140 Kanaka Labour in Queensland, [ises-mi]

Mr. B. H. MOLESWOETH, M.A. (Bead at a meeting of the Society on 6th July, 1916.) . Kanakas, as labourers from the Pacific Islands have been termed, were imported into Queensland during 42 years, viz., 1863-1904. For the subject of my paper to­ night I have selected that period of their labour here, viz., 1863-1871, during which their introduction was not regulated by the

* Benjamin Boyd (1796-1850). See Henniker Heaton, Austra­ lian Dictionary and Dates, pt. 1, p. 23. 141 fortunes was to make it self-supporting. It was recog­ nised that the colony could not thrive while producing only pastoral products, and the early legislators turned their attention to the encouragement of agriculture on the coast lands. The first thing to be done in the promotion of agri­ culture was to supply the necessary factors of production. The land was at once supplied by the Government by means of the Crown Lands Alienation Act, while cotton was suggested as a crop by means of a bonus offered to the cultivators of the cotton plant. But in turning to afford a supply of the next factor—labour—the Government were confronted by the same problem which had been puzzling the squatters for several years—the non exist­ ence of the requisite type of colonist. The contribution of the Government to the solution of this problem was the Coolie Act of 1862, empowering the Governor-in-Coumoil to make regulations for tht intro­ duction of immigrants from British India.* But a few private capitalists proved the possibility of another and a different solution, by bringing to Queensland cheap black labourers from some of the South Sea Islands. The first kanakas brought to Queensland arrived in the schooner Don Juan, on August 14th, 186'3. The man responsible for this first shipload was Captain Robert Towns, t Formerly he had been a merchant and shipper in , and his business caused him to make several trading voyages to some of the Pacific islands. WhilvJ on these voyages he had employed on his vessels and in other ways, and learning soon to esti­ mate the worth of these men, decided to repeat Boyd's experiment, while at the same time attempting to avoi

• These regulations will be found in the Qd. Govt. 'Gazette of 11th February, 1863; for the corresponding Indian Legislation and Eegulations see ib. 8th July, 1864. t Bobert Towns (1794-1873). See Henniker Heaton, Australian Dictionary of Dates, pt. 1, p. 206. He is said to have appeared after his death to members of his family. See Gurney, Phantasms of the Living, vol. II., p. 2'13. 142 to obtain islanders for. him. This agent, Mr. Ross Lewift, made a sucicessful voyage and reached Moreton Bay on August 14th, with 67 labourers on board. The fact that this news was communicated to the city during the day accounts for the following paragraph in the Brisbane "Courier" of August 17th, under the heading "Shipping Arrivals":—"August 15th, Don Juan, schooner, Captain , from Sydney." From Brisbane the natives were taken by Captain Towns to his land on the Logan River, and there set to work on the cotton plantation which he was making. Sleeping huts and a large mess room were erected, and the men at once settled down to their new mode of life. The wages stipulated in their agreements were 10/- per month and rations. Such are the circumstances which attended the arrival of the first body of kanakas in Queensland, their introdulction being carried out by a private capitalist. But public attention was very soon to be called to these new labourers, and at once it was evident that there were two opposing opinions concerning the principle of their introduction. An article appeared in the "North Australian" on August 20th, and was copied by the "Courier" on the 22nd, entitled "The Slave Trade in Queensland." This article was based upon what it termed a "mysterious dialogue" between Mr. Pugh and the Colonial Secretary in the House. The dialogue referred to had caused the writer to make enquiries, through which he ascertained the facts of the arrival of the kanakas. The article then proceeded violently to attaiek Captain Towns for institut­ ing the "slave trade in Queensland," and ended by ac­ cusing the Government of "winking at" the whole trans­ action. A reply to this article was written to the "Courier" of August 24th, and a further letter on 28th by Mr. W. H. Palmer. These letters pointed out that the transaction was perfectly lawful, that the natives had been properly hired and were well provided for, and spoke of the kanakas as "British subjects," and "fellow colonists hired for 12 months." This argument during August, 1863, shows that from the very fiirst introduction of the kanakas there were two distinct and opposing bodies of opinion in regard to the principles involved. 143 From the various articles written against the impor tation of the new labour, the chief reasons for opposition during the early sixties seem to have been economic; it was not opposed on sentimental, religious or humanitarian grounds until a few years later. For this reason the opposition at the outset made little headway because the efoonomic facts were all in favour of the introductiou. The opposition centred mainly around the argument that coloured aliens induced to spend a few years in Queens­ land were not such useful colonists as Europeans, who bring with them their wives and families with the inten­ tion of making a permanent home in the land, and that the latter kind of immigration would cease if the former were permitted. It was forgotten by such arguers that the former kind of immigrants would quickly make pro­ ductive large tracts of country upon which the latter kind of immigrants, with their wives and families, could then settle. It is significant that the "Courier," which had been opposing the importation of kanakas, speaking in an article on December 10th, 1863, of the great sicarcity of labour, asks "where can we get labourers to meet our requirements?" An answer was soon given and acted upon by other private persons, and during the ensuing few years the scarcity of labour and the necessity for obtaining it somewhere led to the further importation of kanakas in gradually increasing numbers. On August 18th Captain Towns had landed the 67 kanakas at his plantation on the Logan River and set them to work. In spite of the controversy in the Press and the questions in the Assembly, it was only when some months later Towns despatched to Brisbane bullock teams driven by kanakas, that the majority of the city residents fully realised that these men had been landed and were working in the colony. The realisation of the fact caused no small amount of excitement, and many persons paid a visit to the plantation, which was de­ scribed with glowing terms in letters to the Press. The apparent .success of the experiment formed the subject of a despatch to the Secretary of State for the Colonies, while a large grant of land was at the same time made by the Government to Captain Towna for experimental cul­ tivation. 144

During the following year, Towns' example was followed by Captain the Hon. Louis Hope* who, obtaining land at Ormiston, near Cleveland, took there in July, 54 kanakas who had been landed by the schooner Uncle Tom from the islands. With these men he speedily cleared the land, but then, instead of planting cotton, as had Towns, he planted sugar-cane. Thus, to Towns we owe the first experiment in the economic use of kanakas, but to Hope, the first applica­ tion of them to the cultivation of cane,—the first leom- bination of those two factors—^kanakas and sugar—which has done so much to develop the Queensland littoral. This experiment of Hope's was successful beyond all ex­ pectation. The cane grew marvellously well, but more important still, the kanakas were found to be suited better to the work of the cane field than to that of the cotton field. During the next two years, 1866-6, several planta­ tions were taken up near Brisbane, chiefly in the neigh­ bourhood of Caboolture, and on the Logan and Nerang Rivers, and these, when cleared, were all put under cane. With the number of plantations there grew simultaneously the demand for kanakas. Planters obtained the men through agents, termed recruiting agents, who made it their business to obtain the islanders and bring them to Queensland. Quite a fleet of recruiting vessels came into existenioe, and each year saw an increase in the number of kanakas imported. To the 67 brought over in the first batch, 134 were added in 1864, while in the following year there was a further increase when 148 were obtained. In 1866 the total introduced during the year reached 177, while in 1807 no less than 1237 dark-skins were landed in the colony. Several factors contributed to the swelling of the demand for these men to so great an extent. In the first place, capitalists who had been unwilling to risk an un­ certain investment were assured by 1867 not only that the new type of labour was a success, but that it could be turned to very profitable account, and so were no longer shy of the investment. Secondly, it had been clearly demonstrated on two plantations in the Bowen district, where a shipment of kanakas was landed in 1865, that the tropical littoral was peculiarly well adapted to the culti­ vation of sugar-cane; while, thirdly, the Government

• Ante, p. 40. 145 stepped in and offered specially easy terms in the pur­ chase of land to persons undertaking to use that land for the cultivation of sugar-cane. Again the fact causing m 1867 an increase in the demand was the addition of the squatter class to the number of employers using kanakas. The squatters, seeing the success and prosperity which the kanakas were bringing to the planters, decided to experiment further in the use of them. Batches of kanakas were obtained through the recruiting agents and taken across the ranges to work as shepherds, station hands, and road labourers., Taking lesson from the ' earlier failure in New South Wales, the upland squatters, especially during the winter, studied the dietary and social needs of the island men, which they could now learn from those on the plantations, with the result that kanakas on Queensland stations proved far more satis­ factory workmen and much less prone to sickness than their predecessors in New South Wales. For those various reasons then, the number of island­ ers in the country increased. The success of the new colony seemed assured, and as Governor Sir George Bowen wrote to the Duke of Newcastle: "In the employ- ment of colored labour Queensland has the potentiality of becoming rich beyond the dreams of avarice."* During 1867 seven vesselst were engaged in the island labour trade, and two of them made two voyages during the one year. The King Oscar alone in two voy­ ages landed 507 labourers. For two years after their first introduction all the natives were landed at Moreton Bay, but on July 16th, 1865, a shipment was landed for the first time at a port further north. On that day the Telegraph, under Captain William Banner, landed 30 at Bowen. By March 4th, 1868, 2107 kanakas had been brought to the colony, but at the beginning of that month only 1539 are known to have been employed. Of the remain­ ing 568, about half—^277—^had been taken back to their native islands, 30 had engaged themselves to beche-de- mer fishers, and one had been taken to England. The whereabouts of 260 were unknown, and it is probable that about 100 had died and the remainder were undertaking casual employment. ' * Qd. Miseel. Papers, No. 169. f'Priftia Donna," "Fanny Nicholson," "King Oscar (two voyages), "City of Meflboume" (2), "Mary Smith," "Sptinkie," "Heather Bell." 146

Of the 1539 islanders at work in the colony, 771 were employed in agricultural work, 697 in pastoral work, and 71 as servants of various descriptions an the tow^as. These figures show to what a great extent the squatters contributed during the early years of its introduction to the demand for cheap labour, and they bring baiek to memory that from 1840 to 1863, that is to say, long before the opening up of agricultural lands was thought of, the squatters were continuously crying out for labour­ ers and seeking some new source of supply. By March, 1868, kanaka labour, introduced primarily for agricultural purposes, had been adopted by the pastoralists, and the number officially returned as employed at pastoral work in the following districts were:—^Bowen 104, Cleveland Bay 46, Clermont lOO, Springsure 44, Dalby 46, Taroom 28, Nebo 62, Roma 29, while a further 200 were scattered through the colony. Of the 771 engaged in agricultural work—^mainly, of course, in the canefields—406 were employed in the Bris­ bane district, and 130 in the Wide Bay district.* The remaining 235 were at work further north, mainly outside Mackay and Bowen. t All the kanakas introduced prior to this date were obtained through the efforts of individual capitalists, and entirely without any Government intervention. Special kanaka agents were in existence, and the usual mode adopted was to obtain the men through such an agent. If not the owner of a vessel, the agent would hire a suit­ able craft and either travel himself to obtain the required labourers or depute the task to the skipper of the vessel. For each shipload of men a general agreement was drawn up to which each placed his "mark." The same terms were made in practically every case. The length of the period of service for which the islanders were engaged was invariably three years, their wages as a rule were stipulated as £6 per annum, in addition to rations and clothing, while the employer promised to secure for the labourer, at the expiry of his term of service, a return passage to his native land. The latter stipulation was always considered void if, in the opinion of the em­ ployer, the labourer in any way broke his side of the agreement. In fact, this promise of a return passage was

* Eeport of Immigration Agent, July 1868 (V. and P. 1868, p; 359: V. ana P. 1868-9, i>. 540). t Mackay 96, Bowen 148. . 147 the weakest of the many weak points in the existing system, and through the fault sometimes of the employer, aometimes of the agent, and sometimes of the skipper of the recruiting vessel, seems often to have been broken. All sources of information point to the fact that the "boys" were well treated during their sojourn in th^ colony. Employers were humane and kind, while the "boys" were happy and contented even in this early period before the days of Government supervision. But the methods by which the kanakas were obtained cannot be similarly praised. The accusations made against Queensland recruiters by missionaries, by naval officers, and by the politicians who augmented and exag­ gerated their yams—accusations of indiscriminate kid­ napping throughout the first 30 years of kanaka labour in Queensland—must be discountenanced. But there were two definite periods—1865-8 and 1880-4—during which kidnapping on a large scale was indulged in. Of these two peri(ids the first falls within the subject of this paper. Of recruiting voyages during the years 1865-8, we have no records, and of kidnapping no direct proof. Be­ fore 186S there was no inspection of vessels or of natives on arrival in port, and before 1871 there were no Govern­ ment Agents, while skippers and recruiters took good care to leave behind them few materials for history. The and Loyalty Islands formed the first field from which Polynesian labourers were drawn. Of the 1539 kanakas in the colony in March, 1868, 1021 had been brought from the New Hebrides and 438 from the Loyalties, while 37 were obtained from the Banks Islands, a small group immediately to the North of the Hebridc*. The majority came from four islands—-Sand­ wich and Tanna in the Hebrides, and Mare and Lijou in the Loyalties. These two groups of islands were bet­ ter known than other parts of Melanesia; being close to both and Fiji, they had been visited peri­ odically by various adventuring or trading vessels during 20 years prior to 1863, moreover, the natives of these two groups were known to be less savage and warlike than those on the islands further north. Therefore, when Queensland planters began to seek for Polynesian labour­ ers, agents selected these groups as the ground from which to obtain them. 148

The first recruiting agent was Ross Lewin, a sandal­ wood trader, who had been frequenting the islands since 1840. He had acquired land on the island of Tanna, and had gradually gained a great influence over the natives there. He it was whom Captain Towns employed to obtain for ;him his first two batches of islanders in 1863 and 1864 in the vessels "Don Juan" and "Uncle Tom."^ He then remained on shore to manage Towns' plantation for three years, and so, until he set out once more in the "King Oscar" in 1867, no more "boys" were obtained by him. Other agents entered on the scene in 1865, and it was in this year that I would place the commencement of kidnapping. Previously the only agent who obtained kanakas was Lewin, and although Captain Palmer, R.N.^ stated in 1869 during the Daphne trial, that he believed Lewin to be a pirate, and Captain Markham, B.N., in 1871 said that he was the most successful man-stealer in the islands, yet it is highly improbable that he did kidnap islanders. He lived for some time on Tanna, and in later years returned there, and it was admitted by Governor Blackall in a despatch to the Home Government, that the man possessed the confidence of, and a great influence over, the men of the New Hebrides. By means of this influenJoe, he was able to persuade "boys" to accompany him to Queensland, and work for him there. Undoubtedly he was a bad character, but it would have been contrary to his own interests to kidnap. Had he resorted to kid napping, he not only would have endangered his own life and property in Tanna, but he would have lost the confidence of the natives, and so been unable to obtain recruits easily in the future. He would thus have lost the profits which his position as most successful recruiter brought him. But other agents and new skippers entered upon the traffic in 1865, and their numbers increased each year. These new men knew neither the islanders nor any of the various dialects which they spoke, they could neither have persuaded "boys" to leave their homes nor could they have explained to them whither and for what they were being taken. Under the (circumstances, the only way in which boys could be obtained was by force. At that time too there was little possibility of definite news of their methods being made known. Moreover, we know of a certainty what was done under similar circumstances during the second period of kidnapping, 1880-4; when. 149 even under Government supervision, and with Govern^ ment agents on board, and when there was every chance of the facts being brought to light, unsuspecting natives were kidnapped by the hundred, and the most horrible atrocities committed. It is not likely that the recruiters,^ skippers and crews of the dozen vessels plying in the trade during the years 1865-8 were more scrupulous than those of 1880-4. By 1868 many "boys" had been taken ba;ck to thfr islands, and since during their absence they had learnt a little English it was possible to use them as interpreters. The practice was adopted gradually of engaging inter­ preters for each vessel, through whom the recruiter was able to converse with the islanders, and persuade them to go to Queensland. Interpreters were also used at the Queensland ports by the immigration agents, and inspec­ tors appointed under the Government scheme of control after 1868. Moreover, "boys" as a rule were satisfied with their sojourn in Queensland, and both would advise their friends to enlist, and oftentimes would engage them­ selves for a second term. It became possible then, to obtain kanakas without kidnapping them, and the estab­ lishment of Government control made it wise in agents to utilise the possibilities. The "bush telegraph" was begin­ ning to operate in the Hebrides regions for the numbers of both missionaries and traders there began to increase, and with them the liability of news to travel. The general mode of obtaining "boys" changed from kidnapping to a legitimate system. But down to 1868, uncontrolled by any Government, and left entirely in the hands of private individuals, there was ample room for abuse not only in the reieruiting of the. labourers, but also in the treatment of them, while in the colony and in the returning of them to their homes. By the beginning of 1868 it was impera­ tive that the Government should no longer continue to disregard the conditions existing in connection with this body of labour which from small beginnings in 1863 had expanded until it formed a large and most important item in the industrial system of the colony. The Government seems to have been loth to identify itself with the introduction of kanakas. Many members of Parliament had been amongst the first to employ kanakas, and from 1863 the intention was implicit of some time officially recognising their importation. But as there was reason tc expect that such action would arouse great 150 opposition from a large section of the population, the Government wished not only that the economic benefits derived from kanaka labour should become quite evident before the subject was brought up for discussion in Parlia­ ment, but also that for as long a period as possible, the question should remain in doubt as to whether it would regulate or abolish the new labour. However, the large proportions which the labour trade had taken by 1868 made it imperative to do one thing or the other. This fact was realised and the subject was introduced in the Assem­ bly in 1867, by Mr. A. H. Palmer, Colonial Secretary in the Mackenzie Ministry. The general opinion of the House was soon seen to be in favour of the continued introduction of the kanakas, but members contended that such introduction should be controlled by the Govern­ ment, and that measures should be taken to safeguard the interests of the islanders. A Bill was introduced for this purpose, but after discussion, it was withdrawn in Novem- her. Early in 1868 a similar Bill was introduced, and after passing quickly through all its stages, was assented to on March 4th, 1868* The Act was an honest attempt to do what it claimed —to "provide efficient regulation and control of the in­ troduction and treatment of the kanakas." The majority of the clauses had to do with the process of introduction, showing that the framers realised that it was not in the eolony itself, but outside its boundaries, on labour vessels, and in the islands that abuses did or were likely to exist. But the most important part of the Act was clause 5, " fhe Governor, with the advice of the Executive Council, shall appoint from time to time such person or persons as shall he found requisite for the proper inspection of the said Polynesian labourers and for enforcing the provisions of this Act." But it was some years before the powers conferred by this clause were used, and many more years before the regulations issued under the clause were effi­ ciently carried out. Had the Executive really taken the eontrol of the traffic in hand, and energetically seen that the provisions of this Act were strictly adehered to, much of the subsequent trouble in connection with the traffic would have been obviated, the abuses which were later revealed icould not have existed, and ground would not have been provided for the various bodies of opposi­ tion to work upon, or facts for them to augment and exag- *31 Vict., No. 47. "The Polynesian Labourers Act of 1868," 151 gerate. But although the Legislature had placed this com­ prehensive piece of legislation upon the Statute Book, the Executive failed for several years to give satisfactory force to all its provisions. The immediate result of the passing of the Act was that publicity was given to the fact that coloured labour was being introduced in large quantities into the colony. Previously a large section of the population were in ignor­ ance of the large numbers of kanakas who had been imported during 1866-7. Such persons now took steps to ascertain the fa)ots. Others who had known the facts of the case, but who had expected the Government shortly to prohibit the trade, were now disillusioned. Some few did all in their power to act upon and augment the popu­ lar nervousness. The newspapers, especially the "Bris­ bane Courier," and the "Sydney Morning Herald," at once took up the cudgels for the opposition to the Gov­ ernment measure, while petitions were largely signed and sent to Parliament and the Governor. Finally the Imperial Government was approached on the subject, and there began a series of despatches from it to the Government of Queensland, which were concerned chiefly with alleged cases of kidnapping by Queensland recruiting vessels in the South Seas. This same period saw the beginning of the formation of a definite party—^the Liberal—^in oppo­ sition to the squatter-planter representatives who hitherto had held a monopoly of power. The new party seized eagerly upon this contentious question, and made the lory, "anti-kanaka" one of the chief planks of their platform. The first signs which presaged the coming struggle were two petitions which were presented to Parliament. One, adopted at a public meeting in Sydney was not accepted by the House; but another adopted at a public meeting in Brisbane on March 30th, met a-better fate. The Hon. Charles Lilley, Premier and Attorney- General, writing to the Governor in reply to the petition, contradicted its two basic ideas, and at the same time showed the intentions of the Government in regard to kanaka labour. He held that a certain number of kan­ akas would be useful in developing the resources of the colony, but that they must always retain the essential conditions of "free labour." The Government intended, he said, to make them a "temporary aid" to the toolony, and not to encourage their "permanent settlement" there.*

* See Votes and Proceedings, Qd., session of 1868-9, page 561 152 The next body to make their voices heard in opposi­ tion were the missionaries, and they proved more powerful than any of the former, for they brought in their train the Imperial Government. The following paragraph of a despatch from Earl Granville, the Secretary of State, to the Governor, dated April 23rd, 1869, shows the particular aspect of this whole question which troubled the Imperial Government: "As this matter affects foreign, though uncivilised countries.'' he wrote, '' and also the honour of the British name,'' the Queensland Government was asked to give the matter seri­ ous attention, in order that Her Majesty's Government might be able either to vindicate the colony or to take steps necessary to prevent such emigration.* In face of so much opposition both within and with­ out the colony, the Government decided to subject the whole kanaka question to a searching inquiry. On May 14th, 1869, in the Legislative Assembly, Mr. Francis moved, "That a select Committee be appointed with power to send for persons and papers . . .for the purpose of taking evidence and reporting on thie operation of the Polynesian Labourers' Act of 1868." This motion was passed and the committee which investi­ gated the subject consisted of Hon. A. Hodgson (Col. Secretary), Dr. O'Doherty, and Messrs. Francis, Jordan, Sandeman, Edmonstone, and Forbes. The sittings lasted over a period of three months, during which time repre­ sentatives of the various bodies of opponents of kanaka labour, in addition to planters, squatters, and the Immi­ gration Agent (Mr. John McDonnell) t were examined. The report of this committee stated in effect that not only did the Polynesian Act provide amply for the comfort and protection of the kanakas while resident within the colony, but that the administration of the Act in this particular was good, that the inspectors of Polynesians

* Qd. Votes and Proceedings, Session of 1869, vol II., p. 17. t Mr. John McDonnell was born in Ireland in 1829, and im­ migrated to Australia in 1853. He resided in Sydney until 1860, when he entered the Public Service of Queensland. He was for a time chief clerk in the Police Department, and later was appointed Immigration Agent. He then became Under Secretary of the Post and Telegraph Department, and later a member of the Public Service Board. He retired after 45 years' service, and died on 23rd February, 1917. Dr. Aeneas McDonnell, of Too­ woomba, is his son. Mr. McDonnell was an enthusiastic volun­ teer, and attained to the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel. 158

in the various districts had performed their tasks well, and that the good treatment of the kanakas while on the recruiting vessels was rendered more probable by the inspection of the vessels by the Customs' officers at the various ports. But it was evident that while the pro­ visions dealing with the recruiting of natives in the South Seas were good, yet there was absolutely no assurance that those provisions were maintained, and that the only possible means of obtaining this assurance was the ap­ pointment to the recruiting vessel of an agent respon­ sible to the Government for the strict maintenance of the Polynesian Labourers' Act in all its particulars.* The report of the committee was laid on the table of the House on August 26th, 1869, but no effect was given to this fundamental recommendation for 17 months. On February 1st, 1871, an Order in Council was issued providing for the appointment of Government agents on recruiting vessels, and giving instructions to such agents.t This Order was issued under clause 5 of the Act of 1868. The responsibility for the proper conduct of the whole system of recruiting kanakas devolved upon these Gov­ ernment agents. It was essential that the Government should realise the importance of the position of their agents, and that there should be appointed as such, only men who would be likely to perform their tasks with a stri'ct sense of duty—^men who would command the con­ fidence of the public. But once more the Government showed itself lax in the administration of excellent regu­ lations. It had been spurred on by the Imperial authori­ ties to appoint agents, but it begrudged any accompanying expense. The funds necessary for the payment of the agents were raised by means of a 10/- tax on employers, but this small tax did not provide a sum sufficient to enable large enough salaries to be paid. The new officers reioeived payment at the rate of only £10 per month, and for such a salary, so little commensurate with the risks involved, competent men could only be obtained with much trouble, and the administration seldom took the trouble necessary. The issuing of these regulations was followed in 1871 by an increase of 592 in the number of kanakas in the colony. This increase continued annually. Not only had

* Progress Bepont and Minutes of Evidence, Qd. Votes and Proceedings, 1869, vol. II., p. 19. t Qd. Govt. Gazette, vol. XIl., p. 202. 154 the experiment of kanaka labour proved successful, but after February, 1871, it was realised that the Government did not intend to prohibit it. The Coolies were left in India, Queensland had found a better paying labour mine than India, one situated at her very door. The search for cheap and efficient labour was ended. A steady stream of black labourers poured in year by year. With land and labour in abundance, leapital was of course attracted. The primeval scrub was cleared, the coastal lands were planted with crops. Many years after 1871, Essex Evans, in writing a poem to Queensland, was able to say: "Below thy coast-line's rugged height. Wide cane-fields glisten in the iight. And towns arise on hill and lea. And one fair city, where the bright, Broad, winding river sweeps to sea." To the attainment of this end, portrayed by Essex Evans, Queensland was materially assisted by those good- tempered, honest, reliable, dark-skinned islanders whom we have always known as kanakas.