođenja religijske terminologije:Zbornik radova, Novi Sad

Muftić,T. (1961): Arapsko pismo, Sarajevo, Muftić,T.O arabizmima u srpskohrvatskom jeziku / u:

,,Prilozi za orijentalnu filologiju“ (Sarajevo). – X-XI

Panović, I. (1997): Turcizmi nekad i sad na primeru srpske pripovetke /u: Jezičke mene i život reči: Zbornik radova, Valjevo

Partridž, K. (2009):Religije sveta, Beograd

Peco, A. (1971): Jedan aktuelan problem naše fonetike-izgovor i pisanje fonema h / u: ,,Naš jezik“

(Beograd). - XVIII

Petrović, S.(1993): Istorijat i stanje proučavanja turcizama u srpskohrvatskom jeziku, Beograd

Savić, S. (1996): Religijski diskurs / u: Osnovni principi prevođenja religijske terminologije:

Zbornik radova: Novi Sad

Stančić, Lj. (1982): Pokušaj ujednačavanja hrvatsko-srpske gramatičke terminologije u XX stoljeću / u: ,,Radovi Instituta za jezik i književnost“, (Sarajevo), IX

Šukrić, N. (1990): Pedagoška misao kod muslimana Bosne i Hercegovine,,Glasnik IVZ“,

(Sarajevo). – god. 57, 1

26 Islamic Lexic And Terms In Bosnian Language by Enver Ujkanović, PhD

Tanasković, D. (1975): Pisanje arapskih reči u srpskohrvatskom jeziku / u:

,,Naš jezik“ ( Beograd). - XXI, 4-5.

Vajzović, H. (1999): Orijentalizmi u književnom djelu, Sarajevo

Wafi, Ali Abdul Wahid (1971): Al-Luġa wal-Muğtama‛a, (Jezik i društvo), Al-Qahira

27

The Alternative and Traditional Methods Used in TEFLiIn The High Schools Of Elbasan by Josilda Papajani

Abstract

In the past few years, the Albanian Education System has been undergoing changes and as a result, so has the teaching Curriculum. Of great importance is even the changes made in the teaching English as a foreign language. The whole field of language teaching has been influenced by the advancement of the modern technology, as well as by the linguistic and cultural diversities of both the student and teacher. The changing needs of our language learners have prompted the changes in concept in developing a new curriculum, in which the communicative competence is not only an objective goal for our students, but also a subjective investment for both learners and teachers. By reshaping the English curriculum, it is meant to change even the methods of teaching. It seems as if the traditional methods will not be used going forward. However, it is a case to be seen, whether traces of the traditional methods persist in the English classes of the high schools of Elbasan, or not. If so, to what extent are they used and which are the reasons for using them? If not, why have they completely abandoned? If there is a new teacher in this profession, which methods should he/she use the most? Do the experienced teachers need to change the way they have been teaching for so many years? Are the new methods actually followed in the classroom? To focus more on this topic, I have conducted a quantitative research which is the result of a survey with ten teachers of English, from the high schools of Elbasan.

They all answered a questionnaire based on the English teaching methods, half of which traditional methods and the other half modern ones. Three of these teachers have even participated in an interview I have conducted, whether of using traces of

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The Alternative and Traditional Methods Used in TEFLiIn The High Schools Of Elbasan by Josilda Papajani

Grammar-Translation in their English classes or not. They would give reasons whether the answer is positive or negative. This will give a better understanding of what is actually happening in the high schools of Elbasan, far more than what is written in a formal curriculum.

Keywords: Curriculum, Grammar-Translation method, Traditional method, Alternative method, Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL), Communicative method.

Survey about the use of Alternative and Traditional Methods according to teachers

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The Alternative and Traditional Methods Used in TEFLiIn The High Schools Of Elbasan by Josilda Papajani

1.1 The results of the questionnaires

It is easy to read a lot of books, as they always provide us with new information. I have tried to do the same thing in order to find out which of the methods worked best with students of English as Foreign Language. In fact, I have come across with different assumptions about all methods, there are both pros and cons in using each, as there are pros and cons even for different features among the same method. To be more realistic, I thought it would be worthy to have a look what teachers are doing with these methods in the elementary and secondary schools in Elbasan.

The results of the questionnaire that I conducted with ten teachers are ranked according to the most used method up to the less used (see appendix):

Grammar-Translation Method – 27%

Communicative Language Teaching – 25%

Natural Method – 22%

Task Based Learning – 15%

Suggestopedia – 6%

Total Physical Response – 5%

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The Alternative and Traditional Methods Used in TEFLiIn The High Schools Of Elbasan by Josilda Papajani

As it can be noticed, it is a mixture of methods used. The three methods that predominate are Grammar-Translation, Communicative Language Teaching and Natural Method. This means that the traditional methods have let their traces to the teachers’ way of organizing the lesson.

Grammar-Translation Method triumphs among the usage of methods that teachers use. It is still used, and it is the first in rank, even if with a slight percentage from the CLT.

The best feature of GT used by most teachers is the use of mother tongue, Albanian language, in class. I have interviewed three teachers about this, as it seemed crucial to better understand their reasons of using Albanian language in the classroom, in a time when we are hearing a lot that “the first language should be banished in a foreign language classroom” (Harmer, Jeremy 2007)

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Other features of grammar translation with great interest are the ones which provide activities related to it, such as: the filling in gaps sentences, with new words or with items of a particular grammar type. This activity was usually done by the teacher; by creating his/her own sentences and giving it to students as a task to be completed.

Another activity is the finding of antonyms and synonyms for words or set of words. Even when there is no similar exercise in the lesson in the textbook, the teachers try to remind always students about the antonyms or synonyms of words they come across.

Also, students are asked time after time to make up sentences with the new words or write about certain topics the teacher gives them in the target language.

The less used features of GT are the memorization of vocabulary lists and grammatical rules. Another assumption is that students do not deal with grammar rules then applying them to exercises. But, grammar is taught firstly in context, by taking usually a short text which illustrates examples of the grammatical point to be taken in each lesson.

Communicative Language Teaching, another traditional method, is very much used by the teachers, with 25%. The most used feature of it is that it stimulates good communication. Teachers have a big focus on having students be excellent communicators, as it is one of the most significant reasons why students are interested in learning a foreign language. To accomplish this goal, teachers use even the linking of classroom language with that outside the classroom.

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This means that students usually perform activities that involve them in making as if they are in a real situation. A good way to clarify this are the exercises where the students are required to think about a certain situation and show to class what they would do in it. Also, students use a lot of dialogues, but they are not required to memorize them.

The weakest point of Communicative Language Teaching according to the teachers’ usage is that related to fluency. It is not of primary importance in these classes. Students are thought to become fluent with the passing of the time. What is more important is that they acquire language step by step and as a result fluency will come.

Natural method is again a traditional method, and is still used by teachers, with 22%. The best feature of it is that students do not learn grammatical rules, but they acquire them through communication. There are provided a lot of games and activities which enhance students’ motivation and understanding of the new information of the foreign language. It is created a warm environment in class by the teachers, who try to be as affective to the students as possible.

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As it is thought that students should learn the foreign language as naturally as possible, just like children do with their mother tongue, the Albanian language is forbidden. But, it will be seen further in the specific interview with the teachers why they still use it in their English classes.

Task based learning is an alternative method, a modern one and it seems to be much more valued by the teachers than Suggestopedia and TPR. In fact, the result of the questionnaire shows this, by having Task Based Learning with 15% usage.

The best and most widely used feature of this method is the one in which class activities have a perceived purpose and a clear outcome. The teachers always want their students to learn new things and this means that every lesson hour they require their students to have taken on some new information. Also, they give feedback to the students on their level of success in completing the task. In this way, students are helped to learn even how to make self-assessment and peer-assessment.

What does not work with this method is that the demand on thinking made by the activity is just above the level which they can meet without any difficulty. In fact, this does not happen, as the teacher is always explaining to the students what they should do and helping them by being a facilitator and supervisor.

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Suggestopedia is another alternative method, used with 6% by the teachers. The best feature of it is that students usually are required to pretend as they are someone else and role-play. This is a good way to stimulate creativity and teachers make their students time after time create with the language by doing creative exercises. What is not applicable from its features is that students are not in a comfortable physical environment, in that does not “feel” like a normal classroom. They do not have cushioned seating and cheerful lighting. In fact, it would be very expensive to have such commodities in our classes. As a result, even if students role-play, they do not have an environment which provides them with this scene that seems just a fairy world. Also, there is no music in background during all the lesson hour, even if songs are a crucial part among the most useful activities.

Total Physical Response is the newest method, and maybe it is becuase of its recent appearance on the cirriculum scene that it is not used by many of the teachers. Its popularity may grow after some time, but for now it is only used in 5% of our survey group. Nevertheless, the best feature of this method according to the teachers is “spoken language is emphasized over written language.” (see appendix) As it was mentioned above, communication is a crucial part when learning a foreign language. It is the same here, too. Students are required to practice a lot of speaking activities. And, teachers are willing to use humor during the lesson when possible. It is a good way how to make students be motivated.

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What goes wrong according to the teachers is that the methods of “only listening and physical response are not always possible.” (see appendix) Students become very noisy and lose focus on the lesson. It is time consuming to deal with these disruptions. Also, according to this method, students are not required to speak until they feel naturally ready or confident enough to do so. Most teachers think that students should be encouraged to be actively participating in the lesson from the first hours they deal with English.

It is made clear that teachers are still using traditional methods. They use grammar translation a lot, even if there is a difference from the real traditional one. It is now taught in context, but its activities are still used. Communicative language teaching is of great importance, as communication is seen as an important tool in everyday life, not only in a foreign language. There is a big focus in teaching the foreign language in a warm environment, by making students be surrounded by a low affective filter. This is provided by the Natural Method, another traditional one with great influence.

The alternative methods are used by teachers, as well. It is not that they are not important, but their features may be too new to be immediately adapted into our classrooms. This is the case with Suggestopedia. We do not yet have the conditions to provide the optimum enviornment for these methods to be effective.

Task Based Learning is a good approach when we take into consideration the use of the tasks that are dominant in all lesson hours. Teachers must be eager for their students acquire new information or to better reinforce the informaiton they have learned previously.

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Even though some believe that TPR provides a perfect method to learn language, the effect of time and discipline prohibits its wide-spread usage.

1.2 The results of the interviews about the use of the first language in the classroom, as a main feature of grammar translation method and some other methods that allow it

The question of whether or not to use the mother tongue in the English classroom has always arisen conflicting views. In addition to Grammar-Translation, Communicative Language Teaching allows its use when necessary. On the other hand, beginning with the Natural Method up to Total Physical Response, the mother tongue is forbidden. When we read different theories, we end up with different conclusions each time we finish reading them and the result is real confusion. In order to clarify myself about this issue, I thought to put the theory I had read aside and see it in practice. My immediate thought was to observe three different teachers in three different classes, but teaching the same lesson.

There were three eighth grade classes, whose lesson for that day was about Reading. The teacher would give instructions and explain the meaning of words, complex ideas and complex grammar points.

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The greatest use of Albanian was to explain the meaning of words. The fist teacher used Albanian to explain the new words by giving a definition in English first and then translating them into Albanian. It proved to be effective, as students seemed to have understood them. The second teacher used Albanian to explain the meanings of the new words, too, but she used the mother tongue before the foreign language. Even in this case students seemed to be clear about what they had listened to. The third teacher used Albanian mostly to give instructions.

Before reading the passage, the teacher gave instructions in English and then translated them into Albanian; to be sure that every student was clear about what was said. At that time, it was quite noisy outside the classroom, which was a bad interference for the teacher explaining the lesson. In this case, the teacher used Albanian instructions even to hold the students’ attention and make them follow her.

What I understood was that the use of the Albanian Language occurred as a tool to facilitate the explanation of the teacher and understanding of the students. To be sure about this, I asked the teachers after the lesson. My question was: “What do you think about the criticism that using the mother tongue, in our case Albanian, reduces the students’ exposure to English?” and, their answers are summarized as follows:

Teacher 1: I think that using Albanian is more effective and less time- consuming. You spend some time or use several sentences to explain one word or idea in English, and the students still look confused and do not

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The Alternative and Traditional Methods Used in TEFLiIn The High Schools Of Elbasan by Josilda Papajani understand it. You can use one simple Albanian word or expression and you might solve this problem. The time to hold a class is only 45 minutes, very limited to deal with a number of activities. If i spend a lot of time on explaining words in English and do not come up with a good result, then why not use Albanian and solve this problem? Then, it does not reduce the students’ exposure to English, since students still read the English text and still communicate in English with me and with each-other. Lastly, the amount of English used depends on the students’ language level. Their level is not advanced so as to be clearly understood without using any Albanian at all.

Teacher 2: The main reason I use Albanian in the classroom is that sometimes students cannot follow me when I use only English to explain the meaning of the text or to give instructions. Also, when I know an appropriate translation for any English expression, I say it to students. In this way, they can immediately comprehend the meaning of the English sentence. This also helps them to compare the word choices in the two languages.

Teacher 3: I use Albanian to discuss the meaning of some difficult, abstract words and to explain grammar and ideas in complicated sentences. Sometimes, when students look confused after my English explanation of certain points, I use Albanian to reinterpret them. Also, when the classroom is noisy, using Albanian to keep order is more effective than using English.

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As a result of this interview, it came out that the limited use of the mother tongue, Albanian, in the English classroom does not reduce students’ exposure to English, but can assist in the teaching and learning processes. This is not said just to exaggerate the use of Albanian, but rather clarify some misconceptions that continue to trouble teachers about the use of the mother tongue in an English classroom. In fact, it does have only a facilitating role, and mother tongue should be used when it is needed, in special situations as the above mentioned.

As a conclusion, “the art of teaching does not lie in accessing a checklist of skills but rather in knowing which approach to adopt with different students, in different curricular circumstances or in different cultural settings” (Klapper 2001:17). That is why, even if times are changing and so do the reforms in education, there are methods and approaches which cannot be completely forbidden from their use. In these terms it could be undoubtedly mentioned the case of the English teachers in the high schools of Elbasan, who still tend to use traces of traditional methods in their classes. Even the Grammar-Translation method, which is the most ancient among methods, tends to show its features in the English classes. This is due to helping learners be focused more easily on the new vocabulary they take and this makes the explanation easier to the teacher, too.

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Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge all the English teachers of the high schools in Elbasan for participating in this research.

References

Asher, James. “Learning Another Language Through Actions: Total Physical Response.” 1977. California: Sky Oaks, 2003. Freeman, Diane. “Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching”. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 2003. Freeman, Donald and Cornwell, Steve. “New Ways in Teacher Education: New Ways in TESOL Series”. 1993. Illinois USA: Pantagraph, 2002. Gjokutaj, Mimoza and Ladi Shahini. “Mësimdhënia me në qendër nxënësin.” Tiranë: Geer, 2005. Harmer, Jeremy. “The Practice of English Language Teaching:

Longman Handbooks for Language Teachers”. 1983. New York: Longman, 1989. Harmer, Jeremy. “The Practice of English Language Teaching”. England: Pearson Education Limited, 2007.

Klapper, J. (ed) (2001) Teaching Languages in Higher Education, London: CILT.

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Johnson, Keith. “An Introduction to Foreign Language Learning and Teaching”. London: Longman, 2001.

Krashen, Strephen and Tracy Terrel. “Hypothesis to Language Acquisition and Learning”. Pergamon press, 1987. Peregoy, Suzanne and Owen Boyle. “Reading, Writing and Learning in ESL: A Resource Book for K- 12 Teachers”. 4th Edition. Boston: Pearson Education. 2004.

Tafani, Vilma. “Language Teaching and Learning Methodology”. Tiranë: SHBLU, 2003.

Terrel, Tracy. “A Natural Approach to SLA”. Modern Language, Journal, 1977. Willis, Jane. “A Framework for Task-Based Learning”. Birmingham: Longman, 1996.

40

Albanian Literary Circle In Italy by Leka Ndoja

Abstract

Italy's Literary Circle with its creation after the political emigration wave (1945-1990), in the context of Italian - Arbëresh Colony, as a paradigm of the Albanian Literary System during national Revival, was involved in an aggregate of literary and cultural activities. The Literary Circle of Albanian Diaspora in Italy, marked in production, volume, and norm and determined by university institutions of Palermo - Rome - Naples - Bari. Those universities rendered possible the appropriate climate to set up a national literary sub-system model with all systemic components: production, publications and system-creative magazines as Shêjzat [The Pleiades] (august 1957 - 1978), Koha e Jonë [Our Time] (1962-1992); systemic-center authors as: Father Georg Fishta O.F.M.-Ernest Koliqi and Martin Camaj. But, Ernest Koliqi was as the director of the Albanian Studies Institute at Rome University, the master-key of an increasing in the volume of the intercultural activities, as regards the institutional critique, various national celebrations of emigrants, and international symposiums such as the 20th anniversary of the death of Father George Fishta O.F.M.; or the celebrations on the 500th anniversary of the death of Scanderbeg, in Palermo and Rome (1968). But the main merit of Koliqi was to restore a new Albanian Literary Center in the West and the foundation in Rome of Shêjzat literary magazine. The Albanian Rome Literary Circle was the counterpart of the National Center of Tirana and sometimes even an antagonist. Various outstanding achievements in the visual arts were celebrated by the painter Ibrahim Kodra with about 20 international awards, as well as the iconographic painter Lin Delia who took part in some audiences with the Pope Pole VI etc... First Koliqi and then Camaj after his death took literary - cultural studies within the Albanian districts of Italy, tracing the genealogy of the Arbëresh migration in the United States in the years 1974 - 1986. After Koliqi’s death in January 1975 and the final departure of Camaj from the Italy Circle as e professor of the Albanian Language at the University of Munich (1978), closed the frame of four decades of the Italy Literary Circle as the core of the Literary Diaspora Sub-system.

Key words: Albanian Diaspora; Italy's Literary Circle; Koliqi;

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Albanian Literary Circle In Italy by Leka Ndoja

1. Introduction

This paper is a modified chapter of a wide volume about Albanian Diaspora Literary History (1945-1990) in process. All the material that we are presenting in this paper, is taken from the original books and reviews of the time, and some of the concepts are borrowed from the theory books as secondary sources for our arguments, aiming to prove that the sub-system has worked in Diaspora as a Literary National System.

The most adequate method, that helped our tracing in Literary History and esthetic analysis, is the comparative and intercultural method. Our choice to analyze the various periods of the Albanian Exile Literary during the communist rule in Albania, separately or in confront with the main stream of Albanian Literary Activities in Albania itself as a chronological proceeding is a new one. This method brought a new taste of ethics carried by different literary norms between system/ sub-system, as an achievement of a different value-system that prevails the Albanian Literary System.

The materials considered as reliable taken in consideration, compared, analyzed and presented from the research paper that follows the critical method to trace back the creation resource of Diaspora Literary System in Italy. Tracing the aspirations of the most quoted Albanian novelist during 1930-1960 Ernest Koliqi, as the main producer (author) of Literary Sub-System Center or Albanian National Literary, the paper aiming to understand the literary difference between the Diaspora and the producers Center.

2. The socio - political context in Italy

Italy's geopolitical position and emphasized international role during and after World War II served as the first refuge for Diaspora political personalities. Most of them were educated in Western countries. They left Albania fallen into the hands of Communist Party. Their exile was sometimes deliberately given by the extreme situation, because in Albania (1945) started the prosecution against the "enemies" of the "liberators". They took refuge in Italy, beginning from the President of the National Front, Midhat Frashëri, the Free Albanian Committee, Independent National Bloc members presented by Ernest Koliqi and the head of Mirdita region, Gjonmarkaj.

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These political organizations brought into light in Rome, their temporary newspress L'Albanie libre (Roma 1949); the most famous magazine Shêjzat (1957-1978) and Koha e Jonë (1962- 1992). Political developments in the Western politics, brought reconciliations and induced disputes among groups of emigrants, moved to a less familiar environment depending from the quality of Diaspora press that opened from the Italy a new period of opposition that was more evident in culture and literary field . The only guide of their political existence to have been prepared or have fulfilled the programs about political activities, was the press first and the magazines after (1957). Various publications appeared during 40 years of exile period. These groups accelerated the emergence of an independent press, their form of communication was political originally, but often some of them communicate with forms of artistic expression as Bardhyl Pogoni or Eduart Liçaj (editors of political newspaper L'Albanie Libre) who received degrees in literature. Some publications for example the poem of the Nation Face, were dedicated to exile leader such as Midhat Frashëri. The cultural press was inseparable from the politics, following a tradition established at the time of the Renaissance. This norm was allowed in the first postwar period. But the main factor of the birth of a cultural press in exile was a radical change of the cultural policy in Albania, considered in the opinion of Western Albanian Scholars or Diaspora writers as the danger of an alienation of the national tradition, changed from East communist culture, as a core component of the Center Systemic Literary in Tirana and Prishtina-Skopje binomial sub-centers.

3. The creation of Systemic Literary Center in Italy.

The literary history scholars of the 40’s such as Gaetan Petrotta, Karl Gurakuqi, Namik Ressuli, Zef Valentini's under the direction of the senator Rosolin Petrotta created the Albanian Center for International Studies at the University of Palermo in 1948. The Centre allowed to open according to the decree of the Italian Republic President, what happened also for the opening of the Institute of the Albanian Studies in Rome, in 1957, under the direction of Koliqi. The establishment of this institution for the Albanian culture was followed simultaneously by the establishment of Shêjzat magazine, with contributors from the scientific centers of both Rome and Palermo. The magazine with over 8,000 pages in 19 years of its life, became the capital benchmark for all Albanian culture in the West in the years 1957-1978.

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Shêjzat (The Pleiades) magazine, beside the tradition developed also the primary artistic literature, the contemporary literary criticism and the Albanian historiography. The most prepared for this initiative was Dr. Martin Camaj who studied philology at Belgrade and Sarajevo Universities, the Italian-Albanian Giuseppe Gradilone, who kept alive the basic function of scientific criticism without ideological norms, directed from the freedom of expression, while Koliqi, Valentini and Karl Gurakuqi focused on the preservation of the tradition and the Western identity of the Albanian literature.

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3.1. The Mecenate and the new culture.

In the absence of a political unit to care for the development of the Albanian culture in Italy, played the role of the Capital city, the Italian-Arberesh Region with Palermo as its Center.

One of the most important cultural supporters was the Arbëresh Senator Rossolin Petrotta, who played a key role in supporting the establishment of the International Centre of Albanian Studies in Palermo, close to the university as well as the creation of the Institute for Albanian Studies in Rome in 1957. In addition, he placed the Albanian language, by virtue of the Italian presidential decree, on the compulsory education system in Arbëresh colonies in Southern Italy.

After the loss of Rosolin Petrota in 1966, Koliqi made some steps forward relying on the largest colony of the Albanians in the world, that of the United States, following the example of the Albanian Federation Vatra (the Hearth) in addition to the approval of special projects by the Italian State and also of the Holy See. On the other hand, Lec Shllaku editor in chief of Koha e Jonw review that appeared in Paris, had projected the naming of Skanderbeg Square in the capital city of France. He found the support of a businessman and of the politician Isa Ndreu from Dibra, and his friend Jacques Chirac, later the Mayor of Paris (1978). Isa Ndreu backed the political - cultural magazine Koha e Jonë during the thirty years 1962-1992, which was the most important project of the literary Diaspora sub-system, after the closing of Shêjzat magazine in 1978.

Koliqi’s passing away in 1975 left a void that wasn't filled in by the Albanian Diaspora. Even in his lifetime, from time to time, the magazine declared a financial crisis of the review until 196, managed to secure the support of the Diaspora in America. There Koliqi launched a propaganda campaign and a new compliance as their lack of attendance was going to suspend the publication of the review.

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With the transferring of Dr. Martin Camaj to the University of Munich (1961), the editorial point of view became weaker and the magazine pronounced a collapse of the postal service, which adversely affected the distribution of the most prominent magazine in the Diaspora.

Italy Literary Circle led by Koliqi through literary and cultural magazine Shêjzat, created the most important movement of sub-system, accomplished the merging and the upbringing of various literary of Albanian writers. The Albanian Literary Circle of Italy was managed to fit the systemic market of values dominated by foreign culture and was overcome by the financial misteries of the "foreign land"..

In the decade of 1980-1990, the most important cultural action of the Albanian Diaspora was supported by a businessman, Isa Ndreu owner of Giolli Colombari-s Hotel in Florence and of Our Time magazine too. During this period Arbëresh regions brought to light Our village, The Fire magazines etc. undertaking their publications. Albanian centers in the United States, the Albanian Federation Vatra (the Hearth), and the eminent writers from Martin Camaj, Namik Resuli, Arshi Pipa's to Tahir Kolgjini, Niyazi Sulce, Nermin Vlora, who directed by now the individual publications, were very distant from each other and the new Literary Diaspora had consumed its time and its space of light.

3.2. Koha e Jonë [Our Time] Magazine.

Our Time magazine in the last five years: 1985 – 1990. According to Martin Camaj, Shêjzat magazine, managed to keep alive the cultural patterns of action until the end of the sub-system literary diaspora: language writing in both dialects pointing at the literary development, model based in values of the Catholic School in Shkodra.

A continuation of dialectic tradition [Koha e Jonë] Our Time, (edited in Florence, but signed Paris) where values correspond to the misunderstanding between writers and researchers demonstrate a final attack about language patrimony by Artan Illyri (nicknamed Lec Shllaku). Here were submitted the ideas and the debates about the codification of the early geg language in Albania. The attention of the political writings about the regime were shifted from Albania to Kosovo to the rapid literary decrease and the difference between the esthetic and the waste in the

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Albanian Literary Circle In Italy by Leka Ndoja debate was evident. This period was characterized by the full attention to the policy developed in Yugoslavia events that appeared in the pages of the news press and the cultural magazines of the Diaspora.

3.3. Gradilone and Koliqi.

Koliqi beside his early associates in Albania during the Italian occupation as Mustafa Kruja, Namik Resuli, Karl Gurakuqi, Vasil Alarupi and among others, Andrea Anesti, Zef Nekaj, Father Zef Oroshi, Fehime Pipa, especially the magazine editor Martin Camaj, who with his creativity, after the death of Koliqi (in 1975), became the most prominent figure in the artistic and scientific Diaspora. A paramount role played the critic even as an ordinary disciple of the Department of Languages and Literatures (La Sapienzza Universisty of Rome) and the Albanian Studies Institute of Rome, the Arbëresh Giuseppe Gradilone. He developed rather a fine criticism against the socialist realism and the theoretical processing of the dissident literary production in Albania.

3.4. The Italian- Arbëresh Heritage.

On November 24, 1948 the International Albanian Studies Center at the University of Palermo was founded. The Arbëresh cultural center was covered by immigration scholars whose literary and artistic developments were reflected almost exclusively in Shêjzat Magazine. This intercultural magazine followed the spirit of the European integration periodical run by Koliqi in Tirana between the years 1935-1944, in the literary review Illyria. In Shêjzat Magazine were published about 2,000 pages of writings on the Arbëresh literature and culture.

3.5. The alienation of the Systemic Center.

The communication between two literary systems: Tirana - Rome. Martin Camaj directed the Shêjzat Magazine with an editorial discipline supported by a theoretical education worthy of his achievements that was focused especially against the Albanian Literature in its Center. His assessments on the literary ideology that was the principal part of the form, but he wasn't engaged on the literary forms. The most famous mention of Camaj about the writers in Albania was the stigmatized expression for the real-soc writer as the "barracks soldier".

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While Koliqi tried to be more a contributor to the literary historiography especially upon Fishta- De Rada, but also to formal assessment upon Migjeni, offering a compromised view, because Migjeni was considered as a Center of Literary System in Albania.

4. The literary criticism: Kosovo-Albanian / Rome Circle.

A unique criticism spread out from Kosovo against Koliqi (Shejzat, 1967), on the occasion of the new Anthology edition, in 1963 selected by Koliqi. All the poems were translated by Koliqi. Ali Podrimja pointed out that the Anthology published in Italian wasn't presentable for all the Albanians. The very accurate while addressing the criticism of Podrimja (1968) against Koliqi as a translator, which signed the beginning of the inter-criticism in the inherency of the literary system.

The critics asserted that in order to harmonize the system/sub-system, they should provide assessments of the poetry of Fatos Arapi, Ismail Kadare. This led to the exclusion of these poets from the Anthology: The New Albanian poetry on the occasion of the publication in Italian. These debates were the first set against the Diaspora sub-system and were so important on that occasion because from it depended the role of the superior norm/subject of the western literature.

4.1. The festivities in the two cultural systems.

In the case of the 500th anniversary of Scanderbeg in 1968, were founded and shared two systems: the one in Palermo - Rome - Brussels - New York and the other Tirana with Pristina. There were also conventions and symposia held on the most prestigious historical figure, which was the only historical figure to unify these two literary - political systems that hold Scanderbeg’s cult.

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4.2. The National cult of the writer George Fishta. George Fishta’s cult became a dangerous flashpoint between the two systems that brought the split on the perspectives about the Center of the National Literature.

While Fishta’s cult flourished as never before during the great celebrations in Rome and Palermo on 20th anniversary of death, (1960) giving way to publications in magazines and a number of scientific activities, conferences and symposia in Rome and Palermo directed from Koliqi.

After the closing of Shêjzat Magazine, the destruction of the myth of George Fishta had almost entered in its final phase only to be revamped again in 1991. George Fishta’s cult was the most visible sign of the split between the Diaspora sub-system/system.

Conclusions

Koliqi in his approach with the cultural movements in Diaspora created a national literature like Dante Alighieri from the opposite side of the Regime’s Literature. Being a politician and a writer too, Koliqi was responsible for the future of the Albanian Literature, considering the literature as a bridge that keeps the Diaspora united with the homeland. Dante’s themes took place occasionally in Shêjzat magazine, as well as the commemorative studies on the translations of the Divine Comedy of Dante Alighieri had appeared frequently in Shêjzat Magazine. On the other hand, Camaj analysis undertaken among various translations of the Dante Alighieri’s Divine Comedy took a critical position compared to the values of the Divine Comedy translation by Pashko Gjeçi. Camaj analyzes the best literary product in Tirana Center, using all the knowledge of a conceptual scholar based in radical opinions that render the Tirana literature obviously ahead of the traditional ethics.

Dante’s sources, exploited by Eugenio Montale, were an example to our Diaspora authors. The quality results carried by literary sub-system is now perhaps more effective as the two Literary System's: Diaspora/Center are in the unification process. Dante’s repertoire was based on the Albanian receptors of the Diaspora’s Literature, so the model of the great poet of Florence,

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Albanian Literary Circle In Italy by Leka Ndoja carried by a System-Creator such as Ernest Koliqi, was decisive, constructive and a model to be held onto in the Literary System of the Diaspora.

References

Camaj, M. (1965) "Purgatori" e dyta kantikë e Komedisë Hyjnore në gjuhën shqipe", Shêjzat, Romë, No. 5-8, pp. 314-320. Camaj, M. (1991) Gedichte, Munchen: Kyrill & Method Verlag. Cuddon, J. A. (1998) Literary terms & Literary theory, London: Penguin, Second Edition. Fishta, Gj. (1966) "Zâni i poetit kombëtar", Romë: Shêjzat , No. 1-2, pp. 8-12. Gradilone, G. Studi di letteratura albanese contemporanea (1997): Roma: Universita La Sapienza. Koliqi E. (1965) “Ahmarrja e të mërguemit që quhej Dante” Romë: Shêjzat, No. 9-10, pp. 289- 292. Koliqi, E. (1963) Antologia della lirica albanese, traduzzione di Ernesto Koliqi, Milano: Vani Scheivviller. Koliqi, E. (1965) "Dante e noi albanesi", Romë: Shêjzat, No. 9-10, pp. 321-329. Koliqi, E. (1965) "Vjerrsha të Dantes", përkth. Ernest Koliqi, Romë:Shêjzat, n. 9-10, pp. 299- 305. Koliqi, E. (1974) “Migjeni dhe unë”, Romë: Shêjzat, No.1-10, pp. 82-86. Numër përkujtimuer kushtue Ernest Koliqit (1978) Romë, Shêjzat, Le Pleiades,. Pipa, A. (2000) Autobiography, Tiranë: Phoenix. Podrimja A. (1967) "Baticat dhe zbaticat e një antologjije", Romë: Shêjzat, No. 9-12, pp. 434- 436. Terrrent. V. (1974) "The Party Dictatorship and the Albanian art and literature", Paris: "Koha e Jonë" [Our Time], v. XIII,No. 4-5-6 pp.9-14.

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Beyond the Known Dimensions of Edith Durham by Majlinda Ziu1

Introduction Journey in Albania

Mary Edith Durham2 (1863-1944) was the eldest daughter of the well-known London surgeon, Arthur Edward Durham. She finished her first studies in Bedford College. Later she was registered in the Royal Academy of Arts.

After her father’s death in 1885, Edith had to take care after her mother Mary for years in succession, because she was ill. Taking care of her mother for many years caused Ms Durham to experience chronic fatigue. She was suffering from health problems as well. As a consequence, at age 37 sh was advised by her doctor to take a break. In order to satify her sense of adventure and give her an opportunity to recuperate, she acquiesed. It was a sea journey from England to the Balkans. This journey, which later was repeated, did not only serve improve her health, but it made in indelible impression on her, changing the course of her life. During her time spent in various Balkans countries she gained signficant noteriety as an artist, as an antropologist and as a writer. Her journey towards Balkans started in Dalmatic sea line from Trieste in Kotor, continued towards Cetinje, (capital of Monte Negro) and arrived in Albania.

PHOTO OF EDITH DURHAM 1886

1 Doctoral School of Geography, Faculty of History & Philology, Tirana University. Address: Lagja Ali Demi. Rr Hodo Beg, Pallati Konuda, Tiranë, Cel. 00355692476241, e-mail: [email protected]; 2 Note: She was named Mary as her mother and as her grandmother and Edith as one of the characters of Litton’s novel “Harold”, published in 1843. The note was taken from the summary of Durham’s publications published by “8 Nëntori” Publishing House in 1990. Page VIII under the title (in Albanian): “Brenga e Ballkanit dhe vepra të tjera për Shqipërinë dhe shqiptarët”.

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DRAWING: EDITH DURHAM “TOSK COSTUME, SOUTHERN ALBANIA”

Impact of Albania

During a period of 20 years, from the end of the 19th century up to the beginning of the 20th century, Durham travelled continuously through Balkans. During this period she gained a comprehensive and in-depth experience related to Balkan issues. She authored 7 books based upon her travel experiences. During all the time of the Balkan War she remained in the Balkans, especially in the Northern Albania. Even though she was educated and had grown up in a different environment than the Balkan one, years of residing in Albania helped her to know the country and people well. She also became a most dedicated advocate of the Albanian Independence movement and of the union of the Albanian regions. Her focus upon these very important issues for Albanians, especially in a period when Albania was one of the most isolated and backward areas of Europe, made Durham well known all over the Albanian regions. She became a revered figure in the public life of Albania and was given the title “The Uncrowned Queen of Albania” by the populace of the Northern Albania

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Some of her most influential books for Albania and Albanians are: “The burden of the Balkans 1905”; “High Albania 1909”; “The struggle for Scutari 1914”; “Twenty Years of Balkan Tangle (1920)”.

In the beginning of World War I, Durham left Albania. She was committed for a certain time to her humanitarian activities in France and in Egypt. Last time that she visited Albania was in 1921. After that visit she never came back in Albania, but she never disconnected her relations with Albania and Albanians. Her house in London became the center of the English-Albanian Association. Durham was elected as the Secretary of Honor of said Association in 1918.

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Durham’s dimensions

Edith Durham is not only well-known for her publications related the Balkan issues, but she made notable contributions in other fields of life related to her education.

She is mentioned as a historian, a painter, a collector and as a very good ethnographer. Through her different paintings and drawings she contributed to the gathering and presenting the folkloric values of the regions where she crossed.

Many of Durham’s works were donated as collections to different Academies after her death. Nowadays, her documents are kept in the Museum of Mankind and in the Royal Anthropological Institute in London, while the collection of jewels, of clothing and handcrafts gathered in the Balkans (from Albania as well) is kept in the Pitt Rivers Museum in Oxford and in the Bankfield Museum in Halifax. Bankfield Museum also has collections related to her life and

activity4.

Another Durham dimension

One of her most distinguished books is “The Burden of the Balkans”5. The impression you have after reading this book happen to be exactly the same even if you review it for study purposes. It comes out quite clearly the fact that Durham has a perfect knowledge on the Balkan reality, especially of the Albanian reality. Her writing style is easily distinguishable due to her

3Note: Life and Work of Durham is based upon Introduction of A summary of six works of Edith Durham under the title (in Albanian language): “Brenga e Ballkanit dhe vepra të tjera për Shqipërinë dhe shqiptarët”. - published by “8 Nëntori” Publishing House in 1990 . 4 Note: Life and Work of Durham is based upon Introduction of A summary of six works of Edith Durham under the title (in Albanian language): “Brenga e Ballkanit dhe vepra të tjera për Shqipërinë dhe shqiptarët”- published by “8 Nëntori” Publishing House in 1990. 5 “The burden of the Balkans”, Author: Mary Edith Durham, published in 1905.

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descriptions, analysis and treatment of facts which are revealed with veracity and coherence. I have reviewed her books several times not just as a reader, but for study purposes and as a geographer I would say that I have detected another dimension of Edith Durham. Through her work she has given a very important contribution in geography as well.

The geographical dimension of her literary contribution is related to these main aspects:

1. Physical & Geographic Aspect.

The descriptions that Durham has realized in her works to characterize her travels in different territories of Albania reveal as a matter of fact an overview of the physical & geographical characteristics of such territories. In these descriptions she has used almost the same elements that are used by career geographers in professional geographical expeditions. Notwithstanding the fact that Edith Durham didn’t have a specific education/qualification in Geography or that the purpose of her travels was not related specifically to geographical expeditions, her descriptions always gave a clear and vivid picture of the relief, of the climatic conditions, of hydrography, of the soil, of the fauna and flora of the places where she visited. In order to illustrate this opinion, the following excerpt is a reference to some fragments taken from the book “The burden of the Balkans” where it is clearly seen that apart from the context and the aim, the description contains in itself scientific elements characterizing a physical & geographical terrain. e.g..: ...Korche (Korça)... it lies high on a mountain-ringed plain, over 2000 feet above sea-level, is healthy and has a good water-supply6...;

...Postenani, a small village, lies very high, with a valley below it and a huge and almost perpendicular cliff towering at the back7; ...Down, far, far below lay the valley of Vjosa, green and fertile, all a blowing and a growing and the heights beyond were fierce blue8; ..Tepelena is a wonderful place, the wild heart of a wild land. Walled and buttressed it stands on a high plateau around which tower snow-clad mountains. Just above the town, the torrential Drinos dashes into the Vjosa and spreads wide between great shingle-blanks, the bare bones of the land it has devastated. The plateau ends in a rocky crag, scooped to a seat which commands a huge view9... We headed to Shoshi the next day ... we went down towards the river and crossed it over a wooden bridge. We followed the right bank of Shala river. After a while we climbed high

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Beyond the Known Dimensions of Edith Durham by Majlinda Ziu1 up the hill through a marvelous chestnut forest. Shala...with plenty of water, coming down the cliffs … there is a lot of timber, and fertile soil...10. Durazzo (Dyrrachium) formerly an island is joined to the mainland by a huge marsh, partly salt, where the Government saltworks are and partly fresh and haunted by/

6 “The burden of the Balkans”, Chapter X- “Monastir to Tepelena”, page 252 7 “The burden of the Balkans”, Chapter X “Monastir to Tepelena”, page 260 8 “The burden of the Balkans”, Chapter X “Monastir to Tepelena”, page 264 9 “The burden of the Balkans”, Chapter X “Monastir to Tepelena”, page 286 10“Brenga e Ballkanit dhe vepra te tjera”, Kapitulli “Bjeshket e Namuna”, faqje 158 (Albanian edition) storks, frogs and fevers ..11 Lezha ... stands over the river Drin....it rises in Lake Ohrid, but it is here a shrunken, dwindled Drin. In 1858 it suddenly forced for itself a new cannel and the mass of its waters now pour into Buna just below Shkodra and by blocking the current of water from the lake causes dire floods every winter12.

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2. Demographic Aspect.

In the description of the places where she had crossed and lives, besides other things, Durham “took a snapshot” of the demographic panorama of that period of time. In a lot of her descriptions there is data on the number of the population, on the density, on the religion of the population and peculiarities characterizing the local population. In order to illustrate this idea, as follows, I am referring to some fragments: Elbasani has about 10,000 inhabitants, rather more than half are Muslims. The Christians are Orthodox...Elbasan’s struggle for knowledge is very pathetic. You may find people who are bravely wrestling, unaided, with French and even German grammars. The number of well-informed and educated persons is very remarkable...A large number of Vlahs live in and near Elbasan...13. Durazzo (Durresi) is in Shkodra vilayet. Roman Catholicism begins here, but out of the 1000 houses only 120 are Roman Catholic...14.

3. Defines characteristics of different living centers, of the administrative organization and of the most typical forms of the economy

During her travels, Durham, describes types of different Albanian living centers, by revealing elements of the architecture, of the infrastructure and of the economy of such centers. In order to clarify this idea I shall again refer to some fragments of the same book:

..Korche (Korça) is a surprising town. It is clean, really clean – the cleanest town I know in the Turkish Empire with straight, well-paved streets that are quite free from dogs and garbage. In the mountains hard by interior coal is quarried and the town actually boasts a stream flour-mill. Were Korche (Korça) connected by a railway with the coast, there is no doubt it could develop rapidly, for the coal is good enough. Even with the present difficulties of communication there are surprising number of foreign goods and shops. Much of its wealth has been made abroad, for though under present circumstances the Albanian finds it difficult to progress at home, he shows great business capacity in other lands and proves his patriotism by spending his earnings in his native land...15. Tirana (12,000 inhabitants) having a good road to the port is remarkably flourishing. A fine bazar was in full swing, crowded with country folk in costumes all different from those of Elbasan. Tirana was founded in 1600...16 Modern Kruja consists of 700 houses, scattered up and down the slopes among olive-gardens...17 Berati is in an extraordinary lovely situation and scrambles down hillside all bowery and flowery to the brink of the Berat; quaint wood-and-plaster houses overhang the river; the ruined fortress crowns the height above. The huge mountain range of Tomor (alt. 2416 metres) towers square-headed, barren and snow-clad on one side and the slopes of the neighbour-hills are gray with olives....Berat’s chief trade is in hides “opanke” (the local leathern sandal) and saddlery. It has a fascinating bazar...18

11 “The burden of the Balkans”, Chapter XII- “Elbasan to Shkodra”, page 350 12 “The burden of the Balkans”, Chapter XII- “Elbasan to Shkodra”, page 362 13 “The burden of the Balkans”, Chapter XII- “Elbasan to Shkodra”, page 331 14 “The burden of the Balkans”, Chapter XII- “Elbasani to Shkodra”, page 349 15 “The burden of the Balkans”, Chapter X- “Manastir to Tepelena”, page 252-253

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Conclusions

 Through her work Edith Durham, alongside the contribution given in other fields of life, has given a precious contribution for the Geography of Albania, especially through descriptions and analysis developed for Albania in the end of the 19th century and in the beginning of the 20th century.

 The author gives a in-depth geographical contribution through vivid panoramas produced by her on the characteristics of the relief, on climate peculiarities, on hydrography, on the types of soil, as well as on the flora and fauna in the Albanian territories where she traveled.  Durham’s contribution in geography is used as a source material. Her work is used as a source of information and reference related to accurate data on the number of the population, the density of the population, the religion of the local population and its characteristics, as well as related to the elements of the architecture, infrastructure and forms of economy in different centers of the Albanian territories.

 The descriptions and findings of Edith Durham serve not only as a source of knowledge for an overall panorama of that period, but her work can serve as a point of reference to compare and analyze the evolution happened so far. Her work is a point of reference to differentiate and point out the changes that have happened in the Albanian territories from the point of view of physical, economic and human developments in the course of 100 years of time after her travels.

Bibliography

 A summary of six works of Edith Durham under the title (in Albanian language):  “Brenga e Ballkanit dhe vepra të tjera për Shqipërinë dhe shqiptarët”. A publication consisting of 579 pages in Albanian language published by “8 Nëntori” Publishing House in 1990.  “The burden of the Balkans” published in 1905  “High Albania” published in 1909  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edith_Durham

16 “The burden of the Balkans”, Chapter XII- “Elbasan to Shkodra”, page 352 17 “The burden of the Balkans”, Chapter XII- “ Elbasani to Shkoda”, page 355 18 “The burden of the Balkans”, Chapter XI- “Tepelen to Elbasan”, page 317-321

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Verbal Irony as a Communicative Mode of Persuasion by Silvana Neshkovska & Zorica Trajkova

Abstract.

The general pervasiveness of politics in modern society renders political discourse susceptible to analysis by many different profiles of researchers, especially linguists. This particular paper attempts to shed light on the usage of verbal irony in political discourse. The premise we put forward here is that politicians in their political speeches purposefully employ irony in order to enhance the persuasiveness of their speech. Moreover, we believe that the enhancement of persuasiveness is in a direct correlation with the pragmatic functions of verbal irony. To put it differently, 'seasoning' political speeches with ironic statements which evoke either humor; or express mild ridicule, or harsh criticism at the expense of the political opponent, is what makes them truly persuasive. The corpus compiled for the purposes of this research comprises political speeches delivered by American politicians in the course of the 2016 U.S. presidential race. The results obtained primarily confirm the relatively high incidence of verbal irony in political speeches; then, they also point to the relatively high degree of persuasion attached to irony in general and its association mainly with expressing mild ridicule and harsh criticism.

Key words: political discourse, verbal irony, meta-discourse markers

59 Verbal Irony as a Communicative Mode of Persuasion by Silvana Neshkovska & Zorica Trajkova

1. Introduction

This study is concerned with the intricate interaction between political discourse and verbal irony. Political discourse used by politicians in the ‘political arena’ is normally associated with using formal register and stating truthful data and facts. In contrast, the pragmatic phenomenon, verbal irony, has little to do with facts and truthfulness. Quite the contrary. It is usually defined as saying one thing and implying something different, even the complete opposite (e.g. “Well done!” – addressed to someone who failed to do what was expected of him/her). Thus, at first glance, ironic utterances seem completely incompatible with formal factual political statements, however, a careful deliberation reveals that they are as tight-knit as they could be. In other words, even a short observation of almost any politician’s discourse suffices to note that practice beats the odds, and more often than not verbal irony appears to be deeply ingrained in political discourse.

Many researchers so far have tried to make a real breakthrough in analyzing political discourse (Hillier, 2004; Stenbakken, 2007; Wanjala, 2014, etc.), but still a literature overview reveals that the usage of verbal irony in political discourse remains seriously under-investigated, and urgently requires further analyzes and unraveling of novel insights.

With this in view, this particular research aims to make a small contribution and shed light on the usage of verbal irony in political discourse. More precisely, the study at hand offers a close inspection of a particular type of political discourse - political speeches delivered by politicians in the midst of an election campaign - and its relation with verbal irony. This type of political discourse is considered a particularly conducive environment for verbal irony due to its binary nature, i.e. the evident inclination of politicians to praise their positions, and at the same time, to undermine their opponents', their ultimate goal being to persuade the electorate to vote in their favor.

60 Verbal Irony as a Communicative Mode of Persuasion by Silvana Neshkovska & Zorica Trajkova

The premise we put forward here is that politicians in their political speeches purposefully “breach the norm” intersecting their formal political speech with ironic remarks, in order to enhance the persuasiveness of their speech. We believe that the enhancement of persuasiveness is in a direct correlation with the communicative goals, i.e. the pragmatic functions of verbal irony. In other words, 'seasoning' political speeches with ironic statements which evoke either humor, or express mild ridicule or harsh criticism at the expense of the political opponent, is what makes them truly persuasive.

2. Theoretical background The following section offers a brief overview of some of the basic features of political discourse and verbal irony, respectively.

2.1 Political discourse In modern society, politics literally lurks at every corner of human existence – education, health care, employment, etc. It is impossible to disregard its pervasiveness in people’s daily affairs. To say the least, they are continuously bombarded with political news, speeches, lobbying, campaigns, etc., and are, consequently, expected to decide whose political ideology they would uphold. Being the principal actors in the domain of politics, politicians are the main medium for generating and disseminating political discourse. This is particularly the case when they are engaged in passing laws, making decisions, negotiating and signing treaties, campaigning, releasing statements for the press, etc. Apart from their political resourcefulness and determination, their verbosity is their main tool of trade. Partington (2007) confirms this by stating that the lack of proficient verbal skills makes politicians appear “shallow and inept”, and, in contrast, those who “use language all too well” can become “skilful and dangerous manipulators of the mind". Persuading the electorate is central to politicians’ job and their discourse. To politicians’ mind, hearers, viewers and readers must be convinced to accept a specific ideological position; they must endorse their actions and reject the ones of their political adversaries. This is especially important during election campaigns when winning the constituents’ trust and, consequently, their votes is of paramount importance. To that end, their discourse assumes a very specific binary nature. On the one hand, they

61 Verbal Irony as a Communicative Mode of Persuasion by Silvana Neshkovska & Zorica Trajkova try to present themselves and their stance in positive ways, and, on the other hand, they attempt to portray their political opponents negatively (van Dijk, 1984; Reisigl and Wodak, 2001). In addition, politicians resort to employing many different linguistic strategies such as, for instance, a very carefully chosen lexis (Hillier, 2004); or various figures of speech such as metaphors, metonymy, verbal irony (Partington, 2007; Stenbakken, 2007), etc.

2.2 Verbal irony There is no one singular way of defining this multifaceted phenomenon called verbal irony. Many researchers have offered various definitions of verbal irony underlining the conditions that utterances need to meet in order to be interpreted as ironic.

One of the very first linguists who have attempted to delineate this intricate pragmatic phenomenon was Grice (1975). He defines it as flouting or blatantly breaching the conversational maxim of quality (“Do not say what you believe is false and for which you lack adequate evidence”). Leech (1983:15) looks at irony as a politeness strategy which combines the art of attack with an apparent innocence as a form of self-defense. For Utsumi (2000:1778) verbal irony presupposes a proper situational setting described as ironic environment that consists of the speaker's expectation and the incongruity between that expectation and the reality as well as the speaker's attitude towards this incongruity.

More recently, Partington (2007) insists that irony occurs when there is a mismatch, a radical difference, between the evaluation expressed in what is actually written or said (‘dictum’) and the evaluation that is really intended (‘implicatum’). Very often, the implicatum is the exact opposite of the dictum (e.g. “Politician X is a genius! He’s managed to upset both the trade unions and big businesses.”). According to Wilson and Sperber (2012), verbal irony is a form of echoic interpretation of someone’s thoughts, utterances, expectations or cultural norms from which the speaker dissociates himself/herself, accompanying it with ridicule or scorn. Bryant (2012: 674) asserts that figurative language such as verbal irony is an extremely powerful tool of communication since it allows the audience to derive certain unstated meanings relying on their inferential abilities.

62 Verbal Irony as a Communicative Mode of Persuasion by Silvana Neshkovska & Zorica Trajkova

Generally speaking, the use of verbal irony is marked with quite a high incidence in oral speech. Gibbs (2000), for instance, examined irony in talk among friends and established the fact that ironic language constituted about 8% of all conversational turns in the corpus of conversations he analyzed, which is a rather significant percentage.

Researchers attribute the frequent usage of irony principally to the numerous pragmatic functions it can perform. According to Gibbs (1986), and Kreuz and Glucksberg (1989) verbal irony is mainly associated with expressing intensive negative feelings towards somebody or something. Consequently, humiliating, ridiculing, blaming, or criticizing somebody are, in fact, the most common pragmatic functions of verbal irony. Expressing humor is also one of the commonly mentioned pragmatic functions of verbal irony in literature (Littman & Mey, 1991; Kreuz & Long, 1991; Long & Kreuz, 1991; Roberts & Kreuz, 1994; Matthews et al., 2006 etc.). Ironists employ it when they pretend that they are not upset by what has happened and that they feel comfortable enough to even joke about it (Roberts & Kreuz, 1994).

Although infrequently, ironic expressions are utilized to provoke somebody’s reaction; to attract somebody’s attention and to steer or domineer the conversation (Kreuz and Long, 1991; Long and Kreuz, 1991). Verbal irony is also sometimes used for social hedging and instructional goals (Littman and Mey, 1991 in Rosolovska, 2011); clarifying and organizing the discourse (Roberts and Kreuz, 1994 in Rosolovska, 2011); expressing surprise (Colston & Keller, 1998); establishing social distance and superiority (Dews et al., 1995); creating solidarity, increasing memorability, being polite etc. (in Wanjala, 2014).

In the context of political discourse, the ironic utterances of politicians are also used to achieve various communicative goals. Partington (2007: 1554) notes that the function of verbal irony in political discourse is to control and manipulate the behavior of other people by subtly imposing a particular system of values on the interlocutors. Ironic statements in political discourse according to Kreuz et al. (1991: 161) are more persuasive as they are much more easily memorized and retained in people’s memory longer than straightforward, literal statements. In addition to that, Giora (1995) claims that

63 Verbal Irony as a Communicative Mode of Persuasion by Silvana Neshkovska & Zorica Trajkova ironic statements in political discourse compared to the literal ones are much more informative. Mills (1997) states that “an important role of irony in political discourse is to form a certain image of an event, situation, person or facts in the mind of the audience.”

3. Methodology 3.1 The aim of the research

The aim of the research is to prove the hypothesis that that political persuasiveness is greatly enhanced with verbal irony. Political speeches delivered at political rallies prior to elections are meant to be intrinsically persuasive, but the fact they are intersected with ironic utterances whose communicative goals are essentially to make fun of, ridicule or criticize the opponent, is an additional trigger which makes them even more convincing.

3.2 Corpus and research stages

For the purposes of this study, two authentic political speeches delivered by two American presidential candidates involved in the 2016 U.S. presidential race, Donald Trump and Hilary Clinton, were subjected to analysis. What made the political discourse of these two politicians particularly enticing and suitable for analysis was the differences in gender, background and career paths of the two presidential candidates. All these serve as abundant sources from which verbal irony can stem in order to emphasize even more the differences in the political orientation of the political opponents as well as to diminish the opponent’s quality, values and validity of political platform. Moreover, it is worth highlighting the fact that the selected speeches were delivered at political rallies towards the end of the election campaign, which added to the exigency “to strike an efficient final blow” to the opponent which will blemish his/her reputation irreparably. That, in turn, led inevitably to frequent fierce verbal attacks full of negative emotions, disparagement and disapproval, which are indisputably at the core of verbal irony itself.

64 Verbal Irony as a Communicative Mode of Persuasion by Silvana Neshkovska & Zorica Trajkova

The research was conducted in three stages. The analysis at the initial stage was directed towards confirming the presence of verbal irony in the selected corpus, i.e. the focus was on identifying the ironic statements and separating them from the non-ironic ones. Here it is worth mentioning that the ironicalness of the selected sentences was determined in complete accordance with the parameters proposed by previous researchers in their attempt to define verbal irony (see 2.2.).

The second stage of the research targeted the communicative goals, i.e. pragmatic functions and the persuasiveness of a selection of the ironic statements whose ironicalness was determined unanimously by all parties involved in the research stage. Therefore, a tailor-made questionnaire consisting of twelve ironic statements − six of which were extracted from Trump’s and six from Clinton’s speech – was chosen as the main instrument in this research (see Appendix). The content of the questionnaire, in fact, was greatly determined by our initial hypothesis that in the battle for the presidential “seat” and in their attempts to boost their persuasiveness and prospects for winning, politicians employ ironic statements whose communicative goals are directed either towards invoking humor at the expense of their political adversary; or towards expressing mild ridicule, or, sometimes, even harsh criticism in cases when the ironist is particularly upset with his adversary. These three specific pragmatic functions were put in the focus here because they are all based on the same thing – conveying negative emotions towards their opponents. Evidently, with the choice of these three specific pragmatic functions, a progression from less pronounced negative emotions on the part of the ironist in the case of humor, to the most pronounced ones in the case of harsh criticism, was taken into consideration. More precisely, it was assumed that humor is conveyed via irony when the ironist wishes to slightly ‘sting’ his opponent and, perhaps, defuse subtly the tense and gloomy atmosphere he/she creates with his constant attacks on the adversary. Mild ridicule is expected to occur when politicians’ rebuke their opponents for some minor transgressions either in speech or actions, whose effects are not that far reaching after all, but whose public condemnation is worth one’s while as it might prevent their re-occurrence in the future. Harsh criticism is obviously expected when the ironist is particularly upset with the opponent and with what

65 Verbal Irony as a Communicative Mode of Persuasion by Silvana Neshkovska & Zorica Trajkova he/she says or does. Bearing these basic caveats in mind, each of the 12 ironic statements in the questionnaire was followed by two close-ended questions. The first question was targeting the three proposed functions of irony (humor, mild ridicule and harsh criticism), but it also left room for the respondents to disagree with the proposed functions and to choose a fourth option – none of these. The second question sought to ascertain the degree of persuasion respondents attach to each of the selected ironic statements by marking them as non- persuasive, slightly persuasive, quite persuasive or extremely persuasive.

The last stage of the research involved analyzing the respondents' answers; summing up the results, and drawing relevant conclusions.

Finally, in terms of the research methodology it is worth noting that the study was primarily based on qualitative analysis since it focused on the use of verbal irony in a rather limited corpus of political speeches. Nevertheless, efforts were made to complement the qualitative analysis with quantitative findings where possible.

3.3 Respondents Macedonian university professors of English and graduate students of English Language and Literature from three different higher education institutions in the Republic of Macedonia (Faculty of Education – Bitola at “St. Kliment Ohridski” University; Faculty of Philology – Skopje at “St. Kiril and Methodius” University; South Eastern European University – Tetovo), fifty in total, agreed to be part of this research and filled in the questionnaire.

This particular group of informants was targeted for two primary reasons. Firstly, even though Macedonian professors and students of English followed closely the unraveling of the election campaign in U.S., as did the rest of the world, for that matter, still, not being bound by political affiliation to any of the political candidates, they could be considered as completely unbiased respondents. Secondly, despite the fact these are non-native speakers of English, their high language proficiency as well as their solid familiarity with the cultural and social context in which the speeches

66 Verbal Irony as a Communicative Mode of Persuasion by Silvana Neshkovska & Zorica Trajkova were delivered, enabled them to spot and grasp the subtle nuances of meaning, which is pivotal in correctly interpreting the ironic intent of the ironists.

Prior to filling in the questionnaire they were briefly instructed on the differences between the three pragmatic functions (humor, mild ridicule and harsh criticism) and were cautioned to assess the persuasiveness of the statements objectively on the basis of the extent to which they were convinced in the validity of the arguments laid out in the given statements.

4. Results 4.1 General observations The corpus being specifically compiled for this research consisted of the transcripts of the two speeches, which lasted approximately one hour and a half in total, i.e. 88 minutes and comprised about 8000 words. Namely, the transcript of Donald Trump’s 42-minute speech consisted of 3888 words; whereas, the transcript of Hilary Clinton’s 46-minute speech contained 4200 words. The preliminary inspection of both speeches yielded 23 instances of Verbal Irony (VI), 10 of which were within Trump’s speech and 13 in Clinton’s speech. The almost equal number of ironic instances in both speeches points to a somewhat similar tendency when it comes to how often these two politicians resort to using VI. Furthermore, the approximately equal time span of the analyzed speeches indicates that, on average, VI recurred every 3 to 4 minutes in both speeches. This undoubtedly reaffirms the claim that political discourse is, in fact, quite a natural and welcoming environment for VI.

4.2 Pragmatic functions of verbal irony in political discourse Once the presence of irony in the corpus had been established, the next important step was to determine how people perceive these ironic utterances. More to the point, the aim was to determine whether the respondents interpret them as utterances invoking humor; expressing mild ridicule, or harsh criticism at the political opponent’s expense.

67 Verbal Irony as a Communicative Mode of Persuasion by Silvana Neshkovska & Zorica Trajkova

In that respect, the results obtained (Chart 1) suggest that verbal irony in political discourse is principally associated with either harsh criticism or mild ridicule. In fact, two thirds of the ironic statements (8 out of 12) were marked by the majority of the respondents as statements conveying predominantly harsh criticism; whereas one third (4 out of 12) were labeled as conveying mainly mild ridicule. None of the ironic statements in the questionnaire was marked as humorous by the majority of the informants.

Observed independently, Hilary Clinton’s ironic statements were predominantly assessed as harsh criticism (5 out of 6), with only one statement marked as mild criticism; whereas, half of Donald Trumps’ ironic statements were marked as harsh criticism (3 out of 6) and the other half as mild criticism (3 out of 6).

Chart 1 Pragmatic functions of VI

The reason why a very small and insignificant number of informants interpreted the selected ironic statements as humorous could be attributed to the fact that these speeches were delivered at the very final stage of the campaign, when jesting and making humorous remarks were no longer considered sufficiently ‘lucrative’ in striking the final blow on the opponent’s repute.

Similarly, none of the respondents stated that the three pragmatic functions offered here (humor, mild ridicule and harsh criticism) had anything to do with the given ironic statements. This finding provides a direct confirmation that in political speeches delivered at political rallies, from the vast pool of

68 Verbal Irony as a Communicative Mode of Persuasion by Silvana Neshkovska & Zorica Trajkova pragmatic functions of verbal irony, the functions which are mainly associated with conveying negative feelings towards and disapproval of the political adversary prevail.

4.2.1 Instances of VI conveying harsh criticism in the analyzed corpus

The ironic statement (1) below is a clear-cut case of an ironic statement expressing harsh criticism inasmuch as it was rated as such by the majority of the respondents (86%). This statement is obviously one of Hilary Clinton’s statements in which she echoes a rather controversial opinion made public previously by her counterpart regarding women and their role in society. Hilary Clinton manifestly disapproves of and disassociates herself from the disgraceful and disrespectful treatment of women proposed by Donald Trump. Moreover, she defends women and their rights, depicting them as an indispensable driving force of America over the past 40 years. Thus, she creates a sharp contrast between Donald Trump’s position, on the one hand, and her own, on the other hand, hoping to appeal primarily to female constituents and to convince them to support her candidacy instead of Trump’s.

(1) “He once called pregnant employees and I quote “an inconvenience”. He says women will start making equal pay as soon as we do as good a job as men as if we weren't already. These are the words not of someone who thinks highly of women who work or who cares about helping parents balance work and family but instead he clearly doesn't know much of how we have grown the economy over the past 40 years which is largely thanks to women getting into the workforce and adding to family incomes.”

According to the respondents’ ratings, the second ironic statement which manifestly conveyed harsh criticism was one of Trump’s ironic statements (2).

(2) “The other candidate in this race (Hilary Clinton) has spent her entire life making money for special interests and I will tell you she has made plenty of money for them and she has been taking plenty of money for herself. Hilary Clinton has perfected the politics of personal profit and theft. She ran the State Department like her own personal fund doing favors to repressive regimes and many,

69 Verbal Irony as a Communicative Mode of Persuasion by Silvana Neshkovska & Zorica Trajkova

many, others in exchange for cash. Pure and simple folks.”

With this ironic statement Donald Trump openly blames Hilary Clinton for misusing her position and for pursuing her own vested interests instead of taking care of urgent state affairs. The condition that this ironic statement meets is incongruity between the speaker’s expectations (Hilary was elected to work for her country’s well-being) and the actual reality (she was dishonest and made herself rich by cooperating with repressive regimes and by treating the State Department like her own personal fund). By creating an image of Hilary Clinton as an outright usurper of her position as Secretary of State, he actually hopes to deter people from electing her president. 4.2.2 Instances of VI conveying mild ridicule in the analyzed corpus

Although expressing mild ridicule via ironic statements just like expressing harsh criticism is based on intense negative emotions and disapproval of the opponent, still mild ridicule can be considered as somewhat less severe compared to harsh criticism. In political discourse, in particular, mild ridicule is expected to occur when politicians’ rebuke their opponents for some minor transgressions either in speech or actions. Even though the effects of those transgressions are not that far reaching after all, still the politicians deem it worthwhile to publicly condemn them in order to prevent their re-occurrence in the future.

The ironic statement in the questionnaire which was assessed predominantly as a mild ridicule by the majority of the respondents (62%) was Hilary Clinton’s ironic statement (4).

(4) “Second, there is Donald Trump’s approach to our national debt. Well I have a plan ... Donald Trump has a different approach. He calls himself the “king of debt” and his tax plan sure lives up to that name.”

Here Hilary draws a parallel between herself and her political adversary in terms of how each of them plans to deal with their national debt. In that context, she tries to present herself in a favorable light claiming that she has a solid and sustainable plan, while at the same time she pokes fun of, or ridicules

70 Verbal Irony as a Communicative Mode of Persuasion by Silvana Neshkovska & Zorica Trajkova her adversary’s plan. More specifically, what she purports here is that if Trump is elected president, he will definitely wreak havoc upon the country’s economy. To support her argument she ironically echoes his own reference to himself as “the king of debt”, which is of course taken out of its original context, and purposes that considering his proposals, he surely will deserve that title if he becomes president. Logically, since his 'transgressions' rest only on words not deeds, at least up to that point, the irony used in this context serves merely the purpose of conveying mild ridicule.

In Trumps’ corpus, three of his ironic statements were assessed as statements conveying mild ridicule. That was confirmed by about 60% of the respondents for each of these statements in turn. The ironic sentence (5) was one of them.

(5) “Hilary Clinton, as you know, as many people know, is a world class liar. Just look at her pathetic email server statements or her phony landing in Bosnia where she said she was under attack and the attack turns out to be young girls handing her flowers.”

In his attempt to wreck Hilary’s reputation and present her as untrustworthy as possible, Trump starts this statement as a direct offense calling Hillary a world class liar. Then, he swiftly changes the course and mitigates it slightly by employing verbal irony with which he ridicules her habit of deceiving the public every time she believes she can gain something out of it. In that context, he briefly recalls a funny incident that happened to her at the airport in Bosnia when she allegedly mistook the act of girls handing her flowers and welcoming her to Bosnia for an outright assault targeting her. Again, the bottom line message he tries to convey with this ironic statement is that the electorate should not vote for her because of her inconstancy and dishonesty.

4.3 Persuasiveness of ironic statements in political discourse

Having established the predominant pragmatic functions of the ironic utterances in the analyzed corpus of political speeches, the analysis was directed at determining the persuasiveness of these political statements.

71 Verbal Irony as a Communicative Mode of Persuasion by Silvana Neshkovska & Zorica Trajkova

In that respect, as Chart 2 below shows, 7 ironic statements out of 12 in total were assessed as quite persuasive; 4 ironic statements were marked as extremely persuasive and 1 statement was marked as slightly persuasive by the majority of the respondents. None of the ironic statements were marked as not persuasive.

Evidently, a high degree of persuasion was discerned in almost all of the ironic utterances in the corpus of ironic statements presented in the questionnaire. This result is also in line with our initial hypothesis that the usage of verbal irony in political discourse is predominantly related the persuasiveness of political speech in general. Namely, verbal irony by means of its pragmatic functions – mild ridicule and harsh criticism, markedly enhances the persuasion of political discourse.

Chart 2 Persuasiveness of VI

72 Verbal Irony as a Communicative Mode of Persuasion by Silvana Neshkovska & Zorica Trajkova

Furthermore, if we compare the results obtained regarding the persuasiveness of the ironic statements of each politician separately (Chart 3), it turns out that Hilary Clinton’s statements were evaluated as more persuasive as 3 of her statements were marked as extremely persuasive and the other 3 as quite persuasive. None of her statements was assessed as not persuasive or slightly persuasive. On the other hand, 4 of Donald Trump's ironic statements were marked as quite persuasive, 1 as extremely persuasive and 1 as slightly persuasive.

Chart 3 Persuasiveness of H. Clinton and D. Trump’s ironic statements

Out of Hilary Clinton’s three extremely persuasive statements, the ironic statement (6) below was marked as extremely persuasive by the largest number of respondents (81%).

(6) “Donald Trump stood on a stage in November and said that wages are too high in this country. He should say that to mothers and fathers who are working two jobs to raise their kids.”

Here Clinton uses verbal irony in an attempt to expose the absurdity of Donald Trump’s earlier proposal that wages in America should be lowered as they are too high. Being aware of the fact that no American would like that, and that there is a mismatch between what people normally expect (improved economic conditions and, consequently, a better salary) and what Donald Trump pledges to deliver (lower salaries), Hilary Clinton seeks to turn his statement strongly against him in her attempt

73 Verbal Irony as a Communicative Mode of Persuasion by Silvana Neshkovska & Zorica Trajkova to dissuade the voters from casting their ballots in Trump's favor. By making an ironic suggestion that he should try to propose that to the families struggling to make ends meet and to the parents who make great sacrifices to provide their children with decent education, she, in fact, attempts to discredit Donald Trump in the eyes of the electorate beyond repair.

The only statement from Donald Trump’s set of ironic statements that was labeled as extremely persuasive according to the majority of interviewed students (67%) was statement (7) below.

(7) “She believes she is entitled to the office. Her campaign slogan is “I am with her”. Know what my response is to that? I am with you - the American people. She thinks it is all about her. I know it is all about you.”

In this statement Trump builds the ironicalness of his utterance gradually by creating and emphasizing a marked contrast between what his opponent Hilary Clinton and he himself stand for. Namely, while alluding to Hilary’s selfishness and self-centeredness which, according to him, is bluntly revealed in her campaign slogan - “I am with her”, he concurrently accentuates his own selflessness and resolve to help the American people by clearly stating “I am with you”. Approached from another perspective, the irony in this statement stems from the fact that there is an evident incongruity between what is normally expected (politicians are expected to be with their people and to help them improve their living standard) and what actually happens in reality (a politician is asking the people to be with her and help her become the most influential person in the country).

Indeed, the finding that all of the analyzed statements were labeled either as quite or extremely persuasive strongly confirms the contention that verbal irony is an indispensable part of political discourse in as much as it intensifies the effect of persuasion this kind of discourse has on the audience.

74 Verbal Irony as a Communicative Mode of Persuasion by Silvana Neshkovska & Zorica Trajkova

5. Conclusion

Our small-scale research reiterates the close relation that exists between verbal irony and political discourse. In fact, it goes a bit further and brings it to the forefront the fact that verbal irony despite its seeming mismatch with political discourse is, in fact, its constant and frequent companion. Namely, politicians rely on verbal irony much too often, especially during election campaigns, as they either consciously or intuitively know that verbal irony not only upholds, but also reinforces the effect of persuasion they ultimately want to achieve with their constituents.

The results also indicate that the pragmatic functions verbal irony performs in political discourse are primarily directed at expressing either harsh criticism or mild ridicule towards political opponents. Humor, or poking fun of the opponents, seems to be a rather neglected pragmatic function, for understandable reasons, though. It is hardly surprising that little room is left for humorous remarks at the end of the campaign when the rhetoric of both presidential wannabes towards each other becomes quite aggressive and offensive. Nevertheless, since all of the analyzed ironic utterances, irrespective of whether they conveyed harsh criticism or mild ridicule, were marked either as quite or as extremely persuasive, the study confirms our initial hypothesis that it is for reason of achieving a higher degree of persuasion that politicians in their political speeches resort to ‘seasoning’ their discourse with ironic utterances.

As to the limitations of the study, it is fair to state that its scope was rather limited as it was based on a corpus consisting only of two political speeches delivered by two political figures. A future study of this issue should include a greater variety of sources, i.e. a greater number of politicians, a greater linguistic corpus, and, of course, a greater variety of different types of political discourse. Furthermore, as persuasiveness of political discourse depends on many other factors such as the choice of lexis, the usage of other figures of speech such as metaphors, metonymy, synecdoche, etc., a more comprehensive study would incorporate the presence and usage of all of these in political discourse, in order to come up with more sustainable insights.

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Confession as a Form of Social Liberation and Seduction by Zorica Jelic

“Finally a woman confesses! Confess what? What women never allowed themselves to confess. What men always criticized on them: they only obey the blood and everything is sex on them, even the spirit.” ― Pauline Réage, Story of O

Modern literary commentary has a tendency to dismiss William Shakespeare’s A Lover’s Complaint as a poem not worthy of his pen. However, certain scholars, such as Mac Jackson, Kenneth Muir, and Roger Warren, have brought this poem back into the world of criticism. The female Lover1 in the poem beguiles with her intriguing confession and shows the naiveté and power of consent and seduction. This narrative poem exemplifies the complexity of female love and how it inescapably leads to a broken heart. The female Lover in the Complaint is seduced, betrayed, and abandoned by her wooer; nonetheless, at the conclusion of her poignant lament, she discloses that, if given a chance, she would do it all over again. This strange contradiction has caused intriguing and rather perplexing interpretations through the centuries. Some critics have claimed that this work does not belong to Shakespeare.2 That idea probably derived from the long-held belief that Thomas Thorpe did not have Shakespeare’s authorization for publishing the Sonnets and this poem in a 1609 quarto (Bevington 160). Nevertheless this particular edition remains the only valid evidence that it is his poem.

In A Lover’s Complaint, Shakespeare explores and plays with the consensual form of a sexual relationship between a man and a woman. The female Lover is bedazzled by her lover’s florid eloquence and becomes blind with passion for the young man. Her innocence prevents her from seeing through his malicious intentions. She slowly gives in to his charm and consents to having an amorous relationship with him. After she is seduced, her lover leaves, and she is left to suffer in the ill-favored position she is in. At this point she realizes that she is betrayed. Yet, she also feels certain sexiness, and perhaps liberation, in the act of seduction, and so she decides to try it on her own.

My interest also lies in the Complaint as a confession and in the male lover who utilizes feminine features to achieve his masculine predatory goals. According to Joseph Shipley (Dictionary of World Literature), C. Hugh Holman (A Handbook to Literature), and Ian Ousby (Cambridge Paperback Guide to Literature in English) a COMPLAINT is a poetic expression of a personal

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Confession as a Form of Social Liberation and Seduction by Zorica Jelic lament. In such stories, usually a first-person male narrator tells of his misfortune. Katherine Craik notes that the early modern complaint poem can be traced back to Virgil and Ovid; however, the “female complaint” found its place in aristocratic and courtly cultures (434). Shakespeare’s perspective is interesting because his Complaint is a confession of guilt and sin given to a man by a woman, narrated by a male speaker. Furthermore, the confession functions not only in the religious aspect, but possibly as a means of seduction as well. In this complaint poem, the poet’s opinion can be interpreted through the few lines expressed by the voice of the narrator. This narrative is one of a third person reporting a woman’s overheard love tale. Shakespeare presents the tale in that way because he wants to present a societal problem pertinent to his age and not to give a threnody of his love, because in his works Shakespeare captures the ethos of his time and criticizes the contemporary social issues.

Shakespeare’s heroine begins her complaint on “a hill whose concave womb reworded / A plaintful story” (1-2). She is watched by an unknown auditor, who sees her “Tearing of papers, breaking rings a-twain, / Storming her world with sorrow’s wind and rain” (6-7). The unknown “voyeur” has no discomfort in watching the woman suffer. He even stays to listen to the “confession” of the woman to the reverend man. The reader never finds out anything else about this third party, who is the poem’s narrator.

According to Stanton, there is a strong possibility that he may be the lover, who is responsible for the condition the young woman is in (16). The narrator knows very well what the maiden is holding and what she is throwing away. And there is, perhaps, something sexual in the way he describes how the reverend man “slides” down his “grained bat” (64). The perception of the shabby stick is highly derogative, in a sexual way. The narrator, obviously annoyed by the presence and interest of the older man, sees the reverend man sitting down, and he comments, almost with jealousy, “When he desires her, being sat, / Her grievance with his hearing to divide” (66-67). While perusing these lines, the reader cannot but feel that there is more than just interest in the tale. The narrator shows emotions and therefore can be seen as a person close to the young woman, in which case he might be the male lover. This would also solve the problem of his being in such a desolate place at the same time as the young woman. He might have come

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Confession as a Form of Social Liberation and Seduction by Zorica Jelic to the place where they used to meet. However, the text does not provide any more details regarding this character.

The complaint turns into a confession when the “reverend man” comes along and captures the attention of the young woman. She sees him while his cattle are grazing nearby (57). He too notices the girl and apparently wants to find out “the grounds and motives of her woe” (63). The girl addresses him as “‘Father’” (71) and starts relating her story to him. It is at this point when her complaint becomes a confession. The reader presumes that she is telling her story in order to get absolution for whatever she has done. At least one expects that is the purpose of a confession. However, this particular confession is different, not only because of the place where it happens, but also for the reason for which it is given.

The confession takes place not within the walls of a chapel or church in the “court world” but instead beside the river and trees; it occurs in the “green world,”3 a place of alternative possibilities. I argue that the beginning and the end of this poem are symbolically feminine. It begins with the “concave womb” (1), which graphically and metaphorically presents the most intimate part of the female body. The poem’s concluding stanza has five sequential lines beginning with “O,” traditionally a feminine/yonic symbol. Kay Stanton writes in detail about the meaning and significance of the female/yonic “O” and the male/phallic “I”:

The maid’s first spoken word is “O,” as is the first word each of five of the last seven lines that she will speak (323-29), and she employs “O” several more times passim. From ancient times

onward, the letter “O,” or number “0,” has been a female sexual (yonic) symbol (Cutner 156), as the letter “I,” or number “1” has been a phallic symbol (Cutner 158), with many cultures regarding “10” as the perfect number, as it represents the two sexes side by side (Cutner 160). In ancient Egypt, the “I” attached to the “O” represented the Bar of Isis, the sacred union of the sexes. (Stanton 3)

Therefore, if one accepts the interpretation that the term “concave womb” is used to give a feminine characteristic to the green world, then it is no coincidence that the young, and at this

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Confession as a Form of Social Liberation and Seduction by Zorica Jelic point unchaste, woman is giving her confession in nature, as far away as possible from the court world, which is a male-dominated society. The green world becomes the only possible “shelter” and source of solutions for the troubled woman.

Harry Berger discusses, in regard to Shakespeare’s work, the phenomenon of the “secondary world,” or “the green world” as Northrop Frye calls it, and describes it as the mirroring of nature. According to Berger, virtue and scorn, pure good and pure evil, are the two sides of the green world. It is a place of experimenting and withdrawal (15), and I concur with him that it is a place of withdrawal from society and the moral norms that the society imposes. In this case, it would be the norms and judgments that the male-dominated society laid upon the female part of the population. Thus this view supports my argument that the green world is feminine. However, I disagree with Berger that the green world is a place of pure evil and pure good, at least in the way in which he describes it. I assert that the green world is instead a place where one goes to find the solutions to one’s problems, so it becomes whatever one brings to it. A person of pure evil cannot find anything else but evil in it, and vice versa. If that is so, then there are two possibilities in the complaint. One is that the girl was used and rejected after having a passionate affair with a philanderer, in which case she brings her sorrow and her broken heart. The other possibility is that she is indeed a “fickle” maid (5). Apparently, although she has been used and rejected, she has learned something about the ways of love, and now she too is looking for a victim.

In the first case, the girl’s sorrow touches anyone who listens to her woeful story. She laments and mourns her lost innocence: “‘I might as yet have been a spreading flower, / Fresh to myself, if I had self-applied / Love to myself, and to no love beside’” (75-77). The reader cannot but sympathize with her stained virtue. One has to feel compassion when she exclaims regretfully, “‘But woe is me!’”(78). She confesses the ill deed, and it is only natural that one offers her absolution. Yet the reverend man stays silent during her whole confession. She reaches the end of her lament, and the reader never gets to hear what he says. The author leaves the reverend man’s response totally irrelevant to the tale, and, more importantly, to the outcome of the story.

The second interpretation is based on Shakespeare’s use of the word “fickle”4 in the opening lines (5), which is the first information about the girl that the reader gets from the narrator.

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Because of the word’s meaning, Stanton argues, the female lover might be understood as utilizing the same techniques on her listener as her lover had once used on her (“‘This Holy Fire of Love’”); the girl reports that her lover had said, “‘Lo! This device was sent me from a nun, / Or sister sanctified, of holiest note; / Which late her noble suit in court did shun’” (232-34). Therefore, the young man was an experienced lover, because he had seduced even one who had sworn to love only Christ.

The young woman slowly but surely gains the sympathy and trust of the reverend man, and just as the male lover endows her with all the gifts he has received from his previous lovers, she bestows her words upon the “priest”: “‘O father! What a hell of witchcraft lies / In the small orb of one particular tear’” (288-89). Yet with the same tears, she bedazzles him. Hence femininity is being utilized in a masculine manner to achieve female sexual liberation in a male-dominated society. Her last lines seem almost like a curse or chant and are filled with erotic imagery:

“O! that infected moisture of his eye,

O! that false fire which in his cheek so glow’d,

O! that forc’d thunder from his heart did fly,

O! that sad breath spongy lungs bestow’d,

O! all that borrow’d motion seeming ow’d,

Would yet again betray the fore-betray’d,

And new pervert a reconciled maid.” (322-29)

Shakespeare intentionally uses the repetition of the “O” to leave the reader with the subliminal image of the young woman completely opening herself up to the man to whom she is confiding. There is a strong sexual implication that with every “O” she says, she is getting closer to her listener, and that he, unknowingly, is getting more and more persuaded by her story.

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In the end, the Lover asserts she would do it all over again. She tells the “reverend man” about her remorse and regret for giving herself to the male lover. One can look at the female Lover as a transformed woman. She has fallen and risen from her betrayal as an “educated” Lover in pursuit of her own “trophies,” since she does say that the lover’s tears did poison her while her tears restored him (301). Craik concurs that the last lines function as some sort of a curse; however, she writes that the female Lover’s lament is rather contradictory and seemingly reluctant. I argue that it is the seductive nature of it that makes it such.

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Craik also comments that it is intriguing how the “burning blushes,” “weeping water” of the eyes, and “swooning paleness” are all feminine features, which the male lover employs with great skill to achieve his predatory goal (457). This is the key to the male seducer’s accessing of the maid’s heart and body. Femininity is what the girl relates to and trusts and is what, apparently, she herself exploits in the end, i.e. the beginning of the poem. Thus Craik and I agree that femininity and female sexual imagery are the keys to this poem.

The young maiden has clearly fallen in love with a handsome young man whose features are tempting to both men and women. She tells how “‘maidens’ eyes stuck over all his face’” (81), and further on in the text she points out that his looks reigned in the “‘general bosom’” (127). His apparently undisputed beauty attracted the young women. Joan Rees writes about this poem as depicting a reversal of a conventional love situation, and she posits that the male lover who is the object of unconquerable female desire is a mere parody of the chaste mistress who reserves herself for one man only. Rees’ comparison of the young man to a “chaste mistress” supports my argument that the female Lover is attracted to the feminine features of the young man. It is because of this femininity that she creates a bond with him and trusts him. Apart from his beauty, the young man is also gifted in eloquence, which enables him to conquer even the most virtuous of maidens. He uses his oratory skills to enchant his listeners:

“So on the tip of his subduing tongue

All kinds of arguments and questions deep,

All replication prompt and reason strong,

For his advantage still did wake and sleep.

To make the weeper laugh, the laugher weep,

He had the dialect and different skill,

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Catching all passions in his craft of will.” (120-6)

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The quotation shows how the young man employed his rhetorical skills to move his listeners to the extent that they would completely change how they were feeling. But what is even more remarkable is his will, which was equally powerful as his eloquence. I argue that his persuasiveness is of paramount importance to the outcome of the love relationship, because it teaches the maiden how to “catch all passions” with her speech. She uses her “subduing tongue” to enthrall the reverend man with her story.

Another accompanying attribute of femininity is innocence. The female Lover is intrigued and fascinated with the innocence that the young man displays, and she comments that not only is he beautiful but that, being “‘maiden-tongued’” (99-100), he captivated and “‘moved’” her. The young woman is entrapped in the web of the lover’s deceits. She is innocent, and she relates to his innocence, because it is familiar, and familiar is safe. She cannot see beyond the beautiful and honest façade that he has put on, and so she cannot be blamed for what has happened.

However, toward the middle of the poem (line 169), the tone and mood shift. The hunted becomes the hunter from this point on. The female Lover continues her story with acknowledgment of her full understanding of the male lover’s behavior and nature:

“For further I could say ‘This man’s untrue,’

And knew the patterns of his foul beguiling;

Heard where his plants in others’ orchards grew,

Saw how deceits were gilded in his smiling;

Knew vows were ever brokers to defiling [.]” (169-73)

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She uses specifically strong words “say,” “knew,” “heard,” and “saw”—all of which show that she was fully aware of his traitorous nature. These lines imply that there is a change in the personality of the young woman. After these words she admits, “‘For feasts of love I have been call’d unto, / Till now did ne’er invite, nor never woo’” (181-82). I believe that this is the breaking point— where the hunted and wooed female takes on a masculine role and becomes the hunter, and the male lover takes on a feminine role and becomes the prey. This distinction between masculine and feminine is based on the norms and rules of male-dominated societies, where such role-reversals are not acceptable and not expected. Shakespeare plays with these roles and gives the woman an opportunity of becoming a “male” and getting back at the society, but he also lets the man manipulate the other sex with his feminine sexuality. The latter implies that Shakespeare assigns great importance to female sexuality.

The last instance in which the reader encounters the male lover is in the part where he is portrayed through liquid imagery:

“`Tis said, his watery eyes he did dismount,

Whose sights till then were levell’d on my face

Each cheek a river running from a fount

With brinish current downward flow’d apace.

O! how the channel to the stream gave grace;

Who glaze’d with crystal gate the glowing roses

That flame through water which their hue encloses.” (281-87)

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If one acknowledges that water per se is a feminine image, then his masculinity diminishes and morphs into a female form. Every line of this stanza has at least one image of some form of water that gives the male lover a complete feminine feature. Beyond using eloquence, he also utilizes tears, because “his watery eyes” (289) can wear down even a “rocky heart” (291). Not only is he crying, which is a feminine trait, but he is also stripped of his male form. The young man tells her, “‘The broken bosoms that to me belong / Have emptied all their fountains in my well’” (254-55). Therefore, he gives the female Lover all the tears that the other women have shed and poured into him. It is interesting how, later, she will pour out her tears to the reverend man. It is no coincidence, then, that at the beginning of the poem, she is surrounded by water. The female Lover seems to have become aware of what caused her weakness, and in the encounter with the reverend man, it can be argued that she employs the same “tactics.” She appears to be taking advantage of his compassion. Finally, she admits that her “‘reason is resolved into tears’” (296). There could be a pun on the word “reason,” since it can mean that her mind is overwhelmed by tears, or that the tears are the argumentation, which she is employing to seduce her own “victim.” Stanton elaborates on the reversal of both the female and male role and argues that the liquid imagery gives evidence to the role reversal and suggests a sexual exchange of fluids:

If she and her seducer have exchanged positions, such that he was “restored” and she “poisoned” by their sexual exchange of fluids (“drops”), then she may now be the seducer. He confessed his techniques to her and then employed them on her; she so confesses and perhaps so employs. What finally convinced her to submit were his tears (again “drops), plenty of which she has shed during her account. (16)

The girl is a part of nature, of the green world, and as such she embodies the sexual power to control men. However, in the relationship the roles get reversed, and he gains the sexual power through becoming more feminine. According to Joy Wiltenburg, the depiction of female sexuality is closely linked to issues of power: women’s power over men and men’s over women. The perception of power hovers over female sexuality, and furthermore, it is most commonly the

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Confession as a Form of Social Liberation and Seduction by Zorica Jelic target of male physical desire (141). If so, then the reversal of the gender roles in this poem causes the female to become a pursuer and the male lover to usurp feminine sexual power.

A Lover’s Complaint is a syntactically, semantically, and metaphorically highly complex text. It is evident that the female lover is wooed, seduced, and rejected by her male lover. Her lament can be interpreted not only as a confession, but also as a method of wooing that she has learned from her previous amorous experience. The lover finds a way to her heart and body by embodying feminine features, which are metaphorically presented in the end with his becoming a body of water, which has a feminine significance. Therefore, according to this interpretation of the text, the way to conquering a female heart is through features that are known by and close to the woman.

Reference

1 For the purpose of clarification, further in the text I will refer to the female Lover with a capital

“L” and the male lover with a lower case “l.”

2 Although Shakespeare did not authorize adding this poem to the quarto, he never denied his authorship of it.

3 For further reading about the green world refer to Northrop Frye on Shakespeare.

4 The OED shows “fickle” being used as false or deceitful in the sixteenth century (this meaning dates back to 1000 A.D.).

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Developments and Theoretical Approaches on Public Diplomacy by Ngadhnjim Brovina, phd

Abstract

Seems that had never been agreed upon definition of the term: public diplomacy. This lack of consensus about the definition may prove to be a good thing because, it encourages researchers to explore this area further, and remains to be seen in the future that maybe we will have an accurate and precise term about public diplomacy.

Public diplomacy is seen as an evolving field, a multi-disciplinary field with its theoretical, conceptual and methodological links in some of disciplines such as international relations, media studies, public relations, etc..

When we talk about functions, history and trends of development of public diplomacy, normally is more easily, because we can find more literature, although most of it is in English and just a few in the Albanian language.

The general approach of my research has to do with recognition of some of the theoretical aspects and some of the practices of influence and domination of public diplomacy, concretized with concrete examples.

Key words: public diplomacy, diplomacy of brands, exchanges of students, management of news, international relations. 1. The definition of public diplomacy

Before we talk about the definition of public diplomacy first i want to talk about the notion of the word "diplomacy". Diplomacy as any other science is international.1 . The word "diplomacy" is derived from the Greek word "diploma" that in fact was a document written on two sewn sheets given to head of mission and has contained instructions for the purposes of mission.2 The essence of diplomacy is the communication. It always has been.3 Public diplomacy has a very poor history because it has been used as a term too late, much later than traditional diplomacy has begun.

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The term "public diplomacy" was first used in 1965 by Dean Edmund Gullion of the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy at Tufts University. It was created with the establishment of the Centre for Public Diplomacy Edward R. Murrow in Fletcher.4Public diplomacy differs from classical diplomacy because in first place it not seeks: cooperation, communication and implementation of relations with foreign governments, but especially with the non-governmental institutions, organizations and individuals in foreign countries.5 The Unofficial ,unusual, telecommunicative diplomacy is the public diplomacy.6 But one of the theoretical approaches of international relations which corresponds with the studies on public diplomacy is constructivist approach, according to which the identities, cultures and social norms are of particular importance in international relations and world politics.7 Public diplomacy deals with the influence of the public attitudes on the formation and execution of foreign policy. It incorporates dimensions of international relations beyond the traditional diplomacy, the cultivation by governments of public opinion to other countries, cooperation of groups and private interests in another country, reporting of Foreign Affairs and its influence in politics, the communication between those whose job is communication, as the diplomats and foreign correspondents, as well as intercultural communication process.8

1Boriqi, Gjon, Marrëdhëniet ndërkombëtare në vorbullën e diplomacisë, Tiranë, 2006, pg. 43. 2Prvi svezak, u red. Akademika V.P.Potemkina, Matica Hrvatska, Historia diplomacije, Zagres, 1951, pg. 25. 3Archetti, Cristina, “Media Impact on Diplomatic Practice: An Evolutionary Model of Change”, Lecturer in Politics and Media, School of English, Sociology, Politics and Contemporary History (ESPaCH) University of Salford Paper presented at the American Political Science Association (APSA) Annual Convention Washington DC, September 2-5, 2010, pg. 2. 4 Snow, Nancy and M. Taylor, Phillip, Routlege Handbook of Public Diplomacy, California 2009, pg. 19. 5Baliqi, Bekim, “Çka është diplomacia publike”, Public diplomacy lectures I, authorized, University ILIRIA – Kosovo. 6Baliqi, Bekim, “Diplomacia dhe format e saj”, Public diplomacy lectures I, authorized, University ILIRIA – Kosovo. 7http://www.scribd.com/doc/37241479/HYRJE-NE-DIPLOMACI-DHE-POLITIKE-TE-JASHTME, ri found 30 march 2012.

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Public diplomacy usually involves two modes of operation: On one side, it is in function of political information, with the aim of influencing the population in another country for protection, clarifying the specific issue of state government and politics. And these actions are usually for a short term. But in the other aspect is claimed that through communication and cultural and academic cooperation, to be established better ties with that society. Public diplomacy can be called in other words as an international public relation.9

The public diplomacy also promotes foreign policy and the interests of the state through informing and influencing of foreign publics about any particular issue, or about the overall image of the state.10 The public diplomacy also creates preconditions for the establishment of positive opinion about politics and image of a certain state 11

The mechanisms of functioning of public diplomacy are: media, opinion makers (opinion leader), research institutes (think-tanks), organizations and the non-governmental organizations (NGOs), the business community and the academic community, social, political religious movements, the broad public of a foreign society12 These functions are aimed to inform the general public about the country's culture and values. The public relations and public information are a key element in the public diplomacy. The function of public diplomacy within the Ministry of Foreign Affairs is to promote national interests through understanding, informing, presenting and influence on foreign audiences.

In fact, compared to traditional diplomacy, which penetrates only in the institutional relations government-to-government, public diplomacy interferes by involving government relations, also communicates with foreign public and other public institutions such as education, culture, business and especially the media.13

8http://uscpublicdiplomacy.org/index.php/newsroom/pdblog_detail/060418_public_diplomacy_before_gullion_the_ evolution_of_a_phrase/, ri found 23 may 2012. 9http://www.scribd.com/doc/37241479/HYRJE-NE-DIPLOMACI-DHE-POLITIKE-TE-JASHTME, ri found 30march2012. 10Baliqi, Bekim, “Çka është Diplomacia Publike”, Public diplomacy lectures I, authorized, University ILIRIA – Kosovo. 11Ibid. 12Baliqi, Bekim, “Fokusimi i D.P. duhet përqendrohet në keto grupe dhe drejtime”, Public diplomacy lectures IV, authorized, University ILIRIA – Kosovo. 13www.theart of public diplomacy by Ramona Harper.mht, ri found 4 april 2012. 91

Developments and Theoretical Approaches on Public Diplomacy by Ngadhnjim Brovina, phd

1. Public diplomacy and the development trends

2.1 Stages of development of public diplomacy

The period after the First World War up and after Second World War. (The doctrine of U.S. President Harry Truman and "Marshall Plan" for Europe, which was adopted in 1948. Areas of interest and attraction of so-called "Iron Curtain" in Europe“. (Public diplomacy and propaganda were important.)14

During the Cold War period (The formation of specialized Agencies, p.sh USIA in 1953 and links with the Secret Service for information exchange etc.. Establishment of the Free University in the Strasbourg,then later in Berlin was assisted from the USA in order to avoid communist influence among youth and students. Radio free Europe was established by the CIA donations, etc..)15

After the fall of the Berlin Wall and with the dissolution of bipolar system, these has resulted in change in the foreign policy-making. These paradigmatic changes generated new conceptions of international relations and diplomacy.

Factorization and the increasing of role of the media, NGOs and multinational corporations pushed to new requirements of diplomatic action, i.e. to the public diplomacy, which is also known as a new diplomacy or media diplomacy.16

Diplomacy as the art of negotiation and communication is known since the Greek Antiquity, and later Roman Empire and the Ottoman Empire had diplomacy with consuls, spies, etc..17 In the Middle Ages, Italian city-states developed this scope.

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With the birth of modern nation-states were created the Ministries of Foreign Affairs, in which the diplomacy is an integral part of them.18

Thus, developments in international relations diplomacy has accompanied transition from the Old Diplomacy in the New one, interdependent from the transitions of the foreground of political phenomena as well as non-political, driven by the interaction of public interest and awareness and revolution in communications.

14Baliqi, Bekim, “Fazat e zhvillimit të Diplomacisë publike”, Public diplomacy lectures III, authorized, University ILIRIA – Kosovo. 15Ibid. 16 Ibid. 17Baliqi, Bekim, “Zhvillimet e diplomacisë” Public diplomacy lectures I, authorized, University ILIRIA - Kosovo 18Ibid.

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Transitions along the twentieth century are:

• the growing interdependence and deep penetration of the economy and increasing rate of responsibility of the government about economic management;

• public opinion is becoming a major concern and a crucial asset in the development of foreign policy;

• the expansion of democracy and autonomy in the developed world with former colonies (self- determination and decolonization);

• the treatment of individuals and minorities by becoming a matter of international concern with significant political and humanitarian consequences;

• the top priority were also the social problems, education, poverty and unemployment;

• demonstration of new global issues such as the environment, terrorism or HIV / AIDS;

• continuing development of new information technologies (information technology) and

• dramatic increase of the number of actors on the international scene .19

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So, over time the public diplomacy and the other tools have been dependent on one another, they have served as a bridge between public policy and the public diplomacy. Media Systems at first glance, have brought new movements and interest in that what is regarded an individual interest and beyond. The focus related to the public diplomacy and participation in it, are deeply- highlighted as a possibility that through sophisticated technologies to use ideas, information on various current affairs such as media, newspapers, television, the Internet and various digital devices, which are increasingly more by getting involved in the revolution of media, as a instrument of public diplomacy.

A super media technology (SMT) continues to evolve at an extraordinary rate, frequently outpacing our ability to absorb and use it. However, the widespread popularity of SMT has precipitated its use by the diplomatic corps to extend the power of the ruling elite through unprecedented means. Dictatorial rulers have often hampered the freedom of the press and freedom of speech with impunity. Often the media is used by these dictators for propaganda and securing their power base.

The twentieth century is focused on developing an enterprise-wide media. Today, this electro- digital industry, has become a real force and the most powerful influence in the world. Trends of humanity, the concepts of democracy, human rights, rule or local media have created multi- media companies that were not imagined in the past.

19http://enfantgateesansfrontiere.blogspot.com/2007/04/why-has-public-diplomacy-become.html, ri found 19 april 2012.

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There is no longer just an illusion that the world has become more familiar and closer, near to us, launched by the technological development of the media. Hundreds of thousands of digital TV programs - as CNN, BBC, VOA, Radio Moscow etc.., are distributed world-wide as a result of information technology. Finally, the media is the best option whether of an individual contribution, whether as certain institutional traditional and political arrangements, or as public diplomacy instruments for certain political processes.

Media power is the largest transparency of the residence, the public-political opinion or idea.

Also the media provides a special opportunity for communicating the institutional opinions. This particular mechanism presents new prospects of presenting the qualities, potential and nature of the institutional values. The combination of public diplomacy and media provide new opportunities for achieving the American motto, "Tell the world the American story."20

In this way, public diplomacy deals with the prevention of international incidents and building the American credibility every day.

I think that public diplomacy was born, developed, continues to develop and be used mostly by Americans. Even though at times it has not been the favorite, there have been times when there was no other way to move forward except using it. Perhaps it seems at first glance that the U.S. only uses military power, but it has managed to affect every part of the world through diplomatic power, because diplomacy garners more allies than milita

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2.2 Exchanges of students

What could included as a vital part of this work? Most policymakers agree that there is no better cultural product export from America than education. More radicalized Islamists may hate the lifestyle that comes with the pursuit of American colleges, but few of them will oppose universities like Harvard, Yale, Stanford, Princeton, who are still the best universities in the world. Education and cultural export should be at the forefront of every American strategy.21

20www.theart of public diplomacy by Ramona Harper.mht, ri found 4 april 2012. 21http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KjR2FjfBfMs&feature=share, ri found 5 march 2012.

What is the lesson for the State Department? Quite simple: if they want to reach favor with extremists, undecided moderates and everyone else, they should simply finance more useful and apolitical services and be modest in their advertising campaigns.

From this perspective, a completely apolitical creature that is used around the world is Google, this for the sole reason because it provides useful and apolitical services 22

Finally, the most urgent task of public diplomacy is facing a new concept which is: "To remove the harmful idea within Muslim society that the U.S. wants to destroy Islam and replace it with Christianity."23

Part of the development trend of public diplomacy which are part of this century we can point three dimensions which will be discussed below:

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2.3 Management of News

The first dimension is the management of communication in day-to-day issues, by reflecting the growing need for communication associated with traditional diplomacy. The need for communication ally with traditional diplomacy is described by the American diplomat Christopher Ross, who returned from retirement to understand the mindset and public diplomacy in the Muslim world. He says: "I think that public diplomacy is the face of traditional diplomacy. The traditional diplomacy, seeks to advance U.S. interests through private exchanges with foreign governments. Public diplomacy intends to support traditional diplomacy by addressing the non-governmental audiences, except government viewers, as mass and elite.

He works very hard in coordination and simultaneously with efforts of traditional diplomacy: "This means that embassies should plan public diplomacy strategy for all major issues that they deal with and to explore all angles of communication activities. This work is complicated by the fact that it is increasingly difficult to isolate various news stories for different audiences, foreign and domestic. Though most of TV, radio and press are created with a local or national audience in mind, their networks’ foreign correspondents will ensure that messages are transferred from one region to another.24 22Ibid. 23http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2010/03/10/how_to_win_the_war_of_ideas, ri found 7 may 2012.

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2.4 Strategic Communications

Governments have traditionally been good at communicating their positions on specific issues, but less effective in managing perceptions of the country as a whole.

One reason for this is that different institutions have been responsible for dealing with politics, trade, tourism, investment and cultural relations. But there are too many issues. This is the entirety of the message that people get regarding, for example with the UK, how that strategic international relationship will be determined and defined. This is the second dimension of public diplomacy, strategic messages promoted in conjunction with the UK.

Sir Michael Butler, who was previously the British Permanent Representative to the EU, argues that the perception of the country in general will shape the diplomatic environment: "We need to have a broad picture of what is perceived as favorable in key countries, where we are based. "

If your government is perceived as self-interested, reactionary and useless, it will seriously hamper your ability to get your way. It is important for all public diplomacy organizations that have a stake in the integrity of the messages which are put out more about the country, as well as a sense of how they can cooperate in promoting them.25

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2.4 Building relationships

The third dimension of public diplomacy is the longest term: developing lasting relationships with key individuals through scholarships, exchanges, training, seminars, conferences, building real and virtual networks, and giving people access to media channels.

This differs from the usual practice of growing diplomatic contact, it is about developing relationships between colleagues, politicians, special advisers, business people, cultural or academic entrepreneurs. This can be done through three spheres of public diplomacy aimed at creating a common analysis of the issues to give people a better idea of the reasons and factors for their actions, so that by time they can come to discuss individual issues, in the background much work is already done.26

A major part of the development of rapid public diplomacy is the diplomacy of NGOs and diplomacy of brands.

24http://www.scribd.com/doc/51650056/public-diplomacy-mark-leonard, ri found 3 march 2012. 25Ibid.

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2.5 NGOs Diplomacy

Working with non-state actors such as NGOs, are the focus of effective communication with civil societies in other countries (and thus in the center of influencing their governments), because they have three main sources that are not necessarily lightweight available to a foreign government: credibility, expertise, and appropriate networks.

While people are often quicker to question the motives behind the first diplomatic statements as suspicious when information passes directly from a government, NGOs like Amnesty have a long standing reputation for independence and thus have a credibility.

Secondly, these organizations have great expertise within a range of issues which along their reputation for independence, gives them authority.

Finally, as campaign organizations and centers of expertise, they have access to the networks of activists, politicians and foreign experts and well experienced in marching, in which these networks exert pressure in a given policy area.

There are over 20,000 networks of transnational NGOs already active on the world stage (of which 90 percent were formed during the last 30 years) many of which can be effective partners to the development of public diplomacy.

There are already examples of cooperation, as people from Amnesty International in the human rights section, for the collaboration at an organizational level which can be even more fruitful.27

26Ibid. 27Ibid

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2.6 Diplomacy of brands

While previous generations may have identified countries mainly through their history, or political institutions of higher culture, today brands can form an important part of the national image of some countries.

FIGURE NO. 1 - NATIONAL BRAND COMPONENTS 28

Consultancy of brands called Interbrend has developed a methodology to measure the value of global brand and regularly produces figures.

The latest figures show a large discrepancy between the strength of brands in different countries.

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Over two thirds of brands (68%) are American, while there are other accounts of the country for more than 6% of brands. In fact, Coca-Cola is only valid nearly as all brands of other countries, example: Coca-Cola after 60 years has started selling in Burma. This was the third country after Cuba and North Korea in which there was no Coca-Cola, because it was led military junta. Also the European football championship "Euro 2012", during one month as long as lasts the championship in each match, the advertisements that surround the field were advertising for Coca-Cola, and during the 90 minutes of the football match, approximately 40-50 minutes of the game was a Coca-Cola's advertisement. This indicates an incredibly big effect of American products on European allies. With this I want to emphasize the greater influence of brand (s) of the U.S.. UK comes second after the U.S. with 6%, involving alcohol products and household world. These figures show a total domination of the United States and provide another clue to the dominant country like the United States in people's perceptions. They only show a part of the story as they are based on market capitalization brands.

In fact some British brands with great resonance are not companies. For example the BBC brand, has one of the highest recognitions in the world, and this is the only brand that sells online globally in the same range as Yahoo, Google, MSN or AOL.29

28Wählisch, Martin, Xharra, Behar, “PUBLIC DIPLOMACY OF KOSOVO STATUS QUO, CHALLENGES AND OPTIONS”, Friedrich-Ebert-Foundation, Prishtina Office, Kosovo, September 2010, pg. 20.

.

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FIGURE NO.2 - BRAND VALUE BY STATES 30

29 Ibid.

30 http://www.scribd.com/doc/51650056/public-diplomacy-mark-leonard, ri found 3 march 2012.

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So as can be seen, the most powerful country for brands in the global market is the U.S., one of the most powerful in the world of public brands, with a large range as: lifestyle (Coca-Cola, MTV, Levi's), sports (Nike, NBA, timberland,), technological superiority (Microsoft, Apple, Dell, IBM), well-informed (CNN, Time, Newsweek).31

Public diplomacy is a national brand, but the question is how are relations between them (public diplomacy vs. national trademarks)? The answer for this question you can see illustrated.

FIGURE NO. 3 - PUBLIC DIPLOMACY. VS. NATIONAL MARKS 32

31Martin, Wählisch, Behar, Xharra, “PUBLIC DIPLOMACY OF KOSOVO STATUS QUO, CHALLENGES AND OPTIONS”, Friedrich-Ebert-Foundation Prishtina Office Kosovo, September 2010, pg. 21.

32 Szondi, Gyorgy, “Public Diplomacy and Nation Branding: Conceptual Similatiries and Differences”, Discussion papers in Diplomacy,Netherlands Institute of International Relations “Clingendael”, October 2008, pg. 14-15. 105

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In common public diplomacy and national brands have four elements: culture, identity, image and values.

FIGURE NO.4 - THE COMMON OF PUBLIC DIPLOMACY AND NATIONAL TRADEMARKS 33

In conducting of its mission to promote national interests in international conflicts, public diplomacy might be required to perform a number of specific tasks. Some of the most common ones include: to communicate legitimacy of a course of action;

to pick together an opponent;

to change minds and behavior of enemies, neutral, and they can enter into alliances;

to win support for ideals;

to establish strategic alliances and ruin;

to counter propaganda and dictators fraud, the tyrants, and terrorists;

to press the world for condemnation against a rogue regime;

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to stop genocide and ethnic cleansing;

to encourage the participants of war to cease fire;

to justify the war effort by major to neutral;

to destroy the morale of an enemy;

to improve their morale;

to cause disruption to the enemy;

to assist in the commission of a war (eg to win the support of local leaders, to seek information, to help with relief efforts);

to lessen the perception of a security dilemma (ie, increase the security of a nation that threatens the safety of others);

resolve conflict and prevent a war in the first place;

to change images and expectations held by those who are in conflict to allow negotiations to take place and other means of conflict resolution;

to form the basis for reconciliation between the fighters in order that not war, but peace to won, and

to develop the support for international institutions and treaties in pursuit of peace34

33Ibid, pg. 27.

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3. Conclusions

When we have presented the main objectives of the paper have said that the theory that exists for public diplomacy has begun, respectively when it was used for the first time and stages how it developed over time until nowadays are needed to establish a base of this paper in order to preserve the character of the final conceptual considerations.

This paper was focused on the treatment of public diplomacy, in its classic sense, is believed that is individual in state format, but I think that the time has come for the region to think about a regional public diplomacy, on the political level, diplomatic level, the academic plan and in the organizational plan. We already have a highly positive model and guidelines: the European Union, to which all belong. I think this topic should be still treated in future for the simple fact of the importance of public diplomacy in global development trends.

The research findings have resulted in an increase of interest rates that the respective countries even in this field can increase their diplomatic capacity by seeing how much interest objectives can be achieved by using this model of public diplomacy.

Desiring to conclude with final reviews, the paper has resulted in several conclusions and recommendations:

1. Development of diplomacy and any other field, must begin with the recognition of the theory and basement of that area.

2. Public diplomacy is an area that has been studied very little and recognition of the theories leads to a journey forward.

3. The materialization of public diplomacy by giving concrete examples is the story of how direct diplomacy should be conducted.

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4. Public diplomacy should be used as a tool for achieving the goals of the state with less political influence and military force. This is achieved by organizing fairs, film week, fashion, preparing brochures for recognition of the country's traditions and culture, etc..

4. Bibliography

Archetti, Cristina, “Media Impact on Diplomatic Practice: An Evolutionary Model of Change”, Lecturer in Politics and Media, School of English, Sociology, Politics and Contemporary History (ESPaCH) University of Salford Paper presented at the American Political Science Association (APSA) Annual Convention Washington DC, September 2-5, 2010. Baliqi, Bekim, “Çka është diplomacia publike”, Ligjerata nga lënda Diplomacia Publike I, të autorizuara, Universiteti ILIRIA – Kosovë. Boriqi, Gjon, Marrëdhëniet ndërkombëtare në vorbullën e diplomacisë, Tiranë, 2006. http://enfantgateesansfrontiere.blogspot.com/2007/04/why-has-public-diplomacy-become.html http://uscpublicdiplomacy.org/index.php/newsroom/pdblog_detail/060418_public_diplomacy_b e fore_gullion_the_evolution_of_a_phrase/ http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2010/03/10/how_to_win_the_war_of_ideas http://www.scribd.com/doc/37241479/HYRJE-NE-DIPLOMACI-DHE-POLITIKE- TE-JASHTME http://www.scribd.com/doc/51650056/public-diplomacy-mark-leonard http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KjR2FjfBfMs&feature=share Prvi svezak, u red. Akademika V.P.Potemkina, Matica Hrvatska, Historia diplomacije, Zagres, 1951 Snow, Nancy and M. Taylor, Phillip, Routlege Handbook of Public Diplomacy, California 2009. Szondi, Gyorgy, “Public Diplomacy and Nation Branding: Conceptual Similatiries and Differences”, Discussion papers in Diplomacy,Netherlands Institute of International Relations “Clingendael”, October 2008. Wählisch, Martin, Xharra, Behar, “PUBLIC DIPLOMACY OF KOSOVO STATUS QUO, CHALLENGES AND OPTIONS”, Friedrich-Ebert-Foundation, Prishtina Office, Kosovo, September 2010.

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Political Systems and a Continuing Account for Elusive Peace in Republic of Macedonia by Hyreme Gurra

Abstract

This research paper is going to elaborate the five most common political systems of the world and the second part of the mainstream headlines preoccupying the public opinion, which continued the saga for entire population of Republic of Macedonia. The country is internationally known as FYROM, and its government as a whole in the recent days after New Year’s Holidays of 2018 was expecting an act of resignation by the Prime Minister Nikolla Gruevski and a massive unrest took place by NGO asking to close factories that were polluting the air. The leading political parties of the government consisting of VMRO (IMRO) (ethnic Macedonian political party) and BDI (DUI) (ethnic Albanian political party) were in the verge of a complete breakdown. These two coalition members were accused by the opposition political party LSDM (SDUM) (left party) for a great number of scandals; corruption, leading autocratic zests policy, not enjoying EU and NATO, spending public money in non-productive means and finally the phone tapping become sources of constant conflict. Social dialogue between the position and opposition was undermined by the head of the government, considered as a roguishly human hobble. The deterioration of the already unfavorable international position of the country endangered the progress leading up to national an interethnic cleansing. These events eventually would shape the future of the state. After the elections the government changed the leading stream, which is seen as a last chance for survival.

The research methods being used throughout this paper are; the method of interview, narrative method, qualitative and quantitative method.

Key words; deterioration, ethnic crisis, Theocracy, Despotism, Ochloracy, Gerontocracy.

111 Political Systems and a Continuing Account for Elusive Peace in Republic of Macedonia by Hyreme Gurra

Introduction

Speaking of political systems, it is difficult to figure out the frames of two identical ruling principals in two countries claiming to use one of five most common political systems of the world. Each state uses its own variant of Democracy; Republicanism; Monarchy; Communism or Dictatorship. These political systems derived from ancient ruling orders of social classes such as; Authoritarianism; Totalitarianism; Theocracy; Despotism; Ochlocracy; Gerontocracy; Integralism; Khanate; Unitary authority; Fascism; Federalism; Super-state; Electocracy; Corporatism etc.

Understanding different political systems is more than necessary. Every political system has its advantages and disadvantages. When being elected by people is worth considering the merits of each system an incorporating the most appropriate forms of ruling for the benefit of citizens, human kind in general.

Republic of Macedonia has chosen the system of Republicanism. So far is this country running the appropriate system?

What would Percy Byce Shelly add to his famous poetry “THE MASK OF ANARCHY” if alive to this very century?

“And he wore a kingly crown ; And in his grasp a sceptre shone ; On his brow this mark I saw—

‘I AM GOD, AND KING, AND LAW!’”

The Mask of Anarchy; ( Shelley,2014)

And what would Mahatma Ghandy recommend for a peaceful revolution in spite of Waterloo or Peterloo Massacre taking place in St Peter’s field, Manchester, on 16 August 1819, by people who enhanced the appeal for political radicalism for parliamentary reform.

112 Political Systems and a Continuing Account for Elusive Peace in Republic of Macedonia by Hyreme Gurra

The real narrative of the Government of Republic of Macedonia personified Corruption, Murder, Fraud, Hypocrisy, Destructions, and Anarchy is out of reality. The citizens felt and feel outrageous as far as the foreign community; exactly Brussels remained indifferent toward the government’s autocratic attitude against all except the believers of VMRO platform. According to the assembled information it is revealed that the monopolistic-monoethnic rule of the country was conducted by the Nikola Gruevski, who was the key to the Supreme Court, the key to the President of the State, the key to the Army, the key to the Military Forces, Foreign Affairs, Judiciary, and Parliament. The government was ruling in political autism.

Continuous disputes are considered multi dimensional and the last one was considered first of this kind. There is no record found that an inter nation conflict registered in since 1945. All the conflicts were conducted between Albanians and Macedonians. Certain warnings were displayed through media, in case inner ethnic or religious conflict is cast, citizens should be indifferent of any planned scenario of an imposed conflicts to drag away the attention from the real situation.

The tipping point of the entire process is that Gruevski’s Cabinet lost credibility. The leaking of the information from the Ministry of Interior means that the security of the state was ruined. The first minister to be targeted was Gordana Jankullovska, the head of order and the security of the state. She couldn’t manage the institutions properly and prevent her own wiretapping. What could one think of the entire security of the country as a whole? The fact still remains enigmatic, that the responsible ministers didn’t obstinate or resign. ‘A modus Vivendi’ act was to be elaborated. After the elections the nominated members of VMRO signed a document in case they resign beforehand were obliged to pay a penalty of 400,000 € to the budget of VMRO. So far as the process was going on, the two major accounts are felt with immense revenge and the situation was tense.

A dose of unrest was seen among the students. Their revolt was based on the recent changes of articles which undermine the rights of the students. The students Plenum appeared inclusive. They managed to break the stereotype barriers protesting on ethnic bases. For the first time in the history of the country journalists and students of different ethnicities protested together. It was seen as a ray of hope for the future since the de-legitimization of the government and institutions were seen as a hard process. The citizens lost their faith in the government and the moment in the scene appears a multi

113 Political Systems and a Continuing Account for Elusive Peace in Republic of Macedonia by Hyreme Gurra ethnic society based on the principles of “Paris Commune” it demonstrates the values of building independent institutions. The youth’s vision is enthusiastic and avant-garde.

Viewing the backgrounds of all political parties in retrospect, there is reason to conclude that SDSM’s policy during the conflict period of 2001 drastically differs from the SDSM initiating today’s tensions. In the meantime, there is a great difference between VMRO of 2001 and the VMRO of today. However, when considering the Albanian Opposition Parties it seems that they play the role of the deaf-mute. While the radical DUI of 2001 conflict, responsible for the advancement of basic human rights of Albanians guaranteed by international laws, is more interested in economical advancements rather than political ones.

Zaev was not publishing all the “bombs” especially if they target Albanians. Once with them, he tends to ensnare the Albanian officials. When asked, he claimed not to lower their publicity. Zaev should apologize to Albanians when they were in power and did not implement the Albanian demands. He collected the Albanian taxes and never invested in the cities where the majority of the population is Albanian. Even the names of the streets are to be called by the Former Yugoslav terms. The principle of Badinter is the only obstacle.

Gruevski was avoiding “Habeas Corpus” and continued with other faults. After he heard discussion containing threat, corruption, offences, deadfalls, bribes, counterfeiting, coarseness, organized crime none of the ministers apologized or resigned. The allegations should be taken seriously. There was a call for responsibility. The remedy needed to be provided by technical and political support.

114 Political Systems and a Continuing Account for Elusive Peace in Republic of Macedonia by Hyreme Gurra

The final steps towards solid solution were as follows:

1. VMRO Party must democratize.

2. The government should have resigned.

3. A technical government should have been composed.

4. Independent Judiciary.

5. International monitoring.

The State should have been run by a technical government. The law should not require political approval for the appointment of new set of judges. The National broadcasting company MIA should have been run by independent journalist. The future processes should be monitored by Foreign monitoring especially Washington and Brussels. New Election Commission needed to establish strict criteria determining the voters’ eligibility. Specific written instructions stressing that voting should always be democratic. Illegal approach would make the electoral boards more aware of the issue and would prevent such a practice in future elections. Additional measures should be taken to deter violations of procedures by election officials and to punish those responsible for irregularities. The time of solving the case should be short and limited. The government should continue the path towards NATO and EU integration.

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Fair Elections a Crucial Key to Solution

“Macedonia Risked Opposition Boycott over Early Polls. Ruling parties have unilaterally decided to press on with early elections in April, despite opposition insistence that conditions for fair and free polls were not in place.”(Marusic, 2016; News)

Macedonian Prime Minister Nikola Gruevski confirmed on Monday that he wants to go ahead with early elections on April 24, 2016| Photo by: MIA

A call for voting and verifying the resignation of the ruling Prime Minister Nikola Gruevski, voted to dissolve parliament and elected a new government, paving the way for elections on 24 April 2016. The Parliament was short of MPs from the main opposition party, the Social Democrats, and 72 out of the 123 deputies voted to dissolve parliament, 60 days before the elections, so that the early general polls can take place on April 24.

Due to acceptance of the resignation of Prime Minister Gruevski, President Gjorge Ivanov handed the mandate to form a new interim government to Emil Dimitriev, the secretary-general of Gruevski's VMRO DPMNE party. The new government authority at the helm was elected by 72 votes which will be in charge until the elections agreed. The unilateral move by the ruling parties came after the Social Democrats said they would boycott the polls unless key obstacles are avoided for fair elections as

116 Political Systems and a Continuing Account for Elusive Peace in Republic of Macedonia by Hyreme Gurra stipulated by the EU-Perzhino political accord aimed at ending the country’s long-running crisis. Ilija Dimovski, an MP from the VMRO DPMNE party, told parliament, however, that it was “time for citizens to take charge” of the political process. “The dissolution of parliament is the highest moral gesture,” Dimovski said. Liljana Dimovska, an MP who heads the small opposition Democratic Renewal party, warned that the unilateral decision to set the election date without opposition agreement was a recipe for more political chaos.“This is an introduction to a new destabilization of Macedonia. Elections without the opposition parties would have led to a boycott and countless street protests. In its first reaction to the decision to press ahead towards elections without cross-party agreement, the opposition said in a statement that the move only 1proves that “Gruevski is afraid and runs away from free, fair and democratic elections”.

The opposition party recommended that they would not agree to polls in April unless the electoral roll was controlled properly for removing fake voters and media freedom was ensured in the country. The Social Democrat leader Zoran Zaev insisted that most reforms agreed in the agreement brokered by the EU representatives to end Macedonia’s political crisis have not been fully implemented or have Macedonian parliament | Photo by: MIA only been informally addressed, although the deadlines for conviction have long since passed and that Gruevski should highlight his apostasy.

EU Must Oppose April Elections in Macedonia There was a general opinion that the decision to press on with early polls, against all expert advice, proved that the government had no interest in a fair vote said Erwan Fouere. The decision by the Macedonian parliament on the eve of Orthodox Epiphany to accept the resignation of Prime Minister Nikola Gruevski and call for the dissolution of parliament in preparation for early elections in April marks a further escalation in the crisis that has gripped the country. This decision

1 Sinisa Jakov Marusic Balkan Insight 19 January 2016

117 Political Systems and a Continuing Account for Elusive Peace in Republic of Macedonia by Hyreme Gurra was taken despite the advice of independent electoral experts, 70 civil society organizations and the State Electoral Commission that not all the necessary reforms to ensure an election free from the irregularities of the past would be in place by April. This is particularly the case with regard to the long-awaited vetting of the voters’ list. 2

The Parliament voted the decision just three days after the casual visit of Commissioner Johannes Hahn, accompanied by a delegation from the European Parliament, negotiated the June-July political agreement of the previous year. This agreement was aimed at restoring the rule of law in Macedonia, following serious allegations of criminal activities and abuse of power based on legislative and executive institutions led by senior members of the government and ruling VMRO-DPMNE party officials. This dramatic turn of events is clearly a failure for European Union diplomacy and again shows a lack of appreciation by the European Commission of the depth of the political and social crisis in Macedonia. It also makes the patient efforts of the EU facilitator Peter Van Houtte to foster consensus talks between all the political parties all the more complicated divergent and stubbornly difficult.

2Erwan Fuere BIRN Ohrid 21 January 2016

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Agreement between the four political parties 20 July 2016

As the forced agreement was signed, on 20 July 2016 the four major political parties of Macedonia agreed on the following issues:

Voters list 1. The electoral code was to be amended by 22 July to reflect the agreement below on the voter list. 2. As regards annex A prepared by SEC relating to cross checks of entries, 171,500 persons will be placed on the supplementary part of the voters list and their right to vote is not disputed. 3. As regards Annex B prepared by SEC relating to cross checks of entries, 39,502 persons will be published by SEC within 3 days following the adoption of the amendment of the electoral code. 3

3 http://eeas.europa.eu/archives/delegations/the_former_yugoslav_republic_of_macedonia/press_corner/all_news/ne ws/2016/2016-07-20_agreement_en.htm (accessed on22/01/2017)

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The second surreptitious violation concern was the media. These immediate considerations were agreed upon: 1. The AVMS law and the electoral code was to be amended within 15 days from the date of this agreement. 2. AAVM will establish an ad hoc body to monitor compliance with media provisions of the electoral code. This ad hoc body will function until the end of the electoral process. This ad hoc body shall be established within 30 days from the date of this agreement. 3. The four political parties committed to amend the media legislation in line with Urgent Reform Priorities and the Priebe report within 6 months after the elections were made. 4. In consultation with the other parties, the biggest opposition party will nominate a chief editor (information agency) of the Public Broadcaster (MRTV) from experts in the field. Provided that the parties confirm that the conditions for elections are in place, the new chief editor will assume his / her functions within 100 days before elections take place.

5. Legal changes will be made to allow 24/7 Albanian channel on MRTV.4

Next step is going to be the assessment of progress By 31 August, leaders of the four political parties would be observing whether the above mentioned criteria have been ensured by which the conditions for holding free and responsible elections are fulfilled. The leaders would meet in due time to ensure the efficiency of the process and confirm the date of elections by a procedure of singeing a signature. Following the Przino recommendations, if elections take place during 2016, a new government agreement will be voted in by the parliament within 100 days before the agreed day of Parliamentarian elections.

4 http://eeas.europa.eu/archives/delegations/the_former_yugoslav_republic_of_macedonia/press_corner/all_news/ne ws/2016/2016-07-20_agreement_en.htm (accessed on22/01/2017)

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The following immediate thing to support is the Special Prosecution a) In case Constitutional Court decides SP legislation or its part is unconstitutional, four parties commit to align the legislation with the decision of the Court and to re-establish the office according to decision within five days. The effectiveness, scope and objectives of the SP should be maintained. b) Four parties call on the Constitutional Court to decide on SP law as soon as possible on the next possible session.5

The final part of this agreement was the Reforms The entire the process of well adjusted reforms and their inclusive implementation was to be led and conducted by a working group of the parliament including civil society and internal and external experts. a. Prioritised adoption of Urgent Reform Priorities and Priebe Recommendations. b. Amend whistleblower law according to Venice Commission within 6 months. c. OFA d. Euro-Atlantic integration.6 The tense environment led some of the leaders to express their concern through the discourse of sensibility and sympathy and ask the foreign community that Grueski should highlight his apostasy from radical politician.

Macedonia was heading towards “Deepening crisis”!

After rounds of hours of talks within months of the time with EU intermediates, the four leaders of political parties in the country have not dropped a deal to implement the agreement of 2 June. The media revealed statements of heads of political parties, the disappointment of Commissioner Johannes Hahn, and Menduh Thaiçi’s rejections to the statement of the media. SDSM fiercely denied that they will not take part in the elections, as the country estimates are not eligible for the holding of democratic elections. Zaev, told a short statement to reporters: "For us, elections are not acceptable. Without being

5 Ibid 6 Ibid

121 Political Systems and a Continuing Account for Elusive Peace in Republic of Macedonia by Hyreme Gurra arranged in time, and cleaning of the electoral list, we do not take part in the elections. We will continue, for fair and democratic elections." DUI's leader Ali Ahmeti, after the meeting said that the negotiating parties had differences and have not advanced to agree on election date. According to Prime Minister Nikola Gruevski, leader of SDSM's Zoran Zaev was seeking delay of the election after bone aware of the profound loss of host’s. After the meeting, spoke to the media bone Commissioner Johannes Hahn.7

"The European future of Macedonia depends on agreement of Przino". Ambassador Willem Wouter Plomp asserted that the Dutch presidency insisted that Macedonia will work on full implementation of the Agreement Pzino. Within the chairmanship Dutch European Union (EU) for the period January to June 2016, at the session of the National Council for Integration in the Macedonian Parliament, the Dutch ambassador in the country, Willem Wouter Plomp, presented the program and priorities for the work of the presidency of the Netherlands EU, reports Anadolu Agency (AA). Ambassador Plomp stated that the Dutch presidency's priorities during this period are a comprehensive approach to the problem of migration, the European commitment to a healthy financial system, as well as climate change and energy issues. He stressed that the Dutch presidency will work on the crisis of immigration, good ethnic relations, and full implementation of the political agreement or the so-called "Përzhino’s Agreement".

"For the first time since the fall of Communism, the EU is facing a situation in which the prime minister of an EU candidate country must abdicate because of indications for criminal and political wrongdoings," Nano Ruzin, former Macedonian ambassador in Brussels told DW. An EU expert’s report in June alleged various forms of government corruption, such as electoral fraud, blackmail and extortion. It also highlighted "an unhealthy relationship" between top governmental officials and the media.8

7 A1 On Mk 16 January 2016 8 http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/news_corner/news/_files/20150619_recommendations_the_seniorexperts_group.p df. (accessed on 08/07/02016)

122 Political Systems and a Continuing Account for Elusive Peace in Republic of Macedonia by Hyreme Gurra

A tense atmosphere and an uncontrollable rebellious mess followed the trajectory of the governmental establishment being libeled for corruption allegations and the opposition party added to escalating tempers. Eager for revealing the surreptitious tapping drew thousands of people in the streets of the cities of Republic of Macedonia.

“But according to three members of the European parliament, Ivo Vajgl, Richard Howitt and Eduard Kukan who visited Macedonia on Tuesday, the agreement is still far from being fully implemented, despite the country's steps toward restoring parliamentary stability and investigating the corruption allegations”.9

9 http://www.dw.com/en/eu-hols-key-to macedonia-political-crisis/a18980323 (accessed on 07/09/2017)

123 Political Systems and a Continuing Account for Elusive Peace in Republic of Macedonia by Hyreme Gurra

Conclusion

Due to international pressure based on the main conditions of the Agreement, on 1st September, 2016 the opposition party SDS was back in the Parliament, with a list of new ministers members of the cabinet of the government such as; Interior Minister Oliver Spasovski, and Minister of Labor and Social Policy Frosina Remenski, as well as the alternate ministers. The immediate request of the opposition - Nikola Gruevski's resignation - was also performed. The visiting members of the foreign community in Macedonia stated that the implementation of the agreed reforms and the fair elections would be considered key conditions for the country's future in the EU. Otherwise Macedonia might become the first country to lose the EU recommendation to open accession negotiations. The swaying policy of Gruevski asking for allies in East and his corruptive stubborn autocratic policy lead three mandates: hoarsened citizen’s social welfare state and brought the country to the brink of civil war; perpetuated the crisis; and legitimize the farewell to democracy in the country. The latest polls performed by different institutions came up with results that suggested that Gruevski and his nationalist-conservative party are big favorites and are expected to win the elections if they take place. Some analysts shared the concern that this result may cost Macedonia not only its EU and NATO candidate status, but the most precious the institution of democracy itself. While the narrator of this research paper - an expert of International Justice and foreign Affairs -shares the opinion that the current situation makes the European Union equally responsible for the future of the country. She is fully convinced that that Gruevski would be ready to risk Macedonia's EU integration to rule the country for another term.

Bibliography:

124 Political Systems and a Continuing Account for Elusive Peace in Republic of Macedonia by Hyreme Gurra

1. Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 2014, The Macs of Anarchy-a poem, Read Books Limited.

News;

1. Sinisa Jakov Marusic, 2016, “ News” 19 January,2016 2. Bota Sot 25 November 2015 3. Top Channel 15 January 2016 4. A1 On Mk 16 January 2016 5. Bota Sot 25 November 2015 6. Stratfor Media Center 31st December 2015 7. Erwan Fuere BIRN Ohrid 21 January 2016

References:

1. http://www.independent.mk/articles/32633/Year+Later+What+is+Left+of+Przino+Agreeme nt( accessed on 04/08/2016) 2. http://eeas.europa.eu/archives/delegations/the_former_yugoslav_republic_of_macedonia/pres s_corner/all_news/news/2016/2016-07-20_agreement_en.htm (accessed on22/01/2017) 3. http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/news_corner/news/_files/20150619_recommendations_the_s eniorexperts_group.pdf. (accessed on 08/07/02016) 4. http://www.dw.com/en/eu-hols-key-to macedonia-political-crisis/a18980323 (accessed on 07/09/2017)

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Teaching Politeness Strategies to Advanced Students in ESP Courses by Irina Petrovska

This paper deals with the politeness strategies potential in subject specific fields and highlights the role of learning politeness strategies as a powerful cognitive tool fundamental to further enhancing the second language learner’s ability to cope with this specialized verbal characteristic in hospitality industry discourse. The paper explores the close interplay between social (extra-linguistic) and structural (linguistic) factors shaping the linguistic idiosyncrasies of English and Macedonian politeness strategies in hospitality industry discourse.

It has been argued that the awareness of cross-cultural differences concerning politeness strategies may be exploited as a valuable teaching resource for classroom interaction.

Key words: politeness strategies, communicative competence, specialized discourse.

Introduction

Many hospitality training programs available nowadays to advanced students in ESP courses focus on culture and cross-cultural communication skills. The context of culture is an important frame within we interpret the reality and organize our experience. Katan (1999:17), emphasizes that culture maybe viewed as a commonly shared mental model or map of the world consisting of beliefs, values and cognitive environments which affect the behavior and identify individual persons. Cross-cultural understanding is of considerably great importance when ESP courses are taught. It has been widely recognized that moving across cultures actually means communicating not only with foreign visitors but also dealing with foreign social and cultural systems. Functioning successfully in academic, business or other professional settings always understands adjustment to cultural variations in social relationships.

In the hospitality industry, human resources represent an agent of the uttermost importance. Education for the hospitality industry, further upgrading, professionalism, together with a change of the mentality in the service encounter i.e. communication culture, assume an exceptional significance within quality standards improving strategies. Future hospitality

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industry employees, represent the base for a further development in tourism - a complex phenomenon requiring an interdisciplinary approach towards professional training. ESP students being professionally trained should gradually become aware of strong relationship that exists between linguistic communication and culture and realize that social behavior depends on socially prescribed norms which differ from one country to another.

According to Prichard, (2000:239),the ultimate goal of ESP professionals is to ensure pragmatic success in communication. In developing awareness of the needs and concerns of ESP students, teachers should consider teaching matters beyond teaching the language. The author is definite that the answer is clearly affirmative because most tourism and hospitality English courses, especially those designed for advanced learners, often focus on such areas as polite requests, apologies, expressing regrets, etc. In these areas behavioral strategies and techniques play important role.

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Students should be made aware of socio-cultural contexts in which communication occurs, culturally-influenced behavior, the impact of different cultures on their languages. Therefore, cultural awareness raising and cultural instruction should play an important role in advanced ESP courses. No one involved in teaching ESP is likely to argue for cross-cultural understanding and multicultural diversity, but some may question the relative emphasis to be given to cross-cultural as opposed to target or local culture components in course design. The main teaching/learning aim should be mastering spoken communication, as tourism is actually a human exchange in which it is extremely important to communicate respecting and understanding the tourists’ different cultural values in order to create reliability and trust.

One of the most important task in the ESP teaching process is the students’ cross-cultural awareness. Foreign language teachers should bear in mind that they are actually teaching operators in direct contact with customers a very complex art of how to “manage, interact, negotiate and compromise with people of different culture backgrounds and at different levels of communication. “(Yu, 1999)

Cross-cultural Aspects in Verbal Communication

Wierzbicka, (1985:145-178) beliefs that different cultures find expression in different systems of speech acts, and that different speech acts become entrenched, and to some extent, codified in different languages. Thus, in interpersonal communication where English is used as a means for transmitting the message, there are cultural differences with respect to how and what type of directness is expected from participants in a particular situation. Failure to anticipate the communication, a problem may occur in unwilling social incidents which may leave native speakers of English hurt and offended. For instance, the English use of the imperative is mostly used in commands and orders, instructions and directness for the benefit of the addressee, which implies that there is a heavy restrictions on the use of the imperative in English. Katan (1999:215-221) notes that “…..the imperative is a sign of extreme urgency or lack of politeness.”

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Macedonian politeness strategies are not alone among European languages in differing from English in this sense. According to Wierzbicka (1985), these differences in the degree of directness ….would also apply to Russian, Serbian, Croatian, Spanish and many other languages. It is English which seems to have a particularly rich system of devices reflecting a characteristically Anglo-Saxon cultural tradition.

Consequently the speech act Book a double room will need further ‘softening’. While the possible context-bound variants of this request in Macedonian would be Ќе ве молам да резервирате една двокреветна соба, Можам ли да ве замолам да резервирате една двокреветна соба, the English language offers a wide range of lexical and grammatical options depending on the learner’s awareness of the degree of indirectness required:

Can/could you book a double room, please? book a double room? I was wondering if I could ask you to I wonder if I could ask you to book a double room? Do you think I could possibly ask you to book a double room? If it’s not too much trouble, do you think I could ask you to book a double room?

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The mechanisms the English use to express their feelings, opinions or ideas is acquired at very early age. Therefore, students of English should learn how to deal effectively with this typically English rich system of devices reflecting their cultural tradition which tolerates individual idiosyncrasies and peculiarities, which respects everyone’s privacy.

Goodale (1987) identifies lexico-grammatical devices that can be used to convert direct statements into culturally appropriate tactful messages. He notes, for instance that the dogmatic tone of many statements can be cushioned by simply adding I’m afraid, to make clear that you recognize the unhelpfulness of one’s response or comment. Thus, introductory phrases such as To be honest ..., or Frankly... may be used to warn the listener that disagreement follows, while the grammatical negative not used with a positive word, for instance, not very comfortable instead of the obvious negative counterpart uncomfortable, makes any suggestion more open and negotiable.

According to Wierzbicka (in Katan, 1999:215), the English indirectness seems to be “related to core English values of freedom, respect for privacy, principles of negative politeness and not wishing to impose.” Thus, EFL students should be strongly advised to avoid direct contradictions and learn to split direct disagreement into stages, although this might not be the way they map the various options when using their mother tongue:

Explanation Possible options Starting a conversation I wonder if I could book an all inclusive tour. I’d like to book an all inclusive tour. Checking for understanding Did you say something about …. Could you possibly repeat …. Showing tactful redirecting Isn’t there any other tour you would like to book, madam? Why don’t you have a look at our promotional brochure first? Offering We could offer much better arrangement

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One of the often used communicative mechanism in hospitality industry are requests. Requests can be realized with a variety of constructions. In Macedonian three moods can be distinguished: indicative, subjunctive and imperative. Depending on the context all three moods can be used in expressing requests. As morphologically rich and at the same time being functionally flexible, imperative mood is very often used for everyday requests in Macedonian, for instance: резервирајте ми за четири особи една маса до прозорец; (Make a reservation for four by the window). Subjunctive interrogatives are also used for requests as they make it easier for the addressee to provide a negative response. For example, Кога би можеле да не сместите во поубавиот хотел; (If you could possibly accommodated us in the more beautiful hotel?). Within hospitality discourse, subjunctive interrogatives occur in both formal and informal contexts when there is high level of cooperation. A common everyday conversational means of requesting in Macedonian is the present indicative interrogative as in Ќе одиме на разгледување на градот; (Do [can] we go city sightseeing? A possible explanation for this use is that the present indicative interrogative expresses a degree of certainty and present reality, whereas subjunctive and modals express uncertainty and distance. For contrast, in English, imperatives are considered the least polite constructions when compared to declaratives and interrogatives. (Leech, 1983:119).

One of the most common mitigating devices used with requests in Macedonian hospitality discourse is the use of diminutives. Diminutives are formed by adding special suffixes (e.g.— енце, -ичко,-елценце, --уле) to nouns and adjectives (e.g. хотел [hotel] / хотел-че [hotel.dim]. Multiple suffixation is also possible (e.g. кафуле [café] / кафуленце [café.dim+dim]).Even though their prototypical function is to indicate smallness, diminutives in hospitality settings are used extensively to indicate affection, endearment and informality. This is especially the case in restaurants where it is not uncommon to hear people asking for or offering сиренце (cheese.dim), винце (wine.dim), пржени компирчиња (fried potatoes. dim) etc. Speakers may freely decide whether to use diminutives or not and use them only in relatively informal contexts. (Terkourafi, 2004:266). It seems as if the diminutive strategies in hospitality discourse were developed for the purposes of expressing informal, positive politeness.

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Intercultural Communicative Competence

So far, in the analysis of the speech acts in the hospitality discourse the stress was put basically on the Anglo-American cultural values, which are reflected through the English language. This should not lead to a conclusion that the speech acts in L1 reflect certain cultural values, whereas the speech acts realized in the L2 reflect only the absence of these values. It is completely understood that the speech acts completely reflect those values that are a characteristic of the L2. For instance, the speakers of English may think that the speakers of Macedonian through the way they communicate reflect dogmatism, insufficient interest for their interlocutors in the speech interactions, inflexibility even a tendency to be too indiscrete, curious, etc. On the other hand, having in mind the speech acts of the speakers of English, the speech acts used by the speakers of Macedonian can be defined of missing cordiality, spontaneity, and directness.

As for the differences in the speech acts in both compared cultures the analysis show that even though there exist literature on speech acts where English communicative strategies are often interpreted as manifestation of universal natural logic, or a universal logic of conversation (Gordon and Lakoff, 1975) the analysis have shown that such certifications are too ethnocentric. The specific speech acts in English which are pointed out to universal principles in expressing politeness, have shown to be linguistically and culturally specific. In the English language there are no universal rules of politeness, nor specific rules of politeness when communicating with a guest, but rather there is a difference between communicative strategies in the English language and the reflected cultural values in it.

The hospitality industry with its specific services is an arena of cultural clichés and cultural misunderstandings. It is of great importance to know the cultural norms and the language used by the hospitality personnel when communicating with foreign guest. However, if the attitudes in the speech acts of the native speakers of English reflect what is ‘normal’, natural’, are widely accepted, a successful intercultural communication among the speakers of different cultures cannot be realized. If a speaker of Macedonian tries to use simple imperative constructions in the English language will be marked as impolite and rough

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communicator. The same speaker may be defined as uncooperative and insufficiently intelligent when not being able to offer a reply to a well elaborated indirect addressing by the speakers of English. On the other hand, too loud expression of emotions for instance, when a customer is complaining or the use of direct forms of address, for the speakers of English can be considered as insulting and irritating.

It is obvious that future challenges in hospitality education are calling for re-examining the methodology of teaching intercultural communication. According to Hymes, (1964) the ability to understand the speakers who come from different national cultures does not rely only on communicative competence but on the consciousness that the cultural meanings and values incorporated in the foreign language are specific for each national culture.

Hospitality students who learn foreign languages should become aware of learning how to understand the cultural differences and cultural relativity. Learning foreign language begins with a change towards applying the intercultural communicative competence. The cultural mirrors of the source culture and culture – target which are incorporated in the speech acts can offer great contribution not only in the methodology of foreign language learning but for the participants themselves in the hospitality industry.

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Conclusion

The differences in the realization in the speech acts in the category of polite requests reflect the connection with the different ways of evaluation cultural values in both cultures such as cordiality, hospitality, spontaneity, directness, intimacy and affection in contrast to indirectness, distance, tolerance and antidogmatism, individualism, which as such are reflected in the hospitality discourse.

Globally, this is a reflection of the Anglo-Saxon social matrix in contrast to the Byzantine social matrix. On the one hand, the English language and culture come from a long-time existing capitalist society, in comparison to the Macedonian language and culture upon which the long years of socialist system of existing left traces. The differences in the speech acts in the hospitality discourse in English and Macedonian are due to the fact that the cultural systems of both languages are organized differently which means there are differences in the cultural norms and cultural assumptions, and the social mechanisms of competence appear to be culturally specific.

Speakers of a given culture very often and much more are exposed to the influence of a foreign culture and ever since before, as a result of the demand of their profession or as a result of the socio-economic makes which contribute towards the ethic profile of a country being quite picturesque. In that colourful field of different cultures, traditions, languages and dialects, insufficiently informed person can very often experience a cultural shock, thus confronting diverse influences on a daily basis. Therefore, the systematic study of the cultural phenomenon in general and specially studying the specific a nation’s cultural conventions the guests encounter becomes an integral part of the modern educational system. The information offered through this approach offers better penetration in one’s own culture. The importance of multiculturalism is seen in overcoming the ethnocentrism which is a needed precondition for living in a multinational and multicultural society.

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In the area of cross-cultural encounters misinterpretation of politeness strategies may occur if cultural variables are not respected. EFL learners, especially those pursuing advanced courses should be taught to develop ‘sensitivity’ when using English as a means of communication. In the light of these cross-cultural considerations, there is a pressure on the ESP teachers to include cultural information in their courses so that students can have proper functioning in professional settings.

References

Abbot, G. (1981).”Encouraging communication in English: a paradox”, ELT Journal 35: (228-230). Goodale, M. (1987). The Language of Meaning. Hove Language Teaching Publications. Gordon, D. Lakoff, G. (1975). Conversational Postulates. In Essays on Conversational Postulates (P.Cole and J. Morgan, eds), 83-105. Hymes, D. (1964. Language in Culture and Society.New York: Harper & Row. Katan, D.(1999). Translating Cultures, An Introduction for Translators, Interpreters and Mediators. Manchester St. Jerome Publ. Kramsch, C. (1993). Context and Culture in Language teaching. Oxford University Press. Leech, G.N. (1983). Principles of Pragmatics. London. Longman. Pritchard, K. (2000).Cross-Cultural Approach to the teaching of ESP. In Tourism Hospitality Industry 2000: New Trends in Tourism and Hospitality Management. Opatija:239-246. Terkourafi, M. (2004). “Politeness in Cyprus: A Coffee or a Small Coffee?” In Huckey, L. and Stewart, M. (ed). Politeness in Europe. Multilingual Matters 127 LTD:277-287. Wierzbicka, A. (1985). Different Cultures, Different Languages, Different Speech Acts. Journal of Pragmatics 9:(145-178) Yu, L. (1999). The International Hospitality Business.New York, London. Oxford. The Haworth Hospitality.

Irina Petrovska Teaching Politeness Strategies to Advanced Students in ESP Courses

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Summary

This paper deals with the politeness strategies potential in subject specific fields and highlights the role of learning politeness strategies as a powerful cognitive tool fundamental to further enhancing the second language learner’s ability to cope with this specialized verbal characteristic in hospitality industry discourse. A number of authors have contributed towards this exceedingly diverse and complex phenomena. (Brown and Levinson’s 1978/1987, Watts et al., 1992, Kasper, 1997). The paper explores the close interplay between social (extra-linguistic) and structural (linguistic) factors shaping the linguistic idiosyncrasies of English and Macedonian politeness strategies in hospitality industry discourse.

The analysis showed that there is an extensive use of derivational diminutives in Macedonian communicative strategies as a tool to express the politeness of involvement, especially in hospitality situations as offering coffee, food. English strategies form this domain mostly rely on indirectness and usage of mechanisms for expressing indirect requests.

It has been argued that the awareness of cross-cultural differences concerning politeness strategies may be exploited as a valuable teaching resource for classroom interaction and as a springboard for further enhancing of the adult learners’ communicative competence in subject specific fields.

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The Motif of Motion in ‘Ulysses’, ‘Lolita’ and ‘On The Road’ by Sandra Sumonja

"It is not so important to live, it is important to sail!" (Pliny the Elder)

1. Introduction

Popular culture is one of the inevitable concepts in the postmodern era and one of the cornerstones of 20th and 21st century. In this paper, we will examine some of the main features of modern life that reflect trends in popular culture, such as the motif modes of movement, daily life, home and dining. Throughout examples we will see just how modern and postmodern literature is imbued with popular trends and how strong the relationship between reality and its reflection through creative literary work is.

What becomes popular- is what is written about, what is given far greater attention that conservative and traditional and as such- a primary feature of everyday life it finds its expression in the novels like Joyce’s ‘ Ulysses’, ‘Lolita’ by Vladimir Nabokov and ‘On the Road’ by Jack Kerouac.

1.1 The motif of journey and its development in modern times

Throughout history, the journey was a crucial factor in finding a suitable place for the founding of settlements, discovering unfamiliar areas and the creating better living conditions. It influenced the people who set off to strange and unknown to be considered extraordinary. The old stories and songs testify about countless adventures and intrepid heroes. In the literary tradition, there is also the parallel stating that movement is never a simple change of residence; it is a challenge, a true indicator of one's character, the temptation and the condition for spiritual development. A true representative of this understanding of movement and travel is Homer's Odyssey.

However, many centuries later, the ever present motives of wandering and searching do not stand for great achievements and bold adventurous expeditions anymore. With dying of the heroic era all its features have disappeared. Heroes are cowards, their maids are unfaithful, grotesque monsters from the enchanted caves are moved to the zoo.

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In literature, as in life, the patterns inherited from the past are no longer found to match the present created by a new generation. As the literature is the mirror of life, it gathers new influences so that the deconstruction of the myth takes place. Contemporary form has reduced old patterns to absurdity- that becomes the very essence of the new era; heroes recede and disappear, leaving the path open to the anti-heroes. It must be noted that the two terms (hero and antihero) are not binary opposition, there is no relationship between good and evil, but a shift of values and views on what is considered heroic.

An antihero is not always fair, brave and fearless moral giant. Unlike its predecessor, the anti- hero has a far greater range of emotions, intimidations and doubts. He's the new Odyssey, he is nobody (old Greek οὖτις) and at the same time god Zeus (old Greek Ζεύς) of his own little world. The ideal description is provided in the following passage:" To the ordinary man.

To a common hero, a ubiquitous character, walking in countless thousands on the streets. In invoking here at the outset of my narratives the absent figure who provides both the beginnings and necessity I inquire into the desire whose impossible object he represents. What are we asking this oracle whose voice is almost indistinguishable from the rumble of history to license us, to authorize us to say, when we dedicate to him the writing that one formerly offered in praise of the gods or inspiring muses? "(De Certeau, 1984, XI)

The questions imposed are what the new heroes are like, who represents aspects of change and Movement and what they signify today.

In the 20th century, when modern technologies and inventions are gaining greater proportion of people's lives, movement - the act of traveling, is getting a different dimension than it had before. We live in a time of rapid, turbulent, radical and constant changes in society. The movement itself becomes a goal. The need for change is not a result of the being intrepid and courageous anymore, but a characteristic of the modern era. "Marginalization is no longer a feature of minority only; it has become massive and pervasive characteristic; that is non-structural mass cultural activity [...]" (De Certeau, 1984, XVII)

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As time passes, movement is faster and more important. The entire Western world is slowly starting to look like an agitated hive that is migrating in different directions. People are less satisfied with their present stated, more eager to change and full of internal strife to engage in search for some new areas, events, environments, and opportunities. Why is it like that today? What does modern man seek for?

What galvanizes him and how does he survive?

The answers will be revealed by scrutinizing the motif and elements of movement in novels Ulysses by James Joyce, Lolita by Vladimir Nabokov and On the Road by Jack Kerouac.

How does the need for movement appear? Throughout all three books the answer is hunger.

Leopold Bloom, the hero of Ulysses lives his life deprived of love, recognition and affection. Joyce ironically introduces him as freshly woken up and seemingly trivial, hungry and eager to have breakfast.

‘Mr. Leopold Bloom ate with relish the inner organs of beasts and fowls. He liked thick giblet soup, nutty gizzards, a stuffed roast heart, liver slices fried with crust crumbs, fried hencods' roes. Most of all he liked grilled mutton kidneys which gave to his palate a fine tang of faintly scented urine. Kidneys were in his mind as he moved about the kitchen softly, righting her breakfast things on the humpy tray. Gelid light and air were in the kitchen but out of doors gentle summer morning everywhere. Made him feel a bit peckish. ’ (Joyce, 2012, 67) in the initial description Leopold highlights his favorite dishes, thus putting emphasis on his appetite. Further reading reveals that there is the word hungry used nine times in different conversations and situations.

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In the case of Humbert, the protagonist of Lolita, movement first appears as a way to calm and overcome internal unrest, brought by hunger and desire for illicit connections. In order to numb his appetite he decides to go to the cold Arctic regions of Canada. This was among his first attempts to get rid of the terrible yearning that had engulfed him and made him its slave.

‘My health was miraculously recovered despite fantastic emptiness and boredom. Surrounded by vegetation such as dwarf willows, lichens, degassed and, I suppose I have been cleaned…under a completely translucent sky I felt strangely distant from myself. …no temptation. ‘(Nabokov 2004, 39)

Frustration caused by socially unaccepted sexual preferences drives this hero numerous and various relocations. He states that by movement away from his drives he moves away from his own identity. However too weak to lead a life of a hermit and insidious stalker, he grabs the first opportunity to fulfill his fantasies.

‘Distracted father went on saying that they will go away shortly after the funeral for his sensitive daughter and he will do his best to give her a good time in a completely different environment, maybe a trip to New Mexico or California - of course, if he survives. "(p113)

Aware that only far from the current residence he can enjoy the presence of Lolita, Humbert cleverly devised an excuse for leaving without return. Thus, as soon as the form of his relationship with Lolita has been socially accepted he does not hesitate to make his selfish hidden desires come true.

In the novel, On the Road, "Sal embarks on a quest to fulfill a dream of going to the West. The first reason he states is the hunger for new landscapes and sceneries. After a personal failure and monotony that seemed devastating, he created a strong need for a thorough change.

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‘I first met Dean not long after my wife and I split up. I had just gotten over a serious illness that I won’t bother to talk about, except that it had something to do with the miserably weary split-up and my feeling that everything was dead. With the coming of Dean Moriarty began the part of my life you could call my life on the road. Before that I’d often dreamed of going West to see the country, always vaguely planning and never taking off. Dean is the perfect guy for the road because he actually was born on the road, when his parents were passing through Salt Lake City in 1926, in a jalopy, on their way to Los Angeles.’ (Kerouac 2005, 5)

The word vague reflects the passive state of modern man and the modern culture of constant change and movement gives the hero another perspective of why should fulfill his quite random and poorly defined plan. For him, the departure has significance for his creative work as well.

‘All my New York friends were in the negative phase while Dean stormed through society eager bread and love, I heard his call and he could make out a new horizon. I was a young writer and I Wanted to go ….‘(P.13). it could be said that the hunger is archetypal reason of each journey.

Today, that hunger is spiritual and requires getting to our inner being and bringing out our true nature.

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1.3 Physical hunger - modes of modern times

What happens with the basic, prehistoric and recently even marginalized urge to satisfy one’s craving for a meal?

What is used to quiet the sounds of a hungry stomach?

If one considers these questions less important, remember that all the heroes in all stories always took food and drink to them befitting; ambrosia for the gods, the red wine for Marko Kraljevic (a folklore hero).

How do eating habits reflect social changes? Leopold Bloom eats at home first. However we can see a strange thing - he himself makes breakfast and not his wife. In earlier periods, many trees were cut down in order write and print tons and tons of paper about virtuous, humble, God- fearing and dedicated ladies who serve their beloved, strict, uptight and righteous men. Joyce sends his hero into the kitchen while Molly is lounging in bed. This image deconstructs the idea of a despot husband and maid wife. Family is not what it used to be. Whether this a positive or negative change shall be left for further discussion of Amish circles and feminist associations

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Following Bloom’s steps we see him in many inns; he does not rush home to have home made meal with fine cutlery because he knows that will not find it. Hunger forces him to visit inns and pubs. He wants to have lunch at one of the places that are along the way of his itinerary. Along the way becomes characteristic of the modern era meals.

, A hungry man - angry man ... Duke Street. There we go. You need to eat something. "(Joyce, 2012, 180)

Not only that inns with cooked meals do not provide the warmth of a family home atmosphere, but they are so smelly and dirty that hungry Blum loses appetite.

‘Smells of men. Spaton sawdust, sweetish warmish cigarettesmoke, reek of plug, spilt beer, men's beery piss, the stale of ferment. Parish gorge rose. 670 Couldn't eat a morsel here. Fellow sharpening knife and fork to eat all before him, old chap picking his tootles. Slight spasm, full, chewing the cud. Before and after. Grace after meals. Look on this picture then on that. Scoffing up stewgravy with sopping sippets of bread. Lick it off the plate, man! Get out of this. PARHe gazed round the stooled and tabled eaters, tightening the wings of his nose."(Joyce, 2012, 181)

These pubs serving stews and cooked meals become dining rooms to many men who either do not want to or do not have anyone to go home to.

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Dissolving family ties and commitment, meals, that were once an integral link between the family members, now take the form necessity and nuisance done in haste. In Lolita, there are many situations that thoroughly reflect the modern culinary trends such as diets, collecting light recipes and romantically set table. However it all stops when Humbert and Lolita set off and start living, one might say, a gypsy way of life. A meal ceases to be a ritual designed for enjoying the smell and taste; it is neither healthy nor nutritious nor performed within a family. Aware of the plot, it is clear why Humbert and his young companion do not pay special attention to their eating habits. Cooked meals are not present here; from Eating along the way they go to a more modern category- to fill you up and to be tasty.

Dining rooms cease to resemble places where one can eat with delight. Except for lame attempts to make dining room a pleasant place, it is clear that the ritual itself has a pathetic form.

‘... It was a spacious room with a pretentious pious murals depicting enchanted hunters in various positions and states of enchantment amidst colorful society colorless animals, dryads and trees. A few scattered old ladies, two priests and a man in a sports jacket were ending the meal in silence. Dining room is closed at 9 waitresses dressed in green desperatly hurry to get rid of us. [...... ]she slammed dessert table on the - a huge slice of cake with cherries for the lady, and her patron vanilla ice cream. "(Nabokov 2004, 135)

She is not a lady but a child, Humbert is not a knight in shining amour but a deviant stepfather. Description of premises and guests creates a feeling of nausea and discomfort. Not only this is an unusual depiction of two people having dinner, but not one detail fits the conventions that previously in literature existed and society.

Unlike previous heroes, Sal chooses movement as a way of life only because of pleasure and adventure. Sal’s modern, nutritionally sparse diet is mainly based on fast food. Through his pace of travel and food choices we only imagine how his hectic travel is.

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‘I ate another apple pie and ice cream; was that virtually everything I did during the earlier times ate - the food was delicious and of course, calories.’(Kerouac 2005, 18)

This type of diet has been present for decades all around the globe. The number of calories is inversely proportional to the price of a meal. High energy provided by calories and cheap price are the main advantages of the immense fast food world. What happens is that there are no few meals but only one, sometimes even in the form of dessert. Taste and the number of calories become the main attributes in the selection of food. Food, restaurants, and pubs have become inevitable. The irony is that the progress of civilization brings out the primeval need for devouring and overloading. '

Along the way the way', 'instant/fast food and takeaway have become the pop culture prerogatives for a meal.

1.4 The motion of the modern era

In the novel 'Ulysses' our Odysseus starts his epic journey on foot. As a complete contrast to the former legendary ships or faithful horses. This kind of movement opens a dimension because seemingly random wandering around the city can have epic proportions since the real journey takes place in one’s mind.

‘Think you're escaping and run into yourself. Longest way round is the shortest way home’(Joyce, 2012, 393)

In his ingenious way, Joyce portrays the character’s stream of consciousness, thus crating a real modern Odyssey. Although there are no Cyclops, sweet voiced mermaids or dangerous sorceress, Leopold Bloom struggles all the time with his just as strong inner demons. He is struggling to understand the world around him, to find love and beauty in a bleak environment and to preserve his unfaithful Penelope. It happens on foot, without a sword, unaccompanied, and almost without hope, he makes superhuman efforts to walk familiar streets and find the meaning to it all. And what is the greater goal?

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Finding the meaning of everyday life and its purpose has become the Holy Grail of modern times.

Talking about Lolita and Humbert, the speed of movement has a great influence on their decisions.

Their car becomes a sort of Aladdin’s flying carpet.

‘Then began our extensive travels throughout the United States. Soon I began to all other types of tourist accommodation guess functional motel clean, neat, safe nooks, ideal places for sleep, argument, reconciliation, insatiable illicit love.’(Nabokov 2004, 161)

Whenever he feels danger, and whenever he feels like his aspirations are threatened, Humbert starts the car and leaves with his companions.

Along with the old function to get somewhere, the function of running always is more emphasized here, which is precisely the main characteristic of Humbert’s way of travel.

For Sal the most important thing is to arrive to a desired location as soon as possible. However, buying a bus or a plane ticket does not make much sense to him because, even though he is egar to get to the West, hitch hiking as a way of travelling is as important as the goal of arriving itself. My first ride was a dynamite truck with a red flag, about thirty miles into great green Illinois, the truckdriver pointing out the place where Route 6, which we were on, intersects Route 66 before they both shoot west for incredible distances. Along about three in the afternoon, after an apple pie and ice creamin a roadside stand, a woman stopped for me in a little coupe. I had a twinge of hard joy as I ran after the car. But she was a middle-aged woman, actually the mother of sons my age, and wanted somebody to help her drive to Iowa. I was all for it. Iowa! Not so far from Denver, and once I got to Denver I could relax. She drove the first few hours, at one point insisted on visiting an old church somewhere, as if we were tourists, and then I took over the wheel and, though I'm not much of a driver, drove clear through the rest of Illinois to Davenport, Iowa, via Rock Island. And here for the first time in my life I saw my beloved Mississippi River,

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dry in the summer haze, low water, with its big rank smell that smells like the raw body of America itself because it washes it up. (Kerouac, 2005.17)

Hitchhiking, bumping in the back of the truck with a bunch of strangers, yawning and drowsiness next to a talkative truck driver, rain and lack of money, are all necessary and desirable experiences for the sake of adventures and expanding horizons. Just as the protagonist himself says, after a period of illness and divorce, he wanted to change something in his life.

This kind of scenario is becoming increasingly popular in the world. A journey is nowadays considered as a spiritual development and healing process. Unlike Bloom, who is in a way forced to deal with inner issues on the move, Sal is boyishly looking forward quest and adventure, so instead Odyssey’s troubles we have a hero who roams the landscapes of his country led only by the idea of having fun. Volatility, as one of the key concepts of modern culture, is best reflected in his hitch hiking quest.

2. Conclusion

The motives of movement and constant change have become part of life style. Individuality in popular culture gained a much more important role than it had before. A sense of community is fading away. By traveling and movement we can give more meaning to our lives even if we are as lonely as Bloom or childishly curious like Sal.

Someone’s peculiar lifestyle requires constant changes just like Humbert’s. But motion is getting faster and more important with every day. It affects all aspects of modern life.

Home receives the form of the hotel, a place where you sleep over and have breakfast. Career and personal pursuits guide us, in the morning, modern heroes just rush out of the house, making sure that their keys are in their pocket, than spend a day in meaningless conversations. Just like Humbert they put all their efforts into an unconventional quest for the sake of a relatively short- satisfaction. Some of them like Sal wonder around, in a pursuit of a childhood dream and living in a Peter Pan adulthood. Hunger for life’s pleasures, boredom and dissatisfaction gush relentlessly seeking quick and simple solutions.

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Ulusseys, Lolita and Othe Road suggest that fast and voracious world is movement in front of our eyes.

Bibliography

De Certeau, Michel. The Practice of Everyday Life. Berkeley: University of California Press in 1984.

Fisk, John. Popular Culture. Translated by: Zoran Punović. Belgrade: Clio, 2,001th

Kerouac, Jack. On the road. Translated by Vojislav Despot. Nis: Zograf, 2005.

Napokov, Vladimir. Lolita. Translated by: Branko Vučičević. Belgrade: News 2004.

Joyce, James. Ulysses. Translated by: Zoran Paunovic. Belgrade: Geopoetika, 2012.

148 Creative Teaching Methods in English Language Teaching by Edita Kamberi Spahiu, PhDc1

Introduction

Teaching and learning are quite complicated methods, but to be realized in a successful way both of these components need to apply a variety of factors that are important and the key to success. Amongst those factors, the principle, the equipment, the strategies and the details are especially important forms of work in groups which is the direction through which we achieve our goals within the technique of learning. In the complicated process of teaching, it's far and remains a problem in the future to use the most efficient techniques of working with students. Creative teaching has to be properly thought out but well-planned. The teacher in his activity uses a variety of strategies, methods and teaching techniques where students interact in special ways of organization. Discussion and working methods with groups create a learning environment in which active learning is supported. Also, the use of efficient methods, which affects the quality of education. The term quality in education is closely related to contemporary models or the different methods and techniques used by teachers during the teaching process to achieve the learning objectives. For this reason, many studies in the field of education have been undertaken today that show that active involvement in the learning process helps to fix different materials but also for a deeper and more accurate understanding of knowledge, as well as their active use.

Figure 1: The classification of creative teaching methods.

1. Innovative Method - Discussion in Teaching 1.1.Understanding Teaching Methods

The methods of learning are: the ways, the steps and the didactic procedures that the teachers uses during and outside the teaching process for the transmission and acquisition of knowledge, skills and habits, the development and formation of personality features and personality traits

149 Creative Teaching Methods in English Language Teaching by Edita Kamberi Spahiu, PhDc1 individual. Historically the methods have evolved, changed, perfected and modernized in accordance with social, economic and political developments.

Learning methods have emerged in Greek mythology when Socrates was forced from Athens to drink the poison. Socrates was accused of reasoning because he was honoring the wrong God, this action undermined the authority of the city and began to be seen by citizens as a bad man. There are various speculations about using teaching methods. Some people think that using the right teaching method is critical in the learning process and student development. Some other people think that the use of the wrong method by the teacher can lead the student to "ignorance", to remove his interest in school or to abandon it. However, there are also people who think that different people learn in different ways, the methods, and the teacher uses in teaching are less important than the content that students learn. In teaching, it is very important to select and use the methods that the teacher will use. The teacher should make the lesson interesting and the classroom to be dynamic, because if the teacher always uses the same teaching method will be monotonous and students will leave the class.

The use of appropriate pedagogical and methodological methods impacts on effective teaching and learning. Traditional teaching, in which the teacher talks over and over, students are "crazy", or "sleeping" throughout the class, and have not heard or understand a word that the teacher explains. This way is very tedious both by the student and the teacher. The traditional method has many advantages and goodies that we cannot deny. What is important to emphasize in the innovative methods of discussion and working with groups, each teacher encourages co- operation and participatory learning.

Methods, group discussion and techniques are particular important and are intended to teach students the habits of long-term learning, develop critical thinks, great influence on how students process information, solve problems and cooperate with others. All this, the habits, the knowledge, the values are related to each other’s. Students, the more developed learners they are, they have the skills of processing information, collaboration, writing, reading, the more likely they will be to make writings where their views and attitudes can be faded around different concepts or issues (QTKA, 2005:30).

150 Creative Teaching Methods in English Language Teaching by Edita Kamberi Spahiu, PhDc1

Each method means achieving a goal. Contemporary innovative methods provide results in the formation of knowledge society skills. The innovative method of discussion awakens the interest of the students and the class will have all-inclusiveness. Good teaching is the result of using good teaching methods that evolve over time, and this should bring teachers together to evolve with time, and use new methods. The teacher will use innovative methods during teaching, before he/she should be trained about the method, have acquired and have good knowledge about it and then he/she will be a student trainer. Some teachers have said that the dimension of teaching methods involves the process, the content and the context. Teachers are facilitators of discussion, mentors and lecturers, while students are listeners and participants. The teaching objective is that the quality of communication has an impact in exchange for information. Teaching methods can be oriented by the teacher or by the student. Discussion with students since the beginning of the concept of teaching has been a teaching strategy. Discussion with the student, in most cases, considers the teacher as a leader who leads the discussion. The teacher raises questions, gives a challenging answer and gives different comments, and at the same time manages the discussion. Discussion is a method in which students talk together about a predetermined topic in order to share and receive information about the subject.

The method of conducting the method of discussion is related to the choice of the subject of the discussion that the teacher determines the definition of the study objective, the division of the tasks of the students who are participants in the discussion, the creation of the environment for the discussion development and the realization of the discussion. Each member's role in the group is to help each other to develop their own ideas. Discussions are not debates and during that intellectual presentation is not encouraged. They are successful when each student develops personal knowledge regarding the topic of discussion.

Discussion is one of the simplest methods used when it comes to enabling the participation process as many of the students in the lesson as possible and when interaction should be realized across the classroom within the student groups.

The discussion starts when students ask questions and when a student answers what another student has said. So this method is a mixture of student teacher explanations, exchange of views and questions between them.

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Discussion is one of the teaching methods used in all three components. In the outer appearance there seems to be similarities with the conversation, and in reality they differ. The method of conversation, as is well known, has the basis for a teacher-student dialogue, and the teaching discourse takes on the appearance of a real controversy. The teaching discussion creates the opportunity to establish a better connection between individual and collective study. The news that brings each in his discussion easily returns to the property of all students. The teaching discussion depends on other methods. Without research, readings, observations, experiments etc. There are no discussions when the lesson is taught on the basis of the lesson learned two phases that are organically related to one another: in the first the preparatory work for discussion begins and the second is discussed about the issues. Students during the discussion process by correcting and clarifying each other's thoughts arrive at more accurate conclusions. Usually the teaching discussion is used by teachers in rehearsal or reinforcement hours, where the teacher controls the students' knowledge. Through the discussions the students' abilities emerge. Students are encouraged to think and judge.

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According to an article by Cheryl Bell Patten, “What makes a good teacher”, the educator’s guide to learning disabilities of student he states, and good teachers don't speak negatively about their students to anyone. Flexibility allows the learning environment to be fluid and creative. Be upbeat and positive and ready to adapt to students moods and needs. Maybe the lesson plan can be more effectively learned if the students stand and move about, play a game with the information or talk about something else that is important to them at that moment. The more open and direct the dialogue is among all the parties, the more involved parents and children become in the educational process, Teachers’ goals are to motivate their students to reach beyond their grasp, to help them read, speak and write, also to think critically, which is a very important subject.1 Teaching is an inquiry path that points out a virtue of responsibility, a constructivist inquiry of teaching and a shaped plan of working.

1.2 Being a Teacher

Originally, a teacher sees each one student as an individual with hopes, strengths capabilities and skillful, and encourages them “to run” after a bright future, “building” a great personality that is able to get where he/she want to. Everyone in the class is a person of something important to contribute.

1 Cheryl Bell Patten.(2018), What Makes a Good Teacher, Retrieved from 2018: Available from http://www.ldonline.org/article/5696, (Accessed April 20,2018).

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Those kind of teachers create an atmosphere in classroom, on which the respect for each other gives the students the feeling of shelter to share the thoughts and feelings, an atmosphere on which making a mistake is seen as an opportunity to learn rather than an opportunity to feel a failure. Teachers distinguish their students on many points.

They analyze their students’ academic strengths, levels and requirements, but especially about their interest, hopes, fears and worries. By this analysis, teachers with their character help their students to develop, achieve, and maintain strong self-esteem in an easier way.

We all know that every student is not excellent, but a teacher knows how to appreciate his/her students, by getting out from them their best, showing them that they are fine in a way, helping each student feel special, unique and very wonderful, retaining them that they are somebody’s precious child because teachers treat their students with respect.

They become close to their students, knowing that it will be hard to say goodbye at the end of the year, and students will carry their teachers in their future, remembering them, feeling grateful and thankful to them for the help, love, respect and their success. Here is a part of what we think makes a teacher,

Passion – it is impossible to become a great teacher without being passionate about your subject. If the teacher does not love his/her subject, they cannot expect their student to like it. Still, it is always important to emphasize. Passion should be every teacher’s subject, but not their only one.

Creativity – regardless of discipline, creativity is paramount. You can be a teacher by taking a pre-packed material, and efficiently transmitting it. Being a teacher, you should be ready to develop custom creative lesson plan and projects. Teachers have an arsenal of techniques.2

Flexibility – when an A student fails a test, the teachers have to be flexible. Likewise, they should make themselves available to students for help as much as possible and publicize that fact. If students know that the teachers are available or have office hours, they will not come

2 Cheryl Bell Patten.(2018), What Makes a Good Teacher, Retrieved from 2018: Available from http://www.ldonline.org/article/5696, (Accessed April 20,2018).

154 Creative Teaching Methods in English Language Teaching by Edita Kamberi Spahiu, PhDc1 and will just struggle through key concepts, realize that learning is not static and teachers cannot be either.

Integrate – I often hear the complaint that there is not support from administration or other teachers. Teachers should just take baby steps; they are the one who most integrate across discipline.

Connect – technically speaking, the knowledge has to form a connection to the student, but teachers are the representation and medium of that knowledge. For instance, Teachers find out what the students passions are and show them how the knowledge connects to them, play an instrument, learn to program etc. it shows that teachers have something in common with students and help them to form a connection.

2. Techniques of Teachers in the Classroom

Teachers observe themselves what they do in classroom, why they do it and if it would have positive results on students. It a self-critical process they do to check their work. I mean teaching is a professional advance that occurs in class. To have an effective lecture hour is a pre-arranged plan lesson and teachers are always organized. The process of a lesson goes throughout some points:

Teacher’s log: it is the students’ evaluation list and the teacher’s notebook where he/she handles every detail of a lecture hour. Starting from plan of what to do, the reaction of students during the lesson time, their answers and some amusing moments… it can also be a very personal log, containing the teacher’s feelings and reactions too.

Register lessons: there are also moments and times that happen or occur in the classroom, things that the teacher cannot catch up, misses some important details, so audio and video records are so important. They are enough suitable and help teacher a lot.

Associate observation: Taking a colleague in the class to observe you could be so beneficial; asking from him to assess you how you are dealing with different situations and if he also

155 Creative Teaching Methods in English Language Teaching by Edita Kamberi Spahiu, PhDc1 thinks that your techniques and methodology are profitable for your students, and if your methods and techniques that surely work.

Students’ feedback: getting students’ opinions and asking them how things go on classroom and if they like them, it is valuable if they do not there is a chance to change it and get something catchier. Some of their ideas could be positive changes and profitable for the students. This could be reached by preparing a questionnaire.

As a teacher, we find feedback very important in teaching, since it helps students understand the subject being studied and gives them clear guidance on how to improve their learning. Although feedback and assessment have a significant role at schools, we have never met one single teacher who would have said assessment to be easy or straight forward. Giving feedback is, however, a process that can be developed consciously and we, therefore, hope that the present methods and techniques provide future teachers with tools on how one is able to create a sincere atmosphere in the classroom where every individual is assessed and encouraged.

There are various methods for how the teacher can create a link between the wanted aim for learning and the real performance of his or her students. Naturally, it consists of setting certain, suitable goals for the whole learning process; specific aims associated with appropriate feedback usually indicate the required criteria for attaining the demanded goals for learning.3

There are hundred other methods and strategies that teachers use on making the teaching methods more and more effective. They use them in different kinds of situations, in order to deal better with the problems that happen during the lecture time and with the different level of students. But, to confront with those kinds of situations, teachers too, need to read and search which methods are more useful and profitable for the students. Improvement in teaching is important starting from attending different training for teaching, and professional development, and searching for new methods.

It helps us as teachers doing our job and students getting knowledge through the most advanced and newest methods.

3 Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77, 81-112.

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Traditional language teaching has undergone a significant transformation with regard to the teaching methodologies. Earlier, the main teaching tools were: the teacher, a blackboard and the book. Teaching, learning, communication and the exchange of information were very limited.

The 20th century brought distinct changes in education. Continuous assessment and new learning types changed the whole structure of learning and teaching. Students have developed an independent learning process through: online researches, self-reflection, self-observing and self-feedback.

Teaching method is the way which establishes the manner how a lecture is realized, student’ corporation, promoting creativity and many more. The most widespread methods now days are: 1. Ask and answer method 2. Discussion 3. Explanation and teaching method 4. Project method. 5. Reconnaissance learning 6. Visual method 7. Demonstration method.

Whereas techniques: 1. Brainstorming 2. Network discussion 3. Veni’s diagram 4. Cluster 5. Two-parted diary 6. Five minute essay

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As a language teacher, every lecture, task and homework we do with our students contains reading, writing, listening, unknown words, grammar features, and other topics related to the subject. It is very important to combine work forms, techniques and methods to have an effective lecture. We always try to find the easiest and the most useful way to interpret the knowledge to our students, even though sometimes it is hard. The methods and techniques written above are usually used from the teachers in ELS at IBU (International Balkan University) in Skopje. This made the teachers curious to see what methods some foreign teachers use. We as teachers have searched on the internet and we found some different techniques which we think we can apply to our students from now on, because they seemed more useful and beneficial than techniques that we use now. What is even more important?

Auditory Visual

Kinaesthetic

Figure 3: Types of learners

The auditory learners prefer to hear the information and respond to spoken instructions. They also like to repeat instructions out load.

The visual learners prefer seeing what they need to learn which is the most beneficial; graphics, videos and action that they can watch.

The kinesthetic learners are very tactile; they need to get a feel for something. It is all about doing and sending what they need to learn. This is at a physical level but can also connect an emotional level. 4

4 Martinsburgcollege.edu.(2015), Visual, Auditory or Kinesthetic: What’s Your Learning Style ?, Retrieved March 10,2015, Available : http://martinsburgcollege.edu/visual-auditory-kinesthetic-whats-learning-style/ (Accessed April 29,2018).

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Teachers establish a special programmer with individual tasks. Separate evaluation of languages skills and the evaluation of effort put into completing assignment. Teachers apply the same evaluation criteria for all students. They do not make pedagogical alliances, with some students, against other students. 5

They involve the whole class and use pair and small group work. Require measurable results of class work and homework so that copying is easy to discover. In a nutshell a teacher has to learn a lot about sociology, psychology and pedagogy and also learns a lot from his or her experience with students. The problem of keeping discipline in the classroom is too widespread and complex to provide an ideal solution for all circumstances in the article. In my opinion, too little is said and written about this critical aspect of teaching. We hope that these ideas and suggestions use those who want to make themselves teacher.

3. Work Forms

Nowadays, groups play an indispensable role in the full understanding of many processes, one of them is on teaching process and which is giving results in raising the students' awareness of importance of group working as respecting the others opinions. Since group work can be an effective method to motivate students, encourage active learning, and develop key critical- thinking, communication and decision-making skills many teachers are using the group work method in their classes.

Group work is used as a means for learning at all levels in educational systems. There is strong scientific support for the benefits of having students learning and working in groups. Even in our ELS courses the group work method has found a great usage. Many teachers believe that lessons should be given in groups allowing children to help each other. Maria Montessori believed that as children grew older more social interaction was needed.

Children in the second plane of development, starting around age 6-12, benefit more from working in pairs or small groups in order to learn from each other. There are many reasons why teachers decide to give group lessons and there are some demonstrated benefits from working in groups in appropriate circumstances. Teachers are using group work and it seems to be

5 Magdalena Sulich.(2004), Keeping the discipline in the classroom, (Poland:English Teaching Forum). (Accessed April 29,2018).

159 Creative Teaching Methods in English Language Teaching by Edita Kamberi Spahiu, PhDc1 beneficial for students since groups are mixed in different level of students and through the group work, students can cooperate and communicate, share knowledge and ideas, they have more information and creativity as well.

However, group work has some disadvantages that many studies have been done on. Some of disadvantages that are considered while working in groups are: noise, only one or two students doing all the work, talking for something else etc. There may be pressure from the group to conform to the majority opinion, then an individual may dominate the discussion and in the end, some members may rely too heavily on others to do the work. But, it also has its good side because there are several advantages of including group work in your class6. Taylor has stated that sharing these benefits with your students in a transparent manner helps them understand how group work can improve learning and prepare them for life experiences. Teamwork enables the group as a whole to be many times more productive than individuals working on their own. It allows each member to focus on the task and the problems that might arise.

Discussing the pros and cons of the various ideas and thoughts on the problems, they face. The group can be seen as a resource, from which each member can draw or call upon, and so on. Teachers combine the work forms according to students’ level and the lecture. The beneficial sides of pair work and small group work are enormous, very useful and affordable for the students because it gives learners more speaking time, changes to pace the lesson. Also it takes the spotlight off you and puts it onto the children, allows them to mix with everyone in group, gives the students a sense of achievement when reaching a team goal, teaches them how to lead and be led by someone other than the teacher and allows you to monitor, move around the class and really listen to the language they are producing. 7 Personally, we usually use group work or pair work during the lectures. It seems more effective and helpful for the students who have more difficulties than the others. Helping each other in different tasks increases the students’ self-esteem.

6 Beebe, S. A., & Masterson, J. T. (2003). Communicating in small groups. Pearson Education Inc. Boston: Massachusetts. 7Ann Taylor.(2011). Top 10 reasons students dislike working in small groups … and why i do it anyway, Retrieved from: May 25,2011, Available: https://iubmb.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/bmb.20511 (Accessed May 4,2018)

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Makes them feel valuable. They ask each other freely about the unclear things, than the teacher. The individual work form is suitable only during exams, dictation and written exercises. Also, in ask and answer method, testing, pronunciation and spoken English.

4. Feedback

One of the most important tools in teaching and learning methodologies is feedback. As Hattie and Timperley (2007) describe it, feedback can be regarded as “a consequence of performance”. However, when the concept of feedback is considered, one may usually think of concrete written feedback, but it is to be noted that we also tend to evaluate other people verbally and non-verbally, as aforementioned. Not all feedback is therefore written or based on numbers – such as grades at school.

The role of feedback is certainly apparent in teaching. That is to say, evaluation is continually present and the way how students are evaluated has an important role in students’ everyday lives. In particular, the interaction between a teacher and a student is significant because, for example, the sincerity and fairness of feedback usually have a major impact on a student’s attitudes towards the learning process, as well as one’s self-esteem. The most important goals in providing feedback are to encourage students during the learning process and assessing the learner’s development realistically. What is more, the assessment highly concentrates on supporting a student’s personal growth. Giving feedback to students, give them a “mirror” that determines the writing skills that students have. Feedback identifies the “weak” side and the writing mistakes; through it you find the strategies in developing the writing skills and attitudes towards writing.8 As Törmä (2011) states, the term feedback can sometimes create rather negative associations since it can be considered as a part of behaviorism. Nevertheless, she argues that when feedback has its bases on a different kind of ideology for learning, the term establishes utterly different, positive meanings. Indeed, instead of plainly indicating errors, the role of explanatory feedback is needed in order to support the development of a student9. Indeed, Arter (2003) points out the powerful role of descriptive feedback; what it is that a learner can do to enhance his or her performance.

8 Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77, 81-112. 9 Törmä, E. (2011). As a tutorial teacher, looking for the essence of assessment: a report on developing a student's supportive assessment as an individual and collaborative process. (Accessed May 5,2018).

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1. Study your That is, the concept of teaching 9. for 2. Continue personal Evaluate to improvm your descriptive feedback improve ent - teaching your Reflect using teaching - regularly research - Professio Action refers to the importance of nal research learning 8. enhance 3. Link the theory clarifying the targets of quality of with your practice - teaching - Use Effective literature development for the practice 7. 4. Maximise Question learner in order to make the your learning personal potential theories of 5. and the whole learning students - Consider beliefs - Inclusive 6. Try out alternativ Critical practices new e analyzis strategies perspecti process as advantageous and ideas ves and - pssibilitie Innovatio s - n learning as possible. Teachers use conversat ion nine strategies to improve their knowledge and to afford in a great way all those unexpected moments that could happen on classroom10. We choose to present those strategies of practice on a circle form as above. 5. The Lesson Plan and the Elaboration of the Creative Techniques Used Below is the lesson plan I have used for my class and it is followed by the elaboration of the creative techniques. The techniques that are used are: group discussion-comparing and contrasting graphic organizers, group assignment / project, and group presentation, worksheets.

10 Arter, J. A. (2003). Assessment for Learning: Classroom Assessment to Improve Student Achievement and Well-Being. Non-Journal, 463–484.

162 Creative Teaching Methods in English Language Teaching by Edita Kamberi Spahiu, PhDc1

Lesson Plan Course/Year: Academic English Date: 18.04.2018 Summer Semester 2018 Lecturer Time: 9:15-10:00 Edita Kamberi Spahiu Length of session: 45 minutes Session in classroom Lecture Practical session Other (please pacify) Small Group session Fieldwork

Aims:

1 Make students remember and overview the literary phrases / elements and character traits as essential elements of character analysis.

2 Inspire students to interpret the literary phrases / elements and character traits while analyzing a character. Objectives: 1. To introduce the novel The Adventures of Tom Sawyer unit. 2. To distribute books and other related materials 3. Create a visual interpretation of the character’s traits (while using vocabulary and adjectives). 4. To preview the study questions for chapters 1-2 5. To familiarize students with the vocabulary for chapters 1-2 6. To make the reading project assignment By the end of the lesson some students should be able to: 1-Apply a wide range of strategies to comprehend, interpret, evaluate, and appreciate texts.

163 Creative Teaching Methods in English Language Teaching by Edita Kamberi Spahiu, PhDc1

Previous knowledge assumed: Inside the preceding consultation students had been delivered to groups, and mentioned the literary factors and definitions within the worksheet “understanding individual analysis”, which includes: ● character ● analysis ● characterization ● the difference between main character and minor character ● the various complications with which a character must deal ● the role of motivation within a character ● complications ● strengths and weaknesses of a character ● figurative language After we discuss the book in the class I ask students to read the novel at home and to work on the Character Analysis, providing evidence of the literary elements in the novel.

Resources: Materials for the Teacher: ● the Adventures of Tom Sawyer novel ● markers, cards, stripes of paper, ● activity sheets: Literary Elements and Definitions ● Character Analysis Materials for Students: ● activity handouts: provided by teacher ● markers, paper References/Bibliography: http://www2.scholastic.com https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4yqzIPjRv2k https://www.scholastic.com/teachers/lesson-plans/teaching-content/adventures-tom-sawyer- lesson-plan

164 Creative Teaching Methods in English Language Teaching by Edita Kamberi Spahiu, PhDc1

Structure Of Lesson *Approx. Teacher activity Student Activity time (mins)

5 min Warm-up Activity: Introduce the Use the title of the text to primary phase of the textual content via preview the text. questioning and explanation: -Develop questions about the title that will help students - A teacher will ask students some connect the title with the text. questions about the title to help them -Use visuals in the text to help connect the title to the text. students connect the title to the • The title of this book is The Adventures text. of Tom Sawyer. - The foreseen answer: The • Show the cover of the book, point to the Adventures of Tom Sawyer. picture of Tom Sawyer, and explain that - The foreseen answer: An Tom Sawyer is the main character of the adventure is something fun or story. He has many adventures in the exciting. It might be a little book. dangerous or risky. An adventure

could be an exciting trip or it ● What is the title of the story we could be something fun you do are reading? with your friends when there are

no adults around. ● What is an adventure? - The foreseen answer: Students

may make some guesses based ● What kinds of adventures do on the picture on the cover or you think Tom Sawyer might based on adventures they have have in this story? had. Accept all answers and tell

students they will read a portion

10 min. of the text to find out. Pre Reading activity:

The purpose of Pre Reading is to help

students get interested in the novel The -Students sit in groups according Adventures of Tom Sawyer. It will to the teacher’s instructions. introduce ideas within the novel and ask

165 Creative Teaching Methods in English Language Teaching by Edita Kamberi Spahiu, PhDc1

students to make judgment statements to -Students have to match the determine how they feel. words in the pictures that will be given to each group. The purpose for this activity is to have (worksheets) students begin thinking about the issues which we will study in more depth later in - Students use limited and the novel. fragmental information to do the The vocabulary exercise will be given to guessing about the character’s make students to judge the book personality. This activity will characters. (adjectives) also involve the use of their prior

adjective vocabulary knowledge. (using adjective - vocabulary Reading activity: 15 min. worksheets) Read the first two chapters of the book with students, using enlarged text projected on a screen. Help students -Students clarify the parts they become familiar with the structure of the are not certain via asking novel — dialogue interspersed with questions. The paragraphs that narrative — and the somewhat old- they are assigned to read can help fashioned language and references of the them to organize and predict the period. plot. It is not necessary for Answer students’ questions and clarify students to make their stories comprehension issues, as necessary. completely the same as the 1. Let students read Chapter II silently, original one. and a vocabulary list will be provided in

advance. -Students use restrained and 2. Students are only encouraged to use fragmental records to do the dictionary to look up words after they guessing approximately the finish the whole text. individual’s character.

166 Creative Teaching Methods in English Language Teaching by Edita Kamberi Spahiu, PhDc1

4. The plot of this novel will be cut into four parts and depicted in four pictures in advance. 5. Every individual student will be given one picture randomly. Every Student need to use one or two sentences to narrate the picture they get. 6. Student can leave their seats, finding out three other students who have 15 min. different pictures to form a group. -Students have to fill the 7. The group members need organize their worksheet with the names of the story and complete the story in logical book characters –answering the order. wh-questions. 8. Ask students to share their story group by group on platform. After reading activity -Students have to fill the Characters’- (Students will be continued worksheet (pop quiz) which is in to work into groups), to be focused and two forms -multiple choice or paying attention into characters. (whom short answer. to, where and about what)

Pop quiz

-The pop quiz comes in two formats:

multiple choice or short answer. As a convenience, two different tests for each

format have been included. There is also an advanced short answer test for students who need more of a challenge. Students can expand their story

Homework: up to 5 minutes (max).

The teacher instructs students to compose – character analyzes a written response to character analysis (which is a required assignment stated in the syllabus.

167 Creative Teaching Methods in English Language Teaching by Edita Kamberi Spahiu, PhDc1

6. Explanation of the Details and Analyzing the Novel

The warm up activity made students think about the word – adventure- and the title of the novel “The adventures of Tom Sawyer”. Teacher shows the cover of the book, pointed to the picture of Tom Sawyer, and explains that Tom Sawyer is the main character of the story. In this way, the students could reflect upon the topic discussed. Free discussion was used as a creative technique in order to generate many creative ideas and it was based within a time constraint of 5 minutes. Students simply began saying whatever came to their mind.

After the discussion students had to answer two simple questions • What is an adventure? • What kinds of adventures do you think Tom Sawyer might have in this story? – And an expected answer for the first question can be: An adventure is something fun or exciting. It might be a little dangerous or risky. An adventure could be an exciting trip or it could be something fun you do with your friends/relatives when there are no adults around. For the second question students may make some guesses based on the picture on the cover or based on adventures they have had. Accept all answers and tell students they will read a part of the text to find out.

However, the downsides of this technique would be that not all students feel free to share their imagination and creativity with their classmates. The benefits of this technique are that identifying with the main character discussed, proved to be a great mental incentive for the students to deeper engage themselves in understanding the structure of character analysis

The purpose of Pre Reading is to help students get interested in the novel The Adventures of Tom Sawyer. It will introduce ideas within the novel and ask students to make judgment statements to determine how they feel. The purpose for this activity is to have students begin thinking about the issues which we will study more deeply later in the novel. At this point I was checking students’ to understand the novel and made sure that all students were listening and I facilitated the work in groups. I could see students gathering and sharing information, agreeing and disagreeing on literally elements regarding the main character, which was a sign that students were involved actively in the discussion. This technique which was involved

168 Creative Teaching Methods in English Language Teaching by Edita Kamberi Spahiu, PhDc1 students’ to work in groups is used to show student that they can work together and can share their opinion using the worksheets that the teacher gave to them.

The aim of this activity is to familiarize students with the story and its setting, giving one copy of the worksheet to each student of each group of students. Ask the students to match the words with the appropriate picture. When the students have completed this task, check the answers with them. Then ask them for ideas about the content of the story. Do not concentrate on getting the correct answers: the important thing here is for students to develop ideas which they can check when they read. The other part of the activity is students’ have to stay in groups and to discuss about characters but in general they have to discuss the adjectives that describe each character of the novel. (Extra activity, worksheet – pre reading).

Reading activity: The purpose of this activity is that all students got involved and were very active. Using class time as a reading period can make readers more concentrate on their reading material. This silent reading has helped structural awareness develop, build vocabulary, and promotes confidence in the language. Assign students to read the book independently. Point out that the chapter titles serve as summaries of the action to come. Encourage students to read with partners to ask questions, discuss responses, and support each other’s comprehension. Each student has to share their answers and explain why they choose this answer. When students share their ideas, teacher can help them to differentiate which narration is objective and which one is subjective.

Students worked in groups and seemed very engaged and interested in the group work. Each group consisted of 4 students, which contributed to the cooperation and joint engagement in doing the task. However, these techniques seemed that some students needed somewhat clearer instructions of regarding the novel, even though they completed the exercises successfully at the end. I think it is not easy to control group work in class, especially when a group work involves a lot of movement and when it is planned within time constraint. In this case, I think I should work on giving clearer instructions in the future.

After reading activity: The purpose of this activity is discussion with students that sometimes it is difficult to make absolute judgments or have a clear opinion. They must check whether they agree or disagree with the statements. However, they have the option to explain clarify their opinion. Students have completed the worksheet individually, and stay divided in the class

169 Creative Teaching Methods in English Language Teaching by Edita Kamberi Spahiu, PhDc1 into groups of 3-4 students. Each group must come to a consensus whether or not they agree or disagree with the statements. Allow students enough time to complete the handout and discuss their opinions as a group. The pop quiz is very shot and the students didn’t need a lot of time to do. It comes in two formats: multiple choice or short answer. There is also an advanced short answer test for students who need more of a challenge.

Homework: This is an activity for each student, which have to read a literary response for a summary of the novel before getting into details regarding the character analysis. Students had to create their own story as long as their stories are logical.

Conclusion

The purpose of this seminar paper was to gather data on teaching and to show how teachers are improving by using techniques in teaching. Teaching is not easy as well as the process of teaching. Teacher can work in its own and adopt any strategy or techniques in order to help students’ become better, but teaching is an approach that deals with professional development. This creative teaching talks about the procedures that help teachers to change and update new teaching practices, identifying the meaning of learning and techniques such as professional development. This topic also describes the trainings which are considered as the major bases that teacher passes through obtaining experience from theory into practice. By doing this, we came up to conclusion that teaching is possible and desirable. Another important factor is the model of teachers as decision makers.

This seminar paper introduces an idea on teaching and improvement in teaching, as a tool that helps us synthesize the contradictions and complexities when it comes to teaching. It deals on how to criticize and ensures that teaching leads to students’ effective learning. This seminar paper helps to structure the practice and discuss on how to evaluate whether teacher is teaching effectively on their profession and practice. We should not forget that practice, feedback and developmental changes are important when it comes to teaching, but also teaching is really important since it deals with problem- solving effectively. Teaching techniques are becoming more complex and available, and we accept changes more rapidly. It is really important to prompt teaching during learning process, because we have to accept new knowledge, new strategies, to the complex situations in everyday activities.

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Bibliography: Richards, J.C. and Rodgers, T.S. 2001. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Davis, O.L. 2003. .Multiple Assessments, More Appropriate Decisions.. Journal of Curriculum and Supervision 18: 291-295. Eisele, B. & Eisele, C.Y. 2004. Hip, Hop, Hooray! (Level 6) NY: Pearson-Longman. Willis, J. 1996. A Framework for Task-Based Learning. London: Longman. Cropley, A. J. (1999). Education. In M. A. Runco & S. R. Pritzker (Eds.), Encyclopedia of creativity (pp. 629 – 642). New York: Academic Press. Cropley. A. (2009). Creativity in education and learning – a guide for teachers and educators. New York: Routledge Falmer Franklin, J. & Theall, M.(2007).“Developing Creative Capacities (writing, inventing, designing, performing in art, music, drama, etc.),” IDEA Learning Objective #6). http://www.theideacenter.org/sites/default/files/Objective 6. pdf Fautley. M & Savage, J. (2007). Creativity in Secondary Education. Exeter: learning Matters Lda. Fleith, D. S. (2000). Teacher and student perceptions of creativity in the classroom environment. Roeper Review, 22, 148-153. Rhodes, M. (1961). An analysis of creativity. Phi Delta Kapan, 42, 305 - 310. Willis, J & Willis, D. 2007. Doing Task-Based Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Richards, J.C. and Rodgers, T.S. 2001. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Davis, O.L. 2003.

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