Environmental Noise Challenges and Policies in Low- and Middle- Income Countries

South Florida Journal of Health, Miami, v.2, n.1, p.26-45, jan./feb. 2021. ISSN 2675-5467

Environmental noise challenges and policies in low- and middle- income countries

DOI: 10.46981/sfjhv2n1-003

Received in: November 1st, 2020 Accepted in: December 30th, 2020

Dietrich Schwela PhD, Senior Research Affiliate, SEI University of York, Environment Department, Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI), York, UK Address: Am Nachtigallental 28, 45149 Essen, Germany E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Information on environmental noise challenges was gathered for 139 countries, identified by the World Bank as of low income (31), lower middle income (52), and upper middle income (56). Data on noise levels were found in urban agglomerations of two low-income, 13 lower middle-income, and 20 upper middle-income countries. Environmental noise pollution continues to grow in all studied cities due to increase in motor vehicle fleets, airport operations and industries. The main driving forces are population growth, urbanization, motorization and to a large extent technological development. In this paper the major noise sources in two low-income countries, 13 lower middle- income countries and 13 upper middle-income countries (excluding Member States of and countries on the road to the European Union) are identified and observed environmental noise levels reviewed. The paper also compiles the adverse health effects of extensive noise exposures in urban agglomerations that have already been observed in some of these countries. The key laws and by- laws and other regulations on noise pollution in these countries and the level of their enforcement are discussed.

Keywords: Noise levels, Health impacts, Driving forces, Legislation, Enforcement, Regulatory framework, NOISE_INFO database.

1 INTRODUCTION Noise is the consequence of mankind’s industrial, commercial, transport-related and recreational activities in urban areas. Population growth, urbanization and to a large extent technological development are the main driving forces responsible for the continuing growth of noise exposure in developing countries. Urbanization has accelerated during the last centuries and is still accelerating in this century as can be sensed from how fast a major city grows [1]. Noise and the health impacts it causes can best be understood by defining noise as “the most impertinent of all interruptions because it interrupts or even crushes our own thoughts” [2]. As early as 1910 Robert Koch noted that noise will be the epidemic of the future and mankind will have to fight it as relentlessly as the plague and cholera [3], [4].

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Environmental noise is defined as noise emitted from all sources, except noise at the industrial workplace [5]. Main sources of environmental noise include road, rail and air traffic, industries, construction and public work, and the neighbourhood. Typical neighbourhood noise comes from premises and installations related to the catering trade (restaurants, festival halls, discotheques, etc.); from live or recorded music; from sporting events including motor sports; from playgrounds and car parks; and from domestic animals such as barking dogs. The noise pollution problem is severe in the cities of developing countries and is caused mainly by traffic. In contrast to many other environmental problems, noise pollution continues to grow, accompanied by an increasing number of complaints from and adverse effects in affected individuals. This paper will address issues of noise legislation, noise levels and impacts in low- and middle- income countries.

2 METHODOLOGY The World Bank classification of countries according to their income was used to identify the low, lower middle and upper middle-income countries [6]. Google search was applied to identify those low, lower middle and upper middle-income countries which address noise issues using the search algorithm ((Country) AND ((noise legislation) AND (noise pollution) OR (noise levels) OR (noise exposure) AND ((noise impacts) OR (noise effects) OR (annoyance) OR (hearing loss) OR (sleep disturbance) OR (speech interference) OR (tinnitus) OR (performance)). Search results were analyzed with respect to laws and by-laws including permissible noise and vibration levels, noise sources, environmental noise indicators, and observed or perceived noise impacts.

Noise indicators include equivalent sound pressure levels, LAeq,T [dBA], where T is the time

period of monitoring, maximal sound pressure levels, LAmax [dBA], day-night noise level, Ldn [dBA],

day-evening-night sound pressure levels, Lden [dBA], traffic noise index TNI [dBA], and the noise pressure level, NPL [dBA]. The information on legislation including country- and city-level permissible noise limits and the data on noise levels and impacts are compiled in an Excel spreadsheet-based database called NOISE_INFO.

3 LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES According to the World Bank income classification 31 countries are in the low-income group, 52 are in the lower middle-income group, and 56 are in the upper middle-income group [6]. With respect to the search variables ‘noise legislation’ and ‘noise levels’ (or ‘noise pollution’ or ‘noise exposure’)

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only two countries emerged from the low-income group, while 13 countries with legislation and noise levels were in the lower middle-class group and 20 countries came in from the upper middle-income group. Out of the 20 countries in the upper middle-income group seven countries – Albania, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, and Turkey – are not considered in this paper because they are either Member States of the European Union or candidates for membership and, therefore, are adapting European legislation. Thus, 28 out of 139 countries in these income groups considered in this paper have legislation on noise control and information on noise levels, see Table 1.

4 NOISE LEGISLATION The Constitution of each country considered in this paper incorporates the right of all inhabitants to enjoy an environment, which is healthy, balanced and suitable for human development. Legislation related to noise pollution exists in all 28 countries considered in this paper. However, legislation is mostly not specific and detailed with respect to noise but rather is embedded in general acts on air pollution prevention. A notable exception is the PR China, which has promulgated a law on prevention and control of noise pollution. Noise pollution is regulated through emission and immission• standards i.e. in a command and control framework. Market mechanisms are not applied for noise management. Table 2 shows some key legislation on noise control in the 28 countries.

Table 1: Countries with legislation on noise control and information on noise levels. Nepal South Asia Low income Tanzania Sub-Saharan Africa Indonesia Philippines East Asia & Pacific Vietnam Egypt, Arab Rep. Morocco Middle East & North Africa Syrian Arab Republic Bangladesh Lower middle income India South Asia Pakistan Sri Lanka Ghana Kenya Sub-Saharan Africa Nigeria China Malaysia East Asia & Pacific Thailand Upper middle income Kazakhstan Europe & Central Asia Argentina Latin America & Caribbean Brazil

• For phonetic reasons “immission” is used instead of “imission” preferred in the literature 28

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Colombia Mexico Algeria Iran, Islamic Rep. Iraq Middle East & North Africa Jordan Lebanon

Table 2 shows that all countries considered have promulgated environment protection laws, which more or less explicitly regulate noise. In some countries noise is considered an air pollutant, e.g. in Mexico [58]. In some countries such as Algeria, environmental protection is explicitly considered in the context of sustainable development [7]. General principles include the prevention principle, the polluter pays principle, and the precautionary principle, e.g. Argentina [9]. Most of the legislation refers to the protection of the environment, and some legislation refers also to the improvement or enhancement of the environment. Some countries such as Bangladesh, Ghana, and Nigeria have established an agency for protection of the environment or an Environmental Quality Council such as Malaysia [11], [26], [53], [67]. All countries have set national rules and immission* standards with the exception of Argentina where standards are set on a municipal level. At least the municipalities of Buenos Aires, Cordoba, La Plata, Mar del Plata, Mendoza, Parana, Rosario, and Santa Fe have published decrees or by-laws related to the implementation of noise immission* permissible limits [97].

Table 2: Key legislation by country Country Environment Implementing Local National National Reference protection rules and immission emission vibration law national standards standards standards immission standards Algeria Yes Yes No No No [7],[8] Argentina Yes No Yes No No [9],[10] Bangladesh Yes Yes No Yes No [11],[12]

Brazil Yes Yes Yes Yes No [13],[14],[14],[15],[16],[17]

China Yes Yes No Yes No [18],[19] Colombia Yes Yes No Yes No [20],[21],[22],[23] Egypt, Yes Yes No No No [24],[25] Arab Republic Ghana Yes Yes No No No [26],27],[28] India Yes Yes No Yes Yes [29],[30],[31],[32],[33],[34]

* See footnote on page 2 29

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Indonesia Yes Yes No Yes Yes [35],[36],[37],[38] Iran, Yes Yes No No No [39],[40] Islamic Republic Iraq Yes Yes Yes No No [41],[42],[43] Jordan Yes Yes No No No [44],[45] Kazakhstan Yes Yes No Yes No [46],[47],[48]

Kenya Yes Yes No No No [49],[50] Lebanon Yes Yes No No No [51],[52] Malaysia Yes Yes No Yes Yes [53],[54],[55],[56] Mexico Yes Yes No No No [57],[58],[59] Morocco Yes Yes No No No [60],[61],[62] Nepal Yes Yes No No No [63],[64],[65], [66] Nigeria Yes Yes No Yes No [67],[68],[69],[70] Pakistan Yes Yes No Yes No [71],[72],[73],[74],[75]

Philippines Yes Yes No No No [75], [76],[77],[78],[79]

Sri Lanka Yes Yes No Yes Yes [80],[81],[82],[83],[84]

Syrian Yes Yes No No No [85],[86],[87] Arab Republic Tanzania Yes Yes No No No [88],[89],[90] Thailand Yes Yes No Yes No [91],[92],[93], Vietnam Yes Yes No Yes Yes [94],[95],[96]

Brazil has set national noise permissible limits but Rio de Janeiro and Curitiba have also promulgated additional noise standards which refine and/or supplement the national standards [16|, [17]. In Iraq, the autonomous Kurdistan Regional Government has promulgated its own environmental legislation [43], while in Pakistan the Khyber Pakhtunkwa provincial administration has proceeded similarly [73]. Almost half the countries have adopted noise emission standards but only five countries appear to have set vibration standards – India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka and Vietnam (cf. Table 2).

5 NOISE SOURCES Almost all publications related to sound pressure monitoring mention and address road traffic noise as the major source of elevated sound pressure levels. Other sources mentioned and sometimes assessed are neighbourhood noise, barking dogs (Algeria, Brazil), noise from entertainment activities such as weddings, noise from religious institutions [99, 110].

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6 NOISE LEVELS NOISE_INFO currently contains monitored noise levels from 135 cities. Most available noise

level data are equivalent and maximal sound pressure levels. Ldn is available in cities of four countries

(China, Egypt, India, Indonesia), Lden was determined in cities of Egypt, Iran, Nigeria and Vietnam. Percentiles, TNI and NPL are available from cities in six countries (Colombia, Ghana, India, Iran, Jordan, and Nigeria). Table 3 shows selected sound pressure levels.

Table 3: Sound pressure levels in 28 cities of low- and middle-income countries Time period LAeq [dBA] LAeq [dBA] LAmax [dBA] LAmax [dBA] City, Country [hours] Reference Daytime Night-time Daytime Night-time day/night Algiers, Algeria 2/4 79 77 100 104 [98] Buenos Aires, 15/9 75 71 71 [99] Argentina Pabna, Bangladesh 15/9 91 80 [100] Sao Carlos, Brazil 3 69 [101] Beijing, PR China 16/8 74 73 [102] Bogota, Colombia 14/10 73-77 92-102 [103] Cairo, Egypt 15/9 81 75 [104] Accra, Ghana 24 70-72 [105] Kolkata, India 4 70-83 [106] Jakarta, Indonesia 8 64-72 [107] Tehran, Iran 12 72 [108] Duhok city, Iraq 8 55-85 [109] Amman, Jordan 1 51-75 [110],[111] Cities, Kazakhstan N. r. 70-85 90-100 [112] Kenya, Nairobi N. r. 68-70 72-78 [113] Beirut, Lebanon 12 60-75 [114] Kota Bharu, 16 55-75 59-83 [115] Malysia Puerto Vallarta, 1 55-85 70-92 [116] Mexico Rabat, Morocco 11 62-76 [117] Kathmandu, Nepal N. r. 45-75 42-81 [118] Abuja, Nigeria 5/1 73-84 44-57 [119] Karachi, Pakistan 15/9 71-79 60-70 75-90 72-81 [120] Manila/Quezon N. r. 76-80 [121] City, Philippines Colombo area, Sri 8 77-84 95-109 [122],[123] Lanka Damascus, Syria N. r. 63-94 78-113 [124] Morogoro, 9 62-71 76-83 [125] Tanzania Bangkok, Thailand 24 48-99 [126] Hanoi, Vietnam 16/8 73-81 71-77 [127]

According to Table 3 noise levels in these cities by far exceed WHO guideline values [5]. Noise levels very often also do not comply with national or local standards.

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7 NOISE IMPACTS NOISE-INFO contains data on perceived noise induced health impacts (based on social surveys using questionnaires) such as hearing loss, annoyance, sleep disturbance, headache, and irritability, studied in 38 cities. Table 4 shows the results for hearing loss, annoyance and sleep disturbance.

Table 4: Some noise impacts in 21 cities in low- and middle-income countries Noise Odds Economic Observed or Percentage City, Country levels ratio (95% Impact/year Reference perceived impact [%] [dBA] CI) [million US$]

Algiers, Algeria 68-79 Highly annoyed 28-44 [98] Highly annoyed 71 Dhaka, Bangladesh 70-85 Hearing [128] 18 impairment Beijing, PR China 52-74 Highly annoyed 39 [129] Annoyed 31

Bogota, Colombia 70-83 Sleep disturbance 68 [130]

Highly annoyed 49-98 Asiut, Egypt 83-94 [131] Sleep disturbance 35

Cape Coast 67-85 Sleep disturbance 48 [132] Metropolis, Ghana Hearing Aurangabad, India 40-102 66 [133] impairment [134] Chandigarrh, India 51-75 Sleep disturbance 56

Hearing Villages around 18 impairment Manado airport, 60-73 [135] Indonesia Sleep disturbance 58 Annoyed to highly 63 annoyed Tabriz, Iran 65-75 [136| Economic loss per 120 year Amman, Jordan 56-73 Sleep disturbance 30 79-225 [111] Hearing 96 impairment Beirut, Lebanon >65 [114] Sleep disturbance 70 Kuala Lumpur, Hearing 75-85 61 [137] Malysia impairment Hearing 3.1 (1.3- Kota Bharu, Malysia 55-76 [138] impairment 7.6) Rabat, Morocco >65 Annoyed 17-70 [139] Hearing 4.0 (1.2- Kupondole, Nepal 70-100 [140] impairment 13.0) Hearing 16 Ibadan, Nigeria 59-101 impairment [141] Annoyance 38

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Hearing impairment of 56- 46 Karachi, Pakistan >90 [142] 70 dB Annoyed 70 Minor hearing 28 Colombo area, Sri loss 81 [143],[144] Lanka Major hearing loss 14 Hearing problem 31 Morogoro, Tanzania 62-71 [125] Sleep disturbance 28 Hanoi, Vietnam 70-80 Highly annoyed 25-45 [127]

As shown in Table 4, noise-induced hearing loss was perceived/observed in 12 of the selected cities. Four studies have assessed hearing loss by audiometric survey [137], [138], [140], [143]. The percentages of affected people are appreciable, up to 96 percent for hearing loss, up to 98 percent of highly annoyed people, and up to 65 percent of sleep disturbed respondents. The costs of annoyance are also appreciable [111], [136].

8 CONCLUSION The NOISE_INFO database has compiled information on legislation, noise levels and noise impacts from 28 out of 139 low-income, lower and upper middle-income countries. In some countries such as Brazil, India, Nigeria and Pakistan, sound pressure levels are monitored in a larger number of cities, especially India with monitoring in 46 cities. Monitoring, however, only assesses the noise challenge but does not mitigate it. Although all countries have set permissible noise limits, noise levels have not decreased in the last decade due to lack of enforcement. In addition, noise impacts are not often assessed and economic assessment of noise impacts have been evaluated in only two cities.

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