ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS Vol. 4, No. 3, 2019 ENVIRONMENTAL

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Vol. 4, No. 3, 2019

ENVIRONMENTAL DIRECTIONS OF THE TOURIST POTENTIAL DEVELOPMENT AT URBAN AGGLOMERATIONS (CASE STUDY OF THE CITY OF KYIV)

Margaryta Radomska, Oleksandra Kolotylo

National Aviation University, Faculty of Environmental Safety, Engineering and Technology, Department of Ecology, 1, Komarov Avenue, Kyiv , 03058, Ukraine m.m.radomskaya@gmail, [email protected] https://doi.org/10.23939/ep2019.03.109

Received: 12.06.2019

Abstract. The development of urban tourism ensures energy in the cities. Thus, there is a need for a higher preservation and expansion of valuable ecosystems and level of environmental awareness of urban population increases the level of ecological culture, which provides to set back the degradation of the environment. Besides saving attitude to the environment. The preconditions of academic approaches to environmental education ecotourism development in cities are analyzed. The through school and university curricula, ecological method for evaluation of ecotourist potential is proposed tourism is an important tool for distribution of and tested on the example of Kyiv. The parameters for knowledge about nature. However, it is primarily the selection and evaluation of the objects that can be interested in pristine ecosystems and natural used for ecotourism organization are considered. landscapes and therefore is still not very popular among the Ukrainian population: it involves distant Key words: ecotourism, urban ecosystem, ecological trail, trips to locations with low level of services and low ecotourism route, ecotourist potential, urban ecotourism. development of infrastructure. Under such conditions in terms of the number of people involved and 1. Introduction preservation of nature it would be more productive to organize ecological tourism inside the cities. A modern city or an urban system should be Ecotourism is a form of travel that focuses on regarded as a complex cluster of artificial ecotopes or a preserving the natural environment, enhances the complex artificially transformed ecosystem [1]. Due to ecological culture of travelers, carries out educational its size and structure which includes natural and functions, cares about traditions and culture and manmade components of the environment on a benefits the local population. It takes place at the relatively limited area, cities are “bodies” with specific objects with scientific, cognitive, aesthetic and regularities and functional processes [2]. The balance recreational value. These are territories with unique within these urban systems is very vulnerable and natural monuments, mountains, virgin forests, mineral undergoes dramatic impacts and changes under the springs, valleys of rivers and streams, habitats of rare influence of industrial and life provision processes. plants, etc. Thus, the nature-protected territories, in However, the condition of the urban environment is also strongly affected by everyday activity of its particular national parks, are the most promising for citizens. Being direct users of urban natural resources, the development of ecotourism. especially those providing rest and recreation (urban Urban territories are completely opposite to such green infrastructure and hydrological network), pristine areas, but they are still strong tourist attractions. humans gradually destroy the remaining components of Over the last few decades cities have been considered to nature which provide normal circulation of matter and be habitats of living organisms and not only the living 110 Margaryta Radomska, Oleksandra Kolotylo environment for people. The urban biocenosis is made stakeholders invest into the improvement of green of plant associations and zoocenosis. A wide range of infrastructure, public transport optimization and flora and fauna representatives are still living here. The maintenance of natural ecosystems and their diversity increased fragmentation, division and transformation of [5-8]. Some authors offer very unusual projects which habitats, introduction of exotic and alien species and involve transformation of cities to provide ultimate creation of artificial cultural and aesthetic components suitability for green tourism and sustainable lifestyle create certain ecotourism potential and it is possible to [9, 10]. involve urban territories into specific form of ecotourism Currently, the concept of tourist potential is used by enhancing its educational component. quite often in the literature. However, there is neither Any form of tourism on urban territory will become unified opinion on the parameters of the tourist a source of accumulating funds to maintain the normal potential as an economic system nor classification of state of the objects belonging to the recreational and it [11]. In most cases tourist potential is evaluated tourist potential of the territory. In addition, the without theoretical formulation of the concept and is development of tourist potential creates working places used for specific destinations at various levels: from and self-employment opportunities. If talking about localities to regions and countries. The local level is ecotourism, it also supports the normal state of green presented in the research by V. P. Pilyavskiy and infrastructure and other objects of ecological interest and O. S. Shvetsova for the Ladoga Lake [12], the work raises the cultural and educational level of the urban by Kulinych K. [13] deals with the regional level and population. Thus, the aim of the research is to define evaluates the tourist potential of Sumska oblast, while the possibilities and obstacles for the developing of Tarasionak A. and Yakovchuk O. demonstrate the ecotourism in urban areas as well as its potential tourist potential of the whole country, namely content. Ukraine and Belarus [14, 15]. In order to reach the target a range of tasks should Domestic and foreign scientists, in particular, be performed: to formulate the concept of tourist Rudenko O. P., Drozdovym A. V., Kuskovym A. S., potential on the whole and ecotourism potential in Arsenyeva E. I., Gulyaev V. G., Kolbovsky E. Yu. particular, to define the components and factors have paid attention to the problem of determining the important for the development of ecotourism. composition of the total tourist potential of the Analysis of the previous research. The idea of region. Even though they bind their theories to certain urban ecotourism or urban green tourism has appeared types of tourism, including ecological one, they in the mid 90s with the idea of developing a sustainable mostly work with geographical parameters which are way to visit urban areas [3], and obtained a clear not applicable to the analysis of ecological tourist wording during the First Urban Ecotourism Convention potential of urban areas. held in White Rock, Canada in 2004. Being in between More generalized definition of the tourist traditional ecotourism and urban tourism, this type of potential is found in the works by Sviatoho N. V., touristic activity has gradually moved away from both Ushakova E. O., Bădiă A. and Dmytruk O. Yu., and it [3, 4]. Thus, urban tourism is more concentrated on can be represented as a combination of natural, cultural aspects of a city, while urban green tourism is historical and cultural objects and phenomena, as well targeted at natural islands preserved within the city; as social (professional and personnel potential), ecological tourism is a glance at still untouched natural economic (information, financial, investment, zones, and urban ecotourism provides a view on the management) and technological (infrastructure) nature at the closest proximity to city dwellers, prerequisites for the organization of tourist activities demonstrating examples of remarkable cohabitation and on a certain territory [12, 16, 17, 18]. adaptation which are the core concepts of ecology and A conceptually opposite approach is proposed by environmental studies. Jegdić V. and Gradinac O. based on the idea that The further development of the idea of urban ecotourism is a means for sustainable urban ecotourism is found in the works by Dodds R. and development: they analyze the ecotourism potential Joppe M., Higham. J and Michael L., Vaso J. and through the prism of achieving the goals of Milosevic S., Oh J. S., Weaver D., Wu Y. Y. Most of sustainability and green tourism [5]. Thus, the them deal with the assessment of ecotourism potential ecotourism potential is formed and evaluated based on in the cities around the world. They also note that the efficiency by which it provides economic (local urban ecotourism is an important direction of urban budget benefits), social (building healthier communities, development, as it is able to support and protect promoting local experiences) and environmental benefits residuals of nature in the city and improve living (reducing energy use and raising environmental standards of the inhabitants by making the awareness) [19]. Environmental Directions of the Tourist Potential Development at Urban Agglomerations… 111

2. Methods and materials means basically walking along the special route or trail which is under the influence of weather and The evaluation of local ecotourism potential should climate; be conducted in three stages – analysis, screening and · aesthetics of the landscapes – including decision. The analysis includes the study of the current aesthetic value of the relief, water objects and plant tourism situation, as well as environmental condition of associations; the area under investigation. The screening is the choice · level of infrastructure development – Internet of perspective ecotourism attractions and “hotspots”. access, reliability of mobile communication, transport The final decision implies formulation and assessment accessibility. of both possibilities and risks for the further The total score is summed up and provide the development of ecotourism in the area. characteristics of the territory suitability for ecotourism: These stages involve gathering, processing and 40–50 is the best, 30–39 – good, 20–29 – satisfactory, interpretation of internal and external information which <19 – poor). The lowest result doesn’t mean that there is will output the list of priority actions to reveal the no point investing efforts in urban green tourism, but opportunities and facilities for ecotourism projects shows the volume of work to be performed before it is realization. possible to acquire any payback in the form of the In terms of methodology, complex assessment of the visitors interested in it. territory should take into account the following groups The further work on the ecotourism potential of factors: analysis is the process of screening – the choice of the – natural conditions and resources (landscape objects-attractions and landmarks for green tourists. structure and quality, climate, relief, hydrological According to the idea of ecotourism these are parks objects of interest, etc.); and forest-parks, hydrological objects, gardens and – level of economic development (infrastructure, orchards which have the best nature-protected status. services quality and necessary maintenance and The objects-candidates should go through the investment in well-being); selection process with application of the similar – social conditions (the population interested in system, involving ranking based on the following ecotourism, potential workplaces, level of indicators (Table 2): environmental awareness and ecological education); – environmental condition (air pollution level, water · status of protected areas – environmental value quality, soil pollution, physical pollution, biodiversity, of the ecosystem; visual pollution, etc.); · level of anthropogenic transformation; – content and aesthetic component (objects of · availability of tourism information on the interest for ecotourism and their educational, aesthetic territory. and nature-preserving value); The objects with total score over 8 points should be All factors accounted in the analysis are included in the final project and arranged into ecological characterized with a certain number of indicators. routes, provided with an information campaign and Most of them have ordinary units of measurements, managerial support. but there are some indicators that cannot be Once the screening is completed, the information represented this way and must first be evaluated with obtained is combined with the previous stage outcomes the grading mark system – ranking or modeling [21, to make the final conclusion about the ways of 3]. The grades are assigned to each indicator for the developing urban green tourism on the studied area and object under investigation and the final sum will necessary investments. reflect the perspective and feasibility of the project The above presented method has been applied to implementation. the capital city of Ukraine for approbation and development of the ecotourism promotion plan. Kiev 3. Results and discussions is very diverse and rich in natural resources. It is also called the “green city”, because of a large The given research is based on the following number of parks, squares, boulevards, forest areas, parameters chosen to characterize the suitability of as well as nature protected areas within the city. urban area for the ecotourism development, and Currently, the city is being built up more and more, corresponding ranking from 1 to 5 (Table 1): and territories with green plantations are reducing, · favorability of climate conditions is the environmental situation is getting worse, evaluated based on the fact that ecological tourism increasingly affecting the health of the population.

112 Margaryta Radomska, Oleksandra Kolotylo

Table 1 Evaluation of conditions suitability for ecotourism development Comfort level* Indicator 1 2 3 4 5 Climate conditions Frequency of favorable <10 10–20 20–35 35–40 > 40 weather during a year, % The duration of the frosty <70 70–90 90–105 105–120 > 120 period, days per year The sum of active <800 800–1400 1200–1600 1500–2000 2000–3500 temperatures over the period with daily t³10°C, °C The number of days with > 180 140–180 120–140 100–120 <100 precipitations per year The average temperature in ≥ 21.6 21.1–21.5 20.6–21 20.1–20.5; 19–20 July, °C ≤ 17.4 17.9–17.5 18.4–18 18.9–18.5 Overall description Favourable Favourable Favourable Favourable Favourable conditions for conditions for conditions for conditions for conditions for 1–2 months: less than 3 3–6.5 months: 7–9 months: hot 9,5–10,5 months: short cool months: hot cool rainy and dry summer warm summers summer and droughty summer and and mild winter and moderately long winter or summer and mild winters with stable cold winters with hot summer and unstable winter with unstable snow cover stable snow cover snowless with little snow snow cover or or hot long winter. cover or hot drought summer and short without it summer and warm winter rigorous winter without stable snow cover Relief value Altitude 1000–2500 2500 0–100 100–400 700–1000 Type of relief Alpine Alpine Flat Hilly, low The average mountain mountain Water bodies value Type of waterbody Absent Stream or Major river Lake The average river source with rushes / waterfalls Plant association value Type of biocenosis Desert Steppe Meadow Forest Forest - steppe * Note: 1 – not suitable; 2 – low value; 3 – medium-comfortable; 4 – comfortable; 5 – most favorable.

Table 2 Evaluation scale for screening Indicator Suitability for ecotourism* 1 2 3 4 5 Protected area status Not defined Local Regional National International Level of anthropogenic Badly preserved Artificial Strongly Marginally Pristine transformation and heavily landscape with transformed for transformed for modified certain aesthetic the visitors’ the improved natural or new value comfort or access or old artificial artificial artificial recreational plantations (over plantations object 50 years old) (over 100 years) Availability of tourist No information Information is Single Information Information signs information on the territory is available available over information signs and route and route markers the Internet or sign at one markers are are available, at local point available guided tours are authorities offered * Note: 1 – supplementary object; 2 – low value; 3 – suitable; 4 – most suitable; 5 – core value.

Environmental Directions of the Tourist Potential Development at Urban Agglomerations… 113

To improve the environmental situation in the sylvatica (fоrest beech). It is also an area of high bird city, in 2014 the Kyiv city state administration diversity and a habitat of water mammals. issued the project “Environmental policy of the Kyiv 2. Lake Radunka is a good example of city for the period until 2025”, where it is indicated, community activity: it has been granted the status of that one of the main measures in implementing the the Landscape Reserve of local value in 2017 under system of environmental culture and development of the pressure of non-governmental organizations and ecological education in the city can be creation and local citizens. It is a habitat of plants, included into equipment of ecological routes on the territories of the Red Book of Ukraine: Salvínia nátans and Trapa natural, natural-historical and landscape parks, nátans. nature reserves and nature monuments. Also, 3. The Verbniaky and Sytniaky tracts are ecological routes are mentioned in the point on historic, partly wild places near the river Desenka which managing the greenery [21]. have been mentioned in Kyiv history since XI century. The ecotourism potential of Kyiv has been The avifauna of these localities is quite rich and evaluated as a good one with the total score of 38 points. represents not only aesthetic but also scientific and The result shows that the territory of Kyiv is suitable protection interest. Similarly, local plant associations, and satisfactory, and has good conditions for the which have the character typical for this territory before development of tourist activity. For additional testing the beginning of active urbanization, are of high interest. the offered method was applied to evaluate the potential 4. Lake Hnylusha is considered to be one of of the cities, currently being actively involved in the the most dangerous water reservoirs in Kiev due to corresponding projects abroad. Thus, the grade of Novi heavy pollution. There is a memorial sign next to the Sad is 36, based on the data obtained from the open lake: here Yaroslav the Wise concluded a peace sources and [5], Seoul has 42, as it can be concluded on agreement with his brother, which contributed to the the shared information and [22]. So, the method is quite unification of Ukraine-Russ into a single state in representative and detailed to reflect the actual situation. 1020. The screening process for Kyiv has produced a list The length of the route is about 8–9 km, duration of of more than 70 potential ecotourism objects which have the walking tour is about 3 hours. been arranged into the ecological routes. It is worth The Left Bank of the Kyiv city is richer in natural mentioning that there is a range of obstacles for the and pristine objects, so the first set of ecological routes formation of ecological trails: close interaction between has been developed for the given part of the city. It natural and technogenic objects, limited access to certain includes 5 routes with 33 points; average duration of the areas, low quality of infrastructure and inefficient walking tour is 2.5–3. maintenance (problems with waste management) and To start efficient exploitation of ecotourism lack of information distributed. potential it is necessary to invest in the development of However, in order to increase the educational the infrastructure, namely purchasing of electric component of ecological routes, it is recommended to buses/bicycles (for tourists), training of guides and their include some technogenic objects into their plan. The fee, information distribution means and sanitary tourists should see the contrast between the elements of facilities. The total sum for these routes (management wildlife and objects artificially created or highly and implementation of which should be centralized) transformed by people. Thus, people can realize the makes up about 510 000 UAH. The calculation is intensity of the negative impact of our society on the approximate because most of the services have a wide environment, the intensity of degradation of natural range of prices. Despite the considerable financial costs, complexes under the urban conditions and get urban ecotourism is a necessary activity as it will have acquainted with real examples of environmental positive influence on ecological awareness of the problems which actually are located almost at their population and encourage people to invest their efforts houses. For this purpose, the route should run from in support of natural components of the city thus parks and objects of the nature reserve fund on the supporting the environment quality in their city. territory of the city to enterprises or anthropogenically At the same time it is important to take into account altered landscapes. the vulnerability of natural islands suitable for The example such route will include the following ecotourism development, as these formations are under points: heavy pressure from the urban artificial components. 1. Park “Peremoha” – a park with well Thus, an important precondition for successful developed infrastructure for recreation, military implementation of the project is determination of monuments, panoramic view on the capital's left bank, permissible recreational pressure on the areas involved, and a natural monument – a grоup оf trees оf Fagus which is the next step for the research. 114 Margaryta Radomska, Oleksandra Kolotylo

Conclusions Management, 2007, 28, 1168–1179. DOI:10.1016/ j.tourman.2007.03.004. 1. The environmental balance in the cities is very [8] Gibson, A., Dodds, R., Joppe, M., Jamieson, D.: vulnerable to technogenic pressure from the industrial Ecotourism in the city? Torontos Green Tourism facilities and anthropogenic impacts of the population Asociation. International Journal of Contemporary using its resources without any environmental Hospitality Management, 2003, 15(6), 324–327. [9] Tham, A.: Envisioning Eden: the manufactured reservations. The improvement of environmental ecotourism environment of Singapore: Journal of awareness of city dwellers is a key to mitigation of Ecotourism, 2018, 17:3, 287–305. DOI: urban environment degradation. This task could be 10.1080/14724049.2018.1502124. performed by the development of ecological tourism at [10] Demir, S., Atanur, G.: The prioritization of natural- the territory of cities which should be considered from historical based ecotourism strategies with multiple- the point of the value of their landscapes, phytocenosis criteria decision analysis in ancient UNESCO city: and zoocenosis components. Iznik-Bursa case: International Journal of Sustainable 2. The concept of ecotourism potential is widely Development & World Ecology, 2019, 26:4, 329–343. used but it is poorly provided with theoretical DOI: 10.1080/13504509.2019.1596990. background as well as methods of its assessment. For [11] Svyatokha, N. Yu., Filimonova, I. Yu., Yakovlev I. G.: the purpose of the given research the method of Ecotourism as a form of rational recreational nature management (on the example of the Orenburg region). ecotourism potential assessment has been developed and Bulletin of the Orenburg State University, 2016, 8 applied to a range of cities. Screening of suitable (196), 70–75. (in Russian) attractions has been completed for the city of Kyiv. [12] Pilyavsky V. P.: Evaluation of the tourist and recreational 3. To promote ecotourism in Kyiv, a project of potential of the territory of the Ladoga area. Bulletin of ecological routes was developed and the amount of Donetsk Institute of Tourist Business. Series: Economics, investment in their infrastructure development was organization and management of the tourist industry and calculated. The need for regulation of the number of tourism in the whole, 2014, 18, 66–70. (in Russian) eco-tourists is formulated as a necessary component for [13] Kulіnich, K. M.: Ecological tourist product and mobility the organization of urban green tourism. to ecotourism in Sumy region: Proceed. of the 4. The development of environmental tourism in International scientific conference Economical problems Ukraine will have positive influence on the development of steel development, to the memory of prof. Balatskogo of ecological consciousness among the local population O. F. Sumy, Ukraine, 2013, 84–85. (In Ukrainian) [14] Yakovchuk, O. V.: Assessment of tourist potential of and contribute to preservation of nature islands in the Ukraine: Geography and tourism, 2010, 10, 57–65. (In cities. Ukrainian) [15] Tarasionak, A.: Strategic planning of tourist destinations: References new approach towards territorial organization of tourism in Belarus: Geografijos metraštis, 2014, 47, 25–36. (In [1] Y. Didukh, U. Alioshkina : Ecotope Classification Of Russian) Kyiv : NaUKMA Research Papers. Biology and [16] Ushakova E. O.: Methodical approach to the integrated Ecology. 2006, Vol. 54, 50–57. (In Ukrainian) assessment of tourism development resources in the [2] Niemelä J., Breuste J. H., Guntenspergen G., McIntyre region. Regional Economics: Theory and Practice, 2013, N. E., Elmqvist T., James P. : Urban Ecology: Patterns, 48, 42–49. (In Russian) Processes, and Applications. Oxford, UK: Oxford [17] Bădiță, A. Approaches to the analysis and evaluation of University Press, 2011. 392 p. urban tourism system within urban destinations. Journal [3] Wu, Y. Y., Wang H. L., Ho Y. F.: Urban Ecotourism: of Tourism, 2013, 16, 58–66. Defining and Assessing Dimensions Using Fuzzy [18 ] Dmitruk O. Yu.: Ecological tourism: modern Number Construction: Tourism Management, 2010, concepts of management and marketing. Alterpres, Kyiv 31(6), 739-743. DOI: 10.1016/j.tourman.2009.07.014. 2004. 192 с. 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Contradiction in Terms? : Journal of Ecotourism, 2002, 24 c. (In Ukrainian) 1:1, 36-51. DOI: 10.1080/14724040208668111. [22] Oh, J.S.: Urban Ecotourism: Applying Natural [7] Weaver, D., Lawton, L.: Twenty years on: The state of Ecological Resources to Tourism in Seoul, Korea : contemporary ecotourism research. Tourism Binghamton University, New York 2007. 21 р. ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Vol. 4, No. 3, 2019

FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEM MACROPHYTES AND MICROPHYTES: DEVELOPMENT, ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS, USAGE AS RAW MATERIAL. REVIEW

Khrystyna Soloviy, Myroslav Malovanyy

Lviv Polytechnic National University, Institute of Sustainable Development, Department of Ecology and Sustainable, Environmental Management, 12, S. Bandery Str., Lviv, 79013, Ukraine [email protected], [email protected] https://doi.org/10.23939/ep2019.03.115

Received: 19.06.2019

Abstract. Classification of macrophytes and microphytes The purpose of the article is to get acquainted with in the system of hydrobionts is presented, individual classification of macrophytes and microphytes, study characteristics of each macrophyte and microphyte type risks and dangers that they may cause for the according to the given classification are presented, environment, conduct critical analysis of biotechnologies environmental problems concerning uncontrolled with their application. development of macrophytes and microphytes in water media are considered and several biotechnologies of 2. Classification of macrophytes application of their sustainable development are characterized. Macrophytes, hydrobionts or aquatic plants are representatives of flora that grow in the water Key words: macrophytes, microphytes, uncontrolled medium or close to water. Aquatic plants are development, biomass, biotechnologies producers of water ecosystem. They regulate penetration of sunlight and provide survival of water 1. Introduction ecosystem. Despite the fact that these plants originated in water, the majority of acquatic plants Macrophytes and microphytes play an important except algae (that will be considered as microphytes) role in water and wetland ecosystems. [28] Presence or originate from their mesophyte relatives. absence of sertain macrophyte and microphyte species Division of macrophytes is based on sertain factors. can depict sertain environmental state of local Depending on the connection with water and air environment. A lot of representatives are used in [48] macrophytes can be divided into: bioindication which is an important process for 1. free floating; revealing pollution level of the studied environment and 2. floating but rooted; for strategic water purification planning. These 3. submerged (floating and rooted); hydrobionts are interdependent and complementary. 4. amphibian plants. Besides bioindication, a lot of representatives are a Free floating macrophytes float freely on the surface nutrition source for many invertebrates. In the system of and have no roots in the mud. Freely floating environmental balanced management there are also hydrobionts shape a dense population, covering water many biotechnologies using macrophyte and micrpophyte surface. Such population prevents development of species as a source for target production. submerged aquatic plants and phitoplancton by blocking 116 Khrystyna Soloviy, Myroslav Malovanyy penetration of light. These hydrophytes can be big, tissue. Roots of floating macrophytes are well shaping a column in a rosette and have very well developed, filament-vessel system is considerably developed roots, grow submerged (Eichhornia reduced, aerenchyme develops with excess and air crassipes) and small. Small freely floating macrophytes chambers are rather large. In some representatives of have simplier bodies, with talon shape and reduced roots floating macrophytes the root is absent while in the (Lemna gibba, L. minima, Azolla filiculoides). Many of others it can be fully developed. Root hairs of free them are predatory species that impede the use of water floating hydrophytes lay in right angles to the axis body and accelerate evaporation, hence reducing water of the main root. In some free floating macrophytes reserves (Eichhornia crassipes, Limnobium laevigatum) roots can be modified into trails as in Jussiaca. [54] An average representative of freely floating Their roots have weak differentiation of inner macrophytes is presented in Fig. 1. tissues. Roots function as an absorbing or anchor organ [27]. Submered floating microphytes grow under the water surface and are not in contact with the atmosphere. Typical representatives of submerged floating macrophytes are Ceratophyllum, Utricularia [14]. A typical representative of submerged floating macrophytes is shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 1. Pistia stratiotes. Superclass – Magnoliophyta; order – Alismatales; family – Araceae (https://www.eddmaps.org/)

Floating but rooted hydrophytes appear in pounds, rivers and lakes. Life and blooming of these bionts take place on the water surface. Such group of Fig. 2. Victoria regia (Victoria amazonica). Superclass – macrophytes includes Nelumbium speciosum (lotus), Magnoliophyta; family – Nymphaeaceae; genus – Victoria Victoria regia (water lily), Ceratopteris thalictroides (http://www.guiasybaquianos.com/en/ ) (hydrophil fern of Parkariaceae family) etc. [81]. A representative of floating but rooted macrophytes is shown in Fig. 2. Some parts of floating macrophytes are in contact with water when simultaneously other parts float on the water or above its surface. These plants consume CO2 and oxygen from the water, and partly from the air. These hydrobionts can develop heterophilicity. Submerged leaves of floating aquatic plants are thin, ribbons are shaped completely or dissected, and those that float on the water surface are well extended and unbroken. The surface of the plant body is covered with a thin wax film that protects the plant tissue from injuries caused by water and also prevents stomata clogging. Stomata Fig. 3. Ceratophyllum demersum. Order – Ceratophyllales; are limited to the upper part of the floating leaves. family – Ceratophyllaceae; genus – Ceratophyllum Palisade cells are less developed with spongeous (https://www.plantsrescue.com/ceratophyllum-demersum/) Freshwater Ecosystem Macrophytes and Microphytes: Development, Environmental… 117

Submerged rooted macrophytes are rooted in mud. characteristics. Typical representatives of amphibian This type of macrophytes includes Hydrilla, Vallisneria, plants are Limnophylla heterophylla, Typha, Potamogeton. [14] One of the representatives of Sagittaria. A typical amphibian plant is shown in submerged rooted macrophytes is shown in Fig. 4. Fig. 5.

Fig. 4. Vallisneria gigantea. Order – Alismatales; Fig. 5. Sagittaria sagittifolia. Order – Alismatales; family – Hydrocharitaceae; genus – Vallisneria family – Alismataceae; genus – Sagittaria (https://www.amazon.com/) (https://www.ebay.co.uk/)

The entire surface of the plant body in In amphibian plants spme parts of their body macrophytes is in direct contact with water. Leaves grow in the water when others grow above the water of such plants consume CO2 and oxygen from the surface or even on the land. The leaves in these water. Heterophylicity is not spread. Leaves of such hydrophytes absorb CO2 and oxygen from the air macrophytes are considerably reduced in size. because they are well opened and the gaseous Cuticle, suberin and epidermis cover are absolutely exchange can take place very easily through undeveloped. Stomata in such hydrophyte plants are stomata. Heterophylicity in amphibian plants is quite common. The leaves are large, unbroken and both absent or present in the reduced state. Mesophyl big and small leaves are located above the water tissue is in the shape of aerenchyma that blocks surface. Cuticle develops in the airial part of the large air chambers. Palisade and spongeous plant. Stomata are limited to the upper and lower parenchyma are not well differentiated. Stems in parts of aerial leaves. Mesophyll has clear such submerged macrophytes are very thin and differentiation into spongeous and palisade tissues. considerably reduced. They move on substrate with Spongeous parenchyma is well developed with high rhozomes or sprouts. Their stems have poorly aerial passages of the diaphragms. The stem is developed vascular bounds. Aerenchyma is very excessively developed, but in some representatives it well developed and air chambers are separated can be reduced to the rhizome. This indicates clear by cross partitions or diaphragms. Roots in differentiation of epidermis, cortex and vessel zones. submerged macrophytes are considerably reduced, Cortex in some cases is differentiated into separated without branches and rhizome hairs. They act as zones. The outer root is aerenchymatous and it anchor organs. Root system has poor inner blocks large aerial spaces. The inner root and core can be shaped into thick wall cells. The roots of the organization [27]. amphibian plants are well developed. They show Amphibian plants grow in shallow waters. Their good differentiation of all inner tissues. Root hairs roots, stems and leaves are rooted in the water. But develop on epidermis. some blooming sprouts blossom above the water Macrophytes have several ecological adaptations surface.These plants are adapted to the water and that are divided into morphological, anatomical and terrestrial life conditions. Air parts of these physiological factors. More information about hydrobionts have mesophytic characteristics, when adaptation peculiarities of macrophytes is shown in submerged parts develop completely hydrophytic Table 1. 118 Khrystyna Soloviy, Myroslav Malovanyy

Table 1 Ecological adaptations of macrophytes [4]

Morphological adaptations Anatomical adaptations Physiological adaptations Poorly developed, reduced or Cuticle is completely absent in Low osmotic concentration of absent submerged parts cellular juice

Do not require absorbing In airial parts cuticle can be present as Osmotic concentration is equal or water or nutrients a thin layer slightly higher than that which is surrounding the water The entire plant surface can Epidermis is not a protective layer Prevents undesirable penetration absorb water and minerals of water into the cell

Root capsules are usually Epidermal cells contain chloroplasts Water is absorbed by the entire absent surface of the plant Root surface is often supplied Epidermal cells can absorb water and Nutrients are absorbed by the with root pockets or root nutrients entire surface of the plant films ts R oo ts R e du c ti o n i p r t ec on The stem is very delicate and Stomata is completely absent in Stems and leaves can usually green submerged parts photosynthesize

In the majority of Remnant stomata are sometimes Oxygen obtained by representatives the stem is present photosynthesis is kept in aerial modified into a rhizome or a spaces

S t ems sprout In free floating macrophytes Gaseous exchange takes place through Such oxygen is utilized when leaves are long, circular, the cellular wall necessary green, thin and smooth The upper part is exposed to Stomata in floating plants are limited Evaporation is absent in the air, while the lower part to upper leaf epidermis submerged plants touches the water The lotus petiole leaf shows Aerenchyma is well developed in Emerging and floating plants have uncertain growth and hence submerged plants excessive evaporation holds leaves floating in the water Some representatives are Aerenchyma aerial cameras are filled Slime cells create a lot of slime heterophylic with respiratory gases and moisture on I n c r ease o f ae a ti on In heterophylic forms the Mechanical tissues are absent or Slime prevents plants from submerged leaves are linear, poorly developed decomposition in the water ribbon or very dissected, while the floating or aerial leaves have a circular form The leaves of free floating Thick strengthened sclerenchyma cells Vegetative reproduction is the hydrophytes have a smooth are completely absent most common type of wax surface reproduction Prevent from water pollution Nymphaea has a special type of star Allogamy and scattering of fruit during raining seasons lignification cells (astrosclereids) take place with the help of water which provides mechanical support Wax surface protects leaves The main function: the root is an from chemical or physical anchor (not absorbing nutrients and

L ea v es injuries R e du c ti o n r a d it i on l mec h ca ti ss ue water)

C. Ramirez G. and M. Alvarez have divided the has the group of glycophyte helophytes. More detailed types according to macrophyte groups. The biggest rate division is shown in Table 2. Freshwater Ecosystem Macrophytes and Microphytes: Development, Environmental… 119

Table 2 Division of types according to the macrophyte groups [18]

Macrophyte groups Species Percent Deeply sybmerged 22 9.7 hydrophytes Free submerged 4 1.8 hydrophytes Free floating 6 2.6 hydrophytes Floating 11 4.8 hydrophytes Glycophylic 112 49.4 helophytes Fig. 6. Phacus longicauda. Class - Euglenoidea; order - Halophilic Euglenales; family - Euglenaceae 22 9.7 helophytes (http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/ ) Herbaceous amphibian 32 14.1 Yellow – green algae (xanthopytes) have more than helophytes 600 species. Representatives of this group are Forest helophytes 18 7.9 photosynthetic organisms that live mainly in freshwater, Total 227 100 though some live in marine waters, humid soils and tree stems. This type is not very common and some species Microphytes were discovered only once. Nevertheless they are dominant in some salty swamps [15]. In this article in the section on microphytes we will In Fig. 7 a representative of yellow-green algae is mainly concentrate our attention on microalgae. shown. Microalgae are unicellular microorganisms that have plant characteristics and usually grow in water medium; this is why these organisms refer to hydrobionts. There is no definite classification of microalgae since they do not represent formal taxonomic group of organisms but rather heterogeneous collection of phylums or divisions with representatives in several kingdoms. The divisions differ from each other by the combination of characteristics, including photosynthetic pigments, starch-like reverse products, cellular cover and other aspects of cellular organization (e.g., Graham et al., 2008; Lee, 2008) . Cyanobacteria, red algae, green algae, euglenozoa, eustigmatophyta, raphidophyta, xanthophyceae, chrysophyceae, haptophyta, synurophyceae, diatoms, dinoflagellates, cryptophyta, brown algae can be Fig. 7. Tribonema. Class – Xanthophyceae; order - Tribonematales; family – Tribonemataceae attributed to freshwater microalgae. We will analyze (http://fmp.conncoll.edu/ ) some of them. Euglenozoa live both in freshwater and marine There are more than 1800 species of brown algae. water. Some euglenozoa are authotrophs, when some are The most numerous and popular is kelp. Brown algae heterotrophs. The most distinguished characteristic of are often rooted in such immobile substrate as stone, these algae is prominent cellular wall. It is known as shell or dock with structures that are called holdfasts, pellicula and is made from protein strips. Thanks to this though species in genus Sargassum are free floating. A pellicula a lot of species can bend and this enables lot of species of brown algae have aerial bladders that modification of cell [9]. help algae blades fload to ocean surface, which enables A representative of euglenozoa is shown in Fig. 6. maximum absorbtion of sunlight [33]. 120 Khrystyna Soloviy, Myroslav Malovanyy

In Fig. 8 a typical representative of brown algae is growing and leads to acute consequences for both shown. local aquatic biomes and for population that consumes water. For instance, analyzing EPA reports of 2018, it is clear that the problem of water blooming is one of the key problems in the system of environmental problems [6]. Speaking about the types of algae that cause blooming of water, first of all it is blue – green algae (cyanobacteria) that can produce cyanotoxins that can harmfully affect human health and kill representatives of aquatic culture of local water and other animals. As for the detrimental effects on human organism, these are hepatitis (concerning liver), neurologic, dermatologic and other symptoms [10]. A human can be affected by such symptoms as a result of contact with water. This refers not only to swimming and consuming such water, but also consuming fish or shellfish from the Fig. 8. Heribaudiella fluviatilis. Order - Ectocarpales; infected water. Also inhaling toxins contained in family – Phaeostrophiaceae; genus – Heribaudiella the atmosphere in such location can lead to (https://sagdb.uni-goettingen.de/) aforementioned consequences [16]. Apart from cyanobacteria, dinoflagellates and Green algae live in freshwater. These algae have diatoms are among the microalgae that can cause water cellular walls made from cellulose and are blooming, but they refer to marine waters. photosynthetic. Green algae also make up the most In diatoms domoic, acid can cause shellfish heterogenous group of photoautotrophic unicellulars that amnesia intoxication in humans that consume inhabit the biosphere and have a great variety of sizes, shellfish or cancroids, and consequences might be shapes and habits. As primary producers green algae are anxiety, short memory loss, headache, and in worse of great value for our planet in comparison with those cases – death [21]. that inhabit rainforests [20]. Dinoflagellates produce toxins that can harmfully affect human health through consumption of sea foods or under direct conact with blooming waters. Toxins can cause serious diseases in humans. Such diseases are shellfish paralytic poisoning, diarrhea, shellfish neurotic poisoning, ciguatera fish poisoning [7]. Cyanobacteria can grow under very low concentration of nutrients and their capability to change their vertical position enables them to embrace optimum depth for their development [17]. Toxins that cyanbacteria can produce are microcystins, cylindrospermopsins, anatoxins – a, saxitoxins. These toxins can affect the human in the following way: liver damage, paralysis, neurotoxication, Fig. 9. Chara asp. Class – Charophyceae; gastrointestinal lesions, dermatitis and respiratory order – Charales; family – Characeae system damage. In fauna it is first of all mortality of (https://fortress.wa.gov/) domestic, farm animals and mortality of fish. In the environment it is decoloration and foul odour. Dangers associated with uncontrolled growth of Economic consequences include loss of tourism macrophytes and microphytes attraction, drinking water pollution, demand for more expensive means of cleaning contaminated water or A problem with excessive growth of microalgae alternative water sources, taste problems in farm or wild in water (so-called “water blooming”) is constantly fish (unsuitable for consumption) [10]. Freshwater Ecosystem Macrophytes and Microphytes: Development, Environmental… 121

Eutrophication problem to navigation and fishering and considerable decrease in catches and food sources for local population; Eutrophication problem means excessive growth of significant changes in physical and chemical water plants or water blooming due to high properties of water and the medium with invasive concentrations of nutrients in freshwater ecosystems water bodies, with harmful effects on plants and (rivers, basins, lakes). The main driving force of anomals; reduction of electric plants activity, which is freshwater eutrophication process is contamination with risky for country`s energy supply; serious threat to such nutrition elements as phosphorus from agricultural agricultural production, which leads to blocking of fertilizers, sewage drains or urban storm drains. Beyond channels and dranage system. Economy of the the accumulation of phosphorus there activates a countries suffering from such problem concerns many processing mechanism that keeps the system blocked in aspects. Eichhornia crassipes creates a serious eutrophication state even under consistently reduced environmental problem and affects human health supply of these components. Freshwater eutrophication indirectly since it can create microenvironment for problem can considerably affect such ecosystem development of different human diseases and is a services as fishery, recreation, esthetics and health [19]. centre for many hazardous reptiles [23]. The most visible effect of eutrophicaion process is formation of noxious and foul phytoplankton dense Biotechnologies with using macrophytes as raw blooms that reduce water clarity and damage its quality. material “Blooming” leads to reduction of light penetration, decrease in growth and death of plants in a coastal zone, A representative of macrophytes Eichhornia and it also reduces the chance for successful hunting of crassipes appeared to be effective in biotechnological predators that need light to catch a prey (Lehtiniemi et application, particularly concerning removal al. 2005). When algae that cause water blooming finally contaminants. Water salad is among the macrophytes die, their microbal decomposition consistently reduces which are effective in removing contaminants. concentration of oxygen, creating hypoxic or anoxic Abdulrashid Muhammad Haidara et al. used in their “dead zones” that require oxygen for vital activity studies Eichhornia crassipes in bioremediation of support [24]. agricultural discharges. It was established that activity of this plant increased with the increase of weight and Problems of development of invasive duration and such method of agricultural effluents macrophytes purification appeared to be a great alternative in comparison with traditional methods. Advantages of The problem of uncontrolled development of such method were in its efficiency and small expenses; macrophyte representatives also has a detrimental affect considerable amount of biodegradable mineral on the ecosystem. components was removed [1]. The most popular among invasive macrophytes is Dilek Demirezen Yilmaz et al. used in their studies Eichhornia crassipes causing creation of dense layers Phragmites australis, Typha angustifolia, Potamogeton on the water surface as a result of uncontrolled pectinatus, Ranunculus sphaerosphermus and development. It is a great aquatic problem. Eichhornia Groenlandia densa for ferrum and magnesium crassipes or more commonly known as water bioindication in wetlands [35]. The studies have also hyacinth is regarded to be the biggest water plant in established that duckweed and water hyacinth have the world. Rapid growth and expansion of plants in purification properties for removal of organic new territories resulted from pecularities of its contaminants. Over the last decades scientists have vegetative reproduction when one plant can develop proven that such floating hydrobionts as Eichhornia consistent parasite poisoning. Moving easily with crassipes, Pistia stratiotes, Hydrocotyle umbellata, water stream or by other means, such as fish nets, Lemna minor, Alternanthera philoxeroides, Cleistocalyx boats, this plant seized channels, pounds, swamps and operculatus have the best influence on purification of other freshwater bodies. The main problems that water damaged by eutrophication [28]. appear as a result of water hyacinth growth in dense Dilek et al. have also conducted research using layers are enormous water losses due to evaporation, representatives of macrophytes and microphytes for which changes water balance of entire regions; purification of wastewater. They used Chlorella obstruction to the flow of water, which increases vulgaris, Limna spp, Eichhornia crassipes. As a result of sediment causing floods and soil erosion, obstruction the studies the scientists established that aforementioned 122 Khrystyna Soloviy, Myroslav Malovanyy hydrobionts are capable of reducing the quantity of facilitated lipid renewal by pressure and the obtained contaminants to irrigation level. COD and BOD reduced micture was examined. The results have shown that (43 % and 42 %) owing to Limna spp, (28 % and 33 %) better extraction takes place when polar/hydrophobic owing to Eichhornia crassipes and (33 % and 38 %) soluble mixture is used. Acceleration extraction owing to Chlorella vulgaris in 21 days. Limna spp method with the help of the dissolved substance appeared to be more effective in removal of such considerably improves the general number of contaminants as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and extracted lipids from macrophyte tissue even under other heavy metals from Eichhornia crassipes and the average value of dry matter of 2 %. [25] Chlorella vulgaris and can be used as animal fodder. William R. Brogan III et al. conducted their studies Limna spp hence appeared to be perspective in in the field of using representatives of macrophytes for application for effluents purification from Eichhornia reduction or direct and indirect insecticide action on crassipes and Chlorella vulgaris. freshwater mediums. The scientists used Elodea Eichhornia crassipes can be used as a fertilizer. canadensis. As a result of the studies, macrophytes Bengali people and other Asian nations used this showed capability of reduction toxicity level of the macrophyte species to fertilize their land. Application water polluted by insecticides [3]. methods differed depending on the regions. Some used it Brogan and Relyea [2] demonstrated that thanks to as compost when other poured it as liquid manure on the Elodea canadensis it was possible to reduce toxicity ground; the rest used it as powder on the agricultural level 9 times in the water caused by insecticide land. This hydrobiont is also suitable for raw materials malathion to cladocera daphnia manga in small jars. It at a biogas plant. From 1 ha of the harvested plants was established that toxicity reduced with the increase in 70.000 m3 of gas can be produced, i.e. from 1 kg of dry macrophyte number. When submerged macrophytes plant matter 370 liters of gas is produced. In the photosynthesize, they increase pH level thanks to southern part of South America Eichhornia crassipes absorbing CO2, which reduces concentration of carbonic was used for purification of sewage discharges. Many acid and changes hydrocarbonate buffer system to more researches showed that this plant can absorb all types of alkali hydrocarbonate and carbonate [34]. This higher organic and inorganic elements. This means that this level of pH facilitates faster malathion degradation hydrobiont can be used for wastewater purification, through alkali hydrolysis [13]. particularly for absorbing heavymetals and radioactive Macrophytes can block growth of phytoplankton metals [32]. due to allelopathy [12] and competition for water Jacques Slembrouck et al. conducted their studies in nutritions [29]. the field of using floating macrophytes for Nele Stabenau et al. studied the use of macrophytes intensification of fishing process in tropical areas. For as a source of phosphorus fertilizer for organic farming their studies the scientists used such floating macrophyte with the help of anaerobic digestion method. The species as Eichhornia crassipes, Lemna minor, Azolla scientists used Elodea nuttallii since this hydrobiont can filiculoides, Salvinia molesta and Salvinia spp. Six generate high biomass levels in the water with good parameters were set including productivity, nutrient supply of nutrients and the corresponding amount of value, unproductive cycle risk, impact on the water phosphorus [31]. quality, taste qualities and simplicity of use. As a result There are a lot of ways for application of microphytes of the studies it was established that Azolla filiculoides with the help of biotechnologies. Table 3 shows alternative has the highest productivity, Lemna minor has the application of microalgae in different fields. biggest rate among the nutrition value and taste qualities The majority of microalgae species facilitate and Eichhornia crassipes showed the lowetst risk of biodiesel production due to high content of lipids unproductive cycles and positive effect on the water (50–70 %) and can reach up to 80 % in the case of B. quality. After integrating the results with the help of braunii [5]. multiparameter matrix it was established that Azolla Microalgae also produce different types of medically filiculoides gives the best general result [30]. important polysaccharides. Different species can produce Macrophytes can be used for biofuel production. commercially important pigments such as chlorophyll, beta- Monia Renzi et al. conducted their studies using carotene, phycobiliproteins, carotenoids, astaxanthin. These Chaetomorpha linum, Ulva laetevirens, Valonia pigments are necessary to fight against tumor formation, aegagrophyla, Gracilariopsis longissima, Ruppia neurological pathologies and optical diseases. Microalgae cirrhosa for biodiesel production with the help of are also rich in proteins. They produce important amino accelerated lipids extraction. During this research acids, which first of all increases their potential to enrich wet and dry tissues were extracted and the effect food with proteins. Freshwater Ecosystem Macrophytes and Microphytes: Development, Environmental… 123

Table 3 Multilateral application of microalgae in industries [26]

Microalgae biomass

Biofuel Human food Bioproducts Animal fodder

Solid (biochar etc) Food additives Liquid (bioethanol, biodiesel, plant oil) Gaseous (biosynth gas) Polyunsaturated acids Antioxydants Colouring agents Vitamins Anticancer medicines Antimicrobal medicines

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Vol. 4, No. 3, 2019

ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY MANAGEMENT OF SUBSTANDARD PESTICIDE RESIDUES AND REMEDIATION AND RECLAMATION OF CONTAMINATED SOIL

Roman Petruk1, Mykhailo Katkov2

1 Vinnytsia National Technical University, 95, Khmelnytske shose, Vinnytsia , 21021, Ukraine 2 O. M. Beketov National University of Urban Economy in Kharkiv, 17, Marshal Bazhanov Str., Kharkiv, 61002, Ukraine [email protected], [email protected] https://doi.org/10.23939/ep2019.03.125

Received: 12.07.2019

Abstract. In Ukraine, there is still a great number of pesticides and other toxicants that under the influence of unused, unidentified and substandard pesticide external factors were transformed into unidentified toxic preparations (PPs) and other toxic substances which mixtures are an extremely acute environmental problem. have an extremely dangerous impact on humans and Territories and soils around the repositories of toxic other living ecosystems and the environment. Besides, chemicals are heavily contaminated with leaky PPs. This more than 75 thousand tons of pesticides are imported is, as a rule, the territory adjacent to the warehouse of and produced annually in Ukraine, but some of them are pesticides and mineral fertilizers within a radius of up not used during the period of their suitability. to 500 meters, which was not taken care of by anyone, Consequently, when stored mostly in dilapidated and until recently, almost in most cases was warehouses and repositories of agrochemicals, as well as unproductive. In this case, adjacent territories together in the open areas, they fall into underground and ground with the repository of chemicals can range from 0.5 to water, and then through trophic chains into the 8–10 hectares of fertile land. Considering that there are organisms of living systems, causing severe poisoning several thousand of such warehouses in Ukraine, it is and diseases. We note that till now, the problem of possible to estimate approximately the extent of unsuitable PPs was solved only in the context of their environmental disaster, which is more than 10 000 utilization or export for processing outside the state, hectares, that is, about 0.02 % of the total area of the while the rest of this ecological problem – the state [1–20]. restoration of soils and the remediation of contaminated lands at the state level, is not virtually solved. Therefore, 2. Results of the research the substantiation of the scientific and practical aspects of environmental safety management of such Analysis of methods of the restoration of remediation processes is on time. pesticide-contaminated soils. We have investigated on the example of a separate Key words: environmental safety, substandard pesticides, warehouse of pesticides near the village of Vinnitski contaminated soils, warehouses and repositories of Khutory near Vinnytsia, that the excess of concentration pesticides, restoration, remediation, reclamation, of some pesticides stored there is noted at a distance of ecological risks. up to 500 meters and up to 6 meters deep, that is, the two-vector nature of migration (vertical and horizontal) 1. Introduction [1, 12, 14]. The dilapidated warehouses and storage repositories At present, most warehouses are already cleared of agrochemicals containing residues of unsuitable from obsolete, substandard and prohibited pesticides and 126 Roman Petruk, Mykhailo Katkov fertilizers, which are mainly brought to the basic At present, there are many engineering and warehouses, but the buildings themselves, which need technological methods and ways of soil restoration from either restoration or demolition, remained and have a various contaminations. However, the technologies for detrimental effect on men and the environment, aesthetic cleaning the land contaminated with pesticides with multiple as well as toxic. excessive MACs are imperfect, costly and complex.

Table 1 Methods of the restoration of pesticide-contaminated soils. Advantages and disadvantages

No Methods Advantages Disadvantages – costly; Excavation with further immobilization 1. – a very easy way – can be applied only to small areas, for or bioremediation example, in the areas of technical disaster – non-aqueous phases present in soil Water pumping and treatment of – highly reduces the high solutions; 2. contaminated solutions concentrations of pollutants – unknown geology of the underground space – can be applied only to the unsaturated zone; – minimum soil violation; – does not distribute dioxins, 3. Soil steam extraction – a short-term process, low polychlorinated biphenyls; cost – possible emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere – the presence of numerous channels Injection (supply of spray air or oxygen) – non-destructiveness of the through which the air diffuses to the 4. to accelerate the biodegradation of method, - reasonable cost, - surface; pesticides perfect equipment – the presence of solid zones with low permeability – small size plot; – petroleum products and lubricants Heating of the polluted zone by electric – applied for any type of soil, hamper the process of remediation; 5. current or radio frequency field (thermal heated soil for a long time – the presence of metal structures methods) promotes bioremediation creates the paths of current and electrical safety – the presence of significant constant – high efficiency- many currents; Electrokinetic methods (electroosmosis, 6. different pollutants can be – the need for special membranes; electrophoresis, electrolysis) removed – insignificant areas; – the need for large inert electrodes – sufficiently effective for the -necessity of application of special 7. Bioremediation purification of soil and microorganisms groundwater – successfully used to remove residues of petroleum – requires large areas; products, hydrocarbons and – a long-term process; pesticides; 8. Plowing – inorganic compounds (eg. mineral – acceleration of microbial fertilizers) are not subject to degradation of hazardous bioremediation components; – simplicity – simplicity; – formation of unpleasant smells; – short-term action; – the presence of large concentrations of 9. Composting and biofeeding – low cost; heavy metals suppresses the growth of – requires less space than microflora plowing; – simplicity; – immutability of the – need for recycling of contaminated 10. Fitomelioration landscape; biomass – aesthetic appeal Environmental Safety Management of Substandard Pesticide Residues and Remediation… 127

Organization of work on the restoration or demolition of structures of warehouses and equipment. To work with buildings and equipment, it is necessary to conduct a preparatory stage during which to estimate the scope and volume of work, to calculate the ecological and economic feasibility of restoration or demolition of the warehouse, to provide access roads, etc. At the same time, if the repository (warehouse) is not reinstated, then it must be demolished with the obligatory cleaning of the structural elements of the building and the soil under it from the residues of pesticides. It is recommended to clean the warehouse areas in several stages: – dismantling and removal of construction residues on crushing industrial sites; – if a repeated excess of MAC in the soil is detected, then asphalt, concrete, slabs, and soil are completely removed; – leveling of the territory; – cleaning of soil cover from residues of pesticides by one of the above methods. This is done in special containers filled with washing or detoxifying agents, such as lime solutions. Fig. 1. Scheme of restorative work in warehouses To increase the reliability of the insulation of and repositories with pesticides surfaces and materials contaminated with pesticides should be further processed, for example, by a Assessment of ecological risk from contamination mixture of liquid glass and quenched lime. of soils and territories of warehouses. Exhausted solutions of detergents are also cleaned in To establish the expediency of introducing special equipment, which makes it possible to appropriate methods of soil restoration, it is necessary to neutralize them. assess the level of environmental risk from The cardinal method of purifying the seeds of contamination with pesticides and other toxicants. crushed structures that are contaminated with Ecological risk is the probability of occurrence of pesticides can be a thermal one. Also, instead of the dangerous (unfavorable) for the environment and living soil which is removed from the place of the systems of consequences or influences, or events and demolished warehouse, the humus layer is brought corresponding losses. At the same time, it is difficult to in and leveled. After that, work is done on the completely exclude ecological danger, but it is quite reclamation and remediation of the territory with the realistic to minimize the probability of risk. Therefore, corresponding restoration of natural land resources, the model of the situational risk from the use of biogeocenoses, preservation of landscape and pesticides can be represented as follows: species diversity and ensuring ecological balance in 1 , (1) R= å[]Ai+Bii+D nature. Therefore, the ecological, economic and 2ISC social effects of such recovery operations can be: where ІSC is the self-cleaning index of soils of this area; restoration of the natural environment, improvement Аі is the impact (load) of the i-th pollutant on a person; of the environment, creation of favourable living Ві is impact (load) of the i-th contaminant on the MPC conditions for the population, reduction of the risk on the natural environment; Dі is the impact (load) of the of diseases and poisoning, as well as increasing the i-th contaminant on the population, for example, from ecological safety of the region (Fig. 1). the use of products grown on the pesticide- 128 Roman Petruk, Mykhailo Katkov contaminated area and epidemiological contacts of [2] Kachynsʹkyy A. B. Ekolohichna bezpeka Ukrayiny: people with pesticides. systemnyy analiz perspektyv pokrashchennya. K.: In this case, the self-cleaning index of soils is NISD, 2001. 312 s. determined depending on the zone of possible [3] Zakon Ukrayiny “Pro pestytsydy ta ahrokhimikaty”, VRU. K.: Vidomosti VRU, 1995. No. 14. 91 s. application, toxic and hygienic properties of the [4] Melʹnykov N.N. Pestytsydy.Khymyya, tekhnolohyya y pesticide, the volume of its use, etc. For example, for prymenenye. M.: Khymyya, 1987. 712 s. the Vinnytsia region, the average value of the self- [5] Yurchenko A. I., Breslavetsʹ A. I., Predmestnikov O. H. purification index is ІSC = 0,61. Load levels (effects) Problemy ta zasoby zneshkodzhennya zalyshkiv Аі, Ві, Dі – are defined as the ratio of the mass of the pestytsydiv na terytoriyi skladiv ahrokhimikativ // active substance to the area of the contaminated area, Problemy okhorony NPS ta ekobezpeky: Zb. nauk. the mass of the human body and the integral pratsʹ UNDIEP.-KH.: Reyder,2009. Vyp. 31, 2009. evaluation of the epidocontact, respectively [14,15]. It S. 202–209. has been proved that all types of pesticides cause [6] Lysychenko H. V., Zabulonov YU. L. YU., Khmilʹ H. various pathologies in human body systems and other A. Pryrodnyy, tekhnohennyy ta ekolohichnyy ryzyky: living objects, and in the vicinity of the territories of analiz, otsinka, upravlinnya. Monohrafiya. K.: Nauk. dumka, 2008. 543 s. warehouses of pesticides, the morbidity of the [7] Ivankiv M. YA., Vovk S. O. Ahrotekhnolohichni population is significantly higher compared to other zakhody znyzhennya rivnya khlororhanichnykh regions and cities where people are less exposed to pestytsydiv ta yikh pokhidnykh u hruntakh// Naukovo- pesticides and agricultural production. tekhnichnyy byuletenʹ DNDKIVPKD. 2014. Vyp. 15, Consequently, as our analytical risk assessment No. 1. S. 164–170. suggests, for example, on the warehouse of toxic [8] Furdychko O. I., Moklyachuk L. I. Metodychni chemicals in the village of Vinnytsia Khutory, the total rekomendatsiyi z ahroekolohichnoho monitorynhu absolute risk value is more than 5–10 times compared to terytoriy, zabrudnenykh stiykymy orhanichnymy the similar data for non-contact areas. This convincingly zabrudnyuvachamy. K.: Minahropolityky, 2010. 32 s. confirms the urgent need for agrotechnological and [9] Moklyachuk L. I., Baranov YU. S., Horodynsʹka I. bioremediation measures for soil clearing on the M. ta in. Sklady zberihannya neprydatnykh ta zaboronenykh do vykorystannya KHZZR dzherelo territories of existing and former warehouses of nebezpeky dlya navkolyshnʹoho seredovyshcha // Zb. pesticides. nauk. pratsʹ VNAU. Vinnytsya, 2012. Vyp. No. 1 (57). S. 65–69. Conclusions [10] Patyka V. P., Makarenko N. A., Moklyachuk L. I. ta in. Ahroekolohichna otsinka mineralʹnykh dobryv ta Consequently, in modern conditions of increased pestytsydiv. K.: Osnova, 2005. 300 s. use of plant protection chemicals and catastrophic [11] Ekolohichna bezpeka Vinnychchyny. Monohrafiya / Za contamination of agro-ecosystems with pesticides from zah. red. Mudraka O. V. Vinnytsya: VAT “Misʹka local sources (in particular, warehouses and repositories drukarnya”, 2008. 456 s. of toxic chemicals) it is relevant to select and apply [12] Mudryy I. V., Lepʹoshkin I. V., Bobylʹova O. O. optimal methods for restoration of the respective ta in. Ekoloho-hihiyenichne znachennya territories. In addition, thorough assessment of provedennya sanitarno-epidemiolohichnoho environmental risks is a prerequisite for re-planning and obstezhennya obʺyektiv dovkillya ta vyrobnychykh prymishchenʹ kolyshnikh skladiv pestytsydiv i restoration work, which will make it possible to predict mineralʹnykh dobryv // Dovkillya ta zdorovʺya, and significantly reduce potential harmful consequences 2007. No. 1. S. 45–47. for the environment and people, as well as effectively [13] Petruk R. V., Petruk V. H., Berezyuk A. P. manage the environmental safety of storage sites and Ekolohichna bezpeka skladiv i skhovyshch handling of toxic chemicals. otrutokhimikativ i vidnovlennya zemelʹ navkolo nykh // Ekolohichna bezpeka. Visnyk KrN. Vyp. 3/2013 References (80). S. 197–202. [14] Moklyachuk T. O. Metody otsinky ekolohichnoho [1] Petruk R. V., Ransʹkyy A. P., Petruk V. H. ryzyku vid zabrudnennya stiykymy pestytsydamy // Kompleksna pererobka fosforovmisnykh pestytsydiv Zbalansovane pryrodokorystuvannya. No. 2, 2014. do ekolohichno bezpechnykh produktiv ta S. 135–142. rekulʹtyvatsiya zabrudnenykh hruntiv. Monohrafiya. [15] Moklyachuk L. I., Horodysʹka I. M, Monarkh V. V., Vinnytsya: VNTU, 2004. 136 s. Moklyachuk O. M., Moklyachuk T. O. Otsinka Environmental Safety Management of Substandard Pesticide Residues and Remediation… 129

ekolohichnykh ryzykiv v zonakh vplyvu skladiv Jim Phimister/ Environmental Science & Engineering otrutokhimikativ // Zbalansovane pryrodokorystuvannya. Magazine [https://esemag.com/hazmat-remediation/ex- No. 3, 2017. S. 145–150. 16. situ-treatment-soil-impacted-cyanides/] [16] Bashkyn V. N. Upravlenye ékolohycheskymy ryskamy. [19] Morillo E., Villaverde J. Advanced technologies for the Monohrafyya. M.: Nauchnyy myr, 2005. 368 s. remediation of pesticide-contaminated soils / E.Morillo, [17] Rani K., Dhania G. Bioremediation and Biodegradation J.Villaverde /Science of The Total Environment Volume of Pesticide from Contaminated Soil and Water – A 586, 15 May 2017, pp. 576–597. Noval Approach / Kavita Rani, Geeta Dhania/ [20] Balawejder M. A method for remediation of soil International journal of Current Microbiology and contaminated with simazine/ Maciej Balawejder, Applied Sciences. Vol. 3 No. 10(2014). P. 23–33. Radosław Józefczyk, Piotr Antos, Marcin Pieniążek / [18] Kopetskyy V., Phimister J. Ex situ treatment approach Archives of Environmental Protection Vol. 42, No. 3 used for soil impacted with cyanides/ Viktor Kopetskyy, pp. 41–46. ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Vol. 4, No. 3, 2019

INFLUENCE OF WASTE WATER FROM WASTEPAPER PROCESSING UTILITIES ON THE OXYGEN MODE OF NATURAL AND TECHNICAL WATER OBJECTS

Valentina Iurchenko1, Pavlo Ivanin1, Mykyta Radionov2, Oxana Melnikova1

1 Kharkov National University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, 40, Sumskaya Str., Kharkiv, 61002, Ukraine 2 Ukraine Scientific Research Institute of Ecological Problems, 6 Bakulina Str., Kharkiv, 61002, Ukraine [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] https://doi.org/10.23939/ep2019.03.130

Received: 19.07.2019

Abstract. During the experimental investigations the required level of dissolved oxygen in the treated effluent influence of different silicon deaerators, which are at the biological waste water treatment plants is added into the pulp to prevent the foam formation, on provided by aeration systems. The dissolved oxygen oxygen saturation of waste waters formed during the concentration in systems with active sludge determines paper goods production from wastepaper was estimated. the main points of treatment efficiency (the depth and It was shown that deaerators significantly reduce oxygen the rate of removing organic particles, nitrogen concentration in waste waters and, consequently, (nitrification), phosphorous, iron contaminants, etc.) and increase its danger for natural water basins. The the level of the ecological safety of treated waste water indicators of performance of the flotation in removing for natural water basins [3]. deaerators from waste water were reviewed. Waste water from the paper goods production from wastepaper is one of the most ecologically dangerous Key words: oxygen mode, producing the paper from the effluents. Using wastepaper as the secondary raw wastepaper, waste waters, foam formation, silicon material promotes rational nature management deaerators, aeration, oxygen concentration in waste (wood saving), reduces cost of production and the waters. load on the environment by the pulp and paper industry. Therefore, there is a steady upward trend 1. Introduction in the volumes of processing and consumption of wastepaper in the paper and cardboard production all The dissolved oxygen is an important component in over the world. Among the most dangerous natural waters, which significantly determines the technological influences of this production on the Dissolved oxygen is an important component in natural natural water basins is formation of waste water with waters, which significantly determines the intensity of high concentration of organic and suspended matter, the processes in hydrobiochemical systems (including which is discharged into the natural water basins after self-cleaning), physical and chemical transformations mechanical and biological treatment. But the and hydrobiological circulation of substances, etc. composition of this waste water, its chemical and Dissolved oxygen reserves are limited because of its low physic properties extremely complicate the processes dissolubility. The dissolved oxygen concentration is of removing and bringing residual concentrations of determined by the ratio of multidirectional physical and pollutants to ecologically safe ones [4–6]. chemical, hydrobiological and hydrodynamic processes The process of production of paper goods from which occur in the aquatic environment and at the edge wastepaper is accompanied by the foam formation and of separation between water and atmosphere [1, 2]. The oxygen accumulation in the wastepaper mass, which on Influence of Waste Water From Wastepaper Processing Utilities on the Oxygen Mode… 131 the one hand slows down the process of production, and recommended by the manufacturer. The influence of on the other hand has a negative influence on the quality three types of deaerators (WACKER brand) on the pulp of the final product. To solve this problem, chemical was studied: Pulpsil763E, Pulpsil960S, SilfoamSe2. (organic and silicon) deaerators are used. They reduce After the pulp separation by filtration we got model the rate of the foam formation and oxygen accumulation waste water and then conducted aeration by the micro- in the secondary fiber [5, 6]. The deaerator includes compressor. The volume of model waste water which 3 hydrophobic oils which contain hydrophobic liquid was aerated was 100 cm , air expense for aeration and 3 3 particles. The most widespread is the use of deaerators flotation was 4–20 сm /(cm ∙min), aeration intensity 3 2 based on silicon liquids. Silicon deaerators usually are during aeration and flotation was 12–60 m/(m ∙h). Oxygen concentration in aqueous media was determined made from polymethylsiloxane liquids which are by the portable oxygen meter YSI 55 55/12ft Dissolved mixed with hydrophobic silica [7, 8]. The mechanism Oxygen Meter(USA). of the foam destruction by silicon deaerators is based on the action of surfactants (oils which are part of the deaerator), which are quickly distributed at the edge of 3. Results of experimental investigations the “liquid-air” phases separation and hydrophobic 3.1. Determination of silicon deaerators particles (part of the deaerator) which constrict the influence on oxygen concentration in aqueous borders of “liquid-air” phases. As a result, the media of different composition deaerator penetrates through the wall of the foam bubble and breaks it. The phenomenon is conditioned As the experimental results showed, adding by the action of gravity on the liquid film and deaerators into the liquid environment reduces the Marangoni effect [9–11]. concentration of oxygen in it (Table 1), especially when The presence of deaerators in waste water (which adding Silfoam Se2. Moreover, raising deaerator are formed after the pulp spin) and their properties can concentration causes reducing of oxygen concentration theoretically cause breaking air bubbles which are in aqueous media. formed during the aeration of waste water in the Table 1 biological treatment processes. This phenomenon can The effect of deaerators on the oxygen cause problems with oxygen saturation of waste water to concentration in a distilled water the required level [12] and providing it to active sludge microorganisms. The result is the inhibition of Oxygen concentration (mg/dm3) at Water biological treatment processes in waste water [13, 14] defoamer concentrations, g/kg pulp environment and its extreme danger for natural water basins including 0 1.0 2.0 4.0 the influence on their oxygen mode. Distilled water 5.62 – – – The aim of the work is to determine quantitative Distilled water 5.62 5.59 5.46 4.75 characteristics of the silicon deaerators influence on + Pulpsil 763E oxygen saturation of waste water formed during Distilled water 5.62 5.46 5.24 4.85 wastepaper processing and the efficiency of deaerators + Pulpsil 960S removing by flotation. Distilled water 5.62 4.87 4.66 4.48 + Silfoam Se2 2. Objects and methods of experimental investigations As theoretical data show [9-11], adding deaerators can cause the main danger for the oxygen mode of water The object of the investigation was the pulp with environments by oppression of the process of oxygen silicon deaerators of different brands. To receive the saturation from the bubbles during the aeration. pulp wastepaper MC-8B (newsprint) was used. The pulp Dynamics of oxygen saturation of the pulp and other was manufactured using the technique recommended by aqueous media (distilled water and model waste water scientific literature sources [15, 16]. The wastepaper which was obtained by adding glucose to distilled water mass was dissolved with formation of the pulp (2 % of with COD of 1000 mg/dm3) during the aeration is dry fiber). To dissolve newsprint, it was filled with presented in Fig. 1. The processed pulp contains a huge water (60 °C) for 10 minutes. Then the soaked paper quantity of organic particles and refers to concentrated was disintegrated to receive almost homogeneous industrial waste water (according to COD). According to suspension using the industrial mixer for 60 minutes at our data, COD of the pulp which was obtained in the the room temperature. During this process additional experiment is 600–900 mg/dm3. reagents were not used. Solid particles were removed As shown in Fig. 1, all variants of the experiment from the suspension before conducting the experiment. display the maximum saturation of water environments During the investigations the deaerator was added by oxygen at the 50th–60th seconds of aeration. into the pulp in the quantity of 0.80–1.0 g/kg, as it was Moreover, despite high intensity of the aeration, oxygen 132 Valentina Iurchenko, Pavlo Ivanin, Mykyta Radionov, Oxana Melnikova concentration in the processed pulp grew slower than lowest influence on oxygen saturation was in the variant compared with other water environments, used in the of waste water with Silfoam Se2 deaerator. But with experiment, especially after the 20th second of further aeration, the lowest influence on oxygen processing. saturation was in the variant of waste water with Pulpsil When adding deaerators to the pulp, its oxygen 960S deaerator. saturation during the aeration slows down even more, which is shown in Table 2. As shown, after 10 seconds Table 2 of saturation, oxygen concentration in the control variant The dependence of oxygen saturation of the experiment (pulp without deaerators) two and of wastewater on the presence of various deaerators three times exceeded oxygen concentration in the in their concentration 1,0 g/kg pulp experiment variants, after 20 seconds – 1.8–2 times. Pulpsil 763E deaerator depressed oxygen saturation in Increasing the concentration of oxygen in the waste water most. waste water compared to the original The dynamics of the process of oxygen saturation of Saturation without with added deaerators the pulp which contains different silicon deaerators is time, s adding shown in Fig. 2. As shown, for 70 seconds of the Pulpsil Pulpsil Silfoam deaerators aeration, the variant of waste water with Pulpsil 763E 763E 960S Se2 deaerator shows the most intensive inhibition of oxygen 10 1.8 0.56 0.56 0.84 saturation. For first 20 seconds of the aeration, the 20 3.37 1.69 1.84 1.89

Fig. 1. Dynamics of oxygen concentration in aqueous media of different composition during aeration ( ■ distilled water,∙∙∙¨∙∙∙ model wastewater with COD 1000 mg/dm3, ▲∙ pulp)

Fig. 2. Influence on the dynamics of pulp oxygen saturation with various silicone defoamers (in concentration 1,0 g/kg pulp) with aeration (– ■ – pulp + Pulpsil 763E, –¨– pulp + Pulpsil 960S, ∙∙∙▲∙∙∙ pulp + Silfoam Se2) Influence of Waste Water From Wastepaper Processing Utilities on the Oxygen Mode… 133

The impact of the deaerators concentration on the approximately in variant pulp+Pulpsil 960S –14 % level of inhibition of oxygen saturation in waste water and in variant pulp+Pulpsil 763E –23 %. Adding the during the aeration has been reviewed (table 3). As aerators (concentration of 2.0 g/(kg∙pulp) at the 60th we can see, when the concentration of deaerators second of the aeration reduced oxygen concentration Pulpsil 763E and Silfoam Se2 raises, oxygen up to 5.5 % (Pulpsil 960S), 60 % (Pulpsil 763E), 68 % saturation in the pulp is steadily inhibited. In the pulp (Silfoam Se2) compared with the pulp without with Pulpsil 960S deaerator such dependence can be aerators. So, according to the absolute concentration traced only at the start of the aeration. In general, at of the dissolved oxygen the most negative influence the 60th second of the aeration, raising of the on the content of experimental industrial waste water deaerators concentration two times (from 0.1 to was created by adding Silfoam Se2 deaereator into 2.0 g/kg of the pulp) caused 11 %, reduction of the pulp, and the lowest – by adding Pulpsil 960S oxygen concentration in variant pulp+Silfoam Se2 deaerator.

Table 3 Influence of deaereators on oxygen concentration in the pulp Concentration Initial Increased concentration О2 through 60s Increased concentration О2 Pulp composition concentration О2 compared to 3 aeration, 3 compared to baseline, % О2, mg/dm baseline, mg/dm mg/dm3 Pulp without deaereator 2.9 7.55 4.65 160.34 Pulp + Pulpsil 763E 1.0 g/kg pulp 2.67 5.81 3.21 123.46 2.0 g/kg pulp 2.60 5.04 2.27 100.00 Pulp + Pulpsil 960S 1.0 g/kg pulp 2.86 6.89 4.03 140.90 2.0 g/kg pulp 2.71 6.89 4.18 154.24 Pulp + Silfoam Se2 1.0 g/kg pulp 2.99 6.01 3.02 101.00 2.0 g/kg pulp 2.52 4.53 2.33 92.46

3.2. Determining the prospects of treatment more complicated. In experimental implementation of flotation for removing investigations the achievement of oxygen saturation in silicone deaerators from the processed pulp aerated waste waters of the same value as in the pulp without deaerators and the value of equilibrium As evidence shows, the investigated deaerators can concentration of oxygen after finishing the aeration cause very negative influence on the composition of (table 4) was used as an indicator of deaerator removal waste water, especially their properties in the from wastewater. The intensity of the aeration reached 3 2 environments of waste water disposal facilities [17], the recommended value [11, 15, 16] – 40–50 m /(m ∙h). biological treatment of waste water and in natural water As evidence shows, Pulpsil 960S deaerator has been basins. Waste water treatment of the enterprises which removed effectively (controlled both by oxygen produce paper goods from wastepaper mass requires saturation in the environment and its equilibrium biological treatment. Such action can reliably protect concentration) even during the low intensity of the 3 2 natural water basins from getting deaereators into them, aeration – 12–27 m /(m ∙h)). But only at the concentration however, only if effective cleaning is organized, which of this deaerator of 1.0 g/kg∙pulp. In the pulp which becomes very problematic with the revealed contained 1.0 g/kg∙of pulp both Pulpsil 763E and 3 characteristics of waste pulp with deaerators. Therefore, Silfoam Se2 deaerators, oxygen saturation of ~7 mg/dm there is an urgent demand to discharge such industrial (as in the control version) was achieved only with 3 2 wastewater to biological treatment plants only if they are maximuuum intensity of the air input (60 m /(m ∙h)) for purified from deaerators. 5 minutes. But equilibrium concentration of oxygen Due to the fact that deaerators contain surfactants, after finishing the aeration was essentially lower than in the experimental studies have determined the the control version. When the concentration of all effectiveness of their removal from sewage by flotation deaerators was 2.0 g/kg of pulp, none of the flotation method. This solution avoids the use of additional modes allowed to reach the control level of oxygen chemical reagents which can make waste water concentration in the pulp. 134 Valentina Iurchenko, Pavlo Ivanin, Mykyta Radionov, Oxana Melnikova

Table 4 Wastewater flotation rates for deaereators removal Duration of The exposure to Saturation The duration Equilibrium concentration of Aeration rate, achieve Deaereator 3 2 concentration of aeration to concentration deaereator, g/kg m /(m ∙h) 3 3 equilibrium of О2, mg/dm saturation, s of О2, mg/dm pulp concentration of О2, s Pulp without – 12 7.2–7.3 60–105 6.0 210 defoamer Pulpsil 763E 1.0 12 5.7 70 4.37 210 1.0 27 6.6 225 4.37 210 1.0 60 7.1 300 4.37 600 2.0 12 4.85 70 3.81 160 Pulpsil 960S 1.0 12 7.0 70 6.3 180 1.0 27 7.22 120 6.12 600 2.0 12 6.73 70 5.0 undefined Silfoam Se2 1.0 12 6.04 80 undefined undefined 1.0 60 7.1 300 4.73 630 2.0 12 4.33 70 3.05 140

Conclusions [5] Denkov, N. D. Langmuir, 2004, 20, 9463. [6] Smook, G. A. Handbook for Pulp and Paper During the discharge of waste water containing Technologist, Angus Wilde Publications: Vancouver deaerators into the sewerage system, they will interfere Bellingham. 1992. Р. 74–83. with its oxygen saturation from the air and intensify [7] Garrett, P. R. The Mode of Action of Antifoams. In anaerobic processes. During the discharge of deaerators Defoaming Theory and Industrial applications, Garrett, into the waste water treatment plants they will block P. R., Ed., Marcel Dekker: New York. 1993. Р. 66–82. oxygen saturation of processed waste water, and [8] McGee, J. Silicones: The Environmentally Friendly therefore aerobic microbiological processes of pollutants Drainage Aids for Brown stock Washing, APPITA destruction. This will essentially reduce the efficiency of Conference; Melbourne, Australia, May 2, 1991. waste water treatment and increase the level of their [9] Abdolahi F., Moosavian M ., Vatani A.: Journal of danger to natural water reservoirs. Applied Sciences, 2005, 5, 1122. Waste waters formed during the processing of [10] Marinova K. G., Tcholakova S., Denkov N. D., wastepaper, before the discharge into the sewerage Roussev S., Deruelle M.: Langmuir, 2003, 19 (7), 3084. system must be treated from deaerators. The use of [11] Drelich J., Pletka J., Boyd P., Raber E., Herron D., Luhtaet E. el.: SME Annual Meeting, 2001, 1. flotation for removing the deaerator from the processed [12] Virk A. P, Puri M., Gupta V., Capalash N., Sharma P.: pulp (where its concentration does not exceed 1.0 g/kg PLОS ONE, 2013, 8(8). Access mode: of pulp) allows effective removing of Pulpsil 960S with https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0072346. the aeration intensity of 12–27 m3/(m2∙h). For removing (lastaccess: 06.02.2019). other aerators it is necessary to use other technologies of [13] Mahshewari R., Rani B., Saxeno A., Prasad M., Singht flotation. U.: Journal of Advanced Scientific Reserch, 2012, 3 (1), 82. References [14] Bellebia S., Kacha S., Bouyakoub A. Z., Derriche Z.: Environ. Prog. Sustain. Energy, 2012, 31 (3), 361. [1] Osadchy V. I., Osadcha N. M.: Sci.pr. UkrNDGMI, [15] Viesturs U., Leite M., Eisimonte M., Eremeeva T., 2006, 256, 265. (in Ukrainian) Treimanis A.: Bioresource Technology, 1999, 67, [2] Golovaneva A. E.: Vestnik VSU, series: Geography. Р. 255. Geoecology, 2017, 2, 74. (in Russian) [3] Kovalchuk V. A.: Ochystka stichnykh vod. Rivne, [16] Pala H., Mota M., Gama F. M.: Journal of 2002. (in Ukrainian) Biotechnology, 2004, 108, 79. [4] Yurchenko V. O., Ivanin P. S.: Naukovyy visnyk [17] Iurchenko V., Lebedeva E.: Environmental Problems, budivnytstva, 2018, 1(91), 206. (in Ukrainian) 2016, 1(2), 155. (in Ukrainian) ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Vol. 4, No. 3, 2019

ANALYSIS OF TECHNOGENIC LOAD ON THE AIR BASIN OF INDUSTRIAL AND URBAN AGLOMERATIONS IN UKRAINE

Angelina Chugai, Yuliia Bazyka

Department of Environmental Science and Environmental Protection, Odessa State Environmental University, 15, Lvivska Str., Odessa, 65016, Ukraine [email protected] https://doi.org/10.23939/ep2019.03.135

Received: 21.07.2019

Abstract. The influence of the main sources of 2. Theoretical part anthropogenic pollution on the state of the air of some industrial and urban agglomerations in Ukraine is Materials of Regional reports, Environmental examined in the paper. The level of anthropogenic load passports and regional statistical reporting on the atmospheric air emissions in the regions as well as the on the air basin from the stationary and mobile sources data of monitoring observations for 2013–2017 were of pollution is assessed, their contribution to the overall used as the input data in the work. level of air pollution is determined. The paper uses statistical and comparative analysis methods. To assess the level of air pollution, the air Key words: industrial and urban agglomeration, pollution index (API) is considered. anthropogenic load, module of technogenic load. API is calculated as a separate admixture by the formula: C 1. Introduction q i I   (1)   Significant volumes of pollutant emissions from the MPC  stationary and mobile sources into the air in the regions where MPC is the maximum permissible concentration; of Ukraine are the cause of formation of high level of Ci is a constant that acquires values of 1.7; 1.3; 1.0; 0.9 atmospheric pollution. This problem is especially acute respectively for the 1st; 2nd; 3rd and 4th grade of the substance in large industrial and urban agglomerations (IUA). The harm and allows you to bring the degree of harmfulness of condition of the air basin on the one hand depends on the i-th substance to the degree of dioxide sulfur harm. the quantity and technological characteristics of It is believed that if API ≤ 1, the quality of the air by industrial objects and on the other hand on the park of the content of a separate pollutant meets sanitary and motor transport in the regions. hygiene requirements. In the paper [1] the estimation of technogenic load Comprehensive API (CAPI) is a quantitative on the IUA of the North-Western Black Sea Region description of the air pollution level formed by n substances which are present in the atmosphere of the (Odesa, Mykolaiv and Kherson regions) was performed. city. CAPI is calculated by the formula: In this paper some of the IUAs of Ukraine, namely, the n Dnipropetrovsk, Kharkiv, Lviv and Kyiv regions are IIni . (2)  i1 considered. The level of air pollution of these IUAs in For the integral estimation of the air pollution level recent years by the values of the comprehensive air with the help of the CAPI, one can use the values of pollution index (CAPI) is characterized by the categories individual air pollution indexes of the five pollutants for from “clean” to “heavily contaminated”. That is why the which these values are the largest. That is definition of the main sources of pollution and the 5 . (3) assessment of the man-made load on the air basin is an 5 = å ІІ і urgent and necessary task. і=1 136 Angelina Chugai, Yuliia Bazyka

The value of I 5 less than 2.5 corresponds to clean industrial objects [4]. The regional center – the city of atmosphere; from 2.5 to 7.5 – poorly contaminated; Dnipro is also under significant anthropogenic pressure. from 7.6 to 12.5 – contaminated; from 12.6 to 22.5 – According to [5], the city of Dnipro is among the most heavily polluted; from 22.6 to 52.5 – highly polluted; polluted cities in Ukraine. In the paper [6], the authors more than 52.5 – extremely polluted atmosphere [2]. determined the air pollution level of the city of Dnipro One of the indicators of the total technogenic load on and technogenic load on the region. the territory of the IUA of Ukraine is a module of Thus, the pollution emissions from the district technogenic load (MT), which is defined as a sum of weight stationary sources are almost 4 times higher than the units of all types of waste (solid, liquid, gaseous) of emissions from the mobile ones. A slight general trend industrial, agricultural and communal objects for the time towards emission reduction in 2014–2016 is noted. The interval of 1 year, assigned to the area of the administrative main polluters of the environment are metallurgical, district or region within which these objects are located, mining and power companies. The most 2 and is measured in thousand t/km per year [3]. environmentally dangerous types of economic activity Technogenic load in the majority of cases is represented by are mining of metal ores, electricity generation, iron, a significant list of indicators characterizing the impact on steel and ferroalloy industries [4]. the individual components of the environment, including Observations on the air quality in the city of Dnipro the air basin and is the emission of air pollutants into the according to [7–11] in different years were performed at atmosphere by the stationary and mobile sources of different amounts of pollutants (from 3 to 9). Fig. 1 shows pollution (ths. tons/year). In the work the estimation of the results of calculation of the CAPI of the city of Dnipro. technogenic load level on the air basin is made based on the calculation of a module of technogenic load on the air basin It should be noted that in 2013 in the calculation only 3 substances were present. Over the entire period of the study (MAB), which is defined as the amount of emissions of air pollutants into the atmosphere in thousand t/km2 per year. an increase in the CAPI in the city of Dnipro was noted. Dust, nitrogen dioxide and formaldehyde fall into the 3. Results and discussion substances for which the air quality constantly does not meet the standards. In 2013–2016, the level of air pollution Estimation of the air pollution level. The main in the city of Dnipro can be classified as “contaminated”, in sources of air pollution in the Dnipropetrovsk region are 2017 – as “heavily polluted”.

Fig. 1. Dynamics of change of the CAPI of the Dnipro city in 2013 – 2017

The Kharkiv region is a large industrial center of The assessment of the air quality was carried out Ukraine, where almost all types of economic activity are for the city of Kharkiv. Observations in the city represented. In the period from 2010 to 2014, the volume of according to the data [13–17] are carried out at emissions from the stationary sources dominated the 10 stationary posts at concentrations for 10 pollutants. mobile ones. The main pollutants of the atmosphere of the The only substance which exceeds the standards is region among the stationary sources are enterprises of heat carbon monoxide. In general, the highest values of the and power and oil and gas industry [12]. API were noted for such substances as dust, carbon Analysis of Technogenic Load on the Air Basin Of Industrial and Urban Aglomerations in Ukraine 137 monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, phenol, formaldehyde enterprises supplying electricity, as well as stone and and in some years soot. brown coal mining. Fig. 2 shows the dynamics of change of the CAPI in Observations on the air quality were carried out in Kharkiv. As you can see, the maximum value of the Lviv. The data from [18 to 22] were used for estimation. CAPI is due in 2015. In general, there is an increase in Fig. 3 shows the schedule of change of the CAPI in the air pollution level in the city of Kharkiv. In 2013, the Lviv. The analysis of the above figure shows that during pollution level is characterized as “clean”, in other years – the study period an increase in the value of CAPI was “poorly contaminated” atmosphere. observed due to the increase, first of all, of In the Lviv region, the overall level of air pollution formaldehyde concentrations in the air by more than 2 is formed equally by emissions from the stationary and times. mobile sources of pollution. The largest volumes of The level of air pollution in Lviv can be categorized pollutant emissions into the air are provided by the as “poorly contaminated”.

Fig. 2. The dynamics of change of the CAPI in Kharkiv in 2013–2017

Fig. 3. The value of the CAPI in Lviv in 2013–2017

According to [5] the Kyiv region and, first of all, made by the enterprises of the thermal power Kiev are among the most contaminated regions in engineering. Transport and enterprises of housing and Ukraine. The main contribution to the air pollution is communal services are also the biggest polluters [23]. 138 Angelina Chugai, Yuliia Bazyka

Fig. 4 shows a schedule of change of the CAPI in individual IUAs of Ukraine. Fig. 5 shows a schedule of Kyiv. The analysis of the figure shows that the level of changing the CAPI of IUAs which were discussed air pollution has not undergone significant changes. For above. As you can see, a maximum level of air pollution the whole period of observations, it is characterized by a is observed in the city of Dnipro. Kyiv ranks second. A single category – “contaminated” atmosphere. minimum level is noted in Kharkiv, although as Based on the obtained data, we carried out a mentioned above, it is a large industrial center of comparative analysis of the level of pollution of the Ukraine with developed almost all industries.

Fig. 4. The value of the CAPI in Kyiv in 2013–2017

Fig. 5. Values of the CAPI of individual IUAs of Ukraine in 2013–2017

Assessment of technogenic load level. The sources was estimated. The information on the area calculation of the MAB indicator for the of the region as a whole and of the city of Dnipro was Dnipropetrovsk region was completed for 2013 – used for calculation [24]. 2016. The level of anthropogenic pressure on the Fig. 6 shows the dynamics of change of the MAB Dnipropetrovsk region by the emissions from the indicator for the Dnipropetrovsk region and the city stationary and mobile sources, as well as on the city of Dnipro. As can be seen, in the region the indicator of Dnipro by the emissions from the stationary of the MAB from the stationary sources considerably Analysis of Technogenic Load on the Air Basin Of Industrial and Urban Aglomerations in Ukraine 139 exceeds that of the mobile ones. And this is quite Separate results of the estimation of technogenic logical taking into account the volumes of the load on the air basin in the Lviv region are given in emissions from the relevant sources of pollution. If the work [25]. The value of the MAB (Fig. 8) in the we compare the value of the MAB from the stationary region as a whole decreased somewhat due to the sources, one can see that the level of technogenic load decrease in this indicator for the stationary sources. in the city of Dnipro exceeds the corresponding one As in other regions, from 2016 there is no official in the region. This indicates a significant level of data on the volumes of the emissions from the mobile technogenic load on the Dnipro air basin from the sources. But, as noted above, the contribution of the stationary sources. At the same time, as it was shown emissions from the stationary and mobile sources in by the analysis, the amount of emissions from the the Lviv region is almost the same. And taking into stationary sources in the region compared with the account the obtained data of the indicator for the city of Dnipro is an order of magnitude higher, and stationary sources, it is possible to accept in general the area of the region is two orders of magnitude. It for the Lviv region that the emissions from the mobile should also be noted that there is some reduction in sources in 2016 were at the level of 2015, namely the technogenic load level on the airspace of the 0.009. The level of technogenic load in Lviv from the Dnipropetrovsk region as a whole. stationary sources is an order of magnitude higher The estimation of technogenic load on the air basin than the corresponding one in the region. The of the Kharkiv region was carried out according to the maximum value of the MAB indicator was noted in Lviv data of the emissions from the stationary and mobile in 2015. sources in the region, as well as for Kharkiv according To calculate the MAB indicator for the Kyiv region, to the data of the emissions from the stationary sources, the data of the pollutant emissions from the stationary taking into account the information of the area of the and mobile sources of pollution given in [23, 26] were region and the city. used. Fig. 9 shows the dynamics of change of the MAB in Fig. 7 shows the dynamics of change of the MAB 2013–2017. In the region the level of technogenic load indicator for the Kharkiv region and the city of Kharkiv. from the mobile sources is much higher than that of the The analysis shows that in Kharkiv, over the years, the stationary ones. In general, the study period is noted load from the stationary sources decreases in reducing the load from both sources of pollution. comparison with the mobile ones. If we compare the Similarly as in Lviv, the level of anthropogenic pressure level of anthropogenic pressure from the stationary from the stationary sources is an order of magnitude sources in the region and in the city of Kharkiv, then the higher than the corresponding one in the region and MAB index for the city of Kharkiv is 2 to 3 times higher during the research period there were no significant than that for the Kharkiv region. changes.

а b stationary sources

Fig. 6. The dynamics of the change of MAB in the Dnipropetrovsk region (a) and the city of Dnipro (b) in 2013 – 2016 140 Angelina Chugai, Yuliia Bazyka

а b stationary sources

Fig. 7. Dynamics of change of the MAB in the Kharkiv region (a) and Kharkiv (b) in 2013–2016

а b stationary sources

Fig. 8. Dynamics of change of the MAB in the Lviv region (a) and Lviv (b) in 2013–2016

The comparative analysis of the level of among the IUAs is also maximized in the city of Dnipro. anthropogenic pressure on the research regions shows The cities of Lviv and Kharkiv are characterized by that the maximum load is observed in general in the relatively similar values of the MAB indicator. Unfortunately, Dnipropetrovsk region. The value of the MAB is an order the data received for the IUA do not reflect the situation of magnitude higher than that of other areas. If we as a whole, since the information about the volumes of consider the level of technogenic load on the IUA pollutant emissions from the mobile sources is almost (Fig. 10), the city of Dnipro is under the greatest absent. But it can be noted that for the city of Dnipro the pressure. As it was noted above, the air pollution level stationary sources of pollution are predominant. Analysis of Technogenic Load on the Air Basin Of Industrial and Urban Aglomerations in Ukraine 141

а b stationary sources

Fig. 9. Dynamics of change of the MAB in the Kyiv region (a) and Kyiv (b) in 2013–2016

Fig. 10. Dynamics of change of the MAB of individual IUAs in Ukraine in 2013–2016 (from the stationary sources)

Conclusions by the categories “contaminated” – “heavily polluted” As a result of the research, the following atmosphere. In Kharkiv carbon monoxide is the conclusions can be made: substance which exceeds the standards. The level of – In the city of Dnipro permanent excess of norms is pollution is characterized by the categories of “clean” – noted for the content of dust, nitrogen dioxide and “poorly contaminated” atmosphere. In Lviv there were formaldehyde. The level of air pollution is characterized high concentrations of formaldehyde. The level of air 142 Angelina Chugai, Yuliia Bazyka pollution in Lviv can be categorized as “poorly [5] Natsionalna dopovid pro stan navkolyshnoho contaminated”. The level of air pollution in Kyiv is pryrodnoho seredovyshcha v Ukraini u 2015 rotsi. characterized by a single category – “contaminated” Kyiv, 2017. (in Ukrainian) atmosphere. [6] Chugai A. V., Cherniakova O. I., Bazyka Yu. V.: – The comparative analysis of the pollution level of Visnyk Kharkivskoho natsionalnoho universytetu the individual IUAs in Ukraine showed that the im. V. N. Karazina, Ser. “Ekolohiia”, 2018, 19, 75. (in ”Ukrainian) maximum values of the CAPI are observed in the city of [7] Ekolohichnyi pasport Dnipropetrovskoi oblasti za 2013 Dnipro. Kyiv ranks second. The minimum level is rik. Dnipro, 2014. (in Ukrainian) observed in the city of Kharkiv. [8] Ekolohichnyi pasport Dnipropetrovskoi oblasti za 2014 – For the Dnipropetrovsk region the MAB from the rik. Dnipro, 2015. (in Ukrainian) stationary sources significantly exceeds that of the [9] Ekolohichnyi pasport Dnipropetrovskoi oblasti za 2015 mobile ones. For the Kharkiv region, over the years, the rik. Dnipro, 2016. (in Ukrainian) load from the stationary sources decreases compared [10] https://www.slideshare.net/DIA_investment/ss- with the mobile ones. The value of the MAB in the Lviv 87975316. region is generally reduced due to reducing the [11] Ekolohichnyi pasport Dnipropetrovskoi oblasti za 2017 emissions from the stationary sources. In the Kyiv rik. Dnipro, 2018. (in Ukrainian) region, the level of technogenic load from the mobile [12] Dopovid pro stan navkolyshnoho pryrodnoho sources is much higher than that of the stationary ones. seredovyshcha v Kharkivskii oblasti u 2017 rotsi. In general there is a reduction in the load from both Kharkiv, 2018. (in Ukrainian) categories of pollution sources. [13] Rehionalna dopovid pro stan navkolyshnoho pryrodnoho seredovyshcha v Kharkivskii oblasti za – For all the IUAs the level of anthropogenic 2013 rik. Kharkiv, 2014. (in Ukrainian) pressure from the stationary sources is an order of [14] Ekolohichnyi pasport Kharkivskoi oblasti za 2016 rik. magnitude higher than the corresponding one in the Kharkiv, 2017. (in Ukrainian) regions. [15] Ekolohichnyi pasport Kharkivskoi oblasti za 2014 rik. – The maximum load is observed in the Kharkiv, 2015. (in Ukrainian) Dnipropetrovsk region. Among the IUAs the city of [16] Ekolohichnyi pasport Kharkivskoi oblasti za 2015 rik. Dnipro also suffers the greatest burden. The cities of Kharkiv, 2016. (in Ukrainian) Lviv and Kharkiv are characterized by relatively similar [17] Ekolohichnyi pasport Kharkivskoi oblasti za 2017 rik. values of the MAB indicator. The data obtained for the Kharkiv, 2018. (in Ukrainian) IUA do not reflect the situation as a whole, since the [18] Rehionalna dopovid pro stan navkolyshnoho information about the volumes of the pollutants pryrodnoho seredovyshcha u Lvivskii oblasti v 2013 emissions from the mobile sources is absent. rotsi. Lviv, 2014. (in Ukrainian) The obtained results are an extension of the research [19] Rehionalna dopovid pro stan navkolyshnoho presented in the work [1]. They are the basis for the pryrodnoho seredovyshcha u Lvivskii oblasti v 2014 rotsi. Lviv, 2015. (in Ukrainian) further development of the regional programs aimed at [20] Rehionalna dopovid pro stan navkolyshnoho reducing technogenic impact on the air. It should be pryrodnoho seredovyshcha u Lvivskii oblasti v 2015 noted that it is necessary to include the data about the rotsi. Lviv, 2016. (in Ukrainian) volumes of the emissions from the mobile pollution [21] Rehionalna dopovid pro stan navkolyshnoho sources both in the regions as a whole and in the cities pryrodnoho seredovyshcha u Lvivskii oblasti v 2016 into the statistical environmental regional reports. rotsi. Lviv, 2017. (in Ukrainian) [22] Ekolohichnyi pasport Lvivskoi oblasti za 2017 rik. References Lviv, 2018. (in Ukrainian) [23] Rehionalna dopovid pro stan navkolyshnoho [1] Chugai А., Safranov T., Holik Yu.: International pryrodnoho seredovyshcha Kyivskoi oblasti u 2017 Journal of Engineering & Technology (UAE), 2018, 7 rotsi. Kyiv, 2018. (in Ukrainian) (4.8), 783. [24] http://old.adm.dp.gov.ua/OBLADM/obldp.nsf/ [2] Bezuhlaia E. Iu. Monytorynh sostoianyia zahriaznenyia index.pdf. atmosferы v horodakh. Lenynhrad: Hydrometeoyzdat, [25] Bazyka Yu. V., Terlina D. V., Chugai A. V.: 1986. (in Russia) Vseukrainska naukova on-line konferentsiia [3] Adamenko O. M., Rudko H. I. Ekolohichna heolohiia. zdobuvachiv vyshchoi osvity i molodykh vchenykh Kyiv: Manuskrypt,1997. (in Ukrainian) “Suchasni problemy ekolohii”, Ukraine, Zhytomyr, [4] Rehionalna dopovid pro stan navkolyshnoho 2019, 26. (in Ukrainian) pryrodnoho seredovyshcha v Dnipropetrovskii oblasti [26] Ekolohichnyi pasport Kyivskoi oblasti za 2014 rik. za 2016 rik. Dnipro, 2017. (in Ukrainian) Kyiv, 2015. (in Ukrainian) ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Vol. 4, No. 3, 2019

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF KEY ASPECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE FIELD OF WATER SECURITY RESOURCES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES AND EU

Olena Mitryasova, Yevgen Bezsonov, Victor Smyrnov, Andrii Mats

Petro Mohyla Black Sea National University, 10, 68 Desantnykiv Str., Mykolayiv, 54003, Ukraine [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] https://doi.org/10.23939/ep2019.03.143

Received: 22.07.2019

Abstract. The article analyzes progress in the field of circumstances that determine the effectiveness of the water resources management in the states of the world in outcome can be quite significant, depending on the the context of the provisions of the concept of region of the world, but the initial conditions are more or sustainable development. Comparison of countries with less the same. In this case, it is an issue of the legal different levels of development has allowed us to provision of the principles of the use of water systems. determine key methodological provisions that are At present, uneven implementation of the provisions proposed to integrate into the environmental policy of of sustainable development in the safety of water water use at the state level in the developing countries. ecosystems in different countries of the world is traced. The approach to the determination of the limit indices of The main reason for this, in our opinion, is the the human impact on the environment is proposed. imperfection of legal provision of this aspect of nature management. Therefore, there is a need to study the Key words: management of water ecosystems; water issue of sustainable use of aquatic ecosystems and resources; environmental security of water resources; ensure their safe state in the interstate dimension. environmental policy; sustainable development. 2. The purpose and objectives of the study 1. Introduction The purpose of the study is to determine the key Human health is 80 % dependent on drinking water. principles of environmental safety of aquatic ecosystems In 90 % of the cases, countries with lack of water in the context of sustainable use of natural resources and resources, especially fresh water, lag behind the level of socio-economic development. social and economic development. Everything on the Achievement of the goal involved the following planet is directly related to aquatic ecosystems. tasks: The minimum amount of water, according to the 1) to analyze the state of the international practical UN findings, which must be provided to a person to meet all the annual water needs, is 2000 liters. and legal basis in the field of water environmental Considering the growing number of people, in particular safety; the poor, regular growth of industrial production and 2) to establish the effectiveness of the declared water consumption in the corresponding technological provisions for sustainable use of water in the countries processes, achieving such values becomes more of the world and the current problems in this matter; problematic every year. 3) to substantiate proposals for the improvement of Taking into account the given data, there is no doubt legal and practical environmental protection instruments that the issue of sustainable use of resources of water for aquatic ecosystems in developing countries. ecosystems and maintaining their functional integrity is The object of the study is the management of water relevant. In practice the quantity and quality of ecological systems. 144 Olena Mitryasova, Yevgen Bezsonov, Victor Smyrnov, Andrii Mats

The subject of the research is the provision of be carried out in the way which ensures the most ecological safety of aquatic ecosystems in the context of satisfactory and sustainable combination of these sustainable development. values”. Considering the above, the value of water resources 3. Results of the study in the context of socio-economic development is beyond doubt. However, the pressing issue is the priority of The first event in the development of the issue of meeting water needs: world experience demonstrates rational water use, primarily rivers as sources of fresh ambiguity and fundamental differences in the applied water, was the United Nations Conference on Water approaches. Resources in Mar del Plata (1977, Argentina) which For example, in source [3], in the second section of proclaimed the principle of “international cooperation” the report, human needs for water resources are proved in the international legislation on the use of water to be a priority. resources and adopted an appropriate Action Plan in this The report E/C.7/1996/6 [5] emphasizes the fact that direction. It indicates the internal relation between water one of the tools that can change the balance of relations management projects and the serious consequences of between human and aquatic ecosystems is to develop their implementation which have physical, chemical, better administrative mechanisms that regulate the biological and socio-economic character. In the field of relationship of human activity and water resources. environmental rehabilitation, the following general Paragraph 58 [5] states that in arid regions, in the objective was set: “to carry out an assessment of the case of water shortages, water needs need to be reduced consequences of various types of water use for the to a minimum and measures should be taken to environment”, “as well as to protect the ecosystem” [1]. maximize the efficient use of such resources. All events since 1972 (the Stockholm Environment Source [6] draws attention to the fact that “at the Conference) have become a kind of “preamble” of 1992 global level, the intensity of consumption of renewable in which the world community identified the basic ways resources, in particular fresh water, still exceeds their and principles of development in many areas of human natural rate of recovery, which, beyond any doubt, is activity. unacceptable and requires improvement in the practice Thus, the fundamental modern document on the use of their use”. of water resources is the “Agenda for the 21st Century” Document E / CN.17 / 1997/9 [7] clearly identifies which was adopted at the 1992 International Conference the problem that water consumption is so high that the on the Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro. flow of a number of large rivers decreases downstream, Chapter 18 describes the basic principles of the use and causing water users to feel shortage of water resources. management of water resources. Ecosystems of both rivers and adjacent coastal areas are Paragraph 18.2 states that “water is necessary in all also affected. spheres of life” and “the overall objective is to ensure an Paragraphs 8, 32, 119, along with the priority of adequate supply of good quality water to the entire human water needs, emphasize that the consumer population of our planet, while preserving the approach is unsatisfactory and should be reoriented to hydrological, biological and chemical functions of ensure the normal functioning of aquatic ecosystems and ecosystems, and adjusting human activities taking into maintain the necessary hydrological regime of swamps, account the possibilities of nature” [2]. lakes, rivers and coastal areas, as well as the normal This document emphasizes that the development functioning of the natural complex on which human and management of water resources must be planned in society is built [7]. a comprehensive manner, that is, on a systematic This idea is supported and proved in several parts of approach, “and should encompass ecological, economic the document. Thus, p. 41 says that the conservation of and social factors based on the principle of water resources for the normal functioning of sustainability” [2, p. 18.16]. ecosystems is considered as a secondary task compared Paragraph 18.38 states that one of the main tasks of with the satisfaction of human needs in full. In recent the international community should be “preservation of years, however, there has been an understanding of the the integrity of the ecosystem through the conduct of need to maintain the proper condition of ecosystems, not economic activity based on the principle of protection of only in terms of ethical considerations, but also taking aquatic ecosystems, including living resources, and their into account the practical benefits that a person receives effective protection against any kind of degradation and which are sometimes referred to as the functions of within the catchment area basin” [2]. ecosystems. Significant progress has been made in Sources [3; 4] state that “water has social, economic understanding the needs of aquatic ecosystems in and environmental value, so water management should freshwater. These needs for water resources are Comparative Analysis of Key Aspects of Environmental Policy in the Field of Water Security … 145 recognized as legitimate and force some decision makers documents is to justify the need for an integrated to give priority to these “environmental” problems along approach in the states of the world at all levels of water with the problems of using water resources in economic management [11]. Paragraphs 19 and 25 of the activity [7]. document E/C.14/2000/3 claim the thesis that “all Great interest was caused by paragraph 70 of the ecosystems are completely dependent on water”, document which actually provides a method for the therefore, their rational or irrational use may adversely determination and regulation of anthropogenic pressure affect the ecosystems. on water resources, which undoubtedly requires further Paragraph 23 contains the thesis that “water flows practical verification. Thus, it was noted that water fluctuate” according to the laws of nature, and therefore, pressure could occur if the fresh water consumption considering this, a person should develop a mechanism exceeds 10 percent of the freshwater volume of for the use of any resource that would not violate these renewable water, and it increases significantly when the laws. Back in 1982, the World Charter of Nature water consumption exceeds 20 %. Any country with the affirmed the statement that “nature must be respected help of dams, reservoirs and water intake structures can and its main processes should not be violated” [12]. take on average no more than one third of the annual When considering the issue of protecting flow of their rivers [7]. biodiversity and aquatic ecosystems (paragraph 25) Source [8], section F, paragraph 39, recommends attention should be paid to the prevention of both direct that all countries at national level should formulate clear and indirect changes in ecosystems. “Water resources guidelines for the management of state bodies in the are the necessary but not exclusive factor to be taken extreme hydro-meteorological situation and take into account when using and preserving ecosystems,” appropriate measures to preserve the integrity of the which is the confirmation of compliance with the water ecosystems. In other words, it is necessary to principles of an integrated (systematic) approach to the prioritize the needs of a human and, actually, the use of water resources [12]. components of aquatic ecosystems. The reasons for the slow implementation of the In 1998, the Economic and Social Council approach are revealed and solutions are suggested in considered the document E/CN.17/1998/13 [9], p. 32 [12]. The complex approach is complicated by the paragraph 5 of which states “the fundamental large conceptual differences between water management importance” of “priority attention”, which “should be specialists and environmental specialists. This makes the paid to the aspects of the use of water resources” “to constructive dialogue very difficult. There is often a meet the goal of truly people-centered sustainable difference in the scope of the approach: while the first development”, that is, the priority of human needs. pay attention to the water resources in their function as a The report E/C.14/2000/2 [10] states that the river component of the landscape, the latter deal with must be flooded: calls are increasingly being made to individuals or biomes which need to be protected. ensure the preservation of local values associated with Therefore, to start speaking the same language and watercourses and water bodies, not only to protect the establish a normal dialogue, the concept needs to be beauty of nature and biodiversity, but also to guarantee developed by both specialists in the field of water the continuation of their use by humans for various resources and environmental specialists. That is the only important purposes, which depends on maintaining a possible right way to achieve the inevitable compromise. certain level of water and annual flood regimes (for The purpose of the current UN policy implemented example, floodplain forests). One of the clear rules that should ensure the rational through UNEP strategies (UNEP/GC/24/4/Add.1) [13], use of natural resources, including water, is “the creation is to promote environmental sustainability in the area of of a stable institutional structure that would not allow water resource management through integrated spraying efforts and duplication of functions and would ecosystem approaches. One of the main tasks is to be based on a comprehensive but at the same time “improve the ecosystem justification of water basins flexible regulatory framework” [10, p. 32]. management”. In March 2000, the Second World Meeting of Heads The UN resolutions [14; 15], the effect of which of States and Governments on Water Issues took place was scheduled for 2015, the continuation of the human- in Hague. In connection with the excitement because of choice course on integrated water use was proclaimed, the global crisis in the field of water resources, two based on the principles enshrined in the UN Basic important documents were adopted: “World Water Conceptual Documents. Vision “and” Framework for Action” that were Resolution A/RES/67/203 [16], adopted in early presented by the World Water Commission and the 2013, is also intended to support and continue the Global Water Partnership. The main purpose of both implementation of the principles of the United Nations 146 Olena Mitryasova, Yevgen Bezsonov, Victor Smyrnov, Andrii Mats core documents, including the use of water resources, droughts, or because of the priority public interest, or for the next decade. new modifications in the physical characteristics of a The analysis shows that for 40 years humanity has surface water object, or changes in the level of water in changed approaches to water use, but hasn’t changed the underground water bodies, provided that all practical priorities. steps are taken in order to reduce the negative impact on The main approach is the integrated or ecosystem the water body [18]. one which “covers the whole complex of land and We find some contradiction between the two points aquatic ecosystems, considering the hydrological which is regulated in Article 4, paragraph 5 of the basin as a unit characterized by the parameters that directive: “Member States may strive to achieve less determine the conditions up and down the flow, stringent environmental objectives for specific water including, in particular, specific ecosystems such as bodies, provided that the ecological and socio-economic forests, land resources, wetlands, urban ecosystems needs, which such human activities serve, cannot be and coastal zones” [13]. achieved by other means”. However, the main and indisputable priority Considering the foregoing, the European approach to consumer is a man. This issue becomes especially acute water use can indeed be considered exemplary: first, the during the period of low water when the question of needs of the ecosystem in water, but only then a man. choice arises: either a person or an ecosystem. Let's look at the progress in implementation of the Countries of the post-Soviet space provisions declared by the international community in the area of conservation and use of water ecosystems. The main document regulating water use in Ukraine is the Water Code of Ukraine (WCU) [19]. Articles 45 and 55 European Union define the right of priority satisfaction of drinking and household needs in the process of water use. Nowadays, the European Union is a leader among the Article 49 deals with the mechanism of action in regions of the world in the effectiveness of environmental case of low water in the river: “in case of low water, the policy implementation (according to the Environmental limits of special water use may be reduced by specially Efficiency Index – Environmental Performance Index). As authorized state bodies without adjusting the permission of 2018, 20 EU Member States from 28 are among the first for special water use”, with the mandatory implementation thirty countries in the world [17]. of the provisions of Articles 45 and 55. Therefore, we cannot ignore the example of There is nothing in the Water Code about the European countries in providing sustainable water use. interests of hydrobionts in case of low water crisis. Adopted in 2000, the Water Framework Directive of Article 97 regulates the need for the protection of the EU defines the basic principles of water resources fish, aquatic animals and plants in the context of management and the ways to achieve good water quality “placement, design, construction, reconstruction and and the safe state of rivers and reservoirs. It has become commissioning of enterprises, structures and other a guideline for setting the goals of water conservation in objects at fishery water objects”. That is, this article is this century. valid only for one type of water management. The directive aims at protection of the qualitative In addition, the concept of “aquatic ecosystem”, and quantitative characteristics of water bodies in the which has become widespread in international law, EU and establishes the basic principles of the European academic and scientific literature, is used in the Union's restorative water policy [18]. document only once, in Article 108 in the context of the Having read the text of the document, it is obvious occurrence of water accidents, “which may have a that the provisions of the UN documents are the basis of harmful effect on the health of people and the state of the EU's water policy. water ecosystems”, without any explanation as to the The first paragraph of this document states that content of the latter. “water is an inheritance that needs to be protected, One huge milestone of the Ukrainian legislation defended and treated accordingly”. should be emphasized – it does not operate the The most interesting thing is written in p. 32. definitions such as “ecological system”, “ecosystem Human interests can be the priority in providing water: services”, etc.. In the context of sustainable there may be grounds for exceptions to the requirements development, it is a huge regress. for preventing further deterioration or achieving a good Article 3 states that the water legislation of the state in specific conditions where non-compliance with Russian Federation is based on the principles: “2) the such requirements is the result of unforeseen or priority of the protection of water objects (a system of exceptional circumstances, especially floods or measures aimed at the conservation and restoration of Comparative Analysis of Key Aspects of Environmental Policy in the Field of Water Security … 147 water objects (Article 1)) before using them. The use of population; also” depending on the natural and water bodies should not have any negative impact on the economic conditions, measures to ensure the protection environment” and “the priority of using water objects of fish, other aquatic animals and plants and the for the purposes of drinking and household water supply conditions for their reproduction “should be carried out ahead of other purposes of their use. Their use for other in a timely manner” [24]. purposes is only possible if there are sufficient water This document, unlike some of the studied above, resources”. provides the protection of water biota for all water Article 46 of the Water Code of the Russian reservoirs regardless of water management and not only Federation states that industrial water users should be for fisheries. guided by the priority of drinking and household water The priority of human needs is also enshrined in a supply and “with observance of the requirements of separate Article 30, as well as in Articles 44 and 81. rational use and protection of water objects” [20]. Protection of hydrobionts’ interests is also set forth In general, the Water Code of the Russian in Article 17 which states that “the commissioning of Federation in the subject under study is more perfect, water management facilities is forbidden if their projects since the interests of people and aquatic organisms are do not provide compensation for damage to fish stocks, the highest in the water legislation of the state, although other aquatic animals and plants”. the priority between them is not clearly defined. Consequently, the level of development of Articles 5, 33, 48, and 50 of the Water Code of the sustainable administrative approaches to the Republic of Belarus establish the priority in meeting the management of water ecosystems is significantly needs of the population for drinking and household needs different. [21]. The interests of hydrobionts are enshrined in Article 69 in the same way as in Article 95 of the WCU [19]. Water legislation of the world countries Article 1 of the Water Code of the Republic of Moldova contains the provision that one of its objectives It is valuable and interesting to compare the is “improvement of the status of aquatic ecosystems and experience of water legislation in the world countries of their preservation for present and future generations” different continents: one or two countries from each based on “sustainable, balanced and equitable water continent. This will allow us to evaluate the community use”, “phased and systematic transition of water of people's opinions on a global scale and, to some protection and water management to European extent, commitment to the principles of sustainable standards” [22]. In Article 6, the principle of development. “participation of water users” enshrines the right of Water legislation of the People's Republic of China citizens to submit proposals on the use and protection of (PRC) is presented by the Water Code of the People's water to environmental protection bodies. Republic of China [25]. Article 24 confirms the priority of meeting the needs Article 21 stipulates that “when developing and of the population for water. The section of the Law on using water resources, the needs for water supply of the Drought and Flood Management, based on the principle inhabitants of cities and rural areas should be met first of of situational dynamism, is interesting in its content. all, and the needs of industry and agriculture, the Articles 8 and 104 of the Water Code of the environment and navigation must be fully taken into Republic of Kazakhstan mention the priority of drinking account. In the areas with limited water resources, the and household water supply. environmental needs for water must be taken into Article 34, as well as the above-mentioned Code, account when developing and using water resources. provides the interpretation of “sustainable water use”, Human needs for water are the priority, but with regard introduces the notion of the principle of public to the environment and industry, it cannot be said administration in the field of water resources, unequivocally. “preservation of ecological sustainability of the The Australian Water Management Act is the Water environment”, and article 10 – the notion of “natural Act 2007 adopted in 2007 [26]. aquatic ecological system”, which was not found in In this document, paragraph 3 of the Preamble states either of the above-mentioned Codes [23]. that one of the objectives of the Law is the Article 14 of the Water Code of the Republic of implementation of the provisions of international Tajikistan states that the commissioning of any objects agreements on the use of water resources in order to that affect the state of water “must ensure the rational optimize the economic, social and environmental use of water in accordance with the requirements of development outcomes. The term “Terminology” environmental safety and health care, the priority of introduces and explains the concept of “ecologically safe meeting the drinking and household needs of the water intake level”, which means the amount of water 148 Olena Mitryasova, Yevgen Bezsonov, Victor Smyrnov, Andrii Mats that can be taken from the water object without countries, especially those with a high index of human endangering the properties of the ecosystem, its development, are developing nowadays in unsustainable components, or adversely affecting its functionality [26]. way. For example, according to available statistics, in 82 The document also states that “if there is a risk of of 140 countries such index of development as an causing significant or irreversible damage to the “ecological footprint” exceeds the global recovery environment, the lack of full scientific certainty should potential of the Earth. not be used as a reason for delaying the adoption of measures to prevent deterioration of the environment”. 4. Discussion of results Section 2A “Critical human water needs” defines human needs for water as the minimum amount of water The process of human transformation of the that can only be taken from a water object and which environment according to one's own needs to a certain will allow people to meet their needs. Human needs for level can be justified by the examples from nature. For water are the highest priority. example, termites erect huge towers, in which they However, the principle requires fairly strict conditions maintain optimum humidity necessary for life, and grow (Section 5, paragraph 86A). The natural diversity of nutrition. Ants and bees act in the same way . However, habitats and biota within the river channel, coastal zones such transformation of a small fraction of the earth's and floodplains; natural connections between the river and surface or space does not violate their integrity and, the floodplain; natural metabolism of aquatic ecosystems moreover, the functional capabilities of the ecosystem. should be preserved or enlarged, as well as the elements of The incorrectness of anthropocentric approach when the natural regime of the river flow should be maintained or a person is the center of care, in accordance with the expanded as much as possible to preserve the niche for provisions of the UN, is as follows. Fig. 1. native (aboriginal) species and support the natural functions of the river [26]. Australian water legislation is clearly formulated and despite the fact that priority is still given to human needs, the interests of hydrobionts and aquatic ecosystems are fixed at a very high level: “the environment is seen there as a” legitimate “water user”. In the United States, water use is regulated by Chapter 16 of the United States Code of Conduct (US Code – Title 16 Conservation) [27]. Paragraph 460o- 4, subparagraph 1, stipulate the provision that human needs are of primary importance in providing water. Interests of hydrobionts are fixed at the level of principles of environmental protection and rational use of natural resources. In Brazil, the primary focus on providing water is also provided to the population [28]. Fig. 1. Tolerance of a man (A) and a bee (B) to air pollution In the countries of Africa, with the help of the UN, a process of reorientation of priority water needs from A man is one of the species whose adaptive agriculture to the inhabitants’ needs is taking place properties of an organism to the environment are among [7, p. 107]. For example, in Zimbabwe's water legislation the most developed. In other words, the human tolerance amendments have been made to strengthen the priority zone to the action of any negative environmental factor of water supply for urban residents [5, p. 45]. (both natural and artificial) is greater in relation to most In India there are clearly established principles of other living organisms. Based on this, while option A of taking account of environmental issues when designing atmospheric air is permissible for a man, option B – only river valley development projects. Section 8 of the for certain insects, such as bees (it is known that since Water Development Policy provides that water 2011 the UN has stated the decline of bees’ population distribution is a national priority (p. 44 [5]). in North America and Europe). According to the law of Considering the above, it is obvious that human nature, bees must be the limiting factor of anthropogenic needs for water are in most cases recognized as priority pressure on atmospheric air in this case. However, in in relation to aquatic ecosystems. practice, it is quite different. In this case (Fig. 1), the use Therefore, perhaps, the conclusion of Human of the law of tolerance allows determining the limits of Development Report is quite natural.It states that many safe concentrations of harmful substances in the Comparative Analysis of Key Aspects of Environmental Policy in the Field of Water Security … 149 environment by combining the ecological characteristics biotic components. Only in this way, humanity (the local of humans and vulnerable organisms, population) can understand the value of water Therefore, it is fair to say that at the current stage of ecosystems. development of most countries of the world the synergy In case of implementation in domestic legislation, of the above-mentioned aspects does not significantly all these principles and the approach outlined in the allow to prevent and solve environmental problems in work will allow achieving progress in the field of social ecosystems of different levels. environmental safety of aquatic ecosystems and sustainable social and economic development. Conclusions Acknowledgements The level of water consumption from rivers is extremely high, which leads to the shortage of water We would like to thank the Erasmus+ Programme of resources downstream for both natural ecosystems and the European Union for the support in the research work coastal areas. 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Doklad Direktora- (vklyuchaya mineralnye resursy) i vodnyx resursov. ispolnitelya. Sovet upravlyayushhix Programmy Doklad Generalnogo sekretarya. Komitet po Organizacii Obedinennyx Nacij po Okruzhayushhej energeticheskim i prirodnym resursam v celyax Srede. Dvadcataya sessiya (5-9 fevralya 2007 goda). razvitiya. Vtoraya sessiya (14–25 avgusta 2000 goda). globalnyj forum po okruzhayushhej srede na urovne [Electronic resource]. Access mode: www.un.org. ministrov. [Electronic resource]. Access mode: [28] Human Development Report 2014: Sustaining Human https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/ Progress: Reducing Vulnerabilities and Building K06/536/55/pdf/K0653655.pdf. Resilience [Text] / United Nation Development [14] Rezolyuciya “Mezhdunarodnoe desyatiletie dejstvij Programme. – USA, New York, 2014. – ISBN 978-92- “Voda dlya Zhizni”, 2005–2015 gody”. Generalnaya 1-126368-8, eISBN 978-92-1-056659-9. ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Vol. 4, No. 3, 2019

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: COMPLEXITY AND MULTI-DIMENSIONALITY

Olena Ovchynnikova

UN System Staff College Knowledge Centre for Sustainable Development Haus Carstanjen 8 Martin-Luther-King-Strase, Bonn 53175, Germany [email protected] https://doi.org/10.23939/ep2019.03.151

Received: 24.07.2019

Abstract. When 193 countries adopted the 2030 Agenda new model of sustainable development and have been for Sustainable Development, the concept of sustainable many more analyses claiming that, as Bromley put it, “it development received a new wave of attention. The is at once a fine idea and a hopeless concept” [3]. The present article argues that divergent views on the present article argues that the lack of a commonly concept actually come together to make a system of accepted definition of sustainable development, which common values shared by different actors across results from different perspectives brought into a different intellectual disciples. This, in turn, provides sustainability debate by a multitude of actors, actually space for experimentation and practical efforts in the creates a common framework where different actors can area of sustainable development. take actions at different levels and of unequal scale. To achieve this objective, the article will first examine the Key words: sustainable development, environmental debates on the concept of sustainable development. It degradation, resource use, urban development, 2030 will then look into the “urban” aspect of sustainable Agenda for Sustainable Development. development with the intent of showing that “policies for sustainable development gain their greatest leverage 1. Introduction in cities” [4]. The argument will be supported by a brief overview of sustainable urban development efforts in Centuries before the “Limits to Growth” report different countries followed by an analysis of the detailed the predicament of mankind and called for attempts to operationalize a system of indicators to “ecological and economic stability that is sustainable far measure progress towards sustainability. The article will th into the future”, Plato (already in the 5 century BC), conclude with a re-examination of findings against st and later Pliny the Elder (in the 1 century AD), Bromley’s thesis that sustainability as a concept is discussed what we now refer to as sustainability hopeless. problems resulting from human activities (deforestation, Before the arguments are presented, it is important land degradation, etc.) and called for what we identify as to mention that the terms sustainability and sustainable sustainable solutions, i.e. the need to preserve the development will be used interchangeably in this article. environment and the planet at large [1, 2]. There were other important writings – mostly in the Western world 2. Literature review (Malthus, Jevons, Mill and others) – that put on the scene the problems of inappropriate resource use, Modern understanding of sustainable development population growth, environmental degradation and emerged only in the 1970–1980s. Spurred by the limits to growth [2]. Ultimately, they preceded the late abovementioned report by Meadows et al., as well as 19th and early 20th century conservation movement, reports of the Worldwatch Institute, International Union which, in its turn, paved the way for the end of the for the Conservation of Nature and others, discussions century debates on a new model of development that on the existing development model were pointing at the would combine socio-economic and environmental need for departure from business-as-usual scenario to a concerns. There have been many attempts to define this new path of sustainable development [5]. This new 152 Olena Ovchynnikova sustainable development path was defined by the the world economy to Asia, high levels of urbanization, Brundtland Commission as “development that meets the widening poverty gap in the midst of economic growth, needs of the present without compromising the ability of unpredictable collapse of ecosystems, uncertainty of the future generations to meet their own needs” [6]. This future values, preferences, prices and technologies and definition has been both criticized for being too others [10, 14]. However, the common points, values anthropocentric and ambiguous and praised for its and themes in the midst of differences and in the face of universality that makes it “so good everyone can agree challenges present “a coherent and meaningful with whatever their own interpretation” [7]. philosophy that points in clear directions and has There are many other definitions of sustainable concrete applications” [5]. These common values and development, including by the International Union for themes were put together into the Sustainable the Conservation of Nature, World Conservation Union Development Goals (SDGs) adopted in September 2015 and others. Differences in approaches to defining by a record number of states during the UN Summit on sustainability are conditioned by models, beliefs and Post-2015 [15]. The SDGs embody the “fine idea” and assumptions of different actors [1]. For example, aim to preserve the Planet for the future generations; neoclassical economists (Solow, Ekins, Neumayer, whether the “operational content” of this framework is Beckerman) believe that the market will lead to indeed hopeless is early to assess [3]. Sustainable conservation and sustainability, in which manufactured development is a long-term process that will take many and natural capital can be almost equal substitutes; the years to achieve tangible results [16]. Nevertheless, the so-called environmental economists (Daly, Pearce, SDGs strive to prove that it is “at least technically Constanza, including the Brundtland Commission) possible to conceive of an ecologically stable world believe that economic growth should incorporate characterized by economic sufficiency and true social environmental concerns; while pure environmentalists development” [4]. (Holling; Naess) insist on the health of the Earth and its ecosystems a primary concern [4, 5, 8]. On the other 3. Discussion side, one can differentiate between the debates that th th sustainable development should focus on the present- At the end of the 18 and beginning of the 19 day needs and values or aim to ensure intergenerational century, alongside the concerns about the population equity and provide some form of social bequest [3, 9]. In growth and its pressure on food production as well as other words, while there seems to be a consensus over depletion of crucial resources (such as coal, oil, and the concern for the future and a search for a new wood), deterioration of urban environments became the development model, the very attempt to define it focus of philosophers, industrialists, scientists and generated a storm of criticism of the concept for being writers. Engels’s description of the great towns of “poorly defined and perhaps inoperational”, embodying England of the middle of the 19th century with a deep “deep conceptual ambiguities” and “frustratingly vague” enquiry into the conditions of life of the working class [10, 11, 12]. Pezzey even called an attempt to define produced a gloomy picture of the life in an industrial sustainability “an alchemist’s dream, no more likely to city [17]. The city became a synonym of a crowded be found than an elixir to prolong life indefinitely” [12]. poor-quality environment detached from the countryside This debate over the definition of the concept of and at the same time taking more and more resources to sustainable development has reaped fruitful yields. keep it growing. All later writings (including but not Despite the lack of consensus, or rather due to a variety limited to Howard, Mumford, Daly and others) in of approaches to defining sustainability, a number of different ways pointed out to the deterioration of natural common points, values and themes can be distilled [13]. systems, vast inequalities and poor quality of life of the These include: concern for long-term development of working class, as well as growthmania, as a companion the planet; agreement that current global trends are of the city growth [13]. unsustainable; a need to balance between economy, This traditional perception of cities as trouble- society and environment; understanding that the Planet makers for a transformation towards sustainable is a “small” but highly interconnected system; a need for development has, however, been challenged many times “interdisciplinary approach to decision making” [11]. after these early writings. Glaeser, Satterthwaite, and This is not to say that based on these common grounds others claim that cities are not ultimate drivers of one can design a formula or a checklist against which an unsustainable resource use, high greenhouse gas assessment could be made whether we are moving emissions and waste generation. They are in fact centres towards achieving sustainability. There are a number of of good growth, “places of social, economic and challenges on the way of operationalizing such a broad political innovation” and “the real friends of the concept as sustainability: a global shift of the centre of environment”: cities usually have lower consumption Sustainable Development: Complexity and Multi-Dimensionality 153 and waste generation levels, smaller ecological initiatives and ideas allows to identify key values of a footprint, higher resilience and better health and safety sustainable city such as livability, diversity, health of the services precisely due to higher densities of urban areas natural systems, identity, non-violence, vitality, etc., and [18, 19]. This is not true for all cities though and – one key equity principles such as intergenerational, intra- could even argue – not always good. In some of the generational, geographical, procedural and inter-species most densely populated areas of cities in low- and equity that can be used as a basis for assessing lower-middle income countries people are trapped in sustainability of cities [5, 24]. poverty with low or no access to energy, water and Assessment of any of the attempts to build or sanitation and other basic amenities and services. So, transform the city requires a system of indicators against what is a sustainable city and sustainable urban which sustainability can be measured. There have been development? many attempts to construct such a system of indicators. Similarly to a lack of consensus on what constitute One of the most well-known initiatives of this kind in sustainable development, there is no standard definition the United States was undertaken by Portney. Although of a sustainable city and sustainable urban development. Portney himself recognized that he did not “attempt to Definitions vary from broad descriptions of “a city that determine whether cities are, or are becoming, is working hard to promote some operational version of sustainable” and analyzed 24 cities that had and were sustainability” to definitions that emphasize certain implementing some city policies and programmes, the aspects of urban environments, such as innovative value of his system of indicators lies in demonstrating design of buildings, effective transportation planning that cities are taking sustainability “seriously” [16]. policies, etc. [16, 20]. Wheeler suggested a definition Jepson who followed in Portney’s steps went one step that assigns equal importance to human and ecological further and analyzed responses from 103 cities with a systems emphasising a long-term perspective and population of at least 50,000 people against 39 improvement over time while recognizing uncertainties indicators. He concluded that there are “fairly high and dynamism of a city as a complex system [5]. activity levels among communities of all sizes and in all However, most approaches to defining a sustainable city parts of the country with respect to a wide range of tend to focus on either human needs or a balance policies and techniques that are consistent with and between the human and natural worlds while ignoring supportive of sustainable development” [25]. There have the aspects of the social justice and equity. One of the been many other attempts to measure sustainability of definitions that attempt to reconcile the so-called “three American cities, such as a survey of Conroy; Saha and E’s” (economy, environment, and equity) is given by Peterson; Pierce, Budd, and Lovrich [26, 27, 28]. Most Benton-Short and Short: recently, the Opp-Saunders Sustainability Practices There can be no sustainable city without social Index aimed to assign equal value to each of the “three justice, political participation, economic vitality and E’s” and used it for the assessment of some 1,340 cases ecological regeneration. We can also conclude that [29]. Each of these indices of indicators tries to build on there can be no sustainable future without sustainable the previous research to integrate and balance all aspects cities [21]. of sustainable development and recognize the Lack of a definition and a unified approach to difficulties of such a large and comprehensive sustainable urban development has not prevented assessment even within one country. Nevertheless, these communities from undertaking various sustainability different approaches are unanimous in their conclusion initiatives. Indeed, “[g]overnments, communities and that cities are trying to operationalize the concept of businesses have all responded to the challenge of sustainable urban development to a various degree and sustainability to some extent” [22]. These attempts have within different levels of understanding of the taken various forms, starting from the experiments to complexities of this concept and that this process and its create garden cities following the classic publication of results can be measured, even if each researcher Howard (such as Letchworth and Welwyn Garden Cities develops his or her own system of indicators. built by Unwin, Parker and Howard), to City Beautiful Of significant challenge and interest will now be a Movement and smaller scale efforts of activist groups system of indicators to measure progress under the such as Eco-City Activists, Auto-Free Cities Groups and targets of Sustainable Development Goal 11. The Goal others [5]. These and other initiatives bring into life the together with its targets is criticized for being “likely to “hopeless concept” of sustainable development at the face both political and operational challenges” that will city level and aim to prove that sustainability can make the progress (and its monitoring and evaluation in combine not only the three E’s but also break the idea of particular) almost impossible [30]. Indicators developed limitations, i.e. that a city can embody “hedonistic by the Sustainable Development Solutions Network sustainability” [23]. Review of literature on these received a considerable amount of attention and 154 Olena Ovchynnikova comments during the Public Consultations [31]. A area of sustainable urbanism and the attempts to design consensus over the Global Monitoring Indicators has not and apply a system of indicators to measure progress been reached. And even if (and when) the new metrics towards a sustainable city. are approved, the efforts and changes that will need to The article also argued that “[r]ather that striving be taken and made to ensure planning, implementation, for an unattainable certainty – in this case a guaranteed enforcement, monitoring, and evaluation will be so sustainable world – what is important instead is to challenging due to inter-sectoral, multi-layer and multi- make global systems [...] strong and robust... In the actor aspects of urban environments, that Bromley’s case of urban development, such an approach means words about “a fine idea and a hopeless concept” will constantly looking for ways that shape human and inevitably gain more support among even the greatest natural environments so that they improve both local supporters of sustainable urban development [3]. and global well-being” [5]. The Sustainable Nevertheless, the inclusion of the goal on cities into Development Goals with Goal 11 addressing the SDGs adopted by a record number of states in the specifically cities and human settlements – although world’s history speaks for itself and proves the are and will continue to be criticized by the proponents “centrality of cities in the future realization of global of simple, linear and predictable development models – development aspiration” [30]. And the very fact that the present an opportunity to operationalize and test world (not individual community, business, city or global, national, and local commitment to sustainable research initiatives) has made this step towards development. They will be difficult to achieve and operationalization of the concept of sustainable measure, but they will also generate new practical development and will try – as one can easily imagine, efforts and a wealth of research on these efforts around with varying degrees of commitment, success rate and the world that will further define how sustainable challenge – to progress towards this “alchemist’s dream” development is conceptualized and operationalized. In proves that Bromley was right that sustainable any case, as Sergio Vieira de Mello put it, “Unless we development is “a fine idea” and that “as a metaphor to aim for seemingly unattainable, we risk settling for guide some action it is probably quite adequate” [3, 12]. mediocrity” [33]. It may be premature to judge whether it is indeed “a hopeless concept,” especially now, when the world has Acknowledgements just turned a new page and made a collective first step into the era of Sustainable Development Goals, which The present article was produced as part of author’s may happen to represent that “constructed order” that research at the University of Oxford (United Kingdom) Bromley considered necessary for operationalizing sustainability [3]. on sustainable urban development. The views expressed in this publication are those of the author and do not Conclusion necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations System Staff College. Bromley was right by calling sustainable development “a fine idea” [3]. But it is fine not only References because it reminds us about the fate of the future generations and our impact on it, but also because it [1] Meadows, Donella H., M., Dennis L. & Randers, generates a philosophy that can meaningfully unite Jorgen, B. I., William W. 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Vol. 4, No. 3, 2019

ASSESSMENT OF THE ATMOSPHERIC AIR POLLUTION LEVEL IN KYIV

Olena Barabash, Viktoriia Khrutba

National Transport University, 1, M. Omelianovycha-Pavlenka Str., Kyiv , 01010, Ukraine [email protected], [email protected] https://doi.org/10.23939/ep2019.03.156

Received: 04.08.2019

Abstract. Groups of plants, that regulate gas leaves; clogging, reducing the area and increasing the composition and the degree of air pollution, play a number of breaths per unit of leaf surface; inhibiting significant role in solving a complex spectrum of biosynthetic processes; irritating and slowing down problems in the development of the modern city. The plant growth, etc. [11]. Natural dust is in the air, in the system “plant organism-urban environment” is usual habitat of people; its concentration does not indicative for the detection of dust pollution in exceed 0.1-0.2 mg/m3. In industrial centers where large atmospheric air of urban areas, manifesting the response enterprises are located, its concentration reaches of higher plants (morphological, anatomical, 0.5 mg/m3 and above [3]. According to the project biochemical changes) used in urban landscaping. “Procedure for State Monitoring in the Field of

Atmospheric Air Protection”, dust (solid particles - PM10

Key words: atmospheric air, dust pollution, leaf blades, and PM2.5) is included in the list of pollutants and is small-leaved linden (Tilia cordata Mill.). especially dangerous for the human body [12]. In this regard, it is of utmost importance to study the dust 1. Introduction pollution of leaf blades of tree plantations for the timely prevention of negative changes in ecosystems occurring Woody vegetation of settlements plays a decisive under the influence of anthropogenic activity. Therefore, role in determining the features of the state of the the purpose of the study is to evaluate the level of dust biosphere components (hydrosphere, lithosphere, and pollution in the atmospheric air in Kyiv by the amount atmosphere) of the modern city. It regulates to some of dust on the leaves of the trees in the streets. extent the gas composition of the air and the degree of its pollution, affects the climatic characteristics in urban 2. Experimental part areas, and reduces the level of noise factor. Modern scientists are conducting a number of studies related to One of the most common species of woody plants in the impact of urban environment on plant organisms, in Kyiv – Tilia cordata, which is a part of the bioindication list of woody plants sensitive to the transformation of particular the influence of dust load on green urban areas atmospheric components and resistant to changes in in Ukraine [1, 2, 3, 4], proposes modern approaches to environmental quality, was selected as a phytoindicator combating dust pollution [5], considers the problems of in the experiment. landscaping [6, 7] and the possibilities of urban The study was conducted in August 2018 during the improvement management [8–10]. A special feature of 10-day absence of precipitation. T. cordata leaves were dust is its ability to travel over long distances from the collected at a height of 1.5 m with a 10-fold repetition. points of emissions caused by transport, industrial sites, The study route ran through the areas with different and utility companies. The polluted atmospheric air anthropogenic load in ten administrative districts of affects plants changing the optical properties of the Kyiv (Pecherskyi, Shevchenkivskyi, Podilskyi, Assessment of the Atmospheric Air Pollution Level In Kyiv 157

Solomianskyi, Dniprovskyi, Desnyanskiy, Obolonskyi, ü reference area – located in a relatively clean Holosiivskyi, Sviatoshynskyi, Darnytskyi): area of the city, away from the large concentration of ü Site No. 1 is a street with heavy traffic; roads and industrial enterprises – Holosiivskyi National ü Site No. 2 – residential area; Natural Park (NNP) (Table 1).

Table 1 Total amount of T. cordata sampled material Number of Number of Type of the studied territory samples leaves Experimental areas (streets) of Kyiv near the highway: Shevchenkivskyi (Peremohy Ave., Saksaganskogo St., O. Teligy Str.) 20 100 Pecherskyi (M. Boychuk St., M. Omelyanovych-Pavlenko St., L.Ukrainka Str.) 20 100 Holosiivskyi (Vel. Vasylkivska St., Nauky Ave., Holosiivskyi Ave.) 20 100 Podilskyi (S. Bandera Ave., O. Teligy Str.) 20 100 Desnyanskiy (V.Mayakovsky Ave., M.Zakrevsky St., T. Dreiser Str.) 20 100 Dniprovsky (Bereznyakivska St., Yu. Gagarin Ave., Popudrenka Str.) 20 100 Darnytskyi (Kharkiv square, Revutskogo Str, Kharkiv highway) 20 100 Svyatoshynskyi (Les Kurbas Ave., Koltsov Blvd.) 20 100 Obolonskyi (S. Bandera Ave., Obolonskyi Ave.) 20 100 Solomianskyi (Vadim Hetman str., Vaclav Havel Str.) 20 100 Experimental areas (streets) of Kyiv near residential buildings: Shevchenkivskyi (Peremohy avenue, Brest-Litovskiy avenue, O. Teligi str.) 20 100 Pecherskyi (I. Mazepa St., M. Boychuk St.) 20 100 Holosiivskyi (avenue Acad. Glushkov, V. Vasylkivska, Zadorozhny lane) 20 100 Podilskyi (O. Teligy St., Kopylivska St.) 20 100 Desnianskyi (M. Tsvetaeva St., Radunska St., M. Zakrevsky St.) 20 100 Dniprovskyi (Almatinskaya St., Berezniakivska St., Hnat Khotkevycha Street) 20 100 Darnytskyi (Revutskogo str., Kharkivskoe shosse str.) 20 100 Svyatoshynskyi (Les Kurbas Ave., Koltsov Blvd.) 20 100 Obolonskyi (Obolonsky avenue, Marshal Tymoshenko str.) 20 100 Solomianskyi (Garmatna Str., Vaclav Havel Street) 20 100 Reference area: Holosiivskyi National Natural Park (NNP) 20 100 Total: 420 2100

Determination of environmental pollution with dust 3. Results and discussion was carried out according to the proposed method [13]. In laboratory conditions, a piece of wet wool wrapped in Systematic monitoring of the harmful substances tracing paper (up to 0.001 g) was weighed. The linden content in the atmospheric air is carried out in the city of leaves were carefully wiped with cotton wool on both Kiev at 16 stationary posts (SP) with a sampling period sides by unfolding it (with tweezers) and weighed again of 6 days a week, 3-4 times a day. 20 contaminants are identified. 80367 samples were selected and analyzed to with tracing paper. The dust mass (P) was calculated as determine air pollution in 2018 [14]. According to the the difference between the first and second weighing average annual concentrations of 20 contaminants in (P = P1-P2). The leaf area was calculated by measuring 2018 at 11 posts in the city, the level of pollution was the leaf plates along (A) and across (B), multiplying by a estimated as high, while the values of the MPC for dust factor K [13]. in the atmospheric air of Kyiv [7] were within the S= A×B×K, (1) normal range and corresponded to the established MPC The factor ranges from 0.60 to 0.66. The amount of of 0.5 mg/m3. Such indicators testify to the difficult dust was calculated using the formula: environmental situation in the city and cause 2 М= P/S, mg/cm . (2) deterioration of the human sphere of life. As a reference area, during the research period, the It should be noted that fixed measurements carried indexes of leaf area and dust contamination of the linden out on the SP reflect only quantitative characteristics of leaf, which grows in a “conditionally” clean area with the pollutants. Taking into account only quantitative minimal technogenic loading in the Holosiivskyi NNP values of the pollutants it is impossible to draw general were considered. conclusions about the ecological status of the city and 158 Olena Barabash, Viktoriia Khrutba suggest the measures required to ensure environmental environment, health and life of the population. Therefore, safety. To make these measures effective, it is necessary the combined assessment (fixed measurements in to apply a comprehensive approach, which is not only to combination with bioindication methods) will allow to determine the degree of chemical pollution of the city, but obtain an integrated assessment of the anthropogenic also to be combined with the identification of the pressure on the ecosystem, and the use of higher plants to anthropogenic changes degree for a whole set of analyze their functional development features as dust environmental factors, which play a crucial role in the pollution indicators (PM10, PM2.5) will provide additional formation of specific properties of soils, water objects and information required to determine the condition of the their resources and the atmospheric air in Kyiv. ecosystem as a whole. In terms of functional use, the territory of Kyiv is Therefore, the Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources divided into residential, industrial and recreational areas, of Ukraine prepared a draft resolution of the Cabinet of each of which has its own characteristics, purpose and is Ministers of Ukraine “Certain issues of state monitoring characterized by a certain impact on the environment. in the field of atmospheric air”, according to which the The residential area is characterized by high-rise “Procedure of state monitoring in the field of atmospheric buildings in the central right-bank part of the city, on air protection” will be approved [5]. The new system of new residential communities – Obolon, Vynogradar, state monitoring is based on the implementation of the EU Teremky, etc., on the Left Bank – the residential standard and model and is the implementation of the EU- communities Troieshchyna, Kharkivskyi, as well as Ukraine Association Agreement. Such changes are due to private buildings, which are located mainly on the the need to reform the current atmospheric air monitoring outskirts of the city around its perimeter. The negative system in order to be able to fully obtain up-to-date impact of this area on the environment can be estimated information on pollutant concentrations and take prompt as average. The industrial area consists of industrial and response measures. The implementation of the monitoring motor transport enterprises. Within Kyiv, they are system will ensure the right of Ukrainians to receive combined into industrial units and areas: Podil- information on the state of the environment and enable Obolonskyi, Shulyavka, Nizhnyolybidskyi, Darnytskyi, citizens to participate in the development and formulation and Telbinskyi. The negative impact of these areas on of policies to improve monitoring. the environment is estimated as strong. The launch of the monitoring system will provide the According to the results of the conducted research, prompt collection and evaluation of the atmospheric air the level of dust pollution and morphological changes of information for effective management decisions and T. cordata vegetative organs as one of the most common control through established assessment modes depending species of woody plants in Kyiv was established in the administrative regions (Table 2). on the levels of pollutants. The assessment mode for each It is established that the tree plantations growing pollutant is approved by the air quality management body near the highway in Shevchenkivskyi district of Kyiv according to the following criteria: the fixed measurement are characterized by the smallest leaf blade area (Fig. 1). mode is applied if the pollutant level exceeds the upper In comparison with the control, irreversible assessment threshold; combined assessment mode is biochemical and physiological processes occur in plants applied if the pollutant level is below the upper assessment during ontogenesis in the Shevchenkivskyi district threshold and is carried out by combining fixed during the development of vegetative organs of tree measurements and a simulation method or by indicative plantations and due to the action of emissions from the measurements; the mode of estimation by modeling and traffic, which is an invariable feature of this territory. objective methods, which is applied if the level of They prevent the achievement of the standard sizes for pollutants is below the lower threshold of assessment [5]. T. cordata leaf blades, as it was detected in the area of Concerning the mechanism of implementation of the State complete absence of the road transport impact on the Monitoring Procedure in the field of atmospheric air territory of Holosiivskyi National Natural Park (NNP). protection “there may be considerable disputes related to The research found that leaf blades are the smallest in the existing problems at the enterprises of Ukraine – the residential area of Sviatoshynskyi, Dniprovskyi and insufficient number of laboratories, technical facilities and Shevchenkivskyi districts of Kyiv, and woody vegetation qualified personnel in the field of monitoring studies. If the has the best vegetative development indexes (the largest monitoring system is effectively launched, the following leaf blade area comparing with the reference area) in things will be established based on the data and information Holosiyivskyi, Desnianskiy and Obolonskyi districts. received: the level of the atmospheric air pollution in a When comparing the area of leaf blades that were sampled certain territory for a certain period of time; compliance of in the area near the highway and in the residential area, it is the atmospheric air with the air quality requirements; found that the difference between the leave area near the control and assessment of the impact of measures aimed at road and near the residential area is the largest within the limiting pollutant emissions into the air on the air quality, Holosiivskyi and Shevchenkivskyi districts, which assessment of the impact of the air pollution on the indicates the extreme impact of emissions from road Assessment of the Atmospheric Air Pollution Level In Kyiv 159 transport within these districts. It is important to note that state of soils, water resources and atmospheric resources is an increase in leaf area, as we move into the middle of the improving. residential area, is a characteristic sign that with sufficient The next stage of the research was to determine the landscaping of residential areas and their demarcation from degree of dust pollution for leaf blade trees near high- highways with lanes of woody and shrub vegetation the traffic roads and within a residential area (Fig. 2).

Table 2 Development status of T. cordata vegetative organs and dust pollution of atmospheric air in Kyiv Determination Determination of Leaf area Leaf area (S) of pollution pollution (M) (S) [cm2] near No. Administrative district of Kyiv (M) [mg/cm2] near [cm2] near residential [mg/cm2] near residential the road buildings the road buildings 1 Pecherskyi 31.44 34.58 0.044 0.038 2 Darnytskyi 30.52 33.66 0.052 0.041 3 Holosiivskyi 30.53 36.25 0.052 0.034 4 Obolonskyi 35.29 37.10 0.038 0.024 5 Solomianskyi 28.41 32.31 0.054 0.036 6 Shevchenkivskyi 26.60 31.79 0.088 0.064 7 Desnianskyi 30.87 35.17 0.042 0.041 8 Podilskyi 28.79 32.23 0.042 0.035 9 Dniprovskyi 28.83 31.96 0.046 0.040 10 Svyatoshinskyi 27.23 31.75 0.057 0.041 Reference area: Holosiivskyi NNP 51.93 0.009

60 50 40 30 2 cm 20 10

0 P o d i l s k yi P e c h r s k yi D a r n y t s k yi O b o l n s k yi D e s n i a kyi D n i p r o v s k yi H o l s i v k yi S o l m i a n s k yi S h e v ch n k i s yi Administrative district of Kyiv S v y a t o s h i n kyi

Area near the road Area near residential buildings NNP "Holosiivskyi"

Fig. 1. Leaf blades area (road and residential zone)

0,09 0,08 0,07 0,06 2 0,05 cm 0,04 mg/ 0,03 0,02 0,01 0 P o di l s k yi P e c h r s k yi D a r n y t s k yi O b o l n s k yi D e s n i a k yi D n i p r o v s k yi H o l s i v k yi S o lo m i a n s kyi S v y a t o s h n k yi S h e v c n k i s yi Administrative district of Kyiv

Area nead the road Area near residential buildings

NNP "Holosiivskyi"

Fig. 2. Dust pollution of leaf blades (road and residential areas) 160 Olena Barabash, Viktoriia Khrutba

The obtained results regarding the level of dust tree plantations but can also have a significant negative contamination of T. cordata leaf blades near the road, impact on the quality of life and public health. when compared with the indicators obtained in the “Holosiivskyi” NNP showed that the excess of dust References compared to reference area was almost 10 times higher in Shevchenkivskyi district, 6 times higher in [1] Kucheryavyy V. P. Problemy urboekolohiyi, NMКVО, Svyatoshinskyi and Solomianskyi districts, 5 times Kyiv, 1992, 3. (in Ukrainian) [2] Margaylik G. P. Botanicheskiy zhurnal, 1965, 1, 89. (іn higher in Darnytskyi and Holosiyivskyi districts. Dust Russia) loading of leaf blades in the residential area compared to [3] Hanaba D. V. Visnyk Cherkasʹkoho universytetu, 2015, the reference area is of great concern, since the 19, 55. (in Ukrainian) minimum level of dust pollution is observed only in the [4] Sytnikova I.O., Radul I.P. “Achievement of high Obolon residential area, but even this result 3 times school”, Ukraine, Chernivtsi, 2013, 61. exceeds the reference value. [5] Vasylkivskyy B. M. Zbalansovani mista: vprovadzhennya idey zelenoho planuvannya, proektuvannya ta budivnytstva Conclusions v Ukraini, Ukraine, Kyiv, 2018, 4. [6] Margaylik G. I. Spravochnik ozelenitelya. Polymya, It was found that fixed measurements as traditional Minsk, 1999, 144. (in Bilorus) environmental monitoring methods do not show the real [7] Timothy Beatley Green Cities of Europe. Global Lessons on Green Urbanism. IslandPress, London, situation of the ecosystem, since they do not provide 2012, 243 (in England) complete information about the real state and response [8] Khotuntsev Yu. L. Ekologiya ekologicheskaya bezopasnost'. of ecosystem components to the actual impact of Akademiya, Moskva, 2004, 480. (іn Russia) stationary and mobile sources. The data obtained as a [9] Povolotsʹka I. V. Okhorona navkolyshnʹoho result of fixed measurements is primarily a chemical seredovyshcha ta ratsionalʹne vykorystannya control of the concentration of pollutants and a pryrodnykh resursiv, Ukraine, Donetsk, 2010, 18. statement of the fact of compliance or non-compliance [10] Zanadvorov V.S. Ekonomika goroda. IKTS with the requirements set out in the regulatory “Akademkniga”, Moskva, 2003, 435 с. (іn Russia) documents. The objective assessment of the ecosystem [11] Bakharev V. S. Visnyk KDPU, 2005, 12 (31), 92. (in state is directly related to the “response” of the Ukrainian) [12] https://menr.gov.ua/files/docs/Proekt/28012019/ ecosystem to anthropogenic influence. The revealed Proekt.pdf critical deviations of leaf blade morphological [13] Beyko I. V., Boholyubov V. M., Vyshensʹka I. H. parameters from their optimal (reference) values and the Laboratornyy ta polʹovyy praktykum z ekolohiyi, high degree of the dust pollution characterize Kyiv as an Fitosotsiotsentr, Kyiv, 2000, 216. (in Ukrainian) anthropogenic and technogenic urban area that is not [14] Tsentralʹna heofizychna observatoriya im. Borysa only inappropriate for the growth and development of Sreznevsʹkoho http://cgo-sreznevskyi.kiev.ua/index.php ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Vol. 4, No. 3, 2019

EVALUATION OF THE DEGREE OF ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARD FROM ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION IN THE AREA OF POULTRY FARMS IMPACT

Мaria Кanda, Myroslav Malovanyy, Ivan Tymchuk, Zoryana Оdnorih

Lviv Polytechnic National University, Institute of Sustainable Development, Department of Ecology and Sustainable, Environmental Management 12, S. Bandery Str., Lviv, 79013, Ukraine [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] https://doi.org/10.23939/ep2019.03.161

Received: 12.08.2019

Abstract. This article identifies the sources of 2. Birds that died – 50 ths t; environmental hazard in the area of poultry farms 3. Bird slaughter waste – 210 ths t; impact. The analysis of the nature and scope of pollution 4.Incubation waste – 12 ths t. is made. Developmental specifics of poultry farming in The second, third and fourth types of wastes Ukraine are considered. The prospects of the utilization require special measures and processes for their of natural sorbents in the composition of bedding in disposal, implementation of which is mandatory for order to mitigate pollution of the environment with each poultry farm, and operation of farms without them ammonia and ammonium compounds are studied. The is unacceptable. Therefore, we did not take them into scope of reduction of environmental hazard as a result of account as the sources of environmental hazard in the utilisation of natural dispersive sorbents in poultry operation of poultry farms. According to the farming is analysed. information of the authors [2], the most massive wastes are droppings, which are a metabolic by-product of Key words: source of environmental hazard, natural birds. We did not consider micro- and macrobiological sorbent, poultry farming, bedding. pollution of the environment (microorganisms, helminths, flies, etc.), which are secondary pollutants, 1. Introduction and the intensity of their impact would be significantly reduced with successful solving the task of minimizing Assessments [1] show that farming generates up environmental hazard caused by poultry droppings. to 20 % of overall pollution emissions into all the This research considers chicken droppings as the main components of the environment: atmosphere, cause of environmental hazard in the area of impact of hydrosphere and lithosphere. Poultry farming is poultry farms. considered to be the most sever environmental Based on the assumptions above, the sources of polluter of all the agricultural producers [3]. In [2] an environmental hazard are closely related to places of emphasis is put on the sources of environmental localisation and routes of transportation of poultry hazard, related to poultry farms in Ukraine, which are droppings. Waste accumulation greatly depends on the pertinent to the generation of solid wastes causing farming technology and equipment used to maintain this further pollution of the atmosphere and hydrosphere. process [2]. These indicators also influence the moisture These sources together with the approximate waste content of wastes, which can vary from 82–98 % (when output (with the consideration of specialised farms using scraping system for droppings removal from cage only) are provided below: batteries) to 55–65 % (when using belt conveyors) and to 1. Droppings with natural moisture content – 5.2 mln t; 20–50 % (when using ventilated belt conveyors [3, 4]). 162 Мaria Кanda, Myroslav Malovanyy, Ivan Tymchuk, Zoryana Оdnorih

Thus, we can outline 3 potential sources of Based on the diagram in Fig.1, we can highlight the environmental hazard (SEH) caused by poultry following SEH: droppings at a poultry farm, which are closely related to 1. SEH 1 – birds keeping site (generation of the sites of their generation, transportation and droppings). localisation. In the sequence of development of the 2. SEH 2 – droppings transportation system. technological process at a poultry farm, these SEH may 3. SEH 3 – droppings storage (localisation) be presented by the following diagram (Fig. 1). sites.

Fig. 1. Diagram of SED at a poultry farm

According to the data [5–7], the average loss of carbon dioxide are also produced from uric acid due to separate components of droppings in the process of their its interaction with microflora (uric acid is a primary generation, transportation and storage makes up around product of degradation of poultry protein [8]). Providing 10 %, and as to the elements like nitrogen, it is up to 20– that the standards on microclimate and bird-holding 50 %. Most of nitrogen converts into ammonium form density in a poultry house are met, each hour 1 m2 of and contaminates the atmosphere and hydrosphere. bedding releases [9]: As to the first two sources of environmental hazard, – ammonia – 25 mg; basically they are characterised by the pollution of the – hydrogen sulphide – 15 mg; atmosphere with ammonia (there is no direct pollution – carbon dioxide – 8 mg. of the hydrosphere from these sources). According to the In case of litter-free method of poultry raising, 1 m2 data [2], the volumes of ventilation gasses from one of floor in a poultry house covered with droppings typical poultry house, where broilers are raised or egg- generates [9]: laying chicken are kept, are as follows: – ammonia – 8 mg; – in summer – 200 to 500 ths m3/hour of polluted – hydrogen sulphide – 5 mg; air; – carbon dioxide – 5 mg. in winter – 10 to 50 ths m3/hour of polluted air. As to the 3rd source of environmental hazard – The concentration of contaminants in these gases is droppings storage (localisation) sites, it is prone to as follows: contaminate all the components of the environment: – ammonia – (3–20) mg/m3; atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere. – hydrogen sulphide – (1–3) mg/m3; – СО2 – (0.1–0.3)%; Analysis of developmental trend and localisation – Dust (3–5) mg/m3; of poultry farming in Ukraine – microbial bodies – (70 000–900 000) m.b./m3 Ammonia and hydrogen sulphide are released into Poultry farming, rapidly developing in Ukraine in gas medium from droppings and bedding as a result of recent years, is characterised by a dynamic developmental the biodegradation of organic matters. Ammonia and trend and production of high-quality food products. Evaluation of the Degree Of Environmental Hazard from Environmental Pollution in the Areа… 163

Today, poultry farming is one of the most prioritised (13. 6%) Regions. The Volyn Region is also among the areas of cattle farming. Rapid development of poultry leaders with its share of 5.8 % of the total poultry meat farming in Ukraine is accompanied by the increase in output. production of eggs and meat and enlargement of the The developmental trend of egg production in poultry stock. First of all, this is explained by the growth Ukraine does not show the tendency of rapid growth. of demand of food companies and population for poultry According to the information published by Рro- products because of their relative cheapness as Consulting, the egg market in Ukraine decreased by compared to other types of meat. It turned out that the 24 % for the five years starting from 2013. poultry industry was capable of prompt adaptation to the Inconsiderable revival of the production in 2017 was market conditions due to its mobility under the mitigated by the export growth. The domestic transformation of the agroindustrial complex. consumption turned out to be at the level of 2016. Currently, development of the poultry industry is The decrease in production is explained by the induced by high-tech companies, which have proved increase in cost, the decrease in the purchasing their developmental innovativeness under the market capacity of the population, and temporary loss of the conditions. By increasing performance while reducing territory enclosing both producers and consumers. the feeding costs, these companies rapidly raise the However, according to the data of the Association of product output [10]. Poultry Farmers of Ukraine, the production of eggs at Innovative organisational strategies of efficient poultry farms of Ukraine from January to March of development of poultry farming under the established 2018 was 2 147.8 mln units as compared to 2 064.8 mln market are based on principles of cooperation, from January to March of 2017. reasonable localisation based on the analysis and with Over 2 bln of eggs, i. e. (2.7 bln eggs) are produced the consideration of climatic natural conditions, by the Kyiv Region (13.8 %), which appears to be the diversification of agricultural production, intra-industry unequivocal leader. The Kherson, Donetsk and specification, integration, and rational concentration and Khmelnytsk Regions together produce 24.7 % of eggs. optimisation of production. The share of these regions varies from 8.4 % to 9.8 %. The basic approach to ensuring the dynamic The Dnipro and Kharkiv Regions produce 5.3 % of the development of poultry farming implies engagement of Ukrainian egg output each [10]. research and development products in the form of design By 2016 the poultry stock in Ukraine was 213.2 mln and process solutions and technological means of their birds. In 2017 the poultry stock was 205.1 mln birds, application, as well as engagement of innovative low- i. e. it reduced by 3.9 %. cost energy- and resource-saving automated technologies in production and processing of poultry 2. Experimental part products. This development will benefit from the implementation of international food quality and safety A diagram of the experimental installation used for standards and improvement of the quality of breeding conducting the study aimed at determination of the resources. optimal conditions and a propepr ratio of the As to localisation of poultry farms on the territory of components in a mixture of natural mineral sorbets and Ukraine, there are few industry leaders holding up to poultry droppings is shown in Fig. 2. The study was 70 % of the poultry stock in Ukraine. 6–13 % of overall performed using an installation consisting of a reaction poultry stock are localised in the Kyiv, Cherkasy, flask with Atinan At-A850 compressor connected and Vinnytsia, Kherson and Dnipropetrovsk Regions [10]. Drechsel bottles. 10 ml of sulphuric acid (0.5 mol/dm3), Poultry production is concentrated in the forest- 5 drops of methyl red and 100 ml of distilled water were steppe zone. Due to the rapid return on investment in put into the Drechsel bottles. After certain time intervals poultry production, the pace of investment growth tends (each 5, 15, 30, 60 minutes), one Drechsel bottle was to increase sharply. This contributes to the quick replaced with another, and the amount of sulphuric acid increase in the number of large up-to-date poultry farms, taken for the neutralisation of distilled ammonia was and the establishment and development of powerful analysed by backward titration using sodium hydroxide vertical-integrated companies. In 2017, poultry solution with the concentration of 1 mol/dm3 (1 n). production in the forest-steppe zone reached 857.68 ths t Sample mixtures were equilibrated for several of meat, making up 71 % of overall production output in hours. This time period was sufficient to determine the Ukraine. The poultry production output in the steppe steady-state concentration of ammonia in sorbent and air zone was 20.5 %, and in Polissia it was 8.5 %. The medium of the flask. Based on the study results, we leaders of poultry meat production are the Cherkasy calculated the weight of ammonia absorbed by sorbent (23 %), Vinnytsia (18.9 %), Dnipro (14 %) and Kyiv or the study composition. 164 Мaria Кanda, Myroslav Malovanyy, Ivan Tymchuk, Zoryana Оdnorih

localisation sites, it is reasonable to use averaged indicators, which allow to evaluate the effect of actions on the minimisation of this environental hazard proposed in the thesis. As to ammonia emission from 1 m2 of bedding, it makes up 25 mg/hour [7]. For litter-free droppings of the natural moisture content, ammonia emission is 8 mg/hour [7] from 1 m2 of bedding. Since the litter method of keeping is the most common in Ukraine, in order to assess environmental hazard we will use ammonia emission of 25 mg/hour from 1 m2. There are different indicators for the norm of bird-keeping density in poultry houses for different types of chicken. For rearing meat-type chicken at the age of 1–20 weeks it is Fig. 2. Diagram of experimental installation: 9, at the age of 21–26 weeks it is 4–8, for parental stock 1 – compressor; 2 – flask; 3 – Drechsel bottle; 4 – fragment of litter sample; 5 – natural sorbent; В1 – valve it is 4–5. Considering that, it is impossible to determine the relation between different types of the poultry stock Kinetics of the ammonia adsorption process was within Ukraine; in addition it varies throughout the year. studied as follows: 250 cm3 flasks were filled with 10 g We took the average norm of bird-keeping density in batches of air-dry sorbent and 5 cm3 of ammonium poultry houses of Ukraine equal to 7. Thus, the total area solution (25 % wt.). The purpose of the experiments was of bedding in Ukraine (taking into account the poultry to determine and compare the capacity of natural stock of Ukraine based on the data of 2017) is sorbents for absorbing ammonia from 5 cm3 of ammonium 213200000/7 = 30457000 m2, and hourly total ammonia solution (25 %) in different time range. 250 cm3 flasks emission in Ukraine is 30457000 × 25 = 761425000 mg containing sample mixtures were preliminarily equilibrated or 761.425 kg. Daily ammonia emission is 28.27 t, and for 0.5 hour (flasks 1–3) and 7 days (4–6 flasks). The annual emission is 6670 t. ammonia content in the fluid mixture was determined by It is even more difficult to analyse the scope of weight titrimetric analysis. contamination from SEH 2 and SEH 3, because in this case it is necessary to consider individual conditions of 3. Results of investigation droppings transportation and storage as well as the adopted strategy of its utilisation. Therefore, we believe Environmental hazard in the area of impact of it is reasonable to stick only to the identification of these poultry localisation (poultry farms, complexes, private sources of environmental hazard and development of farms) was assessed by analysing the sources of recommendations on their minimisation. environmental hazard one by one (Fig. 1). The first The prospective way to minimise environmental source SEH 1 – birds’ localisation site, is the major one, hazard from SEH 1 is to apply sorbents to the bedding because the stage of birds keeping is associated with the composition, which adsorb part of ammonia released by emergence of ecological hazard caused by poultry chicken droppings [11, 13]. This will ensure the droppings, which further extends to the process of reduction of ammonia emissions polluting the transportation (SEH 2) and storage (SEH 3) of atmosphere as a result of its adsorption by adsorbents. droppings. In order to assess the amount of ammonia At the same time, these adsorbents with adsorbed released by SEH 1, it is necessary to take into account a ammonia can be used as an efficient long-acting number of birds kept per year, a method of keeping (i.e. nitrogenous fertiliser. litter or litter-free method for broilers; cage batteries, We investigated the prospectivity of palygorskite floor housing, colony cages, multilevel floor, free-range keeping of egg-laying chicken, etc.), a sequence of and clinoptilolite application in the composition of keeping cycles and cycles of preventive maintenance of bedding in order to reduce the environmental pollution premises, a type of birds (meat poultry, laying chicken), with ammonia. It was necessary to determine the season conditions and microclimate of birds housing, optimal ratio in order to derive beneficial properties etc. Certainly, it is difficult to estimate these factors from both sorbents. Their application to poultry throughout the country, especially in the absence of droppings will contribute to efficient reduction of the statistical information specially collected by specific moisture content and adsorption of ammonia from indicators. We consider that in order to assess the level droppings. This will help to fix nitrogen in the of environmental hazard in the area of impact of birds’ exchangeable form and reduce its loss. Evaluation of the Degree Of Environmental Hazard from Environmental Pollution in the Areа… 165

We conducted experimental studies in order to thickness of 0.2 m. Then, the weight of 1 m2 of determine the optimal ratio of mixture of natural mineral bedding is 30 kg. In case of adding the sorbents to sorbents for efficient absorption of ammonia. For this bedding at the ratio of palygorskite + clinoptilolite purpose, we prepared batches in the following weighing (1:1) mixture to poultry droppings 1 : 5, their weight ratios: 0 g of palygorskite : 10 g of clinoptilolite; 0 g of per 1 m2 of bedding is 7.5 kg. clinoptilolite : 10 g of palygorskite; 1.5:8.5; 3:7; 5:5; For different types of birds the cycle of birds 7:3; 8.5:1.5 g of the sorbents, respectively. The studies keeping without changing bedding is different. Namely, were conducted by the method described above and for replacement chicken it is 17–21 weeks (not more under isothermal conditions (T=20 °С). Constant than 19), for young birds raised for meat it is 9–10 temperature conditions of the process were maintained weeks. For calculation purposes, we take the keeping using a thermostat. According to the results of the study, cycle of 10 weeks. Then, 1 m2 of bedding without the highest capacity was shown by the composition at adding adsorbents per 1 cycle would release the ratio of 1:1 (5 g of clinoptilolite : 5 g of 25×10×7×24 = 42 000 mg or 42 g of NH3. In case of palygorskite). adding the sorbents to bedding at the defined optimal Further, we had to determine the ratio between the ratio, they adsorb 0.186×17×7500 = 23715 mg or 23.7 g. mixture of the sorbents and poultry droppings. For this This is more than half of total released ammonia. Given purpose, we prepared batches in the weighing ratios of that some amount (up to 15 % of released ammonia) is 10 g of the mixture : 50 g of droppings (1:5); 10 : 60 adsorbed by bedding material, the overall amount of (1:6); 1:5.5; 1:4; 1:3.5; 1:3; 20 : 50 (1:2,5), adsorbed ammonia will be about 60 % (which correlates respectively. The study results are presented in Table 1. with the data of other researchers [9]). The performed calculations are shown in Fig. 3. The figure provided Table 1 shows that with the application of the adsorbents to the Determination of the optimal ratio of mixture bedding composition at the defined optimal ratio the of the natural dispersive sorbents to litter amount of ammonia polluting the atmosphere drops almost 4 times. Ratio of palygorskite + Weight of absorbed clinoptilolite (1:1) mixture to ammonia, mmol/g of Calculation of the overall amount of ammonia litter sorbents ∙ 10-1 adsorbed when adding the adsorbents to bedding in 1:6 0.92 Ukraine is of gret interest. Using the relations obtained 1:5.5 1.3 above, we performed calculations based on the data on 1:5 1.56 total ammonia emissions from poultry farms of Ukraine 1:4 1.5 for one year, estimated above. These calculations are 1:3.5 1.1 shown in Fig. 4. The data provided in Fig. 4 indicate a 1:3 0.84 significant reduction in the degree of environmental 1:2.5 0.34 hazard with the implementation of the proposed measure – application of the adsorbents at the defined optimal ratio According to Table 1, the highest capacity for to the bedding composition. ammonia adsorption was shown by the composition “sorbents : chicken droppings” at the ratio of 1:5. It makes 1.56 mmol/g of sorbents ∙ 10-1. According to the information provided in [9], the average volumetric weight of straw in litter is 100 kg/m3 and the remaining types of litter (sphagnum turf, sawdust, chips. sunflower hull, ground sonflower stems, etc.) are 150 kg/m3. The volumetric weight of litter without adding adsorbents, assumed for calculation purposes, is 150 kg/m3. As to the bedding thickness, it is defined based on a type of birds raised on it. In particular, according to [9], the thickness of a bedding layer for egg-laying chickens, meat and egg Fig. 3. Visualisation of the ammonia amount released breeds and replacement chickens must be 15 cm, from 1 m2 of bedding per 1 bird-raising cycle: while for meat and replacement chickens it must be 1 – total released ammonia; 2 – adsorbed by adsorbent; 20 cm. For calculation purposes we take the bedding 3 – adsorbed by bedding material; 4 – polluted the atmosphere 166 Мaria Кanda, Myroslav Malovanyy, Ivan Tymchuk, Zoryana Оdnorih

optimal ratio, the amount of ammonia released to the ventilation system decreases 6.3 times.

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