World War I Traveling Footlocker
MacArthur Memorial
The World War I Traveling Footlocker Program is made possible by:
The MacArthur Memorial
The General Douglas MacArthur Foundation
Special thanks to the following individuals for contributing to the contents of the World War I Footlocker:
William J. Davis
Vanguard
Receiving the Footlocker
Thank you for your interest in the MacArthur Memorial World War I Traveling Footlocker Education Program.
Please go through this Teacher Manual before using the Footlocker. The manual lists guidelines, fact sheets about each World War I artifact and suggestions about how to use these artifacts in the classroom.
What are Artifacts?
ARTIFACTS:
är'ti·fact, n. [L. art (artis), art and factus, pp. of facere, to make.] 1. something produced by human work.
Artifacts are items made or modified by humans. As part of the material culture of a particular time period, artifacts help piece together the story of the past.
Things like cell phones, car keys, water bottles, and clothing are examples of material culture. While some of these items may seem trivial or commonplace, hundreds of years from now these items will provide historians and archaeologists with valuable insights into our lives.
By analyzing the artifacts of World War I, students can better piece together what life was like in that time period.
Why Artifacts?
Students and Artifacts:
Working with artifacts encourages students to:
1. identify and interpret primary source materials to increase understanding of events and times
2. make connections between past and present
3. evaluate and discuss issues orally and in writing
4. formulate historical questions and defend findings based on inquiry and interpretation
5. identify the costs and benefits of specific choices made, and how people and nations respond to positive and negative incentives
6. develop a personal connection with history!
SOL Fulfillment: USII.1a, b, c, d, e, f, h, i; USII.5c WHII.1a, b, d, f; WHII.10, WHII.11 VUS.1a, b, c, d, e, f, h, i; VUS.9b
Guidelines
Students should never handle artifacts without teacher supervision
Handling Artifacts:
Some of the artifacts in this footlocker are museum quality reproductions. Other artifacts are about 100 years old. Some artifacts are more fragile than others – but ALL of the artifacts should be treated with great care and respect.
Handling artifacts is a big responsibility, but it can be done safely and can be very rewarding. These basic rules apply:
Cotton gloves MUST be worn when handling artifacts. Museum curators use cotton gloves to work with artifacts because the natural oil produced by human skin can damage artifacts. As “curators,” students should also wear cotton gloves. This will not only protect the artifacts, but instill in the students a sense of the value of these historical items. (30 pairs of cotton gloves are included in the footlocker and may be reused.)
Artifacts should be held in both hands or should be placed securely on a flat surface. Special care should be taken when removing the artifacts from the footlocker, passing the artifacts around, or replacing the artifacts in the footlocker.
Students are encouraged to “investigate” or “read” the artifacts: i.e. open mess kits, gently open magazines, etc. However, items that are sealed should not be opened! These items are identified in the information binder with this logo
Students should never handle artifacts without teacher supervision.
Please record any damage to the artifacts on the Artifact Return Inventory Form located in the front pocket of this binder.
CLASSROOM USE
When museum curators come into contact with an artifact the first thing they do is identify what the item is, who made it, what it was made of, why it was made, and what it was used for. Once they determine the answers to as many of these questions as possible, they use this information to make inferences about the people, times, and places related to the artifact.
As “curators,” students should combine sight, smell, and touch, with their personal knowledge and experience to “read” the artifacts.
Recommended Procedure
1. Define artifact for students. Discuss why artifacts are important and what kind of jobs involve working with artifacts. Explain that they will be serving as “curators” for the day and will be exploring World War I artifacts.
2. Review Handling Artifacts Guidelines and pass out gloves if students will be handling the artifacts. Be sure that students understand all guidelines and understand the value of the items they will come into contact with.
3. Based on the judgment of the teacher, there are different ways to proceed:
a. If it is not appropriate to allow the students to handle the artifacts, the teacher can handle them, showing each item to the class in turn.
b. A teacher may call up students one at a time to handle and examine one artifact each. Each student can “read” the artifact for the class.
c. Students can be divided into small groups. Give each group an artifact (or artifacts) and have them make a report to the class on the artifact.
d. Set up artifact stations around the classroom. Have students visit each station in groups or individually. Students should “read” each artifact or answer questions about the item.
ARTIFACT CHECKLIST
□ M1917 Helmet □ M15 “Adrian” Helmet □ Mess Kit □ U.S. Army Canteen □ Lusitania Medal □ Trench Whistle □ Trench Candles (2 Items) □ Barbed Wire □ First Aid Kit □ White Feathers (3 Items) □ Trench Mirror □ Horse Feed/Water Bag □ German Dog Tag □ Dazzle Painting Guide □ Woodrow Wilson Campaign Buttons (2 Items) □ Iron Cross □ Silver Star □ World War I Victory Medal □ Army of Occupation of Germany Medal □ Copy, Zimmerman Telegram (2 Items) □ Gas Mask □ Sandbag □ Army Patches (2 Items) □ Foot Powder □ Coal and Oil (2 Items) □ Postcards, Allied Powers (2 Items) □ Postcards, Central Powers (2 Items) □ German Currency □ Goggles □ Dog Tags □ Russian Uniform Buttons □ Suffragette Buttons (2 Items) □ Summary of the 14 Points □ Pickelhaub Uberzug □ Treaty of Versailles Cartoons (3 Items)
World War I
Artifact Analysis
1. What type of material is the item made of?
2. Is there any writing on the item?
3. Who made the item?
4. What is the item? What was it used for?
5. Who used this item? Soldiers? Civilians?
6. Where was it used? Battlefield? Homefront?
7. Do we have or use anything similar today?
8. What does this item tell you about people’s lives during World War I?
Returning the Footlocker
Pick up for this World War I Traveling Footlocker was scheduled at the time of reservation and reconfirmed upon delivery. Please have the Footlocker ready for pick up on the agreed upon date and time.
Contact Amanda Williams at 757.441.2965 or [email protected] with any questions or concerns.
Checklist
□ Fill out the Artifact Inventory Return Form and place it in the front pocket of the Teacher Manual binder.
□ Put all artifacts back in their protective sleeves and place them in the footlocker.
□ Put gloves back in the plastic baggie and place them in the footlocker
□ Secure footlocker with combination lock.
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: M1917 Helmet
COUNTRY: U.S.A
DATE: 1917
DESCRIPTION:
When the United States entered World War I in April 1917, the U.S. Army did not have a combat helmet for its troops. The Allied and Central powers had been fighting for several years and had long since adopted steel helmets for their troops. In June 1917, the U.S. Army decided to adopt the standard British Mk. I helmet design. The American made version was called the M1917 Helmet.
Soon, American factories were producing M1917 helmets. Some factories pressed sheets of steel into the helmet bowl shape. Other factories assembled helmet liners. The liners and the helmets were then sent to be assembled at the Ford Motor Company in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
First the helmets were painted. To make sure the helmet would not be shiny, sawdust was blown onto the wet paint. This gave the helmet a rough, textured surface. Then, another coat of olive drab paint was applied to the helmet.
THINKING FURTHER:
Why would you not want a helmet that reflected light?
The U.S. Army issued the M1917 helmet after learning that the other nations viewed helmets as vital equipment for soldiers. What other information do you think the U.S. Army had to learn from its Allies?
During World War I and World War II, many American factories made vast quantities of supplies for the military. Ford Motor Company assisted in the production of the M1917 Helmet during World War I. What did Ford normally produce though? How do wars impact industry?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: M15 “Adrian” Helmet
COUNTRY: France
DATE: 1915
DESCRIPTION:
When World War I began in 1914, the Allied and Central Powers sent their troops into battle wearing cloth or felt hats. These hats provided no protection against bullets or the shrapnel generated by exploding artillery shells.
In 1915 the French began supplying their soldiers with a steel combat helmet designed by Louis-Auguste Adrian. This helmet became known as the “Adrian” helmet. From 1915-1918 French factories produced millions of “Adrian” helmets. Many other countries adopted the “Adrian” helmet – including Belgium, Serbia, and Romania.
When the United States entered the war in 1917, the U.S. military was segregated. African American units typically served in support roles – not combat roles. The exceptions to this were the 92nd Division and the 93rd Division. The 93rd Division was actually “loaned” to the French and fought under the command of French officers. African American soldiers in this division went into battle wearing the French “Adrian” Helmet, not the U.S. M1917 helmet.
THINKING FURTHER:
Initially the “Adrian” helmets were blue. As the war went on, a decision was made to change the blue “Adrian” helmets to gray. Why do you think they made this change?
After World War I ended, some African American soldiers decided to live in France. Why might they have felt this way? How would you describe their relationship with the French people?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: Mess Kit
COUNTRY: U.S.A
DATE: 1918
DESCRIPTION:
Designed to be functional but compact, a mess kit was an essential part of every soldier’s life. Millions of mess kits were made during the war by workers on the Homefront.
Mess kits were primarily used for receiving and eating food. When it was time to eat in a military camp or base, soldiers would line up, open up their mess kits, and file through a mess tent or mess hall where food would be spooned into their mess kit. In the field and in combat situations, soldiers were given packages of food rations. These rations required little preparation and could be easily prepared in a mess kit.
A typical ration for American soldiers in World War I consisted of 12 ounces of fresh bacon or canned meat, two 8-ounce cans of hard bread or hardtack biscuits, a packet of coffee, a packet of sugar, and a packet of salt. Soldiers were also provided with tobacco.
THINKING FURTHER:
What role did the Homefront play in helping soldiers on the battlefield?
Napoleon said that an army marches on its stomach. What do you think this means?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: U.S. Army Canteen
COUNTRY: U.S.A
DATE: 1918
DESCRPTION:
While it may not seem as important as weapons or ammunition, water has always been an incredibly important part of maintaining an effective military. Just as hydration is important for athletes, so too is it important for military troops. Nevertheless, making sure that soldiers have water in the middle of a battle or while on the march can often be a difficult task. The canteen solved this problem by serving as a “water bottle” for soldiers. A one quart canteen was issued to each solider as part of their basic gear during World War I.
Millions of canteens were made on the Homefront during World War I. Many of these canteens were reused by the military during World War II (1941-1945).
THINKING FURTHER:
How did the Homefront help soldiers on the battlefield?
This canteen is dated 1918. Many World War I canteens were reused by the military during World War II (1941-1945). Why do you think they did this?
A full canteen weighted approximately 2 lbs. Combined with all the other gear a soldier carried into the field, the standard soldier’s gear weighed about 60lbs. How does your backpack compare?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: Lusitania Medal
COUNTRY: German
DATE: 1915
DESCRIPTION:
In February 1915, Germany announced a campaign of unrestricted U-Boat warfare. This meant any ships taking supplies to Allied countries would be targeted by German submarines. Germany believed that its survival depended on cutting off Allied supplies.
On May 1, 1915, the passenger liner Lusitania left New York bound for Liverpool, England. It was also carrying supplies bound for Great Britain. Prior to departure, the German Embassy in the United States warned that the ship might be targeted. On May 7, 1915, the Lusitania was sunk by a German submarine operating off the coast of Ireland. 1,198 people were killed. Nations around the world condemned the act. Bowing to international pressure, the German government temporarily halted unrestricted U-Boat warfare.
A medal commemorating the sinking was created in Germany. The medal bore the words: “NO CONTRABAND” and “BUSINESS ABOVE ALL ELSE.” Both phrases blamed the British for putting civilian lives at risk by transporting military equipment on a passenger liner. Outside of Germany however, the issue of transporting military equipment was not as publicized and public opinion remained horrified over the civilian deaths.
THINKING FURTHER:
Allied propaganda in World War I cast Germany as “evil,” and “barbaric.” Do you think it was effective? How did both sides use the Lusitania as propaganda?
Although 128 Americans were killed in the attack on the Lusitania, the United States did not enter the war. How do you think the sinking of the Lusitania affected public opinion in the United States?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: Trench Whistle
COUNTRY: Great Britain
DATE: c.1900
DESCRIPTION:
Battlefields are noisy places so communication can often be a problem. For that reason, armies throughout history have come up with unique ways to communicate instructions that do not involve shouting. Hand signals, smoke signals, drums, and trumpets are types of non-verbal communication that have been used throughout history.
During World War I, whistles were vital communication tools. Officers and Non- commissioned officers would use whistles to signal to troops that it was time to go “over the top.” By going “over the top,” soldiers were climbing out of their trenches to attack the enemy. It could be a very confusing operation to coordinate, and the whisles helped soldiers know when it was time to climb out of the trenches and attack, and when it was time to retreat.
Officers and Non-commissioned officers would usually use a leather strap or lanyard to attach their whistle to their uniform. This ensured that they would not lose it in the chaos of the battlefield. One of the most popular types of whistle was the cylindrical Acme Metropolitan.
THINKING FURTHER:
Most soldiers were nervous as they waited to hear the whistle to go “over the top.” Why do you think they were nervous? Would you be nervous?
What tools do soldiers have to communicate today?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: Trench Candle
COUNTRY: U.S.A
DATE: 1917-1918
DESCRIPTION:
Life in the trenches was wet, muddy, and often cold. At night, soldiers had to be very careful about using lights because even the flare of a match on a very dark night could alert the enemy to their position.
Small trench candles were issued to soldiers. These candles were easy to produce and they provided limited light and heat. The candles could not be used to cook, but they generated enough heat to warm a cup of liquid. Sometimes these candles were put into lanterns.
Candles also helped to combat lice. It is estimated that 97% of the soldiers in the trenches suffered from lice. Lice are tiny parasitic insects that feed on the blood of their host. Lice reproduce very quickly and spread rapidly when large numbers of people are living together in cramped spaces. The trenches were a perfect environment for the lice to thrive. Various methods were used to remove the lice, but in the trenches, a lighted candle was particularly simple method. Soldiers would simply locate lice on their clothing and then hold the clothing up to the flame. A “pop” would indicate that the lice had been killed by the flame. While this method certainly killed the lice, soldiers had to be careful not to ignite their clothing.
THINKING FURTHER:
The first flashlight was invented in 1899, but flashlights were not part of a soldier’s standard kit during World War I. Why?
Many soldiers reported that while they were in the trenches, the tiny flickering flame of a candle gave them comfort. Why do you think this was the case?
Why do you think the trenches were a perfect environment for disease and parasites like lice?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: Barbed Wire
COUNTRY: All
DATE: 1916
DESCRIPTION:
Barbed wire was invented in the 1860s and served as a cheap, easy to install fencing material. It was made of metal wire with sharp barbs attached at intervals. Any person or animal attempting to pass through barbed wire would suffer great discomfort or even serious injury. Wound in great spools, the wire did not take a lot of skill to set up. It could also be set up very quickly – even by someone who had never worked with it before.
By 1914, industrialized countries around the world were producing barbed wire. As World War I descended into stalemate and trench warfare, soldiers on both sides used barbed wire to protect their own trenches and to discourage or slow down an enemy crossing “no man’s land.” As the war went on, some even used barbed wire to help funnel an enemy into an area where they could more easily be killed or captured.
When attacking the enemy, some soldiers carried wire cutters to help clear a safe path through the barbed wire for their fellow soldiers. Generally however, barbed wire proved to be a very dangerous obstacle for soldiers, who feared becoming entangled or trapped in the sharp wire.
THINKING FURTHER:
Why do you think barbed wire was considered an ideal fencing material by all of the combatants in World War I?
World War I featured high-tech weapons and low-tech weapons. Give an example of each.
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: First Aid Kit
COUNTRY: U.S.A
DATE: 1908
DESCRIPTION:
Portable, compact medical supplies were an important part of every soldier’s kit. The U.S. Army’s first aid kit was issued to every soldier during World War I. The small rectangular tin package contained two sterile bandages. The kit was opened by pulling on the tab on the bottom of the package. It was usually carried in a small pouch designed to hook onto the soldier’s belt.
The first aid kit was relatively “user friendly.” A medic or a wounded soldier could simply open it and apply the bandage. While “user friendly” however, the kit merely provided basic first aid and was only meant to stabilize a wounded soldier until more comprehensive medical care was available.
When wounded in combat, a soldier would be sent to a Field Hospital for initial treatment. If his condition required more extensive treatment, he would be sent to hospitals further from the front lines. His trip there was usually by horse drawn ambulance. Although the automobile was transforming transportation, horses remained in service. Often, on muddy battlefields, horses remained the most reliable source of transportation.
THINKING FURTHER:
Why do you think the first aid kit was sealed?
During World War I, 11 million soldiers on all sides were killed. 2 million soldiers died of disease. Consider the conditions in which they fought and lived. Why might this be the case?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: White Feather
COUNTRY: Great Britain/Others
DATE: 1914-1918
DESCRIPTION:
At the start of World War I, many British women wanted to help their country win the war. They could not fight, so they had to find other ways to support the war effort. Some joined the Red Cross and worked to help support the troops and nurse the wounded. Some helped the war effort by working in factories, and others worked as unofficial “recruiters” for the military. Propaganda posters throughout England (and the other countries at war) made it clear that women had a special role to play in terms of encouraging men to join the military. These posters implied that men who did not go fight the enemy were cowards.
Some women took their role as “recruiters” to a different level. On August 30, 1914, the Order of the White Feather was created. Women in this organization passed out white feathers symbolizing cowardice to any man of military age who was not in a military uniform. Sometimes however, women handed feathers to soldiers temporarily out of uniform or to men who were not allowed the fight due to health reasons or a disability. For some men, the shame of the white feather led them to commit suicide.
THINKING FURTHER:
Do you think the white feather was an effective recruiting tool?
Many feminists and suffragettes were a part of the white feather movement and viewed it as vital war work for women. Why do you think they felt this way?
What roles do women play in the military today? Are they restricted to the Homefront or to support roles?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: Trench Mirror
COUNTRY: U.S.A., Great Britain
DATE: 1917-1918
DESCRIPTION:
In August 1914, the leaders of the Allied and Central powers told their troops that they would defeat the enemy and be home by Christmas. This did not happen. Germany’s Schlieffen Plan, a plan designed to win the war quickly, failed in September 1914 when the Allies stopped the German advance at the First Battle of the Marne. After this, the war entered a period of stalemate. Trenches were dug from the English Channel to Italy. With such defenses in place, no side could gain the advantage. Hundreds of thousands of soldiers perished in battles to push the enemy back. Often, these efforts resulted in the gain of mere yards.
On one level, the trench protected soldiers from enemy fire. Soldiers could not spend all of their time hiding though. They also had to observe and decide how to attack the enemy. Sticking your head above the trench was not a good idea and countless soldiers were killed doing this. Soldiers soon learned to use mirrors to peek over the trench. These mirrors functioned like a submarine periscope. When the United States entered the war in 1917, American troops were issued trench mirrors that attached to their rifle bayonets. The mirror would allow them to observe the area outside the trench without risking their life.
THINKING FURTHER:
What does stalemate mean? Why do you think this happened in World War I?
Approximately 2 million American troops arrived in Europe between 1917-1918. How do you think these troops helped to break the stalemate?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: Horse Feed/Water Bag
COUNTRY: Great Britain
DATE: 1914-1918
DESCRIPTION:
Most people think of World War I as a modern war of radios, tanks, planes, chemical weapons, automobiles and submarines. While this is certainly true, World War I was also a transitional period in the history of warfare. Even as mechanization and technology changed the face of warfare, animals like the horse remained in service.
At the start of World War I in 1914, the cavalry unit was considered the most effective offensive unit in a military due to the mobility and speed of the horses. Within the first months of the war however, it was clear that horses were vulnerable to machine guns and artillery fire. Cavalry units were gradually phased out, but horses remained a vital part of the war effort. Horses were given a variety of jobs – such as pulling ambulances and artillery pieces.
Collapsible canvas buckets were used to water and feed horses. Horses also required medical treatment and some were even issued gas masks.
THINKING FURTHER:
What other animals served in World War I?
As the war went on, the Allies bought horses from the neutral United States. Many of the horses passed through Virginia on their way to Europe. Surrounded by an Allied blockade, Germany was not able to buy any horses from the United States. Why do you think the combatants needed horses from neutral countries like the United States?
No one knows how many horses and other animals died in World War I. Today however, monuments around the world commemorate their service and sacrifice. Why do you think these monuments were created?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: German Dog Tag
COUNTRY: Germany
DATE: 1914-1918
DESCRIPTION:
Identification on the battlefield is always important – especially in the case of injury or death. Around the 1870s, German soldiers were issued ID tags. These ID tags reminded German soldiers of tags worn by dogs and were nicknamed “Hundemarken.” This roughly translates to “dog tag.”
Many countries followed Germany’s example, including Belgium, Austria, Russia, Great Britain, France, and the United States. As a result, dog tags were issued to millions of soldiers during World War I.
This particular dog tag is a replica of one that would have belonged to Adolf Hitler. During World War I, Hitler served as a corporal in the German Army. He was soldier #148 in Company 1 of the 16th Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment. When World War I ended on November 11, 1918, many soldiers on both sides of the conflict were glad it was over and happy that they had survived. Hitler however, was different. He reportedly cried.
THINKING FURTHER:
What was the purpose of a dog tag?
What impact did World War I have on Adolf Hitler?
Many other future World War II leaders participated in World War I. Can you name some of them? What did they do in World War I?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: Dazzle Painting Guide
COUNTRY: U.S.A, Great Britain
DATE: 1917-1918
DESCRIPTION:
With German submarines prowling the waters around Great Britain and the Atlantic Ocean, the British Navy needed a way to “hide” military and commercial ships. Between 1914-1917 the British navy experiemented with different paint schemes to camouflage ships. In 1917 the British navy began using something called Dazzle camouflage. This type of camouflage was characterized by complex patterns of geometric shapes in sharply contrasting colors.
Dazzle camouflage did not make a ship invisible. Instead, this type of painting made it difficult for an enemy gunner or submariner to estimate the range, speed, and heading of a Dazzle painted ship. Basically, the paint scheme was designed to confuse the enemy and throw off his aim. Edward Wadsworth Dazzle-Ships in Drydock at Liverpool, 1919
Dazzle camouflage was ultimately adopted by the United States Navy. In the United States, this type of camouflage was refered to as “Razzle-Dazzle.” After the war, many experts disagreed about the effectivness of Dazzle painting. Despite this disagreement, during World War II, some ships would use this type of camouflage again.
THINKING FURTHER:
Do you think Dazzle painting would make it hard to judge the direction and speed of a ship?
Why do you think Great Britain and the United States adopted Dazzle painting?
Artists like Pablo Picasso later claimed to have influenced Dazzle painting. Why do you think modern artists like Picasso felt this way? Do you think they were right?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: Woodrow Wilson Campaign Buttons
COUNTRY: U.S.A
DATE: 1915-1916
DESCRIPTION:
Woodrow Wilson was President of the United States when World War I began. Elected to a first term in 1912, Wilson was committed to staying out of the war in Europe. Even after the tragedy of the Lusitania, Wilson was determined that the United States would remain neutral. When he ran for a second term in 1916, this commitment to staying out of the war featured prominently on his campaign materials.
Campaign posters and buttons featured slogans like: “He Kept Us Out of War,” “Preparedness, Peace, Prosperity,” and “He Proved the Pen Mightier Than the Sword.”
In the 1916 election, Wilson ran against Supreme Court Justice Charles Evans Hughes. On Tuesday, November 7, 1916, President Woodrow Wilson was reelected, narrowly beating Hughes by 600,000 in the popular vote and 277 to 254 in the Electoral College.
Ironically, although Wilson campaigned on the idea of staying out of World War I, a number of events ultimately led him to ask the U.S. Congress for a declaration of war in April 1917.
THINKING FURTHER:
Why do you think President Wilson was so committed to staying out of World War I?
President Wilson was committed to keeping the United States out of World War I. Judging by the election results, did the American people completely agree with him or were they divided?
What combination of events caused President Wilson to lead the United States into World War I?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: Iron Cross
COUNTRY: Germany
DATE: 1914
DESCRIPTION:
The Iron Cross for outstanding military valor was established on March 10, 1813 by King Frederick Wilhelm III of Prussia. Germany became a nation in 1871 after a number of German states were unified under the rule of the Prussian monarchy.
In 1914, the ruler of Germany was Kaiser Wilhelm II, a decendent of Frederick Wilhelm III. When World War I started, Kaiser Wilhelm reauthorized the Iron Cross as an award for valor. Awards given out during World War I featured a crown, a “W” for Wilhelm, and the year 1914.
There were different “classes” of the Iron Cross. Higher “classes” were awarded to senior Generals and other high ranking officials. The Second and First “class” awards were available to anyone who displayed valor in combat. By the end of World War I, 5,314,000 Iron Crosses of the First and Second Class had been awarded to soldiers fighting for Germany.
THINKING FURTHER:
What kind of symbolism is used in this medal?
During World War I, some European countries had certain awards that only aristocrats or Generals would receive. Do you think the United States had awards based on rank or class? Why or why not?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: Silver Star
COUNTRY: U.S.A
DATE: Established 1932
DESCRIPTION:
The Silver Star Medal is the United States military's third-highest decoration for valor in combat. The Silver Star was established in 1932. It replaced an award called a “Citation Star” that was given for gallantry in combat.
During World War I, this “Citation Star” consisted of a tiny silver star that could be placed on the ribbon of another medal – usually the World War I Victory Medal. The Silver Star Medal features this tiny “Citation Star” at the center of a larger gold star.
Between 1917-1918, a young officer named Douglas MacArthur received an astounding seven “Citation Stars.” This was later converted to seven Silver Stars. In 2007, three women who served as U.S. Army nurses in World War I were posthumously awarded Silver Star medals after it was revealed that they had never been awarded their “Citation Stars.”
THINKING FURTHER:
What kind of patriotic symbolism is used in this medal?
Why do you think it was important to recognize the contributions of members of the U.S. military with medals like this?
Why do you think it is considered important to award medals posthumously? If someone has passed away, does it matter if the nation gives them an award?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: World War I Victory Medal
COUNTRY: U.S.A
DATE: For service 1917-1920
DESCRIPTION:
World War I ended on the eleventh day of the elevent month at the eleventh hour: November 11, 1918 at 11:00 AM.
The World War I Victory Medal is an American miltary decoration that was created to recognize members of the U.S. military who served in World War I or in the American Expeditionary Forces that served in Russia/Siberia until 1920. Prior to World War II, the medal was simply known as the Victory Medal and World War I was referred to as The Great War.
The ribbon of the World War I Victory Medal consists of a double rainbow that is joined in the center. The rainbows were selected to represent the start of a "new era" and the end of a stormy period of war. The medal features a winged image of Nike – the Greek goddess of Victory – holding a shield and sword. The back of the medal lists the other Allied nations and features the worlds: “The Great War for Civilization.”
THINKING FURTHER:
Why do you think Nike appears on this medal? Can you think of similar images?
After World War I, the Victory Medal was mailed to members of the military who had served in the war and filled out an application to prove their participation. Millions of U.S. service members qualified for the award. Why do you think the awards were mailed and not awarded in person?
The rainbows on the Victory Medal represented hope that a new era of peace would emerge out of the devastation of World War I. Did World War I ultimately win the peace?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: Army of Occupation of Germany Medal
COUNTRY: U.S.A
DATE: For service 1918-1923
DESCRIPTION:
When World War I ended, the Allied armies were advancing but were not yet in German territory. At the time of Germany’s surrender, German troops were still in France, Belgium, and Luxembourg. Under the terms of the armistice, German troops withdrew from these areas and troops from the United States, Great Britain, France, and Belgium marched into a part of Germany known as the Rhineland. These Allied occupation troops were in charge of keeping order and ensuring that Germany did not prepare for another war. U.S. troops remained on occupation duty until 1923.
The Army of Occupation of Germany Medals were awarded to members of the U.S. military who participated in the occupation between November 11, 1918 and July 11, 1923. The award features General John J. Pershing – the commander of the American forces in Europe during World War I. The award was created in 1941 to honor the service of World War I veterans. Three weeks after it was created, the United States was drawn into World War II.
THINKING FURTHER:
The U.S. military had (and has) strict rules concerning the behavior of occupation forces. Why do you think occupation forces are considered “ambassadors?”
Men like Adolf Hitler later said that Germany had been “stabbed in the back” at the end of World War I. He argued that Germany did not lose the war on the battlefield, but had been betrayed by leaders who gave up too early. Why do you think some Germans believed this?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: Zimmerman Telegram Copies
COUNTRY: Great Britain, U.S.A
DATE: 1917
DESCRIPTION:
When World War I began, Great Britain cut Germany’s transatlantic telegraph cables. As a result, the Germany had to send messages outside of Europe via neutral countries or via cables that passed through Allied countries President Woodrow Wilson offered to help Germany by allowing it to send messages to the U.S. State Department. The U.S. did not try to decipher these messages, but merely passed them along to the German embassy in Washington, D.C.
On January 16, 1917, one of these coded messages was intercepted by British intelligence. British codebreakers were shocked when they deciphered it. Arthur Zimmerman, the German Foreign Secretary, was asking Germany’s ambassador to Mexico to convince Mexico to go to war against the United States to keep the United States out of World War I. In return, Germany promised that Mexico could reclaim Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. The message also implied that Mexico could lure Japan, one of the Allied nations in World War I, into an alliance with Germany.
Desperate to have the United States abandon its neutrality and join the Allies, the British shared the telegram with the U.S. government. While the telegram did not result in a U.S. declaration of war, it convinced many Americans that neutrality was not working.
THINKING FURTHER:
Mexico and the United States have a long history of border disputes. Do you think it was wise for Germany to try to exploit this tension? What was Mexico’s response to the Zimmerman Telegram?
Read the translated text. Imagine you are an American committed to neutrality. Imagine you have supported your government’s gestures of friendship to both sides. How does the telegram make you feel?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: Gas Mask
COUNTRY: Germany
DATE: 1915-1918
DESCRIPTION:
The Hague Convention of 1899 banned the use of asphyxiating gases fired via artillery shell. In 1907, the Hague Convention on Land Warfare banned the use of poison or poisonous weapons. Nevertheless, chemists on both sides of World War I were put to work creating chemical weapons to disable or kill enemy soldiers. World War I is even referred to as the “Chemist’s War.”
At Ypres on April 22, 1915, with a breeze blowing in the direction of French trenches, the German army opened thousands of canisters of Chlorine gas. A greenish cloud of gas blew over French troops who hurridly retreated. On September 25, 1915, the British used chlorine gas against the Germans at Loos. In this instance however, the winds proved fickle and the gas blew back over British trenches. As the war went on, Phosgene and Mustard Gas would also be used by the combatants. These gases proved deadlier than Chlorine gas.
After the intitial attacks, gas masks were issued to protect soldiers. Soldiers practiced putting on their gas masks as quickly as possible. Often, they would have mere seconds to don this protective equipment. Even with this protection, it is estimated that 90,000 soldiers were killed during the war by poisonous gases. An additional 1.3 million soldiers suffered symptoms such as blindness, respitory problems, burns, and blisters.
THINKING FURTHER:
As the war went on, casualties from poisonous gases slowly declined. Why do you think this was the case?
All of the combatants had been part of the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907. Why do you think each side resorted to chemical weapons? Why do you think they felt justified in doing so?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: Sandbag
COUNTRY: U.S.A
DATE: 1914-1918
DESCRIPTION:
During World War I, sandbags were burlap sacks that were filled with sand or soil, tied shut, and then stacked together to make a sort of protective barrier or fortification. Typically, sandbags were piled on the front (parapet) and back (parados) of a trench. The sandbags provided an added layer of protection for troops in the trenches because they absorbed bullets and shell fragments.
Sandbags were filled by a team of three soldiers. One shoveled soil into a bag, while two held, tied, and stacked the bags. These three men were expected to make and stack sixty bags an hour.
THINKING FURTHER:
Do you think sandbags provided protection from artillery shells?
While they were in the trenches to fight the enemy, soldiers actually spent a lot of time doing other things, such as filling sandbags and cleaning out the trenches. Some later described their experience in World War I as long stretches of boredom followed by extreme terror. Why might they say this?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: Army Patches
COUNTRY: U.S.A
DATE: 1918 1st Division 41st Division DESCRIPTION:
During World War I, the size of the U.S. Army increased dramatically. The existing or “Regular” Army did not have enough manpower to respond effectively to the war. To increase the size of the Army, State National Guard Units were “federalized” – meaning they were called up for duty overseas in the new National Army that was being formed to fight World War I.
Patches were used to identify different Army divisions. These patches were closely identified with each particular division and were a great source of pride for soldiers.
A patch’s design is usually something meaningful to that particular unit. For instance, the 1st Infantry Division is known as the “Big Red One” and the “Fighting First.” The 41st Infantry Division was known as the “Sunset” Division and was composed of National Guard units from Idaho, Montana, Oregon, North Dakota and Washington.
THINKING FURTHER:
Research the 1st Division and the 41st Division. Where did they fight during World War I?
What symbols or colors identify your favorite sports team? Your school mascot? What does this symbol say about your favorite team or school?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: Foot Powder
COUNTRY: U.S.A
DATE: 1918
DESCRIPTION:
Diseases and parasites like lice spread quickly in the trenches. The conditions of the trenches also led to many soldiers suffering from “Trench Foot.”
In the muddy, wet environment of the trenches, it was common for soldiers to have wet shoes and socks for days – sometimes weeks. Cold weather made this issue far more dangerous as it made soldiers more vulnerable to “Trench Foot.” A soldier suffering from “Trench Foot” would have cold feet and then gradually lose all feeling in their feet. Their feet would then begin to rot. Soldiers who were able to get medical attention within a few days, usually recovered from “Trench Foot.” Those who did not treat this issue properly sometimes had to have their feet amputated.
Losing soldiers to “Trench Foot” was a major problem. Guidelines were established to help prevent this problem. The best way to avoid “Trench Foot” was to keep your feet clean, dry and warm. It was also important to change socks regularly. “Foot” inspections were instituted so that soldiers would be more conscious of the health of their feet. Soldiers were also issued foot powder to sprinkle on their feet. This powder helped to keep their feet dry.
THINKING FURTHER:
What other items do you think soldiers were issued to help keep them healthy?
As the war went on, troops were rotated in and out of the trenches. What effect would this have on the number of cases of “Trench Foot?”
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: Coal and Oil
COUNTRY: Great Britain/U.S.A.
DATE: c. 1900s
DESCRIPTION:
When World War I began, coal was the primary fuel of large ships. However, there were some disadvantages to coal. Coal had to be shoveled aboard ships, and according to Winston Churchill, the man in charge of the British Navy from 1911- 1915, this labor intensive process “exhausted the whole ship’s company.” In addition, it was impossible to refuel a ship at sea. In the case of Great Britain, this meant that ¼ of fleet was always in a harbor refueling. Ships burning coal also emitted black clouds of smoke. This cloud made it hard for ships to conceal their location.
During World War I, Great Britain transitioned from coal to oil. Oil had a number of advantages. It could be piped aboard a ship and stored in tanks. In addition, it did not produce black clouds of smoke and ships could refuel at sea. Oil also had a little more than twice the thermal content of coal. This meant ships burning oil could go faster and farther while only carrying half the amount of fuel that had been required when they were burning coal.
The United States also adopted oil during this period. Other countries would follow later. Countries without domestic sources of oil had to find and secure sources of oil. This led to greater interest in places like the Middle East.
THINKING FURTHER:
Compare the two artifacts. The amount of each is equal in terms of its ability to power a ship. Which weighs more?
Oil was discovered in the United States in the 1800s. Great Britain had no domestic source of oil. After World War I, Great Britain sought to exert its influence in the Middle East. The United States did not. Why?
Who was Winston Churchill? What was his role in World War I?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: Postcards, Allied Powers
COUNTRY: Great Britain, U.S.A
DATE: 1914, 1917-1918
DESCRIPTION:
World War I was fought between the Allied Powers (Entente Powers) and the Central Powers. In 1914, the main Allied Powers were Great Britain, France, and Russia. They were joined by Serbia, Belgium, and Japan.
Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated in Serbia on June 28, 1914. This led Austria-Hungary to invade Serbia, thus triggering the start of World War I. Belgium was invaded by Germany at the start of the war. This violation of Belgian neutrality brought Great Britain into World War I. Japan was an ally of Great Britain and viewed the war as a way to expand its influence in Asia and cement Japan’s place as a world power.
The Allies were joined in 1915 by Italy, in 1916 by Romania and Portugal, in 1917 by the United States, and from 1917-1918 by Liberia, Siam, Greece, the Republic of China, Brazil, and many more countries. Following the Russian Revolution in 1917, Russia left the alliance. This left Great Britain, France, Japan, Italy and the United States as the five major Allied Powers at the end of the war.
THINKING FURTHER:
Who are the five major Allied Powers at the end of the war? How does this status compare to the number of military deaths each side suffered?
From 1914-1917 the number of Allied Powers increased. Why do you think this was the case? Based on the 1917 postcard, who were the “most important” members of the alliance?
How do the Allied countries of World War I compare to the Allied countries of World War II? Are there changes?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: Postcards, Central Powers
COUNTRY: Germany
DATE: 1914, 1915-1918
DESCRIPTION:
World War I was fought between the Allied Powers (Entente Powers) and the Central Powers. The term Central Powers came from the fact that the nations in this alliance were geographically in between the Allied Powers.
At the start of the war, the main Central Powers were Germany and Austria- Hungary. They were soon joined by the Ottoman Empire. In 1915, Bulgaria joined the alliance. Other nations joined by 1918, but played a minimal role in the conflict.
Germany and Austria-Hungary were allies before the war started. When Austria-Hungary invaded Serbia in response to Archduke Franz Ferdinand’s assassination, Russia mobilized to defend Serbia. Germany immediately mobilized against Russia and Russia’s ally France. The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers due to its strong economic ties with Germany. Bulgaria joined the Central Powers as a way to avenge its 1913 defeat at the hands of Serbia, Greece, and Romania. Overall, with the exception of Germany, the Central Powers were relatively weak and unprepared for war. As a result, Germany was frequently forced to supply and reinforce its allies.
THINKING FURTHER:
Why do you think postcards like this were produced?
Which Central Power suffered the most military deaths?
All of the four major Central Powers started the war as monarchies. Did their monarchies survive World War I?
How do the Central Powers of World War I compare to the Axis Powers of World War II? Are there similarities? Changes?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: German Currency
COUNTRY: Germany
DATE: 1908
DESCRIPTION:
Inflation occurs when the general price for goods and services rises, but the purchasing power of a currency falls. World War I had a major impact on the finances of all nations involved, and inflation was a major problem. As the war went on, inflation grew worse – particularly for countries like Germany.
In 1914, at the start of World War I, 1 American dollar was worth 4.20 German marks. The end of the war did not improve German finances. According to the terms of the Versailles Treaty, Germany was forced to pay billions of marks in reparations to the Allies. These reparations payments were not aligned with the value of German currency in 1919, but the value of the stronger German currency in 1913 – before the war. Struggling to pay off this enormous debt, German currency was further devalued. Most reparations payments were made with goods and raw materials because German money was so worthless. By November 1923 1 American dollar was worth 4.2 trillion German marks. Inflation was so bad after World War I that some German children began using stacks of German marks as building blocks.
THINKING FURTHER:
What kind of imagery is featured on the bill?
Think about the American $1 bill. How is this bill the same? Different?
Many historians have argued that the heavy reparations that Germany had to pay under the terms of the Versailles Treaty helped lead to the rise of Adolf Hitler. Why might this be so?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: Suffragette Buttons
COUNTRY: U.S.A
DATE: 1908-1920
DESCRIPTION:
Suffragettes were women who supported and actively campaigned to extend the right to vote to women. In the United States, this movement was particularly active from the 1840s through World War I. Wearing buttons was one way for women to campaign for the right to vote. A button featuring the simple slogan “Votes for Women” was one of the most popular. Another popular button featured a female figure blowing a trumpet as a “call to arms.”
The entry of the U.S. into World War I in April 1917 significantly impacted American women. As millions of men enlisted in the military, women replaced these men in the workforce. Soon, many women were working in non-traditional jobs outside the home. Most suffragettes supported the war and believed that by assisting the war effort, women could prove their equality as citizens.
For some however, change came too slowly. Some suffragettes protested at the White House. Their banners criticized President Wilson and had slogans like: “America is not a democracy. Twenty million American women are denied the right to vote.”
THINKING FURTHER:
When did women get the right to vote? Did World War I play a role?
When it became clear that women would get the right to vote, politicians of both parties began to support and claim credit for women’s suffrage. Why do you think they did this? What was the value of 20+ million new voters?
How do you show support for causes you care about? Do you wear a button? Do you demonstrate it through social media?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: Summary of The Fourteen Points
COUNTRY: U.S.A
DATE: 1919
DESCRIPTION:
On January 8, 1918, President Woodrow Wilson outlined fourteen points that represented America’s war aims and a path to peace. The points included ideas such as the freedom of the seas, the right of self-determination, the reduction of arms, and a League of Nations to help nations solve disputes.
After the war, the victorious Allied leaders met in Paris in 1919 to come up with peace terms. Great Britain, France, Italy, the United States and Japan were considered the “big” allied powers, but most negotiations took place between the “big” four. The “big” four excluded Japan.
People throughout the world were supportive of Wilson’s Fourteen Points, but the leaders of the other Allied nations believed that Wilson was too idealistic. The resulting Treaty of Versailles punished Germany and ignored many of Wilson’s ideas. The League of Nations was created as part of the treaty, but in a final blow to Wilson, Congress refused to ratify U.S. participation in the League of Nations. Without American participation, the League of Nations proved ineffective.
THINKING FURTHER:
Woodrow Wilson was the first sitting American president to visit Europe. Why do you think he went? Do you think he was warmly welcomed?
How do you think Japan felt about being excluded by the “big” four?
How did a lack of “freedom of the seas” lead to America entering World War I?
The League of Nations failed to prevent World War II. What was it replaced by?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: Russian Uniform Button
COUNTRY: Russia
DATE: 1914-1917
DESCRIPTION:
In 1914, Russia had approximately 6,553,000 soldiers, but only 4,652,000 rifles. Many soldiers had no training. Russian roads and rail lines were also substandard when compared to transportation networks in Europe. As a result, Russia struggled to transport, supply, and train an effective army.
One month into the war, the German Army destroyed an entire Russian Army at Tannenburg. By 1915, Russia had lost approximately 2 million soldiers. Food shortages and worker strikes led to crises throughout Russia. At this critical moment, Tsar Nicholas II, the Russian ruler, took personal command of the army. This change did little to improve the situation. By the end of 1916, Russia lost another million soldiers – prompting support for the war, and the Tsar, to rapidly decline by 1917.
On March 13, 1917, Tsar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate. The monarchy collapsed and a republic was briefly formed. By the end of 1917 though, Bolsheviks led by Vladimir Lenin took power and introduced communism.
THINKING FURTHER:
Tsar Nicholas II was a member of the Romanov family that had ruled Russian for 300 years. Their symbol was a two headed eagle. Why do you think this symbol was featured on Russian uniform buttons?
Tsar Nicholas II was an autocrat. After he abdicated, President Woodrow Wilson was more inclined to enter the war on the side of the Allies. He believed the war could now be a war to “make the world safe for democracy.” Why would he think this?
What happened to Tsar Nicholas II? What happened to Russia after the Tsar abdicated?
How did the experience of Russian soldiers in World War I compare to the experiences of other soldiers?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: Goggles
COUNTRY: U.S.A
DATE: 1917-1918
DESCRIPTION:
Airplanes were just coming into military use at the start of the war. Initially used for reconnaissance, it soon became clear that airplanes could play a combat role. Aviation technology developed at a rapid pace. By the end of the war, the Allied and Central powers were producing many different types of airplanes, including fighters and bombers.
Fighter pilots quickly became celebrities. A fighter pilot with a record of shooting down a lot of enemy planes was known as an “ace.” Aces on both sides of the conflict were portrayed as “knights” of the air. The American Eddie Rickenbacker was one such ace. Manfred von Richthofen (also known as the Red Baron) was a German ace. Most of the World War I aces were in their early twenties. Few survived the war.
Pilots in World War I sat in open cockpits. They were exposed to cold temperatures as well as to wind and sometimes rain/snow. As a result, pilots wore boots, leather jackets, scarves, gloves, hats, and goggles. The goggles helped protect their eyes from wind and any precipitation.
THINKING FURTHER:
Have you ever sat in the back seat of a car with the windows down while driving on the interstate? Was it hard to look directly into the wind?
What was warfare like in the trenches during World War I? Why do you think people likened fighter pilots to “knights?” Why were they considered more glamourous?
Why do you think so many pilots were young?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: Dog Tags
COUNTRY: U.S.A
DATE: 1918
DESCRIPTION:
In 1906, the U. S. Army adopted the use of ID tags for soldiers. Prior to this point, soldiers would simply purchase their own metal ID tags or would go into battle with a piece of paper identifying who they were.
The 1906 ID tag consisted of one round metal disk stamped with identifying information that could be worn on a cloth string around the neck. In 1916, the U.S. Army added a second disk. In the event of injury or death, one disk could be removed and used to notify next of kin. The other would stay on the body of the soldier.
Millions of soldiers joined the U.S. Army during World War I. To better account for each soldier, Service Numbers were issued in 1918. Every soldier was given a unique Service Number to identify him, which was then stamped on his dog tags. Service Numbers 1-5,999,999 were issued during the war.
THINNKING FURTHER:
In June 1918, the U.S. Army stopped including information such as rank and unit on dog tags in order to limit the information enemy intelligence officers could acquire on U.S. forces. How could dog tags with a lot of information help enemy intelligence officers?
Can you find more information about the man who wore these dog tags?
116,708 American servicemen were killed in World War I. After the war, their families had the option of having them brought back and buried in the United States or having them buried in Europe. Today, 30,921 are buried in cemeteries in Europe. Most have tombstones engraved with their name, rank, unit, and date of death. Do you think any of this would have been possible without dog tags?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: Pickelhaub Uberzug
COUNTRY: Germany
DATE: 1915-1916
DESCRIPTION:
The Pickelhaub helmet was one of the German Army’s standard helmets at the start of World War I. The helmet was typically made of leather and had brass and silver decorations and a metal spike at the top. In 1892, the German Army introduced an Uberzug, or cloth cover, for the Pickelhaub helmet. This cover was designed to help camouflage the shiny, decorative Pickelhaub helmet when soldiers were on the battlefield.
In 1914, German soldiers went into battle wearing Pickelhaub covers. Initially a red felt number that identified a soldier’s regiment was sewn onto the front of the cover. Within the first month of the fighting however, the Germany Army ordered that regimental numbers be changed to dark green so they would be less noticeable. By 1916, these numbers were removed from the Pickelhaub covers to prevent the enemy from identifying regiments.
The Pickelhaub was very distinct from other hats and helmets worn in World War I. Although it was gradually replaced with the more protective steel Stahlhelm helmet, it was seen as a symbol of aggression and barbarity in Allied World War I propaganda.
THINNKING FURTHER:
Why do you think the Allies considered the Pickelhaub helmet a symbol of aggression and barbarity? What elements of its design might make them think this? What German actions might make them think this?
The Pickelhaub was gradually replaced by the Stahlhelm helmet. What did the Stahlhelm look like? Have you seen similar helmets before?
World War I Traveling Footlocker Artifact Information
ARTIFACT: Treaty of Versailles Cartoons
COUNTRY: U.S.A., France, Germany
DATE: 1919
DESCRIPTION:
On November 11, 1918 an armistice ended the fighting in World War I. On June 28, 1919, the fifth anniversary of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the signing of the Treaty of Versailles officially ended the war between Germany and the Allied Powers.
Although the leaders of Great Britain, France, Italy and the United States worked together on the peace terms, they did not always share the same goals. French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau, sometimes referred to as “the Tiger,” was particularly interested in weakening Germany. Much of the fighting during the war had taken place in France and millions of French soldiers had been killed. Clemenceau wanted to ensure that Germany would never be a threat to France again. In contrast, American President Woodrow Wilson wanted peace terms that would not devastate Germany. In the end, the Treaty of Versailles left no side content. Germany was forced to accept responsibility for the war and owed reparations to the victors, but it was not permanently weakened.
The acceptance of war guilt and the crushing reparations payments would weigh heavily on Germany’s new democratic government that replaced the monarchy after the war.
THINNKING FURTHER:
Look at each of the political cartoons. How does each nation perceive the terms of the Treaty of Versailles?
By the end of the war, France and Great Britain had been fighting Germany for roughly four years. Italy had been fighting for about three and a half years. The United States had been part of the war for about a year and a half. Do you think the length of the conflict for each nation had an impact on its goal for the peace terms? Would a longer conflict make you more or less likely to want harsh peace terms?