Sustainability and the Urban Landscape

SUSTAINABILITY AND THE URBAN LANDSCAPE: INTRODUCTION OF A QUALITATIVE ASSESSMENT TOOL FOR UNDERSTANDING AND ENHANCING SUSTAINABILITY IN URBAN OPEN SPACE by SUSAN CHRISTINE PETERSEN B.A., Rice University, 1989 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES (Resource Management and Environmental Studies) We accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA September 1996 © Susan Christine Petersen, 1996 In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis "for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. Depart, o. -Panier* MMMamtr'#to &WW&mL Sruoiss (miT.t.e) The University of British Columbia Vancouver, Canada Date DE-6 (2/88) ABSTRACT This project introduces a way of operationalizing the idea of sustainability by applying its principles to open space in the urban landscape. Landscape is defined as the land surface, composed of a mosaic of ecosystems and land uses, that provides the setting for human activities. The rationale for the project is that people are deeply influenced by and keenly interested in landscape features, so landscape can serve as a medium for learning about sustainability because our ways of using land form part of the broader picture of our relationship with the earth. The landscape of urban areas deserves attention because urban dwellers experience it daily and sometimes exclusively, and because of the global trend toward urbanization of natural landscapes. Sustainability is conceptualized as a system characteristic that arises from three other necessary conditions within the system: provision for ecological viability, provision of adequate human life quality and consideration of equity. A landscape ecological model of sustainability was operationalized by linking its variables to urban open space features via indicators constructed from literature sources and based on visual assessment of observable landscape conditions. Use of this landscape assessment tool (set of indicators) was demonstrated by assessing several test sites in an urban district. The tool's usability was partially examined through trials with potential users. Three broad conclusions are drawn from the project. First, findings from the test sites indicate that amenity functions in the urban landscape are only moderate and ecological functions are unexpectedly high despite management for amenity. This suggests that urban ecosystems could flourish and serve as repositories of ecological function if they were enhanced by planning and management. Secondly, the urban open space assessment tool shows potential for usefully operationalizing sustainability theory, though more testing of its educational value and accuracy is needed. Finally, the sustainability model used in the project shows that sustainability requires the achievement of human well-being through the satisfaction of social needs as well as material sufficiency and ecological integrity. Satisfaction of these different needs can be complementary and can be achieved within systems of human activity such as urban open space use. TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract n Table of Contents iii List of Tables vi List of Figures vii Acknowledgment viii Chapter One Introduction: Sustainability and the Urban Landscape 1 1.1. Sustainability: terms, definitions and implications 1 I. La. development I I. Lb. economic growth and economic development 3 I. I.e. sustainable development and sustainability 4 1.2. Research question, objectives and rationale 7 I.2.a. research question and objectives 7 1.2. b. rationale 8 1.3. Landscape: where we live and act 9 1.3. a. definition 9 1.3. b. importance 10 1.4. Urban open space II 1.4. a. definition 11 1.5. The indicators: general introduction 12 1.5. a. origins 12 I.5.b. finding a template 14 I. 5.c. purposes 15 Chapter Two Theory and Model Development 17 II. 1. Introduction: world view and sustainability 17 II. La. definition of world view 17 II. Lb. significance for sustainability 17 11.1. e. the sustainability literature 19 11.2. The expansionist and ecological world views 19 11.2. a. introduction and defining characteristics 19 II.2.b. other versions and additional characteristics 20 II.2.C. summary of world view characteristics 22 11.2. d. implications of the two world views for sustainability 24 11.3. Literature review: world view in the sustainability debate 25 11.3. a. introduction: purposes and organization of the review 25 Ul II.3.b. ecology 26 II.3.c. economics 33 II.3.d. human well-being 37 11.3. e. summary: world view profiles 46 11.4. Systems—complex and adaptive, natural and human 47 11.4. a. introduction: systems theory 47 11.4. b. complex adaptive systems theory 48 11.5. Development of a sustainability model 50 11.5. a. introduction 50 II.5.b. refining Forman's model 51 II.5.C. the biophysical model 54 II. 5.d. modeling for sustainability 59 Chapter Three Operationalizing the Model: Indicator Development 60 III. 1. Introduction—methods summary 60 111.2. Urban green areas in an urban district 61 III. 2.a. choice of an urban district 61 III.2.b. defining an urban green area 63 III.2.C site choice 65 111.2. d. site descriptions 69 111.3. Linking the sustainability model to open-space indicators 78 111.3. a. choosing a landscape assessment method 78 III.3.b. streamlining the model 80 111.3. C. establishing a baseline 81 111.4. The sustainability indicators: explanation and rationale 82 111.4. a. terminology and basic design 82 III.4.b. indicator for fresh water: land surface permeability 86 III.4.C. indicator for soil: water erosion 87 III.4.d. indicator for biological diversity: structural vegetation diversity 88 III.4.e. indicator for biological productivity: net primary productivity 96 III.4.f. indicator for food: plant food production 98 III.4.g. indicator for goods: physical site access 100 III.4.h. indicator for energy: site user transportation 102 III.4.i. indicator for safety: safety features 103 III.4.J. rationale for the social variable indicators 105 III.4.k. indicator for socialization: suitability for social groups 105 III.4.1. indicator for cognitive needs: educational suitability 108 III.4.m. indicator for aesthetic needs: aesthetic quality 110 III.4.n. indicator for self-actualization needs: recreation suitability 113 III. 4.0. the nature of qualitative assessment 115 Chapter Four Applying the Operational Model: Test Site Assessment 117 IV. 1. Introduction 117 IV.2. Assessment of the six Ladner test sites: demonstration of the tool 117 IV. 2.a. visual assessment of the sites 117 IV.2.b. procedure for analyzing visual test site assessment results 120 IV.2.C test site ratings 130 IV. 3. User trials: testing for user-related tool quality 137 IV.3.a. the first trial 137 IV.3.b. the second trial 139 IV.3.C the third trial 142 IV. 3.d. summary of conclusions from the trials 145 Chapter Five Conclusions, Implications and Discussion 148 V. l. Introduction 148 V.2. Conclusions and implications 148 V. 2.a. the Ladner test sites: conclusions and implications 148 V.2.b. uses of the assessment tool: conclusions and implications 153 V.2.c. operational sustainability: conclusions and implications 161 V.3. Unresolved difficulties 162 V.3.a. indicator design limitations 162 V.3.b. indicator content limitations 163 V.3.c. numerical rating method limitations 164 V.4. Further research 166 V.4.a. improvement of current tool 166 V.4.b. development and testing of a new tool version 167 V.5. Summary of conclusions 167 References 169 Appendix A Complete site assessment tool in field-ready form 177 Appendix B Quick source reference table for details of twelve sustainability-related indicators used in urban open space 203 V LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1 Preliminary list of defining features of the expansionist and ecological world views 23 Table 2.2 Final list of defining features of the expansionist and ecological world views 47 Table 3.1 Categorization of 38 urban green areas in Ladner Village, Delta, B.C. 68 Table 4.1 Summary of overriding factors 124 Table 4.2 Variable ratings and overall ratings for the six Ladner test sites 132 Table 4.3 Effects on test site ratings of weighting the overriding factors and variables 133 Table 4.4 Overall ecosphere and human variable ratings for the six Ladner test sites 134 Table 4.5 Per-system ratings for the six Ladner test sites 134 Table 4.6 Overall human variable ratings and human system ratings for the six Ladner test sites 134 Table 4.7 Ratings for three test "districts" 136 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1 Forman's model of foundation variables regulating sustainability 32 Figure 2.2 The essential features of Hancock's human ecosystem model for health 44 Figure 2.3 The essential features of the Order of Health 45 Figure 2.4 Written form of the biophysical model 54 Figure 2.5 Written form of the biophysical model showing foundation and component variables 55 Figure 2.6 Pictorial form of the biophysical model 58 Figure 3.1 Location of Ladner in the Lower Fraser Basin 63 Figure 3.2 Locations of the six urban green areas chosen as test sites in Ladner, B.C. 69 Figure 3.3 "Hydro field" test

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