1980INo. 41 Africa

LIBERIA: THE DISSOLUTION OF PRIVILEGE Part Ill: The Challenge of New Leadership

by J. Gus Liebenow

With the problem of internat~onalrecognition for the Doe regime receding, the real challenge to the People's Redemption Council, which took over 's government in , is the need to forge a new national identity. [JGL-3-'801 lSSN 01 61 -0724 The American Universities Field INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS American Staff, Inc., founded in 1951, is a non- University of Alabama profit, membership corporation of Brown University American educational institutions. It California State Universities em~loysa full-time staff of foreiqn UniversityIFullerton area specialists who write from abroad and make periodic visits to California State UniversityINorthridge Field Staff member institutions. AUFS serves the public through its seminar pro- University of Connecticut grams, films, and wide-ranging pub- Dartmouth College lications on significant develop- lndiana University ments in foreign societies. Institute for Shipboard Education University of Kansas Michigan State University University of Pittsburgh Ramapo College of New Jersey Utah State University University of Wisconsin System

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THE AUTHOR Association and a member of the Fellow at Harvard University; and re- Executive Council of the International ceived his Ph.D. in Political Science African lnstitute in London. from Northwestern University in 1955. A member of Phi Beta Kappa and Phi Professor Liebenow began his field work Kappa Phi, he taught at the University of in Africa in 1953, and he has spent 6 of Texas before coming to lndiana Univer- the past 25 years doing research, teach- sity in 1958. He was the first Director of ing, and service in tropical Africa. He is African Studies at lndiana (1960-1972) the author of Liberia: The Evolution of and served as Dean for International Privilege; Colonial Rule and Political Programs (1968-1972) and Vice Presi- Development in Tanzania: The Case of dent for Academic Affairs for the the Makonde; African Attitudes towards lndiana University system (1972-1974). Agriculture, Education, and Rural Trans- formation; and of numerous journal articles and chapters in edited volumes. Dr. Liebenow is a specialist on the prob- lems of local government; urbanization; management of the African environ- ment; politics of migration; and feder- J. GUS LIEBENOW, Professor of Polit- alism. ical Science at lndiana University, is one of the pioneers in the study of politics in Dr. Liebenow received his B.A. (summa 01980, American Universities Field sub-Saharan Africa. He is the immediate cum laude) and M.A. from the Univer- Staff, Hanover, NH Past President of the African Studies sity of Illinois; was a Goodwin Memorial 19801No. 41 by J. Gus Liebenow LIBERIA: THE DISSOLUTION Africa [J G L-3-'801 OF PRIVILEGE

Part Ill: The Challenge of New Leadership

National Identity ernmental operations had brought been substantially modified. The Over the long haul, the major task settler and tribal descendants into suspension of the Constitution facing the People's Redemption more meaningful and lasting rela- challenged some of the basic Council (PRC) and its coalition tionships. This was particularly true assumptions of settler supremacy. Cabinet will be the creation of a of the students who had gone The death or imprisonment of most new national identity, while at the abroad for study. Representatives of legislators obviously put that institu- same time avoiding the interethnic both major groups were sharing in tion out of operation for the time bloodshed which has characterized the new wealth and the new expe- being. Similarly, the judicial sys- the postindependence periods in the riences. Equally, the poverty of the tem-which temporarily ceased to Sudan, , Chad, and Uganda. urban slums was being shared by function-was reconstituted as a The task of nation-building in the lower echelon settler families and series of "people's courts" with the new Liberian society will be a for- tribal immigrants alike. Similarly, appointment of a mix of judges with midable one. Not only is there the when it came to political oppression Americo-Liberian and tribal back- overt as well as latent hostility at the hands of dominant elite, many grounds. between the Americo-Liberian Americo-Liberian families shared minority and the tribal majority, but the same fate of exclusion or dis- The political party system was also there are as well the variations in crimination meted out to tribal fam- drastically changed. The True Whig cultural and other norms that had ilies. Party, which was formed in 1869 been perpetuated within the tribal and had not lost an election since majority itself. Several things appear Despite the blurring of the lines, 1875, was perhaps shattered for- certain. First of all, fashioning new when it came to really crucial issues ever, its leading patrons dead or national norms will-as in most of power, to the really significant headed for prison. Other parties- other areas of Africa-take place acquisition of wealth or educational including those represented in the within the artificially created inter- opportunities, or to having the coalition Cabinet-were placed in national boundaries. Secondly, the security of enjoying what you had, limbo until the new constitution had new national norms will not be a the distinction between settler and been promulgated. Another institu- mere continuation of the previously tribal antecedents remained im- tion with decided political overtones imposed Americo-Liberian culture. portant. The rising young tribal was also dealt what may have been Admittedly, that culture had been lawyer seldom made it on his own; a mortal blow. I refer to the Masonic substantially modified by tribal he succeeded by attaching himself Order, which served as a semi- norms of diet, dress, speech, and to a -based law firm. The religious guardian of Whig privilege. art; nevertheless, the main thrust of dominant institutions in all phases of One experiences a strange feeling as integration was in the direction of national society were settler in origin you pass the Masonic Temple on acceptance of settler norms. In any and settler-oriented and controlled. Mamba Point. The now-sacked event, on the social plane it had be- At least, that was decidedly the way building stands silent, its windows come increasingly apparent over the things were until the coup of April and doors ajar, the big wrought iron past two or three decades that there 12, 1980. gate around the courtyard standing was a blurring of the once rigid lines half open, and not a soul is in sight separating Americo-Liberians from While acknowledging the frequency on what had been its once well- tribal persons. Marriage (not merely with which observers have histori- secured grounds. It appeared to be informal liaisons with "country cally applied to Liberia the French totally irrelevant to the new Liberian wives") had become fairly common expression regarding: "the more society. Yet, at the same time, the and socially accepted between things change, the more they building seemed to pose the same those whose origins were primarily remain the sameu- has lingering menace to further tres- settler and those whose antecedents made a difference. Some of the passers that might be attributable by were considered tribal. The expan- settler-controlled national institu- a Gola or a Mende tribesman to the sion of the economic enterprises, tions have been irrevocably shat- wounded spirit protecting a dese- the educational system, and gov- tered, while others have perforce crated sacred grove of the Poro secret society.1 Its power may be announcement that "Methodists are Agriculture of his administrative finished, but do not risk fate by also citizens of Liberia." The sur- duties because of his abusive treat- further abusing it. viving Methodist Church hierarchy ment of a janitor. Although Presi- took immediate steps to divest dent Mary Grimes Brown Sherman The Christian churches are similarly Warner of his post as bishop and had very respectable settler ante- undergoing adjustment to the placed him in "involuntary retire- cedents (as well as tribal origins), search for a new national identity. ment." It may be that the liberation she was confronted by Speaker Although settler and tribal persons of the churches could make them Richard Henries and the other were nominally members of the more vital forces in achieving a new trustees with the demand for Dean same broad Christian fold, in Liberia national identity. On the other hand, DeShield's reinstatement. On this one entered the Kingdom of Heaven the collapse of support from the issue President Sherman had both in different chariots. Some of those political center could make the the solid and outspoken support of chariots were distinctly ethnic in Christian churches more vulnerable her faculty. In a dramatic showdown character, such as the Lorna to challenges from Islam or even involving Speaker Henries and Church, the Bassa Community from a rejuvenated set of Poro others a few days before the coup, Church, and the churches which leaders. Tolbert bravely backed the adminis- separated the more high status tration and the faculty against the Americo-Liberians from their One settler-established institution, Whig old guard. Like the churches, "Congo" associates. Within the however, which could be vital in the the today Americo-Liberian minority the re- shaping of the new national identity functions without its direct linkages ligious distinctions were more finely is the University of Liberia, which to the political system, since many tuned in terms of association with a was founded in the middle of the of the Trustees are either dead or in particular cluster of key patrons. last century. During the past two or prison. Inasmuch as the political Many of the leading members of the three decades it had ceased to be connection was more a liability than Cabinet, the legislature, or the the reserve of the privileged and had an asset, the leaders of the univer- courts were also pastors of their become a very respectable institu- sity have a unique opportunity to churches or lay officials at some tion in terms of the faculty it had shape their own environment in higher level in the church hierarchy. attracted, the courage and articu- terms of the university's future re- William Tolbert, for example, was lateness of its students, the quality lationship to the broader society. regarded as the pastor of the Zion of its library collection, and the The attitude of many in the Doe Baptist Church in Bentol, and for broadening of its offerings to in- government seems favorable to the several years he had been President clude agriculture, forestry, and other university's desire to be both rela- of the World Baptist Alliance. Vice- development areas. Significantly, tively autonomous in terms of its President Benny Warner was the even prior to the April 12 coup, its own curriculum, staff, and modus presiding bishop of the Methodist faculty had started to win the battle vivendi and, at the same time, a Church, and there were many of autonomy from the political leadership institution within the new parallel situations. With the collapse power structure. For most decades Liberian society. While Master Ser- of the Whig power elite, many of the since its founding it had been the geant Doe is not hostile to this con- churches now were forced to pur- plaything of the elite. Many legis- cept, it is significant that the uni- sue more purely religious objectives lators and other Whig politicians versity is one of the few locations without the external political props. had regarded their salaries as part- within Monrovia where he had, at The Methodists in particular found time lecturers as pure sinecures. The this writing, not yet made a personal the political connection very much a President of the Republic served as appearance. double-edged sword, particularly the Visitor, and some of the oldest after Benny Warner's clumsy call and most reactionary of the old Among the more delicate prob- from Abidjan for a counterrevolu- guard constituted the Board of lems facing the PRC is the role that tion. Some Methodist missionaries Trustees. It was with great difficulty various economic institutions will in Monrovia were jeered, and it be- that the university had gradually play in shaping a new integrated came necessary for the new govern- assumed the role of the conscience identity. It is beyond question that ment to issue the curiously worded of Liberian society-for which on a the restraints on establishment of number of occasions both Tubman effective trade unions and coopera- 1. The Poro is a male secret society and Tolbert had closed the univer- tive societies have been among the which operates within the Gola, Vai, factors perpetuating the caste Dey, Kpelle, Mende, and several other sity. It had, as well, developed a tribal groups in Liberia and . student newspaper which was cleavages between the settler elite The Sande is the female counterpart. courageous in its chronicling of the and the tribal majority. Yet, with the The rituals and sanctions of Poro within ills of Liberian society. economy in such a precarious state, each of these ethnic groups takes prece- the PRC leadership might be dence over all secular associations and The university had achieved one of reluctant to give free rein to labor institutions. The council of Poro elders, its greatest victories in its struggles and cooperative leaders who will be meeting in the sacred grove, has the for autonomy just a few days prior demanding an increasingly larger power of reversing decisions of secular to the coup. In a serious challenge share of the limited pie for their con- chiefs and can even depose them or to one of the scions of the True render them ineffective. The council has stituents. the power of life or death over members Whig oligarchy (his father had once who violate its secrets, and the initiation been chairman of the party), the In fashioning a new national identity of young men into the Poro constitutes President of the University had re- the PRC and its successors will have their entry into adulthood. lieved the Dean of the School of to engage in some creative social engineering in providing new sym- bols of unity, new heroes and tradi- tions that have broad applicability across the settlerltribal divide, and new social institutions for creating a sense of legitimacy. The task has only just begun. The statue of Richard Henries had been an early victim of postcoup celebrations; the statues of Tubman and Tolbert still remain. No effort has been made yet to change the street names and other reminders of the passing order. And no one at this writing had commenced the serious task of rewriting the civics, history, and other textbooks which will properly reflect the multicultural origins of Liberia. It is certainly not sufficient merely to engage in cosmetic changes, such as the renaming of the "Pioneer Room" at the African Hotel to the "Native Room." Three vital questions arise with re- spect to the forging of the new nature? In more positive terms, can The late President Tolbert attends a national identity. The first question a resurgence of ethnic pride at the dedication ceremony in his honor. Photo relates to the ability of the new local level be harnessed to provide courtesy of the Embassy of the Republic political leadership to continue to the initiative to convert Tubman and of Liberia. present the revolution as an action Tolbert's rhetoric about the need for against an invidious system rather rural development into a political impressive. Finally, there is the ver- than an action against an ethnic reality? sion of English that is understood by class- no matter how abusive some a far wider sector of Liberian of its most visible representatives The third relates to the language of society. It is a form of pidgin, which happened to be. Only when people national politics, commerce, educa- is highly functional and can justly tend to use achievement criteria in tion, and cultural development. claim to be the national language. evaluating job applicants, candi- Although the Doe government has While it may amuse foreigners and dates for educational fellowships, daily radio "commercials" that embarrass better-educated Libe- aspirants to political office, and the attempt to downplay ethnic differ- rians, it is the language of the like will the full talents of the society ences, undoubtedly the pressure will masses. In this respect, I am re- be utilized in behalf of all. The con- increase to expand the number of minded of Mark Twain's response to tinued use of ascriptive qualifica- hours station ELBC broadcasts in an English critic of his American tions, such as ethnicity, sex, age, tribal languages. If those pressures English: "Sir, there is no such thing and other factors beyond the indi- extend to the matter of primary in- as the 'Queen's English.' The prop- vidual's control, guarantees both struction, the printing of govern- erty has been turned over to a joint strife and underdevelopment in ment documents, and other areas, it stock company, and the Americans Liberian society. must be recognized that the cost of hold most of the shares." The ques- multilingualism can be enormous in tion is, what use are the Liberians Closely related to this is the question a society with 16 languages and going to make of their property of the degree of latitude which will limited resources. There can even be rights in the Eng!ish language? be given to the various ethnic disputes regarding which version of groups in revitalizing institutions or will become the Economic Development customs which had been subordi- "national" language. There is, first There was almost universal agree- nated or suppressed under the of all, the language of international ment among both Liberian leaders settler domination of national poli- diplomacy, employed largely by the and expatriates that the economic tics. Will the revolution be read by newer breed of Liberians who have problems facing Liberia headed the leaders of the Poro or been educated abroad, at the Uni- priority list for the new government. as a mandate for revitalization of versity of Liberia, or at Cuttington There was not only the need for secret societies among the Gola, College. Second, there is a version immediate attention to some of the Kpelle, or Mende? To what extent called "high Liberian," which is the short-run problems but also positive will the co-opted appointed chiefs of flowery speech of the Americo- signals that the long-range problems the old system be challenged either Liberian clergy, the old line politi- were at least being addressed. In the by political leaders with more cians, the lawyers, and others- absence of that the coup could very modern claims to authority, or alter- marked by the characteristic of easily go through a rapid "circula- natively, by those with more valid never employing one adjective when tion of elites," with the now enthu- historic claims of a traditional three or four will be much more siastic supporters of the Doe regime switching their allegiances. Time is a farmers from the rural sector but foreign concessionaires interested in factor, for the coup and its after- had seriously aggravated the bal- developing the iron and other re- math have not only disrupted the ance of payments problem. sources, but it also launched the functioning of some parts of the systematic acquisition of vast hold- economy, but it has also virtually Where were the extra resources for ings by the leading Americo-Liberian stopped any new discussions of accomplishing this balancing act? families. Under Tolbert this land foreign investment in Liberia and it One approach to the problem of hunger had reached monumental has stiffened the attitude of the additional revenues would be to re- proportions. Whether true or not, it International Monetary Fund, World duce the "fat" in the national was popularly believed that Presi- Bank, and other officials who budget by recovering the national dent Tolbert and Speaker Henries formerly treated Liberia as a favored wealth that had been squandered by owned nearly half of Bong County, customer. Time is also important the globe-junketing and high living and within the city of Monrovia, the because Liberia is essentially a poor of the Arnerico-Liberian officials. A Horton family owned most of the country. Although it has not been further suggestion was that the land on which the Bassa people officially counted as a member of number of embassies in countries lived. 2 the "fourth worldr'-that is, the where Liberian interests were pres- poorest of the poor as defined by tigious at best could be diminished Unless land reform gave the tribal the United Nations in terms of sur- substantially. The new Liberian cultivator either the security that the vival below or at the subsistence press, moreover, had daily reve- traditional tribal usufructory right of level-in fact most Liberians are lations of hidden governmental occupancy had given his fathers living close to the poverty line. The assets-such as the large number of before him or the security of free- level of foreign concession activity "ghost" employees on government hold tenure, it was doubtful whether has masked this fact in the past. payrolls and the payment of double there would be any incentive to the salaries to legislators and other offi- farmer to make the investment in The immediate economic problem is cials. Finally, a vigorous attempt capital and labor needed to produce how to face several somewhat con- was being made to collect delin- both the food crops required by the flicting constituencies simultane- quent income taxes. nation and the export crops needed ously and have each of them come While it is true that some additional to pay for Liberia's substantial im- away contented. The urban unem- government resources could be ports. As noted previously, the ployed, who were involved in the recovered in this fashion, it appeared alternatives to this were high prices initial phase of the Year of Fer- that only substantial international for food, aggravated balance of ment-the Rice Riots of 1979-were assistance would help save the day payments problems, and- most already demonstrating at the Minis- in the short run. The International important-the continued drift of try of Labour, Youth and Sports Monetary Fund had already per- rural cultivators to the foreign- early in May with demands for mitted the Doe government to draw owned mines and plantations or- meaningful jobs with the Liberia- on Liberia's special drawing rights to even worse- to the cities, where construction company com- meet the first month payrolls and they ultimately swelled the ranks of plex in Monrovia. The urban middle had awarded Liberia $4 million in the urban unemployed. Unless there were early indications from the class and the civil servants, upon trust funds. The reserves at the end regime that it had given the problem whom the PRC was depending for of May, however, were dangerously of land reform a high priority and the remarkable continued function low, and the IMF and other inter- had actually started work on a solu- of government, would not remain national banking agencies were be- tion to the problem, the legitimacy supportive very long if an assault coming increasingly conservative of the revolution would soon be in was not made upon the rising infla- until they had ascertained the direc- question. On the positive side, part tion. Since the Tolbert regime had tion the new government was of the answer may already lie in the long deferred substantial increases heading. The lack of international in civil service salaries and per- study conducted within the past acceptance of the coup had de- quisites, the bureaucrats were year for USAlD by the University of cidedly complicated the economic already expressing concern that the Wisconsin Land Tenure Center. On standing of Liberia. wealth previously monopolized by the negative side, the IMF and other the Whig elite was not being more But what of the long-range prob- banking interests were reported to equitably distributed. They had lems? Undoubtedly, the first priority be taking a conservative stance waited far too long for the fulfill- was land reform, for this issue stood whenever the Liberian economists ment of the promise that higher at the heart of the psychological and of the new regime started talking education would bring enhanced emotional, as well as economic ten- about achieving "a more equitable economic, social, and political sions between the settler and the distribution of income and wealth." standing. But how could the PRC tribal communities. The desire of meet the demands for new jobs, settlers to acquire tribal land on a A second long-term reform is the controlled inflation, and increased freehold basis- despite the absence need for tax revision. The enforce- salaries in the urban section while at of such a concept in tribal law and ment of not only the national in- the same time improving the lot of custom-was symptomatic of come tax, but even the collection of the farmer? The absence of sub- strained settler-tribal relations al- 2. "Statement by the Liberian National sidies for food crops, of property most from the first day of coloniza- Student Union," in The Republic of rights in land, and of adequate tion. The opening of the hinterland Liberia News, Press release of the marketing arrangements not only under Tubman's "Open Door" Liberian Embassy in Washington (May 6, had accelerated the withdrawal of policy had not only brought in the 1980). the water and other utility rates from Americo-Liberians lived) and that most disturbing action of all, the families of the "honor- available in the tribal hinterland; the however, was the announcement by able~"was nothing short of scanda- preference in funding of the private Justice Minister Chea Cheapoo in lous. Indeed, the postcoup publica- schools (where many of the leading the early days of the coup that tion in the newspaper of names of Americo-Liberians were educated) approximately 20 managers of for- persons who were delinquent in the over government schools; and the eign corporations were to be placed payment of taxes-coupled with a distorted direction of much of under house arrest. Although the threat by the Minister of the Finance Liberia's educational system. With order was swiftly countermanded by to turn those names over to the reference to the last point, Dr. Master Sergeant Doe himself and Minister of Justice for immediate Sawyer was criticizing the long- although various steps were taken prosecution-brought about a dra- standing bias in both lower and to reassure local businessmen (in- matic crush of leading Americo- higher education toward careers in cluding in particular, the Lebanese), Liberian families to pay taxes. On the ministry, the legal profession, or the business and financial climate the other hand, the collection of hut politics, as opposed to the only was precarious. taxes by the Whig regime was pur- recent orientation toward forestry, sued with an unremitting passion. agriculture, engineering, commerce, The inequity of the hut tax was that and the other more "practical" arts. Despite the delicacy of the foreign it often consumed roughly 50 The bias, moreover, was very much investment and trade situation, it percent of the cash assets of the in favor of those skills needed for was already clear to the more re- tribal family. In addition to asserting the foreign enclave economy rather sponsible foreign entrepreneurs the supremacy of the settler com- than for the development of Liberia even before the coup that there munity, the hut tax also served as as a viable balanced economic would have to be some "upping of the "push" factor needed to get system. the ante" if they were to continue rural cultivators into the foreign- their operations in Liberia. It could owned enclave economy or to seek not simply be "business as usual." wage employment on the rubber Indeed, the nature of that foreign The Lebanese merchants, for ex- farms of the "honorables." In the enclave economy is the fourth area ample, who possess the skills that absence of surveillance over the of economic reform which must be many Liberians could most readily collection system, moreover, it pro- faced both by the new government acquire, should have been funding vided individual Americo-Liberian as well as by the outside economic the study of commerce and busi- hinterland officials with their own and financial interests. The dialogue ness administration in the secondary private reserve for exploitation, has already commenced regarding schools and the University of Liberia which then enabled them to have the continuing role of the foreign as well as taking on apprentices who the financial resources required to entrepreneurs who now control the would be prepared to engage in advance up the political ladder in plantations, mines, shops, and other both wholesaling as well as retail national politics. It would appear aspects of Liberia's cash economy. operations. The major concession- that an early end to this oppressive Rash action by the Doe govern- aires in the agricultural and mining and regressive tax could be a great ment, admittedly, could undermine sectors, moreover, will have to be stimulant to increased production the confidence required by present more rigorous in providing training and the early entry of tribal culti- and future foreign investors and programs for Liberians-particularly vators into the more desirable businessmen as well as stiffening in the professional and highly skilled income tax-paying category. the backs of the representatives of areas. Firestone, Lamco, and others IMF and the World Bank upon will have to provide increased wages The third economic reform has to whom the Doe government now as well as social service benefits for come in the area of manpower. In relies for solvency. Indeed, actions employees and dependents. my book Liberia: The Evolution of during the first ten days following Privilege, I had pointed out the de- the coup had seriously alarmed the ficiencies of the Liberian educational foreign economic community. Foreign corporations will find it system in the early 1960s. In a re- Shippers, for example, were reluc- difficult to resist demands for markably courageous working paper tant to come into port during the greater processing of raw materials prepared by Dr. of first few days of the coup. Some in Liberia itself. Certainly this action the University of Liberia in January Greek, American, and other ship- would create greater employment 1978, he noted that many of these owners were beginning to question opportunities, lower the price of deficiencies continued to exist the advantages of registering their some consumer goods, and help the despite the substantial expansion in vessels under Liberia's "flag of con- balance of payments problem. scale of the educational enterprise in venience." The Lebanese merchants Several of my contacts openly com- the intervening period. Sawyer only reluctantly reopened their plained about the fact that Firestone noted, for example, the 20 percent shops, and it was rumored they plantations processed Liberian rub- illiteracy in the country; the dispro- were keeping exceedingly low in- ber into tires in Ghana! Finally, the portionately low percentage (com- ventories. The European and Ameri- foreign entrepreneurs will have to pared to a number of leading can managers of both plantations accept some program of "Liberian- African states) of the national and iron mines, moreover, were ization" of major economic enter- budget allocated to education; the beginning to complain about the prises. No one was talking about geographical disparity between the uneconomic effects of the curfew confiscation or even "nationaliza- facilities and teaching staff available and about the vigilante action by tion," but it was clear that the at the coast (where the majority of soldiers and others. Perhaps the neocolonial relationship must be altered if Liberians are to come into It was also reflected in some longer of the Doe government. The reac- control of their own destinies. term policy commitments, such as tions of other states to the Liberian The last point leads into the fifth the stated intention to continue the coup and its aftermath can be area of economic reform: the diver- use of the American dollar as the divided into three categories. The sification of the economy. Whether official currency; the public pro- first-and perhaps the least impor- Liberia can achieve a measure of nouncements regarding the re- tant in the long run-was the re- industrialization is subject to ques- gime's embracing free enterprise; sponse of states that had not been tion, since it possesses only one of the promise not to make "structural particularly friendly to Liberia in the the ingredients-iron ore- but lacks changes. ..in the near or medium past. These states not only imme- the oil, coal, other sources of energy term"; the honoring of all foreign diately welcomed the collapse of the (uranium, hydroelectric power), and debts; the lifting of the postcoup Tolbert regime and its "capitalist skilled manpower necessary to sus- currency regulations, which limited tyranny," but they even applauded tain major industrial growth. It could repatriation of earnings; and the the instability caused by the subse- achieve a modicum of light indus- commitment to continuing the quent execution of the 13 officials trial development, however, through "Open Door" policy. If the regime on April 22. In this category belongs the in situ processing of raw mate- hoped to keep the allegiance of its the (which had had rials. It could, moreover, give itself various urban and rural constitu- several of its officials declared per- greater insurance against the down- encies, it had to acknowledge the sona non grata by Tolbert in the ward trend in world prices for its fact that bold assaults on poverty, months preceding the coup); Ethi- two principal exports-iron and redistribution of wealth, and other opia (which had its own unenviable rubber-by pursuing a policy of drastic restructuring would have to record of liquidating members of a diversification. be deferred. The present economic former regime and which made a realities are that the preponderance grandstand play of inviting the new One of the highest priorities for of Liberia's trade and investment lies Foreign Minister to visit the OAU international assistance ought to be with the United States, Western headquarters in Addis Ababa after the completion of a thorough geo- Europe, and Japan. Any ideological Liberia was denied entry to a logical survey to assess Liberia's "tilt" to the socialist camp or-even meeting of the OAU in Lagos); mineral potential. Moreover, instead worse-to the rejectionist states, and-naturally- as well as the of continuing the pursuit of rubber, such as Libya, would create an leader of the rejectionist camp, rubber, and more rubber, there is no almost immediate flight of capital Libya. Although much attention was reason why Liberia could not and employment opportunities. focused on the fact that the Soviet emulate its next-door neighbor, the Ambassador was called in by Doe . The latter has devel- International Recognition on the day of the coup, the incident Complicating the regime's attack oped markets for every conceivable must be put in perspective. First, the on its dual problems of economic temperate and tropical zone agricul- head of the American mission was reform and creating a new national tural crop and is doing most of the also called in for consultation that identity for Liberia has been the processing in that country. Ad- day. Second, Doe probably wanted issue of international acceptance mittedly, this would continue the to secure the nonintervention of orientation of Liberia to external the Lebanese merchants that govern- both superpowers. And finally, the global markets, but it would be an ment had no intention of nationalizing threat of a "tilt" to the socialist bloc effective hedge against world price their businesses. If expansion of an in- could not be taken seriously given dustry was compatible with the goals of fluctuation for any one commodity the revolution, Doe stated, this would be the regime's economic problems and would provide expanded em- allowed. While acknowledging their role and the economy's heavy orienta- ployment opportunities for Libe- in providing needed food, clothing, and tion to the West and Japan. rians. other commodities-as well as employ- ment to Liberians- Doe and his officials The attitudes of the states that have In all the discussion regarding eco- went out of their way to comment on been considered friends or close nomic reform, one thing remains the alleged price gouging, the rude associates of Liberia-and particu- unmistakably clear: unless the Doe treatment of Liberian employees and larly those that have had substantial government wants to pursue a customers, and outright cheating. trade and investment relations- self-destructive policy reminiscent Reference was also made to the fact have been more complex. With that the Lebanese had been able suc- of in Uganda, its innovative these states the regime may actu- options at the present time are cessfully to manipulate the political sys- tem to circumvent immigration laws, ally be caught in a vicious cycle severely restricted. This was re- relationship. The death of Tolbert flected not only in some of the ownership of reserved industries, and export controls. Lebanese as a group and the others on the day of the immediate postcoup actions, such stood immediately in the path of coup brought forth public criticism as the public reassurances of over- quickest advancement for Liberians with of the scope of the killing and a con- seas investors, to owners of ships a modicum of capital and talents. This sequent delay in extending full dip- registered under the Liberian flag was true not only of retailing, but also lomatic acceptance of the Doe (which provides a substantial por- minor crafts such as barbering, tailor- government. This attitude by tion of the Liberian government's ing, and the like. With their extended family connections, Lebanese were in Liberia's former friends, it was sug- revenues), to local bankers, and in gested, heightened the sense of in- particular to Lebanese merchants.3 control of the whole nexus from pro- duction to wholesaling to retailing and security on the part of the youthful 3. Master Sergeant Doe and other thus were in a better position to under- and inexperienced PRC members, members of government took deliberate sell a Liberian competitor or to engage in and it may have been a contributing steps during May to publicly reassure a more profitable barter arrangement. factor in the decision to televise the executions of the 13 Tolbert offi- but staggered withdrawal of depen- support in Monrovia upon Doe's cials. The latter action constituted a dent wives and children from both return did not mask the fact that the way of showing the world that the public and private American enter- regime had suffered a crushing dip- old regime was finished and that the prises, including missionaries. lomatic rebuff. PRC was in charge. The executions, American AID assistance, which Private as well as official Liberians of course, had the reverse effect in had amounted to $10.5 million in found this diplomatic "quarantine" that they further aggravated the 1979, had gone into a "slowdown" of the Doe government difficult to problem of international recognition. phase with little concrete discussion comprehend. Several pointed out The new round of criticism and of new projects. As one senior that, until now, it had become admonition regarding a "blood official put it, "We cannot afford to almost a cardinal rule among bath" intensified the psychological be ahead of the African states on African states that new regimes isolation of the Doe group. And still this issue." There were some would be quickly afforded diplo- feeling paranoid about the pros- positive signs of cautious support, matic recognition no matter what pects of a countercoup, the PRC however, such as the special visit of the character of the leadership or retroactively sanctioned the June 14 Assistant Secretary of State Richard how they came to power. Thus, the Moose early in June and the con- storming of the French Embassy by bloody military coups in in tinued presence of the Peace Corps several officers who arrested the 1963, in Nigeria in 1966, and in at almost full strength. In general, fugitive A. Benedict Tolbert.4 Since Ethiopia in 1974 did not materially however, Liberians both in and out the late President's son had boasted affect the question of recognition. of government expressed great about being his father's successor, Relations, moreover, have seldom anxiety regarding their being "de- the capture of A. B. Tolbert had par- been terminated no matter how serted by our American friends." ticular symbolic significance to the repugnant the actions of political Several contacts expressed the view regime, regardless of the inter- leaders. Witness, in this regard, the that the official American coolness national consequence. The United elevation of Idi Amin to the Chair- States attempted to keep its note of "reflected a serious lack of under- manship of the OAU during the protest about the incident low key, standing of the real nature of the height of his outrageous massacre but the European Parliament passed Whig oppression." of fellow Ugandans. a resolution urging the nine members of the European Economic In contrast to the diplomatic posture The animosity of certain states was Community to "review relations of the trading and investing states, more understandable than the between the Community and the the attitudes of most of Liberia's group behavior of African states Liberian government in its capacity African neighbors bordered on a de toward Doe. The government of as a signatory of the Lome Conven- facto withholding of official recog- in Sierra Leone, for tion." This could have serious rami- nition. Although there were a num- example, had been faced with fications since earlier this year ber of bilateral visits and discussions serious internal disorders and much Liberia had received over $10.2 between officials of the Doe govern- of the recent criticism parallels that million in compensation under the ment and government leaders in directed against Tolbert for the treaty for losses in iron ore sales re- Nigeria, the Ivory Coast, and else- lavish expenditures involved in sulting from the steel industry crisis where, the African diplomatic hosting the OAU in July 1980. in Europe. pressure was exerted within the Houphouet Boigny of the lvory context of multilateral gatherings. Coast, as head of a very conserva- Despite the various reservations of The African Development Bank, for tive capitalistic society, could hardly the major trade and investing states, instance, canceled its April meeting welcome a revolutionary regime on the West and Japan generally had scheduled for Monrovia. The new his doorstep even if he did not have continued full diplomatic relations Foreign Minister, Gabriel Baccus the personal connection with A. with the new regime. This was cer- Mathews, was refused landing Benedict Tolbert, who is married to tainly true of the United States, rights in Lagos by the Nigerian his ward. The leaders of still other which not only had roughly $1 government when he attempted to states may have been alarmed by billion in trade, banking, and invest- attend a special economic summit Doe's statement on the morning of ment interests in Liberia but also the meeting of the OAU on April 25. the coup that he would "not rest largest contingent of expatriates (an Subsequently, the Liberian Defense until every inch of African soil is estimated 6,000 at the time of the Minister was not invited to a liberated." coup). The American government, meeting of Defense Ministers of the nevertheless, indicated its dis- Economic Community of West The more general withholding of pleasure with the assassination of African States (ECOWAS) on May acceptance may stem from a Tolbert, the subsequent executions, 12. The greatest blow, however, reluctance to support a regime and the assault on the French came when Master Sergeant Doe which just assassinated a hard- Embassy. There was also an orderly and his 24-person delegation was working incumbent Chairman of the refused admission to the ECOWAS OAU (no matter how unwarranted 4. The late President's son had taken summit meeting in Lorn&, Togo, on Tolbert's apparent popularity may refuge in the French Embassy three days May 27. Nigeria and the lvory Coast have been). In addition, the coup after the coup. He apparently divulged had led the move against Doe de- came after a period of about 12 his own whereabouts because of his in- spite,the fact that he had flown to months in which the African polit- sistence on making frequent telephone calls from the Embassy guesthouse. He Lome as a guest on the private plane ical milieu had taken a decided turn was charged with corruption and of President S6kou Tour6 of Guinea. for the best. Not only had the treason. The courageous display of popular unholy trinity of Amin, Bokassa, and Nguema been removed from power, Friendship for the Doe regime, key in re-establishing relations with but a number of major states-in- however, did come from one un- Liberia's other African neighbors. cluding Ghana and Nigeria-had expected source, namely SQkou Tour6, for example, is assumed to witnessed a return to civilian rule. Tour6 of Guinea. Some Liberians have played a key role in arranging As President Sangoule Lamizana of suspected that it was decidedly self- both the meeting of the Presidents Upper Volta stated after the Lome serving. SQkou Tour6, after all, had of the Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone, snub of Master Sergeant Doe: perhaps delayed the inevitable Guinea, Togo, and Liberia at "Everybody can change their revolution by coming to the support Abidjan on June 16, and a similar regime, but the methods used in of Tolbert during the 1979 Rice meeting in Doe's capital late in Liberia are a dishonor to Africa, and Riots. Tour6, moreover, hoped not June, on the eve of the OAU we wanted to show that." Finally, only to continue to have access to meeting in Freetown. Tour6's ges- there is the obvious self-serving the free port of Monrovia as well as ture may ultimately bring the dip- nature of the hostility to the Doe the possibility of sending his iron ore lomatic acceptance that still eludes regime: no regime, after all, looks and other commodities from eastern the Doe regime. With this problem forward to the prospect of its own Guinea to the new port at behind it, the reduction of psycho- physical demise in the wake of a Buchanan. Thus good relations logical tensions may then permit the successful coup. were in Guinea's interest. A more government seriously to address its charitable interpretation was that critical domestic problems. Inter- No matter what the rationale for the Tour6 remembered his own lonely national recognition may also pro- diplomatic quarantine, it did make days in 1957 when his defiance of vide the signal to the IMF and the governing in Liberia all that more France in securing Guinean inde- World Bank that the Doe regime has difficult. Liberian hostility focused in pendence had led many African and at least the possibility of enduring particular on Nigeria, which had led other states to deny him recognition until Liberia decides the exact the ostracism at Lagos and Lome. for fear of offending France. nature of its future political, eco- Indeed, the intensity of bitterness nomic, and social system. toward Nigeria following Doe's Whatever the rationale, SQkou return from Lome caused many Tour6 was the first African head of (July 1980) Nigerian businessmen in Monrovia state to invite Doe to visit him. to shutter their shops and leave Despite giving Doe a "Dutch Uncle" town. It was only the cool lecture on human rights and the counseling of Secretary of Educa- need to be "honest and sincere in tion Fahnbulleh and Dean Amos dealing with those you govern," this Sawyer that prevented students action proved crucial during the from various high schools and the early difficult days of the regime. University of Liberia from marching The Guinean diplomatic link later on the Nigerian Embassy. The feel- provided Liberia with an advocate in ing was that Nigeria was not only the delicate discussions with France flexing its muscle as the "super- over the incident at the French Em- power" of but that it bassy, and it might be the significant was acting hypocritically as well. After all, Nigeria had not only had three coups (at least one very bloody) but had also undergone a three-year civil war because of its own interethnic hostilities. Thus, in addition to Liberia recalling ambas- sadors from the Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone, ECOWAS, and the Mano River Union, Nigeria was singled out for the closing of its Embassy in Monrovia, and Liberia withdrew its mission from Lagos. Why American Universities Who subscribes to AUFS Now AUFS Reports are Field Staff Reports are so Reports? better than ever. valuable:

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