DOCSLIB.ORG

The Representation of Male and Female War Resisters of the First World War

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text

Load more

Representation and Resistance: The Representation of Male and Female War Resisters of the First World War Sabine Steffanie Grimshaw Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of PhD The University of Leeds School of Languages, Cultures and Societies August 2017 1 The candidate confirms that the work submitted is her own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement © 2017 The University of Leeds and Sabine Steffanie Grimshaw The right of Sabine Steffanie Grimshaw to be identified as Author of this work has been asserted by Sabine Steffanie Grimshaw in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. 2 Abstract This thesis explores press representations of male and female war resisters of the First World War during both the conflict and important points of its commemoration, with a specific focus on gender. My original contribution to knowledge is twofold. First, this thesis shows the significant ways that gendered representations of anti-war women and men responded to one another, creating a shifting depiction of the anti-war movement as a whole. The gendering of male and female resisters drew on, reinforced, and contested both pre-war and wartime conceptions of gender in a variety of ways and this thesis demonstrates how the construction of gender and resistance has implications for understanding the relationship between gender and war more broadly. The second original contribution to knowledge that this study makes is the connection between the depiction of masculinity and femininity during the conflict and the way that anti-war men and women have been included in commemorative narratives. Uncovering this connection underscores the importance of considering the role that gender plays in commemoration and the endurance of particular wartime gendered constructions in the interpretation of the war in the present day. Using a chronological approach, this study explores the key narratives of resistance in both pro-war and anti-war press publications. It demonstrates the central role that the press has played as a key conduit through which public narratives of resistance have been formed, reinforced, and contested. The analysis throughout this thesis highlights how the press has offered a space in which the public have contributed to the shaping of these narratives in ways that have been implicitly and explicitly gendered both during the war and its commemoration. Consequently, this study demonstrates how the press has facilitated and played a key role in the important relationship that resistance has to gender, war, and memory. 3 Contents Introduction ...................................................................................................... 7 Gender ......................................................................................................... 11 Public Narratives ......................................................................................... 18 Memory ....................................................................................................... 29 Background to the British First World War anti-war movement ................ 36 Chapter Outline ........................................................................................... 47 Chapter 1: 1914-1915 ..................................................................................... 49 Us and Them: Pro-Germanism and Patriotism ........................................... 51 Degeneration, Lunacy, and Hysteria ........................................................... 58 Teapots and Pioneers .................................................................................. 66 ‘As Mothers of Humanity’: Femininity, Peace and Motherhood ................ 81 Challenging Maternalism: Redefining Women’s Role in War Resistance ... 88 ‘You are now entering the Sanctuary of Conscience’: The Introduction of the Conscientious Objector ......................................................................... 92 Chapter 2: 1916 ............................................................................................. 102 Motivating Ideas ........................................................................................ 108 Religion .................................................................................................. 108 Liberty .................................................................................................... 120 The Act of Objecting .................................................................................. 133 Sacrifice and Duty .................................................................................. 133 Courage, Manhood and Masculinity ..................................................... 150 Soldiers and COs .................................................................................... 158 Women ...................................................................................................... 164 Mothers of Sons, Mothers of Conscientious Objectors ........................ 164 Chapter 3: 1917-1918 ................................................................................... 177 The Treatment of COs ............................................................................... 183 Victims and Martyrs .................................................................................. 200 COs and the Nation ................................................................................... 208 Citizenship and Objection.......................................................................... 211 Duty, Service, and Female Citizenship ...................................................... 218 Suffering Women ...................................................................................... 221 4 Chapter 4: Remembering Resistance ........................................................... 234 The Post-War Period and the 50th Anniversary ......................................... 240 The Centenary ........................................................................................... 257 Who should be remembered? .............................................................. 258 Legacies of Resistance: Linking the Past to the Present ....................... 267 Family .................................................................................................... 269 Courage ................................................................................................. 274 Sacrifice ................................................................................................. 282 The Limits of Remembrance: Anti-War Women ................................... 287 Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 293 Gender ....................................................................................................... 294 Women .................................................................................................. 295 Men ....................................................................................................... 301 The Press ................................................................................................... 310 Resistance .................................................................................................. 314 Bibliography .................................................................................................. 319 5 Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisors at the University of Leeds, Professor Ingrid Sharp and Dr. Jessica Meyer, for their continuous support of my research, and their patience, advice, and knowledge. Their guidance helped me throughout the process of researching and writing this thesis. I would also like to thank my supervisor at the Imperial War Museum, Matt Brosnan, who has offered helpful suggestions on drafts of this thesis and has given me an interesting insight into his own research and work at the IWM. I would also like to thank Professor Benjamin Ziemann at the University of Sheffield both for his insightful comments and questions on parts of this thesis, and for his continued advice and support more generally. My most heartfelt thank you goes to my family. The love, support, and encouragement from my parents and brothers has given me the motivation to persevere even during the most challenging times. To Ralph, who has been by my side throughout and helped me to keep going. To my niece Eva, who came along unexpectedly during the writing of this thesis and has given me so much joy, thank you. I hope that, like the women and men in this thesis, you will have the courage to follow your convictions in doing what you believe will make this world a better place. This work was supported by the Arts & Humanities Research Council (grant number AH/M004953/1). 6 Introduction As the mother of one dear boy lying in a grave in France, while his brother is daily risking his life on the Passchendaele Ridge, I deem myself rich indeed to have so much to give my country, but oh, I passionately protest against the ‘conscientious’ canker in our midst!1 Published in the Daily Mail in 1917, this letter evokes a number of the gendered layers of understanding that would come to influence the depiction of those who opposed the First World War in
Recommended publications
  • Inunimmi '11 1111 Amimmilik P " NM R""

    Inunimmi '11 1111 Amimmilik P " NM R""

    111 11111111 1111111 inunimmi '11 1111 AMIMMIlik P " NM r"" R I - JAPA N tiso MT% teE)- (-6, I-1307 RS INTERNATIONAL JAPAN GROUP I-6,/-1307, ASAHIWICHE, ABeA10,034144, JAW it 2- Lloo- WHAT IS NON-VIOLENT DIRECT ACTION? * This is a digest of the first part of an article 2 CONTENTS entitled 'A Note on Contemporary Violence', which page number first appeared in Japanese in the collection I. "VIOLENCE" AND "NON-VIOLENCE" ANAKIZUMU TO GENDAI (Anarchism and Our Time), A. What is Non-Violence= 4 edited by Osawa Masamichi, San-Ichi, 1975. The What is Violence? original version was written in June 1970 and B. kr serialized in the paper 'Jiyu Rengou ( Free II. PSEUDO-NON-VIOLENCE OF THE SYSTEM Federation), put out by the Free Federation Group NATURAL NON-VIOLENCE OF THE PEOPLE in Osaka,from June through September of.that year. A. Popular Non-Violence and the Popular View Kou Mukai,who was editor.and publisher of this paper, 'of Violence '0 is also secretary of WRI-JAPAN,a poet,and active B. The Pseudo-Non-Violent system(?) in the anarchist movement in Japan. III. CHANGING THE NATURE AND THE METHODS OF OUR STRUGGLE ** The translation is by Wat Tyler of the ' Libero A. The People,the Rulers International' Editorial Collective. ' Libero The people International' is an English-Language magazine B. Armed Struggle and 17 focussing on issues concering anarchism in Asia, IV. DIRECT ACTION AND PRODUCTIVE WORK 20 also published in Osaka. A. What is Direct Action B. Direct Action and Self-Management V. WHAT IS NON-VIOLENT DIRECT ACTION? A.
  • On the 'War on War' in Modern Geopolitics

    On the 'War on War' in Modern Geopolitics

    On the ‘War on War’ in Modern Geopolitics Written by Idriss J. Aberkane This PDF is auto-generated for reference only. As such, it may contain some conversion errors and/or missing information. For all formal use please refer to the official version on the website, as linked below. On the ‘War on War’ in Modern Geopolitics https://www.e-ir.info/2012/01/09/on-the-war-on-war-in-modern-geopolitics/ IDRISS J. ABERKANE, JAN 9 2012 Item urgeat ignem exstinguere in bactrianam Item urgeat pacem aedificere in bactrianam[1] Peace is a continuation of politics by other means. The unilateral projection of peace could become a potent political lever and a game changer in international relations, yet ‘peacefare’ and a ‘peace arsenal’ (including confidence- building measures and a conflict-quelling capability) have seldom been looked into. This essay acknowledges there is a deep-rooted ‘law of the instrument’ in international relations, meaning an over-reliance on familiar tools. As Abraham Maslow has said, “It is tempting, if the only tool you have is a hammer, to treat everything as if it were a nail.”[2] We argue that because stakeholders of international relations do not have peacefare as a tool, this has brought them to an almost religious over-reliance on war. Furthermore, this essay suggests the advent of a ‘war on war’—a global war effort solely directed against war as a reified enemy of mankind. Ascendancy is usually gained in a through domination or bargaining, the first two steps in Galtung’s typology of conflict resolution.
  • National Records of Scotland (NRS) Women's Suffrage Timeline

    National Records of Scotland (NRS) Women's Suffrage Timeline

    National Records of Scotland (NRS) Women’s Suffrage Timeline 1832 – First petition to parliament for women’s suffrage. FAILS Great Reform Act gives vote to more men, but no women 1866 - First mass women’s suffrage petition presented to parliament by J. S. Mill MP 1867 - First women’s suffrage societies set up. Organised campaigning begins 1870 – Women’s Suffrage Bill rejected by parliament Married Women’s Property Act gives married women the right to their own property and money 1872 – Women in Scotland given the right to vote and stand for school boards 1884 – Suffrage societies campaign for the vote through the Third Reform Act. FAILS 1894 – Local Government Act allows women to vote and stand for election at a local level 1897 – National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies (NUWSS) formed 1903 – Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) founded by Emmeline Pankhurst 1905 – First militant action. Suffragettes interrupt a political meeting and are arrested 1906 – Liberal Party wins general election 1907 – NUWSS organises the successful ‘United Procession of Women’, the ‘Mud March’ Women’s Enfranchisement Bill reaches a second reading. FAILS Qualification of Women Act: Allows election to borough and county councils Women’s Freedom League formed 1908 – Anti-suffragist Liberal MP, Herbert Henry Asquith, becomes prime minister Women’s Sunday demonstration organised by WSPU in London. Attended by 250, 000 people from around Britain Women’s National Anti-Suffrage League (WASL) founded by Mrs Humphrey Ward 1909 - Marion Wallace-Dunlop becomes the first suffragette to hunger-strike 20 October – Adela Pankhurst, & four others interrupt a political meeting in Dundee.
  • Sylvia Pankhurst's Sedition of 1920

    Sylvia Pankhurst's Sedition of 1920

    “Upheld by Force” Sylvia Pankhurst’s Sedition of 1920 Edward Crouse Undergraduate Thesis Department of History Columbia University April 4, 2018 Seminar Advisor: Elizabeth Blackmar Second Reader: Susan Pedersen With dim lights and tangled circumstance they tried to shape their thought and deed in noble agreement; but after all, to common eyes their struggles seemed mere inconsistency and formlessness; for these later-born Theresas were helped by no coherent social faith and order which could perform the function of knowledge for the ardently willing soul. Their ardor alternated between a vague ideal and the common yearning of womanhood; so that the one was disapproved as extravagance, and the other condemned as a lapse. – George Eliot, Middlemarch, 1872 Table of Contents Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... 2 Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................ 3 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 4 The End of Edwardian England: Pankhurst’s Political Development ................................. 12 After the War: Pankhurst’s Collisions with Communism and the State .............................. 21 Appealing Sedition: Performativity of Communism and Suffrage ....................................... 33 Prison and Release: Attempted Constructions of Martyrology
  • The Women of Red Clydeside the Women of Red Clydeside

    The Women of Red Clydeside the Women of Red Clydeside

    THE WOMEN OF RED CLYDESIDE THE WOMEN OF RED CLYDESIDE: WOMEN MUNITIONS WORKERS IN THE WEST OF SCOTLAND DURING THE FIRST WORLD WAR By MYRA BAILLIE, B.A., M.A. A Thesis Submitted to the School ofGraduate Studies in Partial Fulfilment ofthe Requirements for the Degree Doctor ofPhilosophy McMaster University © Copyright by Myra Baillie, September 2002 DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (2002) McMaster University (History) Hamilton, Ontario TITLE: The Women ofRed Clydeside: Women Munitions Workers in the West ofScotland during the First World War. AUTHOR: Myra Baillie, B.A., M.A. (McMaster University) SUPERVISOR: Professor R.A. Rempel NUMBER OF PAGES: x,320 11 ABSTRACT During World War One, the Clydeside region became one ofthe most important centres ofwar production in Britain. It also had one ofthe most volatile male workforces, earning it the reputation 'Red' Clydeside. Previous historical accounts have focussed on the skilled workers, debating the extent to which they were red-hot revolutionaries or narrow craft conservatives. To date, there has been no study ofthe region's large, capable, hard-working female workforce. This thesis traces the experience ofthe tens ofthousands ofwomen employed in the Clydeside munitions industry, paying particular attention to the working conditions in local factories. This thesis contributes to the long-standing historiographical arguments over the nature ofRed Clydeside by offering a new view ofthe dilution crisis which stands 11t the epicentre ofthe debate. It finds more cooperation between male and female munitions workers than has previously been recognized, and suggests that class confrontation, not craft conservatism, was at the root ofthe deportation ofthe shop steward leaders in March 1916.
  • Heroes of Peace Profiles of the Scottish Peace Campaigners Who Opposed the First World War

    Heroes of Peace Profiles of the Scottish Peace Campaigners Who Opposed the First World War

    Heroes of Peace Profiles of the Scottish peace campaigners who opposed the First World War a paper from the Introduction The coming year will see many attempts to interpret the First World War as a ‘just’ war with the emphasis on the heroic sacrifice of troops in the face of an evil enemy. No-one is questioning the bravery or the sacrifice although the introduction of conscription sixteen months after the start of the war meant that many of the men who fought did not do so from choice and once in the armed forces they had to obey orders or be shot. Even many of the volunteers in the early stages of the war signed up on the assumption that it would all be over in a few months with few casualties. We want to ensure that there is an alternative – and we believe more valid – interpretation of the events of a century ago made available to the public. This was a war in which around ten million young men were killed on the battlefield in four years, about 120,000 of them were Scottish. Proportionately Scotland suffered the highest number of war dead apart from Serbia and Turkey. It was described as the ‘war to end wars’ but instead it created the conditions for the rise of Hitler and the Second World War just twenty years later as a result of the very harsh terms imposed on Germany and the determination to humiliate the losing states. It also contributed to some of the current problems in the Middle East since, as part of the war settlement, Britain and France took ownership of large parts of the Ottoman Empire and divided up the territory with no reference to the identities and interests of the people.
  • The Issue of Conscientious Objection in Apartheid South Africa: Growth of the Anti-Conscription Movement

    The Issue of Conscientious Objection in Apartheid South Africa: Growth of the Anti-Conscription Movement

    The Issue of Conscientious Objection in Apartheid South Africa: Growth of the Anti-Conscription Movement http://www.aluka.org/action/showMetadata?doi=10.5555/AL.SFF.DOCUMENT.nuun1989_09 Use of the Aluka digital library is subject to Aluka’s Terms and Conditions, available at http://www.aluka.org/page/about/termsConditions.jsp. By using Aluka, you agree that you have read and will abide by the Terms and Conditions. Among other things, the Terms and Conditions provide that the content in the Aluka digital library is only for personal, non-commercial use by authorized users of Aluka in connection with research, scholarship, and education. The content in the Aluka digital library is subject to copyright, with the exception of certain governmental works and very old materials that may be in the public domain under applicable law. Permission must be sought from Aluka and/or the applicable copyright holder in connection with any duplication or distribution of these materials where required by applicable law. Aluka is a not-for-profit initiative dedicated to creating and preserving a digital archive of materials about and from the developing world. For more information about Aluka, please see http://www.aluka.org The Issue of Conscientious Objection in Apartheid South Africa: Growth of the Anti-Conscription Movement Alternative title Notes and Documents - United Nations Centre Against ApartheidNo. 9/89 Author/Creator United Nations Centre against Apartheid; Committee on South African War Resistance Publisher United Nations, New York Date 1989-11-00 Resource type Reports Language English Subject Coverage (spatial) South Africa Coverage (temporal) 1957 - 1989 Source Northwestern University Libraries Description "The present paper deals with the growth of the South African anti-conscription and anti-war movement.
  • Edinburghcaughtupinwomen

    Edinburghcaughtupinwomen

    8 TUESDAY, FEBRUARY 6, 2018 www.edinburghnews.com EDINBURGH EVENING NEWS EDINBURGH EVENING NEWS www.edinburghnews.com TUESDAY, FEBRUARY 6, 2018 9 FEATURES SUFFRAGETTESTIMELINE 1832 Celebrating the suffragette spirit together Mary Smith presented the first women’s suffrage petition to Parliament 1866 Awomen’s suffrage committee was formed ■ SHAPPI KHORSANDI Edinburgh caught up in women’s struggle for equality as bomb set off at Royal Observatory 1867 Comedian, Lydia Becker founded the Manchester National Author and Society for Women’s Suffrage Amnesty Picture: NATIONAL LIBRARY OF SCOTLAND supporter EFORE 1918 women had almost no role in 1897 BBritishpolitics –they HAVING A VOICE: A National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies NE hundred yearsago didn’t even havethe right to suffragette march on Princes (NUWSS) was founded today, British women vote. Awoman’s role was do- Street in 1909 Owere given avoice. For mestic, encompassinglittle out- 1903 the first time, many mothers, side having children and taking daughtersandsisterscouldhave care of the home. The suffra- Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) asay in how their country was gettes changed this. was formed by Emmeline Pankhurst and two run. face surveillance, intimidation, Every time these women have The 19th century was an era of her daughters. Mrs Pankhurst was arrested, Back then, suffragettes up and threats,imprisonmentandsome spokenup, they’ve helped make of massive change. The Indus- tried and imprisoned on anumber of occasions down the countrywould stop even risk theirlives.But you life better for others —toen- trial Revolution and numerous over the next decade at almost nothing to get their don’t need to travel thousands sure that you and I, as well fu- reforms,including the abolition voicesheard in parliament.
  • Helen Crawfurd Helen Jack, Born in the Gorbals District

    Helen Crawfurd Helen Jack, Born in the Gorbals District

    Helen Crawfurd Helen Jack, born in the Gorbals district of Glasgow in 1877, was the third child of William Jack, a Master Baker, and Heather Kyle Jack, of 61 Shore Street, Inverkip. Her father was a member of the Conservative Party and a member of the Presbyterian Church in Scotland. Helen shared her father's religious views and became a Sunday school teacher. Her siblings were William, James, John, Jean and Agnes. In 1898 Helen married Reverend Alexander Montgomerie Crawfurd, and they had one son, Alexander in 1913. His parish was in a slum area of Glasgow and she was deeply shocked by the suffering endured by the working classes. She wrote to a friend about the "appalling misery and poverty of the workers in Glasgow, physically broken down bodies, bowlegged, rickets." Helen Crawfurd also became very interested in the work of Josephine Butler, particularly The Education and Employment of Women. She became convinced that the situation would only change when women had the vote and in 1900 she joined the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS), claiming that "if the Mothers of the race had some say, then things would be changed". She held regular meetings in her Glasgow house and took part in protest meetings but she became increasingly frustrated by the lack success of the movement. By 1905 the media had lost interest in the struggle for women's rights. Newspapers rarely reported meetings and usually refused to publish articles and letters written by supporters of women's suffrage. The Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) decided to use different methods to obtain the publicity they thought would be needed in order to obtain the vote.
  • Female Patriotism in the Great War

    Female Patriotism in the Great War

    Female Patriotism in the Great War Professor Nicoletta F. Gullace, University of New Hampshire But the educated man’s sister – what does “patriotism” mean to her? – Virginia Woolf, Three Guineas (1938) While Virginia Woolf felt that “the educated man’s sister” lacked entirely his reasons for “being proud of England, for loving England, for defending England,” she had little choice but to concede that during World War I, such women threw themselves into the war effort with astonishing patriotic fervour. How, Woolf asked, can we explain “that amazing outburst in August 1914, when the daughters of educated men ... rushed into hospitals, some still attended by their maids, drove lorries, worked in fields and munitions factories, and used all their immense stores of charm ... to persuade young men that to fight was heroic, and that the wounded in battle deserved all her care and all her praise? ” Her answer lies in the visceral antipathy she believed middle class women felt towards their insular domestic education. “So profound was her unconscious loathing for the education of the private house ... that she would undertake any task however menial, exercise any fascination however fatal that enabled her to escape”(Woolf, p. 39). Woolf’s estimation of the motivations of women who threw themselves into war work contained more than a grain of truth. For many middle-class women the opportunity to escape the limitations of their sex roles by engaging in war work was irresistible. Yet for many of these same women, and for the thousands of working-class women who took up war work in munitions factories, in transportation industries, and on the land, the lure of wartime wages, along with a love of country shared with their men – however undeserving “England” may have been of such affection – motivated those who undertook the myriad of activities recorded in this unique collection of documents and photographs [Volunteer Corps 1-9].
  • The Good War and Those Who Refused to Fight It the Story of World War II Conscientious Objectors

    The Good War and Those Who Refused to Fight It the Story of World War II Conscientious Objectors

    Teacher’s Guide Teacher’s Guide: The Good War and Those Who Refused to Fight It The Story of World War II conscientious objectors A 58-minute film Available for purchase or rental from Bullfrog Films Produced and Directed by Judith Ehrlich and Rick Tejada-Flores ©2001, Paradigm Productions A production of ITVS, with major funding from the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation DVD and special features Produced in collaboration with Lobitos Creek Ranch © 2006 By Judith Ehrlich, Steve Michelson and Dan Newitt To Rent or purchase please contact: Bullfrog Films PO Box 149 Oley, PA 19547 Phone (800) 543-3764 (610) 779-8226 Fax: (610) 370-1978 Web: www.bullfrogfilms.com 1 An Educators’ Guide for The Good War and Those Who Refused to Fight It By Judith Ehrlich M.Ed. Overview This program provides insights into profound questions of war and peace, fighting and killing, national security and citizen rights, and responsibilities in a democracy. By telling a little-known story of conscientious objectors to World War II, The Good War and Those Who Refused to Fight It offers a new window on the current post–9/11 period of national crises, war and the challenges that face dissenters at such times. Objective The decision to take a public stand as a conscientious objector comes from a deep inner place. It is a decision rooted in one’s spiritual life, faith or belief system rather than in logic or political persuasion. It is not a way to get out of the draft or to avoid life-threatening situations.
  • Draft, 10/28/75 (2)” of the Charles E

    Draft, 10/28/75 (2)” of the Charles E

    The original documents are located in Box 5, folder “Final Report - Draft, 10/28/75 (2)” of the Charles E. Goodell Papers at the Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library. Copyright Notice The copyright law of the United States (Title 17, United States Code) governs the making of photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted material. Charles Goodell donated to the United States of America his copyrights in all of his unpublished writings in National Archives collections. Works prepared by U.S. Government employees as part of their official duties are in the public domain. The copyrights to materials written by other individuals or organizations are presumed to remain with them. If you think any of the information displayed in the PDF is subject to a valid copyright claim, please contact the Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library. Digitized from Box 5 of the Charles E. Goodell Papers at the Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library TODAY 1 S DATE 10/28/75 1633 06 lstl11e 222-001 CUSTOMER a2220 OPERATOR 001 PCB 222-001 Chapter 3 001 Chapter 3 DATE STORED 10/28/75 1256 w WIDTH 060 DEPTH 64 ----t---t----t----t-----------------------------------------t pj PRINT POSITION 07 LINE 03 A. Introduction Chance and circumstance had much to do with the sacrifices faced by each individual during the Vietnam War. Only 9% of all draft-age men served in Vietnam. War and conscription are. by nature. selective. In a sense. Clemency Board applicants were victims of misfortune as much as they were guilty of willful offenses. Most other young Americans did not have to face the same choices.