Guomindang Policy on Secondary Education in Wartime China and Postwar Taiwan, 1937-1960
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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, IRVINE Indoctrinating the Youth: Guomindang Policy on Secondary Education in Wartime China and Postwar Taiwan, 1937-1960 DISSERTATION submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in History by Jennifer Liu Dissertation Committee: Professor Kenneth Pomeranz, Chair Professor Jeffrey Wasserstrom Professor Qitao Guo 2010 UMI Number: 3404306 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMI 3404306 Copyright 2010 by ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This edition of the work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346 © 2010 Jennifer Liu DEDICATION For My parents and Lane ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES iv NOTE ON ROMANIZATION v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vi CURRICULUM VITAE viii ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION xi INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER 1: Survival During the War of Resistance, 1937-1945 20 CHAPTER 2: The Three People’s Principle’s Youth Corps on the Mainland, 52 1938-1947 CHAPTER 3: The China Youth Corps in Taiwan, 1952-1960 112 CHAPTER 4: Military Training and Instructors, 1953-1960 169 CONCLUSION 213 BIBLIOGRAPHY 223 iii LIST OF TABLES Page Table 1 Occupational Composition (%) of Three People’s Principles Youth Corps Members 74 Table 2 Number of GMD Party Members and SQT Members and Their Ratio 79 iv NOTE ON ROMANIZATION The two common ways to Romanize Chinese names into English are the pinyin system used on the mainland and the Wade-Giles system utilized on Taiwan. This work primarily employs the use of pinyin in Romanizing Chinese words. Guomindang (GMD) is used instead of Kuomintang (KMT) because this study includes the GMD’s years on the mainland. However, Wade-Giles does appear throughout the text in specific instances for conventional names in English of people and places such as Chiang Kai-shek, Chiang Ching-kuo, Sun Yatsen, and Taipei. Whenever a block quote from another source is used that contains Wade-Giles, it will appear unchanged. In addition, whenever a referenced work’s title and/or author’s name is Romanized with Wade-Giles, it too will be left in its original spelling. This was done to maintain accuracy in the references, as well as to preserve the integrity of any given author’s work that contains Wade-Giles. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my deepest appreciation to my advisor, Professor Kenneth Pomeranz, for his genuine kindness, patience, and consideration through the years. He guided me in formulating this dissertation from its inception, challenging me to dig deeper in my inquiries, and offering me insights and ideas with his brilliant, cutting-edge thinking. I am honored to be one of his students. I also want to thank Professor Jeffrey Wasserstrom for imparting to me his expertise of student protests. He pointed me to many sources and supplied me with contacts from his numerous connections. I am also grateful for Guo Qitao for his suggestions to my dissertation. In addition, I express gratitude to Professor Richard Von Glahn, who taught the first Chinese history class I took as a sophomore in college. He sparked my interest in the subject and later became my senior thesis advisor. This project would not have been possible without funding from the Center for Chinese Studies of Taiwan’s National Central Library, the Pacific Rim Mini-Grant, and the Association for Asian Studies’ China and Inner Asia Council Small Grant. The University of California, Irvine also provided significant funding through the Center for Asian Studies Grant, Summer Dissertation Fellowship, Humanities Research Grant, Humanities Center Grant, and International Center for Writing and Translation Grant. My project also benefitted from kind staff and librarians who assisted me in Taiwan at the National Institute of Compilation and Translation, the National Institute of Educational Resources and Research, the Guomindang Party Archives, the Ministry of Education, Taiwan Historica, Academia Historica, and Academia Sinica. I am especially grateful for Yu Chieng-ming and Hu Kuo-tai of the Institute of Modern Studies at Academia Sinica. Dr. Yu shared her experiences in conducting oral histories and Dr. Hu imparted his knowledge of wartime education to me, providing contacts. Besides offering funding, the National Central Library’s Center for Chinese Studies also allowed me to have an individual study room and its kind, generous staff never hesitated to lend a hand. I am especially thankful to the liaison officer Liau Jane and the late material archivist Chen Chien-kuo. I deeply regret that he will not see the completed work, because he contributed so much in helping me locate documents. A special thanks to Hsiung Tzy- ching who generously provided me with materials and contacts at the China Youth Corps Headquarters. I must also thank the staff and librarians of different research institutes in China: the National Library in Beijing, Jiangsu Provincial Archives, Second Historical Archives in Nanjing, Shanghai Library, and Shanghai’s Lexicographical Publishing House Library. I am also indebted to Professor Hu Cheng, Liu Qiong, and Chen Chunxiao of Nanjing University for helping me navigate the Jiangsu Provincial Archives and Second Historical Archives. I also thank Robert Culp, Megan Greene, Kate Merkel- Hess, and Gina Russo for directing me to archives, as well as the staff at Hoover Institution Archives and Library and Stanford University’s East Asian Library. I express vi gratitude to Elizabeth Chiang for giving me permission to use the Chiang Kai-shek diaries. Moreover, I am deeply grateful for the former China Youth Corps members and secondary school administrators, teachers, and students for who took the time to share their experiences, thoughts, and opinions with me. The stories that I heard about my grandparents’ courageous survival in the Second Sino- Japanese War and retreat to Taiwan first inspired this topic. My parents’ childhood and education in Taiwan added another motivating dimension. I thank my parents for their love, unwavering support, and encouragement to explore the past. Finally, my husband Lane has been there for me every step of the way. He endured hot summers in Taiwan and believed in me when I did not believe in myself. His love, patience, and emotional support kept me going. vii CURRICULUM VITAE Jennifer Liu Education 2010 Ph.D. in History at the University of California, Irvine 2007 M.A. in History at the University of California, Irvine 2002 B.A. in History with Honors at the University of California, Los Angeles Appointments 2010 Assistant Professor – Central Michigan University External Grants 2008 Association for Asian Studies-CIAC Small Grant 2008 Center for Chinese Studies Grant, National Central Library, Taiwan 2007 Pacific Rim Mini-Grant viii ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION Indoctrinating the Youth: Guomindang Policy on Secondary Education in Wartime China and Postwar Taiwan, 1937-1960 By Jennifer Liu Doctor of Philosophy in History University of California, Irvine, 2010 Professor Kenneth Pomeranz, Chair Indoctrinating the Youth explores the Guomindang’s (GMD or Chinese Nationalist Party) attempts to inculcate political loyalty in secondary school students through youth organizations and military training in China and Taiwan. It compares the GMD efforts on mainland China during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) with the early years following its 1949 retreat to Taiwan, where it re-established its government. During the war, the GMD aided secondary school students who fled from Japanese-occupied territories by establishing schools for them to continue their schooling. However, the GMD’s Three People’s Principles Youth Corps (SQT) was generally a failure on the mainland, while the China Youth Corps (CYC) created in 1952 on Taiwan was a remarkable success in its formative years. The SQT never was a channel for student political activism, but instead merely served as a strategic instrument for the GMD to depoliticize youth. For the most part, student members were even excluded from taking charge of their own organization’s activities. Moreover, the intra-party factions ix within the GMD ultimately led to the SQT’s dissolution in 1947 after a brief, nine-year existence. Meanwhile, Taiwan’s China Youth Corps distinguished itself by emphasizing leisure activities, which made it more appealing to students. Compared to the SQT, the CYC took a broader approach to student life and learning, and focused more on youth concerns beyond the realm of politics. In order to maintain discipline in youth and prepare for a Communist invasion, the GMD also mandated military training for all senior high students. Combined with CYC activities meant to foster martial spirit, military training also taught students civic duty and patriotism, enabling the GMD to successfully exert control over youth in 1950s Taiwan. x Introduction Chinese history includes a long trajectory of civil service examination candidates and students engaging in political activism. During the Han dynasty, Imperial University students railed against the eunuchs’ interference with court politics in a coup d’état against the regent Liang Ji (d. 159).1 In the Song dynasty (960-1279), students at the Imperial Confucian College pushed the government not to compromise with the Mongols by conceding land. During the early seventeenth century of the Ming dynasty, Donglin Academy students rose up against the court eunuch, Wei Zhongxian, who persecuted their members and supporters. In the late imperial period, examination candidates protested their government’s cessation of territories to the Japanese following China’s loss in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895).