A H S T C C S T H A

Association pour l’histoire de la science et Canadian Science and Technology de la technologie au Canada Historical Association

Dominion Astrophysical Laboratory

XIIIe conférence de Kingston

17 au 19 octobre 2003

13th Kingston Conference

October 17-19, 2003 Administrative Council / Program Committee / Conseil d’administration Comité de programmation

Suzanne Zeller Richard Jarrell president / présidente president / président

Alain Canuel Edward Jones-Imhotep secretary-treasurer / secrétaire-trésorier member / membre

Richard White Stéphane Castonguay director / conseiller member / membre

Jean-François Auger George Richardson director / conseiller local organizer / organisateur local Table of Content

Date and time Page

Friday, October 17th, 2003

19:30-21:00 Critical Histories: A Round Table on Historiography of Science Plenary Session 1

Saturday, October 18th, 2003

9:00-10:30 Society in Engineering A1 1 Discourse and the Social Body A2 2 Communication and the Diffusion of Science A3 3

10:30-11:00 Science and Technology and the City B1 5 Innovation, Instrumentation and Production B2 6 Nature, Land, and Water in 19th-Century Science B3 7

14:00-15:45 Government Science C1 8 Metrologies: The Cultures and Politics of Standards C2 9 Research and Higher Education C3 11

16:15-17:45 General Assembly Plenary Session 12

Sunday, October 19th, 2003

9:00-10:45 Place and Technology D1 12 The Politics of Natural Environments D2 13 Natural History and Colonialism D3 14

11:15-12:30 The Canadian Science and Engineering Hall of Fame Plenary Session 15

Table des matières

Date et heure Page

Vendredi, 17 octobre, 2003

19:30-21:00 Les histoires critiques: Séance plénière 1 table ronde sur l’historiographie de la science

Saturday, October 18th, 2003

9:00-10:30 La société dans le génie A1 1 Le corps social et ses discours A2 2 Communication et diffusion de la science A3 3

10:30-11:00 La science et la technologie dans la ville B1 5 Innovation, instrumentation et production B2 6 La nature, la terre et l’eau au dix-neuvième siècle B3 7

14:00-15:45 Science et gouvernement C1 8 Metrologies: la culture et la politique des unités C2 9 La recherche à l’université C3 11

16:15-17:45 Assemblée générale Séance plénière 12

Sunday, October 19th, 2003

9:00-10:45 Les dimensions spatiales de la technologie D1 12 La plolitique des environnements naturels D2 13 Histoire naturelle et colonialisme D3 14

11:15-12:30 Le Panthéon canadien des sciences et du génie Séance plénière 15

Friday, October 17th, 2003 Engineers of Canada (ACEC), and par l’urbanisation (réseau d’égouts, Vendredi, 17 octobre 2003 Canadian Academy of Engineering aqueduc, collecte des déchets). (CAE). While there is no talk Tandis que les médecins devien- Critical Histories: about merging these into a single nent des acteurs importants dans institution, the EIC and CCPE did l’élaboration de politiques en santé A Round Table on attempt to “confederate” in the publique. Un autre acteur impor- Historiography of 1930s and again in the 1950s. This tant fait alors son apparition dans Science paper will discuss these two, quite les officines de l’administration different, attempts—and why they publique : l’ingénieur sanitaire. Les histoires critiques: both failed. It will postulate that an Alliant le savoir médical et les table ronde sur l’histo- attempt to do so in the near future, connaissances de l’ingénieur, ce with or without the ACEC and the nouvel expert joue un rôle dans la riographie de la science CAE, is unlikely to be made. mise en place d’infrastructures urbaines et dans l’élaboration de [19:30-21:00 Plenary Session / L’ingénieur sanitaire entre la politiques sanitaires. Or, il nous Séance plénière] apparaît vital de montrer que médecine et le génie, l’émergence de ce nouvel acteur Richard Jarrell, chair / 1890-1930 doit beaucoup à la lutte entre président médecins et ingénieurs pour Natasha Zwarich investir les lieux de pouvoir déci- Stéphane Castonguay, sionnels. La formation de l’ingé- Matthew Evenden, À Montréal, comme dans plusieurs nieur sanitaire témoigne d’ailleurs Edward Jones-Imhotep, autres villes canadiennes du XIXe de l’ambiguïté de cette spécialité Jennifer Keelan, siècle, l’industrialisation et l’urbani- qui loge tantôt à l’enseigne des panel / participants sation entraînent une concentra- facultés de médecine tantôt sous la tion accrue de la population dans bannière des écoles de génie. En Suzanne Zeller, commentator / un espace restreint. Cette densifi- effet, nous nous sommes interro- cation affecte les conditions sani- commentatrice gés à savoir quels est la place et le taires de même que rôle de l’ingénieur la qualité de vie en sanitaire dans milieu urbain. Très l’administration Saturday, October 18th, 2003 peu de logements municipale et Samedi, 18 octobre 2003 ouvriers sont en comment ils se

effet dotés d’ins- sont organisés en Society in tallations sanitaires société pour faire la Engineering adéquates. De plus, promotion de leur les épidémies, telles spécialité. C’est grâce La société dans le génie que le typhus, le choléra à leur regroupement au ou encore la variole, provo- sein d’associations profes- [9:00-10:30 Session / Atelier A1] quent chaque fois la sionnelles telles mort de centaines Engineering Institute of Canada que la Canadian Richard White, chair / de citadins et, de ce Institut canadien des ingénieurs Health Association, président fait, témoignent de la Montreal Sanitary la faiblesse et même de l’inexis- Association ou le Canadian Enginee- tence de mesures hygiéniques et ring Institute et, plus tard par la Confederation within the Engi- sanitaires. On assiste alors à une création d’une corporation profes- neering Profession prise de conscience de la gravité sionnelle, que les ingénieurs sani- des problèmes chez un certain taires sont en mesure de s’affirmer Andrew H. Wilson nombre de réformistes qui font comme groupe social. Cette com- pression pour que soient adoptées munication vise à mieux compren- The engineering profession in des mesures d’hygiènes publiques. dre la mise en œuvre d’un travail Canada currently has four national Afin de mettre un terme à cette éminemment social menant à la institutions: Engineering Institute situation, les dirigeants municipaux construction d’une identité spécifi- of Canada (EIC), Canadian Coun- font appel à des experts dans que aux ingénieurs sanitaires. cil of Professional Engineers différents domaines. Les ingé- (CCPE), Association of Consulting nieurs, par exemple, soumettent des solutions aux problèmes posés

1 Association pour l’histoire de la science et de la technologie au Canada

Training Good Engineers at the promotion of a specific type of Discourse and University of Toronto during the masculinity. What kind of man did the FASE wish to produce? What the Social Body Interwar Years : The Construction was the profile of the good engineer Le corps social et ses of Masculine Engineering Identities promoted by the faculty? Do we at the Faculty of Applied Science observe some changes in this discours and Engineering, 1920-1940 respect, or do we depict, rather, [9:00-10:30 Session / Atelier A2] persisting patterns? The interwar

Ruby Heap years constitute an interesting Michael Eamon, chair / period to conduct this study as a The historical study of Canadian few women were now enrolling at Président women engineers is still largely in the FASE and receiving degrees in its infancy. The scholarship de- various branches of engineering voted to their education in facul- education. These women are part Genomics and Health: The ties and schools of engineering is of the “pioneering” phase in the Canadian Context even less developed. The interna- history of women at the FASE. As tional literature on this topic, “gender-benders,” they attracted Ted Everson which has been produced above all considerable attention at the time. by sociologists and other social How was their arrival greeted by I will discuss my Ph.D. research in scientists, examines mainly the the FASE? Did it lead to any progress of the history of Cana- patterns of exclusion and margin- change in the faculty’s educational dian genomics, in the context of its alization of women in engineering practices? Was masculinity ex- putative relevance to medicine. education, and it tends to focus on pressed differently? Did gender The Human Genome Project, the the more recent period. The paper play a different role in the shaping international effort to map the I wish to present is part of an of engineering identities now that genes and sequence the DNA of ongoing research project on the women had begun to enter this humans and other organisms, is professional education of women highly masculine enclave? Explor- typically justified by resorting to in selected Quebec and Ontario ing the construction of engineering medical benefits, and advocates faculties of engineering between identities at the FASE, which we have provided specific examples of 1920 and 1990. It proposes to see as an ongoing process, will genomic technologies relevant to examine the process of gender provide important insights into the improving public health. But construction at the Faculty of ways the gender/technology critics argue that public health Applied Science and Engineering relationship played out in this levels are best explained by envi- (FASE) during the interwar years. particular environment at a par- ronmental and socioeconomic More specifically, I am interested ticular time, and that it will lead, as factors. Territorial expansion, in the shaping of specific mascu- a result, to a better understanding “molecularization,” ideological line identities in this particular of the type of experiences lived by shifts in public policy theory, and setting responsible for the trans- those women who were the first to political economy have all been mission of technical expertise, be admitted to this faculty. invoked as alternative explanations where women were either absent of the popularity of a genetic or present in very small numbers. approach to health and illness. I By consulting a wide range of will consider these debates about sources (annual reports of the the genetic approach to health in President of University of Toronto the context of the development of and of the dean of the FASE, Canadian federal funding infras- university calendars, the FASE tructure for genomics. yearbooks, student newspapers, the local press, etc.), I will attempt Innovation, Safety and “Risk” in to see how institutional structures and policies, educational practices Victorian Culture: Anaesthetic (course content and course sched- Technology Revisited ule, pedagogical practices, extra- curricular activities, etc.), as well as J.T.H. Connor various forms of symbolic repre- sentations, led to the construction Chart of the disease-linked genes In an era before government of engineering identities at the along the X chromosome inspection and regulation, hospital FASE that were based on the Charte des maladies génétiques liées au safety review committees, and chromosome X 2 XIIIe conférence de Kingston, 17 au 19 octobre, 2003 patient advocacy groups how was “safe.” Overall, cas à la fois exemplaire et atypique did the public and doc- anaesthetic technology du Bas-Canada, nous montrerons tors assess innovative raised important ques- comment se mettent en place, en medical technology tions about practitioners’ gros pendant la première moitié du that was perceived to responsibilities/patient XIXe siècle, un ensemble de dis- be beneficial yet safety and it was one of the cours et de pratiques qui font du potentially life threaten- first Victorian medical chiffre leur matériau privilégié et ing? What investigative innovations that bientôt la traduction la plus sûre et and corrective mechanisms prompted both the public la plus juste du réel. Surtout, nous were triggered and doctors to chercherons à préciser comment when patients died Apparatus for inhalation anaesthesia confront what se fait la domestication d’une série apparently as a Appareil pour anasthésie constituted an d’outils statistiques simples comme result of a relatively par inhalation acceptable level of le tableau, le pourcentage ou les untried or risk. taux de progression. Notre exposé “experimental” procedure? Did tournera autour de trois problèmes doctors and the public develop a pratiques que rencontrent alors les common understanding of “risk” L’émergence du mode de raisonne- auteurs d’ouvrages cherchant à as applied to surgical technology? ment statistique au Bas-Canada rendre compte de l’état du pays, en Was doctor-patient trust altered l’occurrence le Bas-Canada under these new conditions? Using (comment représenter le the introduction of general inhala- Jean-Pierre Beaud et monde ? ; comment compa- tion anaesthesia to Canada during Jean-Guy Prévost rer ? ; comment appréhender le the mid-19th century, this paper changement ?), et des solutions qui begins to explore these and related C’est au seuil du XIXe siècle que ont été dégagées (le tableau questions. In particular, it exam- l’on peut fixer l’émergence de comme outil cognitif ; les pourcen- ines published reports of patients l’activité statistique moderne: en tages comme instrument de mise who, when insensible due to the quelques décennies, on assiste dans en équivalence ; les calculs de inhalation of ether and chloro- plusieurs pays à la mise en place de progression comme moyen de form, either died or had been recensements décennaux (à partir rendre compte de l’évolution dans allegedly sexually assaulted. Pre- de 1790 aux États-Unis, de 1801 le temps). liminary results show that when en Angleterre, ...), à la constitution law courts and coroners undertook de « sociétés de statistique », à la investigations of catastrophic prolifération d’enquêtes sur les Communication and medical events they were sympa- phénomènes qui inquiètent les thetic to doctors, but were willing élites de l’époque (crime, folie, the Diffusion of to admonish or prosecute practi- suicide, mortalité infantile, pauvre- Science tioners that they believed to be at té, ...) et surtout à l’utilisation de fault. The public qua patients plus en plus fréquente d’arguments Communication et exhibited a mixed response rang- fondés sur le nombre dans les diffusion de la science ing from steadfastly refusing to be discours destinés à convaincre. La “put under” while undergoing rupture évidente que marque cette [9:00-10:30 Session A2 / Atelier A2] surgery thereby asserting their période a été décrite, par ceux qui agency; reluctantly inhaling anaes- l’ont examinée, au moyen d’une Philip Enros, chair / thetic agents believing that all was série de métaphores suggestives: Président in the hands of fate; and eagerly « l’ère de l’enthousiasme » embracing any new technology (Westergaard), « la grande explo- that would mitigate pain and sion des chiffres » (Porter), The Smithsonian Institution as suffering. Canadian doctors for « l’avalanche des nombres » Promoter of Science: The Diffu- (Hacking). On assiste donc, au their part initiated rudimentary sion of Scientific Information in experiments and tinkered with cours des mêmes décennies, à une anaesthetic delivery devices in an transformation dans le domaine de Nineteenth-Century Canada effort to minimize patient danger; la rhétorique, des modes de pensée participated in legal proceedings et des habitudes intellectuelles et à Bertrum H. MacDonald usually to protect professional la mise en place progressive d’or- values and colleagues; and invoked ganisations dont le rôle est précisé- In the middle of the nineteenth the power of statistics to buttress ment de fournir aux autorités et au century both Canadian and Ameri- the case that general anaesthesia public cultivé des informations can scientists voiced the view that chiffrées. En prenant pour objet le as far as science was concerned the 3 Canadian Science and Technology Historical Association political boundary between the Le Canada et les communications Révolution scientifique et nouveau two countries was meaningless. internationales: analyse d’un échec paradigme dans le discours social : However, the border was impor- tant and as the latter half of the Crick et Watson, pères d’un century unfolded it became even Claude Beauregard et nouveau discours ? more pronounced. Even so, Alain Canuel scientific information flowed freely Pascal Théroux between the two countries and this Aujourd’hui on présente les États- traffic took on increasing impor- Unis comme étant une hyperpuis- L’histoire et la philosophie des tance with the creation of the sance. En effet, ce pays occupe le sciences étudient depuis longtemps Smithsonian Institution. The first premier rang dans les domaines le phénomène des révolutions two secretaries, Joseph Henry and économique, militaire et culturel. scientifiques surtout depuis une Spencer Baird, initiated massive Cette puissance américaine trouve quarantaine d’années, avec Kuhn. collecting efforts which extended son origine dans la collaboration L’invention du concept de para- into both the settled and frontier qui existe entre l’appareil gouver- digme est fait dans un contexte qui areas of Canada. As biological nemental, l’entreprise privée et les peut influencer la construction de specimens and archeological forces armées. En 1942, les États- celui-ci, ou inversement. La ques- artefacts were shipped south to Unis mettent sur pied Voice of tion que nous posons est donc la Washington, DC, north-bound America qui diffuse partout dans le suivante : est-il possible de mettre correspondence carried books and monde le point de vue de l’Améri- en évidence les interrelations scientific publications to staff que. Alors que le deuxième conflit complexes entre la démarche et le members of the trading posts of mondial s’achève, les responsables contexte de ces révolutions scienti- the Hudson’s Bay Company, to de la propagande des États-Unis fiques ? En d’autres mots, nous individual naturalists throughout facilitent la diffusion des films, des cherchons à établir les corrélations the country, to scientific societies, livres et des magazines américains entre les paradigmes scientifiques and to scientists associated with à l’étranger. Pour sa part le Canada et les axiomes de base des research agencies, like the Geologi- est incapable de s’affirmer dans le « croyances sociales » (imaginaire cal Survey of Canada. Henry’s and monde des communications. populaire et discours des médias Baird’s extensive correspondence non spécialisés) par l’analyse du complemented the Smithsonian’s discours de cette époque. Dans le international scientific publication cadre de cette présentation, nous exchange program well documen- nous limiterons à l’émergence du ted in Nancy Gwinn’s dissertation. nouveau paradigme génétique qui In this paper, I will draw on re- s’instaura suite à la découverte de search conducted, as a Dibner la structure à double hélice de Library Resident Scholar, in the Watson et Crick en 1953. Nous Smithsonian Institution Archives tenterons de cerner l’impact du in Washington, DC, coupled with modèle de l’ADN et du fonction- an extensive foray into archival nement de la réplication qu’ils records of Canadian scientists, to proposèrent sur le discours scienti- show that while the Smithsonian Radio-Canada International fique et sur l’imaginaire social et Institution was an American littéraire canadiens. Il n’est pas organization its impact on promo- L’exemple de Radio-Canada question ici de prétendre mettre en ting the development of scientific International (RCI) le montre bien. lumière des liens de causalité work in Canada through the RCI commence à fonctionner à la directs entre les travaux de Watson dissemination of scientific litera- fin de la guerre en 1945. De plus, et Crick et les créations des écri- ture was substantial. Although the les budgets consacrés à cette radio vains de l’époque, mais bien border between the two countries sont minimes en comparaison à d’examiner les corrélations entre mattered, in the realm of science ceux des autres pays. Pour démon- les facteurs apparemment externes the boundary could be quite trer nos propos, nous commence- au paradigme propre (les a priori porous to the benefit of both. This rons avec la naissance de la radio métaphysiques et moraux, l’imagi- paper will underscore the interna- aux États-Unis au cours de la naire social, etc.) et les liens qui les tional nature of scientific work. Première Guerre mondiale pour relient à celui-ci. L’objectif de cette enfin terminer avec les budgets communication est de signaler des consacrés aux communications interrelations entre les découvertes internationales aujourd'hui dans le savantes et l’évolution du discours monde. scientifique hors du cercle fermé

4 13th Kingston Conference, October 17-19, 2003 de la seule communauté scientifi- war, it is perhaps best seen as one début des années 1850, le potentiel que des biologistes et généticiens. of several post-war applications of d’un réseau d’eau sous pression La méthodologie suivie, en regard the Operations Research mindset, pour la lutte contre les incendies du discours social, est celle de and it did not truly come into its est clairement exprimé et se l’analyse du discours telle que own until the introduction of concrétise progressivement au pratiquée en histoire, en étude computer modeling in the 1950s. cours des décennies suivantes. littéraires et en journalisme, alors Traffic engineers played a central Mais au cours de la première que la sociocritique servira de base role in shaping urban growth in moitié du XIXe siècle, la question pour l’analyse du corpus littéraire. the post-war boom throughout est plus complexe. Avant 1850, la Notre approche est pluridiscipli- North America, a job for which présence de conduites dans cer- naire, reflétant la nature de notre they are rarely thanked or con- tains secteurs de la ville de Mon- objet d’étude. Nous suivrons les gratulated. Their role in the To- tréal permet, pour ces endroits, balises épistémologiques posées ronto region, however—which the d’accroître le nombre de points de par Kuhn en regard de la révolu- paper will then go on to explore— ravitaillement en eau. Aux ton- tion paradigmatique que représente is rather surprising. The engineers neaux des porteurs d’eau transpor- ce nouveau modèle pour les who had the greatest influence on tés sur les lieux des sinistres, aux différents spécialistes de la généti- public transportation policy in citernes qu’on a peut-être eu la ques au Canada. Les sources que those critical years, all of whom are bienveillance d’installer, et l’eau nous utiliserons pour l'analyse du little known, believed in maintain- directement puisée dans le fleuve discours sont des revues spéciali- ing a mix of public and private lorsque l’incendie est à proximité sées ainsi que des revues de vulga- transit, and of matching transpor- s’ajoutent alors, les fire plugs du risation scientifique, le journal The tation plans with a rational land service d’eau potable ; des robinets Gazette, ainsi que certaines fictions use plan. Their views, manifested qui font office de poteaux d’incen- d’auteurs canadiens du début des in the Ontario government’s die, permettant de remplir les années 1960. Metropolitan Toronto and Region tonneaux qui sont ensuite trans- Transportation Study (1962-67), portés sur les lieux des incendies. Break / Pause [10:30-11:00] had considerable influence on the L’eau est par la suite jetée sur les endurance of Toronto’s reasonably flammes à l’aide de seaux ou compact, transit-friendly form. lancée grâce à l’emploi de pompes Whether this was due to the à incendie actionnées manuelle- engineers themselves or to the ment. Avant 1850, le poteau Science and Technol- politicians and public servants who d’incendie, tels qu’on le connaît ogy and the City hired them is a question that will aujourd’hui, d’où l’eau jaillit sous La science et la be considered. The paper draws l’effet d’une forte pression dès primarily from government re- l’ouverture des orifices, n’est pas technologie dans la ville cords in the Archives of Ontario encore envisageable. Pour en and the City of Toronto Archives, arriver là, pour que les responsa- [11:00-12:30 Session / Atelier B1] published reports, and interviews bles montréalais de la lutte contre with participants. It is part of the les incendies s’ouvrent à un nou- Stephen Bocking, chair / author’s ongoing work on the veau registre technique (voire la président history of post-WWII urban plans contribution d’un réseau d’eau and planning in the Toronto sous pression étendu à l’échelle de region. toute la ville), il faut que les pro- Traffic Engineers and the Metro- blèmes d’organisation de la lutte contre les incendies qui dominent politan Toronto Region, L’organisation du Département du feu, Montréal 1800-1850 : tout le premier demi-siècle 1950-1970 (direction et composition des un frein à la modernisation des effectifs de pompiers lors des Richard White techniques de lutte contre les sinistres) soient solutionnés, incendies laissant enfin place aux interroga- This paper will begin by tracing tions sur les formes d’approvision- the origins and evolution of the Dany Fougères nement en eau et les procédés par specialized field of “traffic engi- lesquels celle-ci serait conduite, neering” in the United States and L’association entre la disponibilité puis utilisée. Ceci étant, comme Canada after the Second World en eau et la lutte contre les incen- dans les autres villes occidentales, War. Although the specialty was dies tient du sens commun. Dès le il faut, à Montréal, que l’hydrauli- born, strictly speaking, before the que urbaine gagne aussi (en paral-

5 Association pour l’histoire de la science et de la technologie au Canada lèle) en maturité et en fiabilité pour vehicles has been perpetuated by example of this unique tradition que puisse être revue la contribu- this clientele. In this paper I will can be found in the Canadian tion du service d’eau à la lutte aux discuss about three companies that army’s adoption of the machine incendies. dominated the Canadian market gun in the First World War. When from 1945 to 1965 and their Canada joined Britain and declared Driven by Choice: the Role of interaction with their clientele: war in 1914, Canada’s military LaFrance Fire Engine and Foamite leaders were quick to promote the Municipalities and Specialized Ltd situated in Toronto, Ontario (a image of a modern and effective Production in the Survival of the branch plant of the American army. As a result, the Canadian Canadian Industry of Fire- LaFrance company), Bickle- army embraced the machine gun Fighting Vehicles, 1945-1965 Seagrave/King Seagrave company as a symbol of modernity and situated in Woodstock, Ontario professionalism. Unlike Britain’s Suzanne Beauvais (which had a licensee agreement professional officer class, Canada’s with the Seagrave Corporation) officers saw the machine gun as a Unlike the Canadian automobile and Camions Pierre Thibault symbol of elitism. The upper class industry which early in its history situated in Pierreville, Québec (a of Canada rushed to create ma- fell under foreign control, a Cana- Canadian francophone family chine gun units as a symbol of dian industry that designs and enterprise). marshal pride. Using extensive produces fire-fighting vehicles has secondary sources, as well as survived. Its existence contradicts soldiers’ journals, the paper will the “New Canadian Political demonstrate how Canada’s military Economy” interpretation accord- adopted this new technology. ing to which Canada lost its indus- trial and technological capacities Forty Years of Analytical with the changes brought to the Studies Patent Act in 1872 and with the adoption in 1879 of the National Randall C. Brooks Policy tariffs’ wall. These measures 1960 American Lafrance Fire- encouraged the establishment of Over the years a number of re- subsidiaries and branch plants in Fighting Vehicle Camion American Lafrance de luttre searchers studying scientific instru- Canada which lead gradually to our contre les incendies de 1960 ments have used modern tech- strong dependency on foreign niques and equipment to analyse technology and capital. In this historic instruments. One study, if paper I will illustrate how the not the first, was that by Turner Canadian fire-fighting industry Innovation, Instru- and Bradbury (1967) of the micro- contradicts this interpretation in a scope test rulings made by Frie- manner consistent with the works mentation and drich Nobert in the mid-19th of authors like JohnVardalas and Production century. Since then, most of these Graham Taylor. What are the Innovation, instrumenta- analytical studies have dealt with factors that made possible the optics in one form or another. existence and survival of this tion et production This paper will review many of Canadian industry? In agreement these studies to summarize what with Philip Scranton, I argue that [11:00-12:30 Session / Atelier B2] has been learned and to suggest the fire-fighting vehicle industry is where we might most usefully an example of specialized produc- Bill Rawlings, chair / président direct future studies. Reference to tion which allowed the coexistence a couple of studies of relevance to of American and Canadian compa- Uniquely Canadian: Canada’s artifacts in Canadian Museums will nies in Canada. This specialization adoption of the Machine Gun be made. was driven by its clientele— composed up to 80 to 85% of Towards a History of Canadian cities, towns and villages—and the Donald Parker civic responsibility attached to fire Manufacturing fighting. Accordingly, I will also The Canadian military is a unique, argue that the custom fire truck is and in many ways understudied, Larry McNally a socially made technology. body. Built on the traditions of the Whether a real necessity or not, British Army, and yet shaped by There is no single history of custom fabrication of fire fighting uniquely Canadian experiences. An Canadian manufacturing, not even

6 XIIIe conférence de Kingston, 17 au 19 octobre, 2003 a basic one that tells us who made Nature, Land and Darwin’s Theory. McGill-Queen’s what, where and when. Unfortu- th University Press, 2001). nately this gives the impression Water in 19 -Century that we were (and are) only draw- Science E.T.D. Chambers, the United ers of water and hewers of wood. States Fish Commission, and the In fact, Canada has a long history La nature, la terre et of manufacturing and some of it l’eau au dix-neuvième Pisciculture Movement in the quite innovative. This paper will siècle Province of Quebec. outline some new sources that will help us reconstruct and evaluate Darin S. Kinsey [11:00-12:30 Session / Atelier B3] Canadian manufacturing. Projects which are largely supported by In the 1850s, the science of Pis- government subsidies have be- Suzanne Zeller, chair / ciculture began to make its way in come a major source of informa- présidente translation from France into tion. This includes the Dictionary of England and North America. For Canadian Biography, the Historical the first twenty years or so the Atlas of Canada and the Canadian Darwin’s Research Associate, science remained a mere curiosity Institute of Historical Microrepro- with information about it being ductions. The censuses of 1871, George John Romanes passed on by little read scientific 1881, 1901 and 1906 are providing texts and pamplets at local agricul- a wealth of detail. Recent mono- Donald R. Forsdyke tural fairs. Prior to the 1870s, in graphs on Canadian companies both the United States and Canada and industries will be mentioned. Darwin was well aware that there it was a science practiced by only a Historical studies by enthusiasts were major inconsistencies in his handful of individuals. As it be- (buffs) are important, but they are 1859 theory of the origin of spe- came clear that the industrial often neglected by professionals. cies by natural selection and he revolution was having a negative Some of the factors that need to spent the rest of his life attempting effect of fish stocks, however, the be documented include production to resolve them. For eight years science became the subject of statistics; the type of production prior to his death in 1882 it is more widespread interest, espe- (custom, batch or mass produc- likely that, apart from his immedi- cially in the northeastern United tion) and the nature of manufac- ate family, he spent more time States. By the 1870s, Pisciculture turing such as copying, adapta- discussing these inconsistencies was being viewed by both state tion/innovation and production with his young, Kingston-born, and federal agencies as a progres- for internal or foreign markets. Canadian research associate, sive enterprise that could both George John Romanes, than check the decline of native fish anyone else. In 1886 Romanes stocks, and serve as a tool to presented a theory of the origin of introduce a wide variety of non- species by “physiological selec- native species which would pro- tion” to the Linnean Society. He mote tourism through sport claimed to have resolved the fishing. In Canada, the effects of inconsistencies, but invoked industrialization upon the fisheries abstract elements (e.g. “a peculiar- came more slowly to the attention ity of the reproductive system”), of government. The importance of which were incomprehensible to preserving and restoring fisheries, his Victorian contemporaries. He eventually caused the Federal was strongly attacked by the elder government to begin developing statesmen of science—Wallace and Pisciculture operations after the Huxley—and died of a brain First World War. In the 1920s, the tumour at age 46 in 1894. Results Ottawa turned over authority for of recent research on various Quebec fisheries to the Province genome projects have led to a new and along with this new authority reinterpretation of Darwin’s theory came several fledgling fish hatcher- that has much in common with ies. These hatcheries would quickly that of Romanes (see The Origin of be integrated into the Quebec Species, Revisited. A Victorian who government’s programs to develop

George John Romanes Anticipated Modern Developments in new industries and to promote

7 Canadian Science and Technology Historical Association tourism, in the form of sports application of technology and hard tion de nouveaux chercheurs. En angling, from abroad. Mr. E.T.D. work to remove standing water 1960, à l’époque des grands boule- Chambers, who had previously from a field. The new discipline of versements institutionnels qui been working for the government agricultural chemistry was an caractérisent la Révolution tran- to establish a fox breeding pro- integral part of land drainage, and quille, il est intégré au Bureau des gram, was called upon to become the same rural newspapers, as well recherches économiques du minis- the superintendent of the Quebec as widely circulated text books, tère de l’Industrie et du Commerce hatchery operations. This paper offered current explanations of et disparaît sous cette appellation. will give an overview of how and plant, soil and animal chemistry to Ainsi, on a souvent affirmé que why Pisciculture became estab- the interested farmer. Thus land l’Office était un « échec relatif » lished as a science in Quebec and drainage, when carried out cor- dans le développement de la its role in creating a new industry rectly, married the science and science au Québec. Une étude of leisure in the form of sports technology of crop production to approfondie de l’organisme nous angling. The social, political, and the advantage and profit of the permet de nuancer ce jugement. economic consequences of the astute farmer. Land drainage was En effet, nous avons découvert development of this new leisure common practice in Ontario, que l’agence gouvernementale industry will also be discussed. despite reports that Canadian finança, du moins en partie, pas Finally, the paper will attempt to farmers were lazy and sloppy, and moins de 173 mémoires de maî- illustrate both local and foreign well before the Ontario Agricul- trise et 56 thèses de doctorat, influences in the evolution of the tural College (OAC) was estab- assurant ainsi un recrutement plus science of Pisciculture, including lished in 1874. In fact, a selected régulier d’étudiants des cycles the important influence of the committee of experienced Ontario supérieurs, là où s’acquiert le United States Fish Commission in farmers used their intimate knowl- « métier » de chercheur et la this process and the unique role edge of land drainage, its causes, connaissance des règles du jeu en played by the first Superintendant effects and implications for effi- vigueur dans chacune des discipli- of the Provincial Government ciency in farming, to reject the nes scientifiques. De plus, l’Office hatcheries, Mr. E.T.D. Chambers. original site of OAC and choose s’est efforcé, dans sa première the permanent site, the Stone phase d’existence (1938-1948), Farm just south of the growing d’orienter les recherches universi- Land Drainage in Mid- town of Guelph. taires vers des applications prati- Nineteenth Century Ontario: ques à l’industrie, formant l’une Lunch / Dîner [12:30-14:00] des premières structures institu- Science, Technology and ‘In the tionnelles de liaison entre l’univer- Field’ Applications to an Agri- sité et l’entreprise privée au Qué- cultural Problem bec. Au cours des années 1950, Government Science l’Office est marqué par un change- Pat Bowley Science et gouvernement ment de trajectoire. Le volet recherche de l’agence étatique In the mid-1800s in Ontario, land [14:00-15:45 Session / Atelier C1] prend alors la forme de ce que l’on drainage (also known as soil pourrait appeler un « bureau drainage) was implemented by Yves Gingras, chair / gouvernemental de consultation many farmers, mainly to increase Président technique et scientifique ». Ses their productive acreage, but also activités de recherche se limitent to improve the fertility of those L’Office provincial des recherches donc à des analyses d’échantillons, acres already under cultivation. au contrôle de la qualité de certains The best techniques of land drain- scientifiques et le développement de produits, à la solution de divers age were discussed in the popular la science au Québec, 1937-1960 problèmes de fabrication, bref, à rural press. As seasons passed, assister et conseiller les entreprises articles imported from Great Mike Almeida qui en font la demande. Bien qu’il Britain describing drainage systems n’ait jamais eu l’ampleur ni les gave way to essays and letters from À sa création en 1937, l’Office moyens du Conseil national de Canadian farmers and engineers provincial des recherches scientifi- recherche du Canada (CNRC), who adapted British methods for ques avait pour mandat de coor- l’Office a joué un rôle important Canadian climates and soils. donner la recherche effectuée dans dans la formation de la commu- Successful land drainage entailed les laboratoires de la province de nauté scientifique québécoise. much more, however, than just the Québec et de pourvoir à la forma-

8 13th Kingston Conference, October 17-19, 2003

The Founding of Canada’s as wife and mother, and in her that their U.S. clients and suppliers National Radio Astronomy professional work as a pioneering will not adopt the metric stan- demographer. In addition an dards. Members of the Opposition Observatories and the Politics of Introduction, a Bibliography of in the House of Commons de- Institutions Charles’ published and unpub- nounce the whole initiative as lished work, References and an high-handed and centralizing. Richard A. Jarrell Index are planned. Private citizens and editorialists will go as far as to see in metrica- In 1959, the Associated Universi- tion another proof of what they ties Inc. opened the National Metrologies : believe to be Prime Minister Radio Astronomy Observatory in Trudeau’s agenda of French Green Bank, West Virginia. It was The Cultures and Power, and Liberal party’s policy a modest affair, with one radio Politics of Standards of severing Canada's British roots. telescope, but it did signal that As if to encourage this kind of Americans would now embrace Métrologies : la culture highly controversial interpretation, radio astronomy in an attempt to et la politique des unités metrication will be more popular compete with the field’s leaders, among Canada’s french-speaking the United Kingdom and Austra- [14:00-15:45 Session / Atelier C2] population. The coming to power lia. A year later, the much small of the Progressive-Conservative Canadian scientific establishment party in 1984 will spell the doom opened not one, but two, national Frontiers of Technological of Canada’s Metric Commission, if radio observatories, one in Algon- Languages: Metric Conversion in not the reversal of metrication. As quin Park in Ontario, one at these conflicts go, so the program White’s Lake, near Penticton, B.C. Canada will be modified, and metric The Americans had worked with a conversion in Canada will to this focused vision since 1954; the Godefroy Desrosiers-Lauzon day be partial, the result of com- Canadians had developed their promises. In this paper I intend to proposals later as part of internal In January 1970, the federal Minis- present metric conversion in politicking in the National Re- ter of Industry and Commerce Canada as a linguistic transforma- search Council and the Dominion tables in the House of Commons a tion of the way Canadians define Observatory. There was no coordi- White Paper on metric conversion. their world, or at least the way they nation, no overarching policy, not This paper argues that most of the assign meaning to its physical even a pool of trained personnel. world's population is already using features. This transformation will This paper will examine the piece- the metric system, and that even mobilize actors of many types, and meal approach to planning that led Canada’s powerful southern will be the focus of many conflicts, to institutions that never quite neighbor is considering the idea. which will provoke negociations lived up to their potential. The conversion, it is said, will be on the depth and meaning of the beneficial economically, commer- proposed changes. These conflicts Enid Charles (1894-1972): cially, and technologically; it will are, for the actors and for the also transform Canada’s techno- scholar, the occasion to assess Her times, life and work logical standards, whether they be conflicting interpretations on industrial, commercial, or regula- Canada’s contemporary technol- Sylvia Wargon tory, hereby changing the whole ogy, economy, politics and identi- way Canadians define their physi- ties. This report presents the proposed cal environment. Yet today, we design for a manuscript on Enid Canadians live in a partly metric Setting the Standard: the Origins Charles.At the present time, the world, where Imperial units of of a Canadian Technical plan is to begin the manuscript measurement are still a feature in with a description of the important numerous moments of our daily Standards Regime social, cultural and demographic lives, where Imperial standards still features of late 19th and early 20th regulate whole fields of the tech- James Hull century Britain that were the nology we use, and where the “background” or “times” in which United States stopped considering The Canadian Standards Associa- Charles was born and grew up. their own metric conversion. tion had its origins as a response to This will be followed by a descrip- Resistance to conversion comes the circumstances of interallied tion of how these influences were from many fronts: in some sectors production during World War clearly reflected in her personal life of activity, business people argue One. This was not however the

9 Association pour l’histoire de la science et de la technologie au Canada origin of standards setting in de la pédagogie de Canadian. The Canadian Society of laboratoire dans Civil Engineers had already begun l’avènement de la it own work in a number of areas. recherche indus- Canadian engineers were involved trielle au sein des in the standards setting activities of établissements US based organizations. Canadian d’enseignement trade associations were beginning supérieur. Dans to develop voluntary standards for cette communica- their member firms. Municipal tion, je chercherai building codes, provincial health à orienter le débat and highway standards and federal vers les fonctions regulation of utilities had already de tests, d’essai et drawn the State into the develop- de normalisation ment, promulgation and enforce- des laboratoires, ment of technical standards. So telles qu’elles se too had the activities of large présentaient au public agencies such as Ontario cours de la Seconde Révolu- McGill University Testing Laboratory Laboratoire de tests de l’université McGill Hydro. In addition, changes in tion industrielle. Une étude industrial production, engineering attentive des laboratoires de practice and contract specification résistance des matériaux, de ci- et de comités avec des ingénieurs writing were all exerting influences ment, d’électricité et de mines des de l’industrie et du gouvernement. on the emergence of a Canadian universités canadiennes permet de Ainsi peut-on soutenir que la standards regime. This paper lever le voile sur cette pratique. Le distance institutionnelle qui sépa- concludes with some histo- mouvement de la recherche indus- rait autrefois les universités de leur riographic remarks drawing atten- trielle, animé par des scientifiques, milieu industriel s’estompait à tion to the similarities between the des ingénieurs et des industriels, cause des échanges de plus en plus histories of technical standards and trouva dans les universités les intenses entre les professeurs, les industrial research in Canada. ressources matérielles et humaines entreprises privées et les organisa- manquantes. Les entreprises tions gouvernementales. Tests, essais et normalisation dans privées du secteur industriel, en les laboratoires de génie des effet, intégraient progressivement à Reliable Humans, Trustworthy leur structure décisionnelle le Machines: The material and universités canadiennes, contrôle de la qualité, la normalisa- 1890-1930 tion de la production et la recher- social construction of electronic che de nouveaux produits. L’État, reliability Jean-François Auger qui prenait en charge l’assistance technologique aux entreprises, Edward Jones-Imhotep À partir des années 1890, les devait procéder à des expériences facultés de génie établirent des propres à déterminer les normes The Cold War was about distrust. laboratoires, qui servirent à l’ensei- industrielles pour la réglementation It was, in the first instance, about gnement expérimental. Aux yeux et les spécifications des contrats. the distrust of people and political des éducateurs, il apparaissait en On vit également apparaître des actors: the distrust of humans. But effet incontournable de dispenser laboratoires privés spécialisés dans it was also about the distrust of une formation en laboratoire sur les tests, les analyses et la certifica- material and machines: the distrust des machines industrielles avec des tion. À l’image de ces derniers, of technology. This paper explores instruments de mesure scientifi- quelques laboratoires de génie des how concerns over the reliability que. On organisa ainsi les labora- universités commercialisèrent des of electronics during the early Cold toires en prenant des machines, services de tests, d’essai et de War were rooted in anxieties over des instruments et des artefacts des normalisation, ce qui leur donna, the reliability of people and their usines pour les installer dans les dans certains cas, un revenu suffi- relationship to machines. Ranging universités, de manière à créer un sant pour acheter des appareils, from the mundane details of environnement tendant à repro- engager des assistants et réaliser soldering techniques and ergo- duire la réalité industrielle. Quel- des travaux personnels. Les pro- nomics to the abstract iconogra- ques historiens, tels que Robert fesseurs de génie participèrent de phy of semiconductor circuits, the Fox et Anna Guagnini, se sont plus à la détermination de normes paper argues that perhaps the récemment interrogés sur les effets au sein d’associations, de sociétés central engineering task of the

10 XIIIe conférence de Kingston, 17 au 19 octobre, 2003

Cold War—ensuring the reliability strates how the history of technol- Early Computer Science of electronic equipment—was ogy contributes a broader under- at the University of Toronto bound up in establishing and standing of the Cold War itself, enforcing the trustworthiness of one in which crucial struggles were Scott Campbell humans. Rather than focus on the fought out at the level of politics

U.S. or the Soviet Union, the and popular culture, but also at the The University of Toronto pro- paper instead looks to Canada, level of technologies and the social vided the birthplace of electronic where issues of technological forms that surrounded them. computing in Canada. Between reliability were shot through with 1949 and 1952, a research team concerns over cultural identity, built the University of Toronto territorial sovereignty and national Electronic Computer, the first in survival under the totalizing effects Canada. It was replaced in 1952 of the Cold War. Historians of Research and Higher when the University purchased a technology have generally treated Education Ferranti Mark I, shifting the the development of electronic La recherche à intellectual focus in Toronto from reliability as a purely technical hardware to software. Although issue, as a consequence of the l’université computer time was initially de- move to solid-state electronics voted to government work, faculty made possible by sophisticated [14:00-15:45 Session / Atelier C3] and student interests quickly industrial production. My aim is expanded the range of research, not to delve again into the doping often working in collaboration techniques, solid-state physics, and Bridging the Great Divide: with other Canadian universities planar manufacturing processes so Creating and Sustaining and corporations. Non-credit well covered in previous work. University-Firm Partnerships computer courses were also avail- Nor do I want simply to recount, able for faculty, graduate students, for a different national context, the and local business-people. As intense collaboration of commer- Matthew Lucas facilities expanded, courses were cial firms and defence establish- formalized, and the stature of the ments that formed the “military- Over the past decade Canadian discipline grew, the Department of industrial complex.” Rather this policy makers have intensely Computer Science was created at paper seeks to complement well- promoted university-firm collabo- the University in 1965. My talk will established studies by examining ration as a means of stimulating show how early research and how the creation and maintenance innovation. Universities now teaching practices emerged as this of cold-war electronics went collaborate with firms on numer- new department. beyond the institutional and ous research and training initia- scientific domains. Trustworthi- tives. Despite the considerable ness meant engineering people as attention that analysts have given On the Middle Road: well as machines. And, far from this phenomena we still under- The Kingston Veterinary College being a monolithic process, creat- stand very little about how univer- sity-firm collaborations create and at Queen s University ing reliability among Western nations was the site of intense share knowledge. To gain insight into the dynamics of the univer- T.W. Dukes struggles for national autonomy and identity. To engage the sity-firm relationship this paper examines the creation and evolu- In the 1890s members of the broader social and technological Queen’s University medical faculty arenas, the paper marshals a wide tion of four formal collaborations between the University of Toronto participated in the creation of a range of resources—popular films, veterinary school in Kingston. documentaries, government re- and local firms: Photonics Re- search Ontario, the IBM Centre Some physicians envisaged possi- ports, technical memoranda, ble benefits to medicine from military directives, and engineering for Advances Studies, the Nortel Institute for Telecommunications, involvement in experimental and diagrams—to show how electronic comparative medicine, others saw reliability required a combined and the Bell University Laborato- ries. The paper investigates how it as an essential element of practi- social and technical architecture cal science in universities. In this not reducible to semiconductors or the partners in each case study established project boundaries, paper, I will explore the reasons production lines. In this way the for the founding of the Queen’s paper contributes to a broader managed institutional and cultural differences, carried out research, Veterinary School and for its social and cultural history of post- closure only five years later, both war electronics. But it also demon- and shared knowledge.

11 Canadian Science and Technology Historical Association within the context of the rising l’Université Laval fonde le Labora- à celle de Montréal. En somme, cet discipline of experimental medi- toire d’astrophysique de l’Universi- épisode fait partie d’un projet plus cine and the changing nature of té Laval (LAUL). Dirigé par Albé- global visant à retracer le dévelop- medical professionalism. Canadian ric Boivin, bien connu à l’époque pement de l’astronomie au Qué- formalized veterinary training had pour ses travaux en optique physi- bec. begun three decades earlier when que, ce laboratoire marque le two veterinary graduates from début des travaux en astronomie et Edinburgh, Scotland came to en astrophysique dans cette institu- General Assembly Canada: Andrew Smith who tion. Le LAUL est unique dans la started the Toronto School in province. Même si l’Université de Assemblée générale 1862; and Duncan McEachran Montréal effectue depuis 1956 who founded a second school in certains travaux en astrophysique [16:15-17:45 Plenary Session / Séance Montreal four years later following théorique, aucune université plénière] a disagreement with Smith over québécoise n’occupe le champ de standards of education. The To- Suzanne Zeller, chair / ronto school under Smith empha- présidente sized the “art” of veterinary medi- cine whereas McEachran’s school Banquet [18:00] in Montreal emphasized the “science.” Both schools included a few physicians on their teaching Sunday, October 19h, 2003 staff, but the Montreal school Dimanche, 19 octobre 2003 maintained closer ties to the medical school at McGill and more stringent admission requirements. Mount Mégantic Astronomical Place and Technology When the Kingston School was Observatory Les dimensions spatiales created in 1895 it was one of the Observatoire du mont Mégantic many institutional achievements of de la technologie Principal George M. Grant who is l’astronomie d’observation. Le said to have unified Queen's LAUL décide donc de se consacrer [9:00-10:45 Session / Atelier D1] university from a collection of à cette spécialité, et entreprend dès colleges and who was a strong lors des travaux pour construire un George Richardson, chair / supporter of practical education. observatoire : l’Observatoire président Offering both diploma and degree astronomique de St-Elzéar. Le programs, the Queen’s veterinary développement de ce laboratoire et school took a middle road between de son observatoire n’a pas eu le Aesthetics and Ice, Design and the programs in Toronto and succès escompté, si bien qu’en Engineering: The Canadian Montreal. The Kingston Veteri- 1975, c’est plutôt l’Université de nary College provides evidence of Montréal qui assume le leadership Niagara Power Company interplay between the two shifting de la spécialité dans la province, à Rankine Generating Station branches of medicine in the proc- travers l’Observatoire du Mont ess of definition: the plurality and Mégantic nouvellement mis sur Norman R. Ball rivalry of medical practice; and the pied. Cette présentation vise à transformation of academic medi- expliquer l’incapacité de l’Universi- The Rankine Generating Station cine by physiology into an experi- té Laval à se positionner comme stands on the Canadian side of the mental laboratory science. joueur dominant dans le champ de Niagara River above the falls. It l’astronomie au Québec. Nous y started generating power in 1905. L’astronomie à l’Université exposerons dans un premier temps The charter had been granted to les principales étapes du dévelop- the Canadian Niagara Power Laval entre 1963 et 1975 : pement de l’astrophysique à Laval. genèse et déclin d’une prééminence Company in 1892 at a time of Sera ensuite brièvement comparé, intense controversy over the future factice à l’aide de données empiriques, of the land on both sides of the l’état de l’astronomie dans chacun Niagara River. Niagara Falls had Vincent Larivière des deux établissements, ce qui long been known for its combina- nous permettra de soulever cer- tion of natural splendour and En 1963, un groupe de chercheurs tains facteurs ayant défavorisé dubious taste. Many who felt the du département de physique de l’institution de Québec par rapport

12 13th Kingston Conference, October 17-19, 2003 latter was winning wanted to halt die vinrent s’établir au lac Saint- an Interdepartmental Committee all development. This paper dem- Paul, situé sur la rive sud du fleuve on Air Operations was set up to onstrates how the Rankine station Saint-Laurent vis-à-vis Trois- coordinate their activity. In the successfully met engineering and Rivières. Durant plus d’un siècle, 1940s, helicopters began to be aesthetic needs. plusieurs habitants de cette Cadie used in photographic surveys, and profitèrent des ressources disponi- in aerial application work, and for Aviation and the Opening of the bles pour construire des goélettes, frost flying over crops threatened Canadian North: Bush Flying in des bateaux et des barges. Afin de with frost damage. The Canadian the Mackenzie Valley, saisir l’importance de cette activité Aerial Applicators Association was 1929-1945 et d’en tracer un portrait valable, il formed in 1986 to promote pro- convient d’en analyser plusieurs fessionalism among aerial applica-

aspects. L’étude des systèmes tors and others associated with Marionne Cronin techniques inhérents à cette cons- aerial application. There are Cana- truction navale apparaît sans doute dian Chapters of the International This presentation will review my comme l’aspect le plus tangible Flying Farmers Association in dissertation research into the role d’une compréhension globale. La several Canadian Provinces. These of aviation in the opening of the batellerie issue du lac Saint-Paul Flying Farmers maintain that their Canadian North, specifically the entre 1777 et 1832 se composait Cessnas, Beechcrafts, and Piper role of bush flying in the principalement de goélettes, de aeroplanes are no different from Mackenzie Valley between 1929 bateaux et de barges. Chacun de their combines, tractors, or pickup and 1945. Because of the area’s ces types architecturaux présentait trucks. isolation from established rail and des caractéristiques propres aux road transport systems, aviation utilisations et aux conditions de played an essential role in enabling navigation anticipées. La complexi- the economic exploitation of the té et le savoir-faire relatifs à cha- The Politics of Natu- area’s mineral resources, a process cune de ces architectures variaient ral Environments that catalyzed a dramatic transfor- considérablement. Aussi, l’inter- La politique des environ- mation of the North. The prétation du vocabulaire utilisé Mackenzie Valley provides an dans les contrats de construction, nements naturels interesting case study, highlighting quant aux pièces de charpente, au the intersection of a number of choix des matériaux et aux exigen- [9:00-10:45 Session / Atelier D2 ] historical threads within a limited ces particulières, peut révéler geographical area. In particular, in beaucoup sur l’architecture du Stéphane Castonguay, chair / this valley one can see the intimate bâtiment ou du bateau, sur le président connection between mining and savoir-faire que l’on suppose chez aviation, the importance of techni- le constructeur, ainsi que sur cal design developments to the certaines préoccupations de l’ache- On the Fringe: Examining the growth of northern aviation, and teur. the connection between aviation History of Canadian Urban and Canadian expansion. This Environmental Science presentation will provide an over- Aircraft and Agriculture in view of the subject and a brief Canada Stephen Bocking review of my work with the West- ern Canadian Aviation Museum Ralph Estey Ecologists have traditionally and the Richardson Collection at preferred to study pristine environ- the Manitoba Provincial Archives. A brief historical review of the ments. As a result, even though uses of aircraft in Canadian agri- they are usually based in urban culture. Their earliest use in this universities, they usually travel regard was in agricultural research, further afield for their research. At Systèmes techniques de la then as tools for use in photogra- the same time, however, urban construction navale au phy, and, more recently, in the planning and management require lac Saint-Paul control of insect infestations and various forms of environmental plant diseases. By 1923, so many knowledge. This presents, there-

individuals within the federal fore, a tension: between the prefer- Martin Gauthier Department of Agriculture were ences of scientists, and the practi-

making such heavy demands upon cal needs of local governments and Dès la fin de la décennie 1750, the limited number of aircraft that developers. I examine the histori- quelques familles expulsées d’Aca-

13 Association pour l’histoire de la science et de la technologie au Canada cal development of this tension, academic qualifications. The need and its implications for the evolu- for professional training was tion of urban environmental recognized first in Europe research, through a case study of (Freiberg Bergakademie; Paris the history of research on the Oak Ecole des Mines; Royal School of Ridges Moraine, located north of Mines, London) and then in the Toronto. United States (Sheffield Scientific School, Yale, established 1854). Dams or Brown Outs? The Sheffield school was the main model for the McGill Department The Politics of River Mobiliza- of Practical Science, established in tion in Wartime British Distant Early Warning Line station Station de la ligne Distant Early Warning 1871 by Dawson: its first appoint- Columbia, 1939-1945 ment was Bernard J. Harrington series of environmental impact (1848-1907), a graduate of McGill Matthew Evenden studies across the Canadian arctic, who obtained his doctorate in the of the Cold War-era Distant Early Sheffield School (and a prize in Across Canada during the Second Warning (DEW) Line radar sites. mineralogy) in 1871. Harrington World War, rivers were mobilized These studies have developed into obtained one of the first two to supply hydro-electricity for an a $500 million clean-up project doctorates awarded in geology at expanding economy. In six years that will continue well into the 21st the Sheffield School. Other early after 1939, Canada’s electrical century. Through an examination doctorates were awarded to Joseph energy output increased by one- of texts produced about the DEW Winthrop Spencer (1851-1921; B. quarter. Before the war, depressed Line from its construction to its A.Sc., McGill;Ph.D.,Göttingen, economic activity had caused remediation, and through reflec- 1877); Arthur Philemon Coleman surplus electricity supplies in tion on current science practice (1852-1939; B.A.,Victoria College; several parts of the country. With within the clean-up, I articulate Ph.D., Breslau, 1881); Andrew the outbreak of war, Canadian and some historical, political, and Cooper Lawson (1861-1952; B.A. allied demand for raw and semi- personal dimensions of contempo- Toronto; Ph.D., Johns Hop- processed resources, and finished rary Canadian environmental kins,1888); Frank Dawson Adams goods like munitions, drove up the science. Furthermore, I argue that (1859-1942; B.A. Sc., McGill, Ph. entire electrical demand curve. To a nuanced consideration of such D., Heidelberg, ~1890). meet emerging needs, rivers across dimensions is crucial to good the country were quickly devel- empirical accounts, as well as to Colonial Science Lessons from the oped. The pattern of development ongoing environmental practices. Backwoods : Catherine Parr was highly regionalized with the majority of activity in Quebec and Traill, 1802-1899 Ontario compared to project cancellations in the Maritimes, the Natural History and Marianne Gosztonyi Ainley Prairie provinces and British Columbia. This paper examines Colonialism This paper is part of my larger the debates over river mobilization Histoire naturelle et historical project that will examine in wartime British Columbia and gender, environments, and the colonialisme th seeks to understand what made transmission of knowledge in 19 th some rivers strategic and others and 20 century Canada and [9:00-10:45 Session / Atelier D3] Australia. More specifically, I will not. explore the life and work of Catha- Edward Jones-Imhotep, chair / rine Parr Traill, a 19th century ‘Here We Fight the Coldest président settler in Upper Canada. Between War’: Environmental Science and 1832 and 1895, this English-born Feminist Autobiography on the writer-naturalist published popular DEW Line Early Doctorates earned by works about colonial society, and Geologists born in Canada the natural history, particularly Heather Ducharme botany, of the Canadian Shield. Gerard V. Middleton The Backwoods of Canada (1836) and the Canadian Settler’s Guide (1855) In 1989, the Canadian Department Early Canadian geologists (e.g., provided explicit colonial lessons of National Defence and the Logan, Dawson) had very few to prospective immigrants that United States Air Force began a 14 XIIIe conférence de Kingston, 17 au 19 octobre, 2003

tional reference work on “the There are currently thirty-one Botany of the Northern Parts of Canadian scientists, engineers and British America.” Hooker, an innovators recognized in the institution-builder of British Canadian Science and Engineering botany, was a major networker Hall of Fame. According the Hall within colonial science, and his of Fame’s web page, reached from project benefited from social the home page of the Canada connections of many kinds. This Science and Technology Museum, paper contextualizes the assistance “The achievements of these provided to Hooker’s Canadian individuals have been so remark- flora by Lady Dalhousie, Harriet able and their contributions to Sheppard, Anne Mary Perceval, society so great that the Museum Catherine Parr Trail (standing) author and Mary Brenton,—three wives hopes one day all Canadians will of The Backwoods of Canada (1836) and one daughter of government be aware of their accomplish- officials in Nova Scotia, Quebec, ments.” One might wonder and Newfoundland. Reading whether or not this is a realistic included information on plants, magazines, drawing plants, attend- goal! The Canadian Science and animals, the climate, and food ing sessions of local scientific Engineering Hall of Fame was chemistry. In Canadian Wild Flowers societies, collecting with their originally established in 1991 as a (1868), Studies of Plant Life (1885), children, these four women partici- partnership of the National Re- and numerous journal articles on pated in various forms of public search Council of Canada (NRC), plants, Catharine Parr Traill com- and private botany, and made the the Canada Science and Technol- bines her own observations with traffic in knowledge between old ogy Museum, Industry Canada, indigenous environmental knowl- world and “new” a resource for and the Association of Partners in edge and, occasionally challenged themselves. Their letters to Education to mark NRC's 75th the writings of male experts. Hooker (in the Archives, Royal anniversary. Now the Canada During a sixty-five year period, she Botanic Gardens, Kew) give Science and Technology Museum provided popular science educa- texture to the history of women— looks after the Hall of Fame: tion for North American natural- “Flora’s daughters”—as audience receiving the nominations, coordi- ists and prospective settlers and and agents in Canadian botanical nating the selection process, was the first Canadian science culture. hosting the induction event. The writer to eke out a living from Hall of Fame is old enough now writing. Because women, indige- Break / Pause [10:45-11:15] that it is a good time to review the nous people and their knowledge criteria for selection, the nomina- had, for a long time, been written tion process, and the membership out of mainstream histories of of the pre-selection and selection science and education, my work The Canadian Science committees. Should we be placing will contribute to a re-assessment and Engineering Hall more emphasis on identifying of gender, science and environ- living people for inclusion? How mental knowledge in 19th century of Fame many people should be inducted Canada and raise questions regard- Le panthéon canadien each year? Are there particular ing Western and non-Western des sciences et du génie fields that are not represented, but should be? The Hall of Fame’s knowledge traditions. [11:15-12:30 Plenary session / séance goals include both honouring Collecting for William Hooker: plénière] worthy Canadians and inspiring today’s youth. Is this happening? 4 Floras in Search of Canadian The Canadian Science and Engi- Plants Richard Jarrell, chair / président neering Hall of Fame is dedicated

to the recognition of individuals Ann B. Shteir The Origins, Purpose and who have made exceptional contri- butions to the fields of science or During the opening decades of the Operation of the Canadian engineering. The means to achieve 19th century, four women collected Science and Engineering this need not be the same forever, indigenous plants and compiled Hall of Fame but how might they be changed? botanical information for William Jackson Hooker’s Flora Boreali- Helen P Graves Smith and Americana (1829-40), a founda- Randall C Brooks Lunch / Dîner [12:30-14:00]

15 A H S T C C S T H A

Association pour l’histoire de la science et Canadian Science and Technology de la technologie au Canada Historical Association