Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Polk County, Florida
By P.A. Metz and B.R. Lewelling
Prepared in cooperation with the Southwest Florida Water Management District
Scientific Investigations Report 2009–5140
U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Department of the Interior KEN SALAZAR, Secretary U.S. Geological Survey Suzette M. Kimball, Acting Director
U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2009
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Suggested citation: Metz, P.A., and Lewelling, B.R., 2009, Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Polk County, Florida: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2009-5140, 82 p.
978 1 4113 2545 6 iii iii
Contents
Acknowledgments...... ix Abstract...... 1 Introduction...... 2 Purpose and Scope...... 4 Methods of Investigation...... 4 Previous Investigations...... 6 Upper Peace River Basin Characteristics...... 6 Climate...... 8 Hydrography...... 10 Land Use...... 10 Soils...... 15 Groundwater Use...... 15 Geologic Framework...... 19 Geologic Cores...... 21 Karst Development...... 23 Hydrogeology...... 24 Surficial Aquifer...... 24 Intermediate Aquifer System...... 24 Upper Floridan Aquifer...... 25 Potentiometric Surface...... 29 Long-Term Trends in Groundwater Levels...... 30 Streamflow...... 31 River Channel Characteristics Affecting Upper Peace River Flows...... 31 Streamflow Conditions (2002-2007 Water Years)...... 35 Discharge-Duration Hydrographs and Curves...... 44 Effects of Karst Development on Streamflow Losses...... 49 Seepage Investigations...... 49 Karst Features along the Upper Peace River...... 53 Streamflow Losses to Karst Features...... 53 Effects of Groundwater Conditions on Streamflow Losses...... 67 Groundwater Flow Patterns Surrounding the Upper Peace River...... 68 Flow Patterns Derived from Chemical Constituents and Isotopic Tracers...... 71 Influence of Large Karst Features on Flow Patterns and Streamflow Losses...... 75 Summary and Conclusions...... 77 References Cited...... 79 iv
Figures
1. Map showing location of the upper Peace River basin and the localized study areas along the upper Peace River, Polk County, Florida...... 3 2. Map showing physiographic subdivisions and location of sinkholes in the upper Peace River basin...... 7 3. Graphs showing annual rainfall at Bartow, Florida (1900-2007), and rainfall departure, 5-year moving average of this departure, and changes in the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation...... 9 4. Graph showing Palmer Drought Severity Index for the study area for the 2001 to 2007 water years...... 10 5-8. Maps showing: 5. Historical hydrography (1850-1855) of the upper Peace River basin...... 12 6. Historical (1850-1855) and current (1985) hydrography of the upper Peace River basin...... 13 7. Land use in the upper Peace River basin, 2005...... 14 8. Generalized soil types in the upper Peace River basin...... 16 9. Graph showing location of the Southern West-Central Florida Groundwater Basin, estimated groundwater use in the Southern West-Central Florida Groundwater Basin and in the upper Peace River basin, and estimated groundwater use by category in the upper Peace River basin, 1992 through 2005...... 17 10. Map showing major water-use categories and pumpage distribution for groundwater withdrawn from the Upper Floridan aquifer in the upper Peace River basin, 2005...... 18 11. Graph showing relation of stratigraphic and hydrogeologic units...... 19 12. Geologic cross-section along the upper Peace River and water levels for study wells that indicate recharging conditions (June 1, 2007)...... 20 13. Map showing location of stream gaging stations, geologic cores, sinks, and groundwater monitoring and water-quality sampling sites...... 22 14. Photograph showing secondary porosity of the Arcadia Formation within the intermediate aquifer system (Gator Sink)...... 25 15-17. Graphs showing: 15. Geophysical logs for well site LW1P...... 26 16. Geophysical logs for well site LW3P...... 27 17. Geophysical logs for well site LW4P...... 28 18. Map showing predevelopment and May 2007 potentiometric-surface levels and regional groundwater flow patterns of the Upper Floridan aquifer within the upper Peace River basin...... 29 19. Graph showing long-term discharge from Kissengen Spring, and long-term water levels in observation wells tapping the Upper Floridan aquifer and intermediate aquifer system...... 31 20. Maps showing changes in the potentiometric surface of the Upper Floridan aquifer between predevelopment and May 1975 and May 2007 levels for the Southern West-Central Florida Groundwater Basin, and between predevelopment and May 2007 and September 2007 levels for the Upper Peace River basin...... 32 21. Graph showing comparison of potentiometric-surface profiles of the Upper Floridan aquifer for predevelopment and recent conditions...... 33 22. Map showing locations of stream Reaches 1-4 and discharge measurement sites on the Peace River and tributaries during seepage runs...... 34 v
Figures (Continued)
23-29. Graphs showing: 23. Departure from the average discharge and rainfall for the 2002-2007 water years...... 35 24. Daily mean discharge for Reaches 1 and 2 for the 2002 water year, the 2002 low-flow period, and daily mean discharge for Reach 3 for the partial 2002 water year...... 36 25. Daily mean discharge for Reaches 1 and 2 for the 2003 water year, the 2003 low-flow period, and daily mean discharge for Reach 3 for the 2003 water year...... 37 26. Daily mean discharge for Reaches 1 and 2 for the 2004 water year, the 2004 low-flow period, and daily mean discharge for Reach 3 for the 2004 water year...... 38 27. Daily mean discharge for Reaches 1 and 2 for the 2005 water year, a high-flow period during 2005, and daily mean discharge for Reach 3 for the 2005 water year...... 39 28. Daily mean discharge for Reaches 1 and 2 for the 2006 water year, the 2006 low-flow period, and daily mean discharge for Reach 3 for the 2006 water year...... 40 29. Daily mean discharge for Reaches 1 and 2 for the 2007 water year, the 2007 low-flow period, and daily mean discharge for Reach 3 for the 2007 water year...... 41 30. Maps showing land-surface elevation contours along the upper Peace River at 88, 90, 92, and 94 feet above NGVD 1929...... 46 31-35. Graphs showing: 31. Approximate range of water-level elevations for which the upper Peace River is within the main channel...... 47 32. Daily flow-duration hydrographs for Peace River at Bartow, water years 1940 through 2007...... 47 33. Discharge-duration curves for the Peace River at Bartow, Peace River near Bartow, and Peace River at Clear Springs gaging stations for the 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, and 2007 water years, with a long-term comparative curve for the Peace River at Bartow gaging station for the 1940-2007 water years...... 48 34. Comparison of flow losses and gains for seepage runs conducted during May 1996, May 2003, January 2006, and June 2006 from the Peace River at Bartow to the Peace River at Fort Meade gaging stations...... 50 35. Streamflow losses along Reaches 1 and 2 from the Peace River at Wabash to the Peace River at Clear Springs gaging stations...... 51 36. Map showing location of karst features in Reaches 1 and 2...... 54 37-39. Photographs showing: 37. Examples of karst features along the upper Peace River...... 56 38. Karst features in Reach 1 along the upper Peace River...... 58 39. Karst features in Reach 2 along the upper Peace River...... 59 40. Maps showing elevation of sinks and riverbed channel along the lower end of Reach 2, and detailed view of Dover Sink...... 64 41. Photographs showing changing hydrologic conditions at Dover Sink...... 65 vi
Figures (Continued)
42. Graph showing topographical profile of Peace River channel and Dover Sink Distributary...... 66 43. Photograph of inflow to Dover Sink Distributary from two sources—from Peace River flowing south and Sixmile Creek flowing north—and graph showing comparison of discharge from Peace River at Clear Springs and Sixmile Creek...... 66 44-49. Graphs showing: 44. Relation of streamflow losses to aquifer water levels in Reaches 1 and 2 during seepage measurements...... 67 45. Long-term hydrograph for ROMP 59 Avon Park Upper Floridan aquifer well and hydrographs for the study period for Upper Floridan aquifer wells at LW1P, LW3P, and LW4P monitor sites...... 69 46. Comparison of the Peace River stage and water levels in monitor wells completed at different depths in the intermediate aquifer system and Upper Floridan aquifer...... 70 47. Stiff diagrams for surface-water and groundwater sites along the upper Peace River...... 72 48. Delta deuterium in relation to delta oxygen-18 in Peace River surface water and groundwater at selected well sites and the percentage of river water in groundwater using delta oxygen-18...... 75 49. Comparison of water levels in wells and sinks within the upper Peace River karst area...... 76
Tables
1. Streamflow statistics for the upper Peace River and tributaries for the 2002-2007 water years...... 42-43 2. Computed and measured discharge at selected sites and total streamflow losses along Reaches 1 and 2 during below-average flow conditions...... 52 3. Location and description of major karst features along the upper Peace River...... 55 4. Discharge measurements of streamflow losses to karst features in Reaches 1 and 2 along the upper Peace River...... 57 5. Characteristics and data summary for wells and sinks located along the upper Peace River...... 69 vii
Conversion Factors
Multiply By To obtain
Length inch (in.) 2.54 centimeter (cm) foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m) mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer (km) Area acre (ac) 4,047 square meter (m2) acre (ac) 0.4047 hectare (ha) square foot (ft2) 0.09290 square meter (m2) square mile (mi2) 2.590 square kilometer (km2) Flow rate foot per second (ft/s) 0.3048 meter per second (m/s) cubic foot per second (ft3/s) 0.02832 cubic meter per second (m3/s) gallon per minute (gal/min) 0.003785 cubic meter per minute (m3/min) million gallons per day (Mgal/d) 0.04381 cubic meter per second (m3/s) inch per year (in/yr) 25.4 millimeter per year (mm/yr) Specific capacity gallon per minute per foot 0.2070 liter per second per meter [(gal/min)/ft)] [(L/s)/m] Hydraulic conductivity foot per day (ft/d) 0.3048 meter per day (m/d) Hydraulic gradient foot per mile (ft/mi) 0.1894 meter per kilometer (m/km)
foot squared per day (ft2/d) 0.09290 meter squared per day (m2/d) Temperature Celsius (°C) °F = (1.8 × °C) + 32 Fahrenheit (°F) Fahrenheit (°F) °C = (°F - 32) / 1.8 Celsius (°C)
Vertical coordinate information is referenced to the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD 1929). Horizontal coordinate information is referenced to North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83). Elevation, as used in this report, refers to distance above the vertical datum. *Transmissivity: The standard unit for transmissivity is cubic foot per day per square foot times foot of aquifer thickness [(ft3/d)/ft2]ft. In this report, the mathematically reduced form, foot squared per day (ft2/d), is used for convenience. Specific conductance is given in microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius (µS/cm at 25 °C). viii
Acronyms and Additional Abbreviations
AMO Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation EM electromagnetic FDEP Florida Department of Environmental Protection GPS global positioning system μS/cm microsiemens per centimeter NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration PDSI Palmer Drought Severity Index ROMP Regional Observation Monitoring Program SWCFGB Southern West-Central Florida Groundwater Basin SWFWMD Southwest Florida Water Management District USGS U.S. Geological Survey WWTP Waste Water Treatment Plant (Bartow)
Juvenile alligator; Gator Sink Distributary Photo credit: P.A. Metz, USGS ix
Acknowledgments
The authors express their appreciation to the Clear Springs Land Company for allowing access through their property to the State-owned Peace River corridor. Acknowledgments also are extended to the Florida Department of Environmental Protection and to the City of Bartow’s Waste Water Treatment Plant, who provided access and permitted the drilling of core and monitoring wells, installation of hydrologic instrumentation, and sampling of wells for water quality along the upper Peace River. Special acknowledgment is given to Charles Cook from the Florida Department Environmental Protection–Bureau of Mine Reclamation for providing historical and current information concerning the upper Peace River, photographic documentation of karst features, and assistance with field activities. The authors also thank Tom Jackson for his historical characterization and notable literature collection of the upper Peace River area.
The authors acknowledge the assistance of Southwest Florida Water Management District (SWFWMD) employees Vince Pelham and Robert Parker for performing the geophysical logging tests, Ted Gates, who was instrumental in analyzing slug and aquifer performance tests, and Tim Lohner for his field support. The authors also thank SWFWMD employees Ron Basso and Michael Beach for their constructive technical review comments.
The authors thank Florida Geological Survey geologists Tom Scott and Harley Means for their insight concerning the upper Peace River geology and Clint Kromhout and Nick John for describing the lithologic cores used in this study.
The authors acknowledge the assistance of U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) employees John Williams and Alton Anderson for performing the geophysical logging tests, and Laura Sacks for assisting in the isotopic analysis. Wil Causseaux and Jon Woolverton are recognized for the discovery of numerous important karst features and for the initial collection of discharge measurements in 1985 that have led to a better scientific understanding of streamflow losses along the upper Peace River. The authors thank Rick Spechler, Jonathan Gillip, and Larry Bohman for their constructive technical review comments. The authors also appreciate the editorial reviews of Amy Swancar, Arturo Torres, and Mike Deacon, which enhanced the clarity of the report, the assistance of James Tomberlin, who provided graphics support, and Twila Darden Wilson who designed and prepared the layout.
The authors also express their gratitude for field support or data analysis provided by the University of South Florida students Jason Bellino, Troy Benson, Ann Marie Bergmann, Mike Caron, Geoff Fouad, Corey Guthrie, Roger Hall, Scott Orr, William Pfeiffer, Ann Sava, Robert Schroeder, Samer Slaiby, Makhan Virdi, and Wes Wilbanks. x Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Polk County, Florida
By P.A. Metz and B.R. Lewelling
Abstract During this study (2002-2007 water years1), streamflow The upper Peace River from Bartow to Fort Meade, was influenced by climatic conditions. The discharge in Florida, is described as a groundwater recharge area, reflecting the river was greatest for the 2005 water year as a result of a reversal from historical groundwater discharge patterns that above-average rainfall that occurred over a 3-year period existed prior to the 1950s. The upper Peace River channel and (2003-2005). Average annual discharge for the 2005 water floodplain are characterized by extensive karst development, year at the Peace River at Bartow gaging station was 545 with numerous fractures, crevasses, and sinks that have been cubic feet per second, more than double the long-term average eroded in the near-surface and underlying carbonate bedrock. of 227 cubic feet per second for the 68 years of record. The discharge in the river was lowest during the 2007 water year, With the reversal in groundwater head gradients, river water when the cumulative rainfall deficit was almost 29 inches over is lost to the underlying groundwater system through these a 2-year period (measured from the long-term average rainfall karst features. An investigation was conducted to evaluate the of 54 inches). Average annual discharge for the 2007 water hydrologic conditions that influence streamflow losses in the year was only 18 cubic feet per second, and was the lowest on karst region of the upper Peace River. record for Peace River at Bartow. The upper Peace River is located in a basin that has been Seepage runs conducted along the upper Peace River, substantially altered by phosphate mining, changes in land from Bartow to Fort Meade, indicate that the greatest stream- use, and increases in groundwater use. These alterations have flow losses occurred along an approximate 2-mile section of changed groundwater flow patterns and caused streamflow the river, beginning about 1 mile south of the Peace River at declines through time. Hydrologic factors that have had the Bartow gaging station. Along the low-water and floodplain greatest influence on streamflow declines in the upper Peace channel of this 2‑mile section, there are about 10 prominent River include the lowering of the potentiometric surfaces of karst features that influence streamflow losses. Losses from the intermediate aquifer system and Upper Floridan aquifer the individual karst features ranged from 0.22 to 16 cubic beneath the riverbed elevation due to below-average rainfall feet per second based on measurements made between (droughts) and groundwater use, and the presence of numerous 2002 and 2007. Along the upper part of this 2‑mile section karst features in the low-water channel and floodplain that (in Reach 1), the largest and most consistent streamflow losses enhance the loss of streamflow. Other hydrologic factors that influence the decline in streamflow include changes in the 1 natural drainage patterns of contributing streams to the upper A 12-month period (October 1 through September 30), is typically used by the USGS for hydrologic data analysis. The water year includes parts of Peace River, and altered surface sediments that affect surface two calendar years; for example, the 2007 water year begins on October 1, runoff, infiltration, and baseflow characteristics. 2006 and ends September 30, 2007. 2 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida occurred at the Ledges Sink, with measured losses ranging Introduction from 1 to 8 cubic feet per second. At the end of this 2‑mile section (in Reach 2) is the most influential karst feature along the upper Peace River, Dover Sink, which had measured The upper Peace River from Bartow to Fort Meade, losses ranging from 2 to 16 cubic feet per second. The largest Florida, is described as a groundwater recharge area, measured flow loss for all the karst features in Reaches 1 reflecting a reversal from historical groundwater discharge and 2 was about 50 cubic feet per second, or about 32 million patterns that existed prior to the 1950s (fig. 1; Lewelling and gallons per day, on June 28, 2002. others, 1998). Historically, the floodplain along the upper Streamflow losses were related to the decline in the Peace River contained artesian wells and a second magnitude potentiometric surfaces of the intermediate aquifer system spring (Kissengen Spring) that discharged an average of and the Upper Floridan aquifer below the riverbed elevation 20 million gallons per day (Mgal/d) into the Peace River during below-average conditions along the upper Peace River. (Peek, 1951; Stewart, 1966). However, hydrologic conditions When groundwater levels were at their lowest level at the began to change as early as the 1930s, with an increase in groundwater use for mining and agriculture (Peek, 1951). end of the dry season (May and June), there was an increased Because of this increased water use, a 40-foot (ft) decline potential for streamflow losses. During this study, the largest in groundwater levels over a 20-year period resulted in the streamflow losses occurred at the beginning of the summer cessation of flow of the artesian wells and Kissengen Spring rainy season when discharge in the river increased and large (Peek, 1951). volumes of water were needed to replenish unfilled cavities The upper Peace River is located in an area where the and void spaces in the underlying aquifers. river and floodplain channels are characterized by extensive The response of the river to changing groundwater levels karst development where numerous fractures, crevasses, and was different in Reach 1 than in Reach 2. In Reach 1, the sinks have been eroded in the carbonate river channel. Because intermediate aquifer system is hydraulically connected to the of the reversal in groundwater head gradients, river water is river, and streamflow losses during below-average condi- lost to the underlying groundwater system through these karst tions were proportional to water-level changes in this aquifer. features. A trend analysis of long-term streamflow data from the During the dry season in Reach 1, there was an increased U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Bartow gaging station shows potential for streamflow losses as aquifer levels declined, and a significant decline in streamflow during the 1940s, 1950s, as aquifer levels increased during the rainy season, streamflow and 1960s, whereas streamflow during the 1970s remained gains were noted in Reach 1. However, in Reach 2 the relation statistically unchanged (Hammett, 1990). Another trend analysis between streamflow losses and aquifer level declines is more conducted from the 1970s to 2003 indicates a continuing complex. In Reach 2, the upper Peace River is connected to decline in streamflow (Spechler and Kroening, 2007). both the intermediate aquifer system and the Upper Floridan Over time, declines in streamflow and groundwater aquifer through a large conduit system that is associated with levels have been influenced by a number of factors. Losses Dover Sink. Because this conduit system is very large, it can have been attributed to the following: (1) long-term rainfall accommodate a large proportion of flow from the river at deficits and changes in wet season rainfall patterns (Basso multiple river stages. and Schultz, 2003); (2) large groundwater withdrawals that The underlying geology along the upper Peace River and have lowered the potentiometric surfaces of the intermediate floodplain is highly karstified, and aids in the movement and aquifer system and the Upper Floridan aquifer beneath the amount of streamflow that is lost to the groundwater system riverbed (Peek, 1951); (3) changes in the natural drainage patterns of contributing streams to the Peace River resulting in this region. Numerous karst features and fractured carbon- from agricultural, urban, and phosphate-mining development ates and cavernous zones observed in geologic cores and (Florida Department of Environmental Protection, 2007); geophysical logs indicate an active, well-connected, ground- (4) strip mining of phosphate that has altered the surface sedi- water flow system. Aquifer and dye tests conducted along ments, which affects surface runoff, infiltration, and baseflow the upper Peace River indicate the presence of cavernous and characteristics of the basin (Lewelling and Wylie, 1993); and highly transmissive layers within the floodplain area that can (5) numerous karst features that are found in the low-water store and transport large volumes of water in underground channel and floodplain and have enhanced the loss of peren- cavities. A discharge measurement made during this study nial flow (Patton and Klein, 1989). indicates that the cavernous system associated with Dover The karst features along the upper Peace River play an Sink can accept more than 10 million gallons per day (16 important role in the loss of streamflow. A number of studies cubic feet per second) of streamflow before the localized have documented these karst features, but little was known aquifer storage volume is replenished and the level of the sink about the timing, duration, and the amount of streamflow stabilizes. Dover Sink stabilized when the pool of the sink rose that is lost to these features over varying hydrologic condi- to the level of the Peace River, which was about 87 feet above tions. To gain a better understanding of the streamflow losses NGVD 1929, and water levels of the interconnected aquifers along the upper Peace River, the USGS, in cooperation were about 78 feet above NGVD 1929. with the Southwest Florida Water Management District Introduction 3
82°00’ 81°45’
Lake Alfred
Auburndale 92 Lakeland Winter Haven
28°00’
Lake Hancock 98
17 27 Peace Creek Drainage
Lake 60 60 Canal Wales Bartow LOCATION OF STUDY AREA Gator Sink Dover Alturas Sink Sixmile Creek Kissengen Spring Peace Upper Peace River basin Homeland
River Peace River basin Charlotte Harbor
Fort Meade 27°45’
98 17
0 5 10 MILES
0 5 10 KILOMETERS
Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 1:1000,000, 1985 Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 17 EXPLANATION WETLAND—Source: Fish and Wildlife UPPER PEACE RIVER BASIN BOUNDARY Service, National Wetlands Inventory polygon data, March, 2004; Universal USGS GAGING STATION—Peace River at Transverse Mercator projection, zone 17 Bartow SURFACE-WATER ANALYSIS AREA BARTOW NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE STATION UPPER PEACE RIVER KARST AREA KISSENGEN SPRING—dry CLEAR SPRINGS MINE AREA
Figure 1. Location of the upper Peace River basin and the localized study areas along the upper Peace River, Polk County, Florida. 4 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
(SWFWMD), began a study in 2002 to assess the effects of cores were collected and photographed by SWFWMD and karst development and groundwater conditions on streamflow described lithologically by the Florida Geological Survey losses. A broader understanding of the interaction between in Tallahassee, Florida. To define the hydraulic properties surface and groundwater watersheds and their relation to and aquifer characteristics of the rock-bearing formations differing geologic settings is an important component of the underlying the upper Peace River basin, aquifer performance USGS Strategic Plan. The data collected and knowledge tests, geophysical logging, and downhole video analyses gained during this investigation provide an understanding of were conducted at all three well sites by SWFWMD (Gates, the specific role that karst features play in streamflow losses 2009). These techniques helped determine the permeability of in the upper reaches of the Peace River. These data and the the aquifers, locations of cavities, solution conduits, fracture results of this study also can be used to help determine the zones, the occurrence of clays, and other geologic features minimum hydrologic conditions needed to maintain contin- associated with the formations. uous flow for the ecosystems associated with the upper Peace Borehole geophysical surveys were conducted at the River (Southwest Florida Water Management District, 2002a). three well sites to aid in the determination of aquifer proper- ties. Geophysical logs collected included caliper, gamma, temperature, fluid conductivity, and fluid resistivity. In addi- Purpose and Scope tion, electromagnetic (EM) flow and heat-pulse flowmeter logs were used to determine where flow zones are present This report describes the hydrologic conditions that within the hydrogeologic units at the well sites. Video logs influence streamflow losses in a karst region of the upper also were obtained at a number of wells in the study area to Peace River in Polk County, Florida. For analysis purposes, visually inspect the aquifer within the borehole. The combined the study area was composed of the larger upper Peace River log information provided an understanding of well construc- basin and two smaller localized areas—the surface-water tion, contacts between hydrogeologic units, zones of inflow analysis area and upper Peace River karst area (fig. 1). The and outflow, chemical properties of water in the borehole, and report provides the following information: (1) a historical locations of fractures and cavities. Individual log and borehole retrospective of the hydrology and climate of the upper Peace logging techniques are discussed in reports by Keys and River basin, (2) an analysis of land and groundwater use MacCary (1971) and Keys (1990). within the upper Peace River basin, (3) a description of the To understand the groundwater flow patterns along the hydrogeologic framework and water chemistry of the geologic upper Peace River, 12 continuous monitoring wells were used formations underlying the upper Peace River, (4) an inventory to define water-level trends in the surficial aquifer, interme- of prominent karst features along the upper Peace River karst diate aquifer system, and the Upper Floridan aquifer. In addi- area, (5) an analysis of the upper Peace River streamflow tion, wells located throughout the upper Peace River basin characteristics during the 2002 through 2007 water years, that were completed in the Upper Floridan aquifer were used (6) documentation of streamflow losses to prominent karst to construct potentiometric-surface maps during wet and dry features during the 2002 through 2007 water years, and (7) an periods. Continuous water-level recorders also were placed on analysis of the geologic and hydraulic connection between the two prominent karst features, Dover and Gator Sinks, which upper Peace River and the underlying aquifers. Information were used to help understand the hydrologic responses of used during this study consisted of hydrologic, lithologic, these features to streamflow losses. geophysical, and water-chemistry data collected from May To help determine the hydrologic relations between the 2002 to September 2007. river and the underlying aquifers, as well as the influence of the karst features, water levels were compared between hydro- Methods of Investigation logic units. Linear regression analyses (coefficient of deter- mination, r2) also were used to help determine the strength During this investigation, the hydraulic connection of these water-level relations. A significant statistical relation between the upper Peace River and the underlying aquifers indicates a high degree of interconnection between the river was defined using a number of hydrogeologic techniques. and the underlying aquifers or between aquifers (r2 = 1.00). To define the rock formations and aquifer properties along the Water-quality and stable isotopic samples were collected upper Peace River, wells were drilled in the surficial aquifer, from the Peace River and from selected wells located in the intermediate aquifer system, and Upper Floridan aquifer at intermediate aquifer system and Upper Floridan aquifer. three sites along the Peace River floodplain between Bartow Water-quality data were used to define the hydrochemical and the historic Kissengen Spring site. These wells provided characteristics of the river water and the underlying ground- the basis for the analysis of the hydrogeologic framework, water system. Stiff diagrams (Stiff, 1951) were used to hydraulic properties and groundwater flow patterns, and water compare hydrochemical characteristics among sites. Stable chemistry. isotopic samples (deuterium and oxygen-18) were used to help To define the hydrogeologic framework, continuous determine flow patterns between the river and the underlying geologic cores were collected from land surface to depths groundwater system. The SWFWMD collected and analyzed ranging from about 300 to 575 ft at the three well sites. These the water samples for major ions, and the USGS collected Introduction 5 and analyzed the water samples for isotopic composition. this investigation were rated as good to fair, and an error of ±5 Each well was sampled four times for major ions and once to 8 percent should be considered as typical when evaluating for isotopic composition between May 2006 and March 2007. the data presented in this report. Established sampling protocols were used when collecting To help quantify current and historical streamflow samples (Wilde and others, 1998; Southwest Florida Water characteristics of the upper Peace River, daily discharge- Management District, 2006). duration hydrographs at the Peace River at Bartow gaging To evaluate streamflow conditions along the upper Peace station were used. These hydrographs were based on historical River, 10 USGS continuous gaging-stations, located along the mean daily flows for each day of the year at Peace River at river and adjoining tributaries, were used to measure seasonal Bartow for the period of record (1940-2007 water years). changes in flow. Hundreds of discharge measurements were In addition, discharge-duration curves for the 2003-2007 water made on the river and tributaries during the 2002-2007 water years were used to compare streamflow conditions among the following gaging stations: Peace River at Bartow, Peace River years to establish their respective stage-discharge rating near Bartow, and Peace River at Clear Springs. These graphs curves. These stage-discharge rating curves are not stable, represent the percentage of time during which a given value of and are regularly adjusted, because the hydrodynamics of a discharge at each gaging station was equaled or exceeded. stream or a river change constantly (Rantz and others, 1982). To define where streamflow losses and gains in the For example, flow along the upper section of the river was upper Peace River occurred, seepage runs were conducted restricted by a large accumulation of aquatic vegetation that along a 13-mile (mi) segment of the river, from Bartow to choked this section of the river during the summer months. Fort Meade (fig. 1). The seepage runs were conducted as a Field observations indicated that herbicide spraying was used series of synoptic streamflow measurements that were made to remove the aquatic vegetation in Saddle Creek, Peace Creek at selected cross sections along the 13‑mi length of the river. Drainage Canal, and the upper Peace River during this period. When the reaches of greatest streamflow losses were identi- In addition, stage-discharge relations changed substantially fied, the scope of subsequent seepage runs was narrowed to after trees downed by the 2004 hurricanes were cleared from an approximate 3-mi karst region (fig. 1). The seepage runs the channels. Therefore, ratings were adjusted periodically were performed during the dry season, when rainfall was at a based on field-discharge measurements. minimum and most streamflow was derived from groundwater Flow measurements were made using various methods seepage (baseflow) instead of runoff. Measurement errors and depending on flow conditions. These methods included using their relation to changes in streamflow during the time period portable flumes, a standard (type AA) current meter, a pygmy of the seepage run were taken into consideration. An inherent current meter, an acoustic Doppler velocimeter, and a high- error of ±5 to 8 percent, typical of measurements made in a water acoustic Doppler current profiler. All measurements natural stream environment (Rantz and others, 1982), was were made using standard procedures and protocols (Rantz and considered appropriate for the analyses of these seepage runs. others, 1982; Oberg and others, 2005). Surface and ground- Changes in discharge greater than this associated error (±5 water data are available in the annual USGS water data reports percent) were considered as net changes. Net gains or losses for southwest Florida (Kane and Fletcher, 2002a,b; Kane and within measurement error were not considered significant. others, 2003a,b; Kane, 2004a,b; 2005; Kane and Dickman, Prominent karst features in the low-water channel and 2005; U.S. Geological Survey, 2006b; 2007b) and from the floodplain were documented by global positioning system USGS National Water Information System database at http:// (GPS) latitude-longitude coordinates, and surface orienta- waterdata.usgs.gov/nwis. tions and dimensions were measured. During the study, these features were found to be continuously changing because of Data errors are inherent in discharge-rating curves scour and fill streamflow depositional processes, and photo- (Rantz and others, 1982). Some of these errors may be caused graphs were taken to document these changes. For example, by uncertainties associated with the measuring instruments, the effects of three major hurricanes passing through the area streamflow conditions, or human errors made while making in 2004 caused some of the karst features to fill with sand, and the field measurements. Therefore, data derived from these in 2007 other observed karst features were enlarged due to curves should be used as a guide to understand variations increased scouring from river flow. in streamflow under varying hydrologic conditions, with Several methods were used to quantify streamflow losses the understanding that there is a degree of uncertainty and to the karst features. One method involved making discharge error associated with the discharge data. Typically, discharge measurements in the channel directly above where the water measurements are subject to errors ranging from ±5 to flowed into the karst feature. The second method involved 8 percent of the measured flow (Slade and Buszka, 1994). measuring discharge in the sections above and below the Measurements in the field are rated based on a scale of good karst feature, and calculating the flow loss as the difference (±5 percent error), fair (±8 percent error), and poor (>8 percent between these measurements. Measurements that bracket the error). Measurements made at extremely high-flow conditions karst features had the higher degree of uncertainty because have a higher error associated with the measurements (±10 of possible seepage losses through the riverbed between percent error). Most of the field measurements made during measurement sections. 6 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
Previous Investigations the Peace River. Knochenmus (2004) documented the upper Peace River karst features and defined the flow losses during a low-water period. Previous investigations have contributed to the under- Numerous reports discuss water use and the effects of standing of the hydrogeology, water use, and karst develop- groundwater pumping in Polk County. Peek (1951) related ment in the upper Peace River basin. Many studies that describe the general geology of central Florida have references the cessation of flow of Kissengen Spring to the excessive to Polk County. Some of the early investigators include use of groundwater for mining operations. Kaufman (1967), Matson and Sanford (1913), Stringfield (1936), Applin and Robertson and Mills (1974), and Hutchinson (1978) describe Applin (1944), Cooke (1945), Vernon (1951), and Carr and the effects of groundwater pumping in the upper Peace River Alverson (1959). basin. The first inventory of well records and other water- Stewart (1966) describes the geologic characteristics of resource data in Polk County was presented in a report by Polk County and also provides detailed information pertaining Stewart (1961). Current groundwater withdrawals and trends to the hydrology. A section of Stewart’s report also describes in groundwater use in Polk County are discussed in reports by solutions features, cavities, and sinkholes in Polk County. Marella (2004), Marella and Berndt (2005), and Spechler and Spechler and Kroening (2007) present an updated appraisal of Kroening (2007). the groundwater and surface-water resources of Polk County Brown and Tighe (1991) and Lewelling and Wylie and describe the current hydrologic trends. (1993) discuss the effects of mining on the hydrology of the Updated descriptions of geology and hydrogeology Peace River basin. The Peace River Cumulative Impact Study of the Floridan aquifer system and the intermediate aquifer by Florida Department of Environmental Protection (2007) system in the study area are in reports by Ryder (1985) and assesses the cumulative impacts of certain anthropogenic and Miller (1986). Scott (1988) describes the lithostratigraphy natural stresses on historical changes in streamflow in the of the Hawthorn Group of Miocene age; Duerr and others Peace River, and discusses rainfall and streamflow trends in (1988) define the hydrogeologic framework of the interme- the upper Peace River basin. diate aquifer system; and Knochenmus (2006) evaluates the hydrogeologic framework, hydraulic properties, and chemical Upper Peace River Basin characteristics of the intermediate aquifer system. Especially pertinent to this study is the report by Gates (2009), which Characteristics describes the aquifer properties at three monitor well sites along the upper Peace River that were drilled as part of this investigation. The Peace River is formed by the merging of Saddle Several investigators have discussed the karst hydrology Creek and the Peace Creek Drainage Canal, which both rise of the upper Peace River basin. The study by Vernon (1951) in the uplands of east and central Polk County (fig. 1). From suggests that the extensive fracturing in the rocks in Polk the confluence of these streams, the river flows southward for County greatly influences the groundwater hydrology. Stewart 105 mi to Charlotte Harbor. The upper Peace River basin, as (1966) suggests that major cavernous development, which described in this study, extends south from an area near Lake occurs along these fractures zones, enhances the water- Alfred to near Fort Meade (fig. 1). The upper basin drains 2 transmitting ability of the underlying limestone. Sinclair and about 790 square miles (mi ), and encompasses an area about others (1985) characterizes the study area as being susceptible one-third of the size of the entire Peace River basin. to sinkhole development and describes how various types of The upper Peace River basin partly resides within the sinkholes form. Basso (2003) describes groundwater condi- Polk Upland, which is a poorly drained plateau that contains tions and surface-water/groundwater interactions in the upper flatwoods, wetlands, and lakes (White, 1970; Brooks, 1981) Peace River basin. (fig. 2). Adjacent to the upper Peace River and within the A number of investigations describe the locations of the described basin are the Winter Haven Ridge and three north- karst features in the upper Peace River karst area and how west to southeast trending ridges: the Lake Henry, Gordonville, these features affect the local hydrology. Patton (1981) and and Lakeland Ridges (White, 1970; Brooks, 1981). The Patton and Klein (1989) mapped more than 90 sinkholes easternmost extension of the upper Peace River basin is the and discuss sinkhole formation and its effect on Peace River Lake Wales Ridge, which is the highest and longest of the hydrology. McQuivey and others (1981) presented an experi- ridges that are present on the Florida peninsula. These ridges ment where rhodamine dye was injected into a major sink are remnant shoreline features and are the dominant landforms (Dover Sink), and described how the dye traveled south in the upper Peace River basin (Schmidt, 1997). These sandy through an area where the intermediate aquifer system and ridges are internally drained with rapid recharge, and are prone Upper Floridan aquifer are interconnected. Lewelling and to sinkhole development (Brooks, 1981). Land-surface eleva- others (1998) documented that the greatest streamflow losses tion ranges from about 80 ft near Fort Meade to about 305 ft in the entire Peace River basin occur in the upper reaches of above NGVD 1929 along the Lake Wales Ridge. Upper Peace River Basin Characteristics 7
82°00’ 81°45’
Lake Alfred
Lakeland Auburndale
28°00’ Lake Hancock
Peace Creek Drainage
Bartow Lake Peace Canal Wales
Sixmile Alturas Creek
Homeland
River EXPLANATION PHYSIOGRAPHY 27°45’ Fort Meade Lakeland Ridge Lake Henry Ridge Lake Wales Ridge Polk Upland Winter Haven Ridge Gordonville Ridge UPPER PEACE RIVER 0 5 10 MILES BASIN BOUNDARY SINKHOLE 0 5 10 KILOMETERS
Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 1:1000,000, 1985 Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 17
Figure 2. Physiographic subdivisions and location of sinkholes in the upper Peace River basin.
Sinkholes are prevalent throughout the upper Peace The sinkholes in the upper Peace River basin range in River basin and are in various stages of development, size from 10 to greater than 100 ft in diameter, and in depth including ancient stable depressions and those formed from 5 to 200 ft below land surface. The shallow depressions recently. More than 140 sinkholes have been documented in usually contain swamps or cypress domes, whereas deeper the upper Peace River basin (fig. 2), and more than 90 sink- depressions extending as much as 200 ft below land surface holes, fractures, and crevasses (not shown in fig. 2) have been commonly infill with sand and water and form sinkhole lakes. documented along the upper Peace River floodplain (Patton, The numerous closed basin lakes and sinkholes of the Winter 1981). Karst features identified along the Peace River bed are Haven and Lake Wales Ridges indicate solutional activity in discussed in a subsequent section (Karst Features along the the geologic past. Collectively, the sandy ridges interspersed Upper Peace River). with sinkhole-formed lakes produce a setting capable of 8 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida storing and recharging rain and shallow groundwater to also suggests that during periods of cooler ocean temperatures deeper aquifers. Recharge is greater than 10 inches per year in the Pacific Ocean, less rainfall occurs during the winter- (in/yr) along the Lakes Wales and Winter Haven Ridges but is early spring season across peninsular Florida and, conversely, lower along the upper Peace River basin (0 to 5 in/yr) due to warmer ocean temperatures in the Atlantic Ocean produce increased confinement between the surficial aquifer and Upper more summer rainfall (Enfield and others, 2001; Basso and Floridan aquifer (Aucott, 1988; Yobbi, 1996). Schultz, 2003; Kelly, 2004). The 5-year moving average of the departure of rainfall from the period of record indicates a trend in the AMO and Climate its relation to rainfall within the study area (fig. 3B). For example, during the warm AMO period from 1925 through Warm, wet summers and relatively mild, dry winters and 1969 (fig. 3B), there were periods of above-average rainfall springs characterize the subtropical climate of the study area. and concurrent increases in tropical storm activity. During the Rainfall varies seasonally, and more than half the annual rain- cool AMO period from 1970 through 1995 (fig. 3B), periods fall typically occurs during the summer months (June through of below-average rainfall were concurrent with decreased September). Rainfall can be unevenly distributed throughout tropical storm activity (Gray and others, 1997; Landsea and the study area during the summer rainy season, because it is others 1999). The current (1996-present) warm AMO phase is derived from localized, convective thunderstorms. Winter characterized by increased tropical storm activity in peninsular rainfall is more evenly distributed, because storms generally Florida. come from frontal air masses that move from north to south Climatic conditions had a major influence on the across the State. hydrology of the study area, and the period of this investiga- The long-term (1900-2007) average annual rainfall from tion (2002-2007 water years) can be summarized as one of the National Weather Service Bartow station is about 54 in. climatic extremes. In 2002, a severe drought was already (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2007). underway, with a cumulative rainfall deficit of more than Rainfall was summarized by water years in this study so that 31 in. for the 1999-2002 water years. Conditions changed comparisons could be made between rainfall and streamflow. between the 2003 and 2005 water years, with a cumulative Yearly rainfall and the departure from the long-term average rainfall excess of more than 43 in. for this period (fig. 3B). rainfall by water year are shown in figures 3A and 3B, respec- During a 6-week period from August through September tively. The lowest rainfall recorded was about 32 in. in the 2004, three major hurricanes (Charley, Frances, and Jeanne) 1950 water year, and the greatest was about 83 in. in the 2003 crossed the study area. However, climatic conditions again water year. Some of the lowest annual rainfall totals for the changed between 2006 and 2007, with below-average rainfall 107-year period of record occurred during this investigation; leading to another drought period. During the 2006 and 2007 rainfall at the Bartow station was about 40 and 37 in. in water water years, the cumulative rainfall deficit was almost 29 in., years 2006 and 2007, respectively. causing reduced streamflow in the upper Peace River. During Hydrologic conditions in the study area are directly these water years, a majority of the rainfall deficit occurred related to seasonal variations in rainfall. For example, at the during the spring and summer months. beginning of the rainy season, a large percentage of the rainfall The Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) for the is incorporated into surface and groundwater storage (Basso Bartow station was used to evaluate the climatic conditions and Schultz, 2003). At the end of the rainy season, surface- of the study area from October 2000 to September 2007. The and groundwater levels are high and much of the rainfall PDSI is a measure of dryness, and is based on a model of soil goes directly to runoff (Ross and others, 2001). On average, moisture that accounts for rainfall and temperature (Palmer, monthly rainfall at Bartow is lowest in November, followed 1965). This index uses zero as the normal value, whereas by December, January, and April, whereas monthly rainfall droughts are shown as negative numbers with -4 (and below) is highest in July, followed by June, August, and September. as the extreme drought condition, and wet periods are shown Analysis of the last 11 years of rainfall record (1997-2007) as positive numbers with +4 (and above) as the extreme. indicates a reduction in rainfall during June and also during Weekly PDSI readings averaged to monthly conditions the latter part of the rainy season (September). show the severity of the drought in 2000 that continued into Assessing the long-term regional rainfall cycles gives the summer of 2002 for the Bartow area (fig. 4). The PDSI insight to natural and anthropogenic hydrologic changes in indicates wet conditions from July 2002 to August 2005, streamflow and groundwater levels (Basso and Schultz, 2003). and moderate drought conditions from September 2005 to One such climatic cycle, the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation September 2007 (fig. 4). (AMO), helps describe the historical climatic changes of In addition to rainfall, evaporation also plays an impor- the study area (Gray and others, 1997; Landsea and others, tant role in the hydrology of the study area. Evaporation 1999; Enfield and others, 2001). The AMO is defined by the rates are high in Florida, and are greater than in most other warming or cooling surface temperatures of the oceans that areas of the country (Farnsworth and others, 1982). High affect rainfall patterns (Gray and others, 1997). The warm and evaporation rates in this subtropical climate are primarily due cool phases of the AMO are shown in figure 3B. Research to high solar radiation and water temperatures. Long-term Upper Peace River Basin Characteristics 9
(A) 100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
ANNUAL RAINFALL, IN INCHES ANNUAL RAINFALL, 10
0
2007
1905
1915
1925
1935
1945
1955
1965
1975
1985
1995
2005
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000 (B) 30
20
10
0
-10 DEPARTURE FROM DEPARTURE
AVERAGE RAINFALL, IN INCHES RAINFALL, AVERAGE -20 Cool Atlantic Warm Atlantic Cool Atlantic Warm Atlantic Multidecadal Multidecadal Multidecadal Multidecadal Oscillation Oscillation Oscillation Oscillation -30
2007
1905
1915
1925
1935
1945
1955
1965
1975
1985
1995
2005
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000 EXPLANATION DEPARTURE—In inches. Departure of the annual rainfall from the average rainfall of 54.12 inches from the Bartow rainfall station for the water years 1900-2007 5-YEAR MOVING AVERAGE—Of the annual departure of rainfall for the water years 1900 to 2007 PHASE CHANGE FOR THE ATLANTIC MULTIDECADAL OSCILLATION—(Gray and others, 1997, Enfield and others, 2001, and Landsea and others, 1999)
Figure 3. (A) Annual rainfall at Bartow, Florida (1900-2007), and (B) rainfall departure, 5-year moving average of this departure, and changes in the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (location of weather station is shown in fig. 1).
estimates of annual shallow lake evaporation range from 48 to of phosphate-mining extractions, and the clay-lined bottoms of 59 in. in central Florida, and can vary depending on climatic these areas limit their recharge capacity. Water in these ponds conditions (Farnsworth and others, 1982; Lee and Swancar, typically evaporates instead of recharging the groundwater 1997; Amy Swancar, USGS, written commun, 2008). Many system, which is a loss of water from the upper Peace River clay-settling areas exist along the upper Peace River as a result basin that did not occur before mining operations began. 10 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
6 Figure 6 compares the present and historical hydrog- raphy, contrasting the extent of altered stream patterns. Peace 4 Creek, which is now referred to as Peace Creek Drainage Canal, has been substantially altered to accommodate urban and agricultural runoff and flood control. Channelization of 2 Peace Creek has caused sluggish flows or stagnation during medium to low-flow conditions, because the natural stream- 0 beds were replaced by wide, flat ditches or canals that have little to no gradient. Saddle Creek, Sixmile Creek, Cedar, Bear, Hamilton, and Barber Branches, as well as an unnamed DROUGHT SEVERITY -2 tributary (now referred to as Phosphate Mine Outfall CS-8), were altered and reclaimed by the phosphate-mining process. -4 The meandering natural streambeds with sloping gradients were typically replaced by flat ditches and clay-settling areas that can store large quantities of water. Runoff is typically -6 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 stored in these clay-settling areas before discharging to the river. As a result of these impoundments and changes in the natural dendritic flow patterns of these streams, the amount of EXPLANATION flow contributing to the upper Peace River has been reduced 4.00 or more Extremely wet -0.50 to -0.99 Incipient dry spell (Florida Department of Environmental Protection, 2007). 3.00 to 3.99 Very wet -1.00 to -1.99 Mild drought 2.00 to 2.99 Moderately wet -2.00 to -2.99 Moderate drought 1.00 to 1.99 Slightly wet -3.00 to -3.99 Severe drought 0.50 to 0.99 Incipient wet spell -4.00 or less Extreme drought Land Use 0.49 to -0.49 Near normal Land use within the upper Peace River basin is diverse and continues to change as the population grows and the Figure 4. Palmer Drought Severity Index for the study area for economy evolves (fig. 7). Major land-use categories in the the 2001 to 2007 water years. upper Peace River basin include extracted mined lands (36 percent), agriculture (26 percent), urban development (12 percent), wetlands and forests (11 percent), water bodies (11 percent), and industrial and commercial (4 percent) (Southwest Florida Water Management District, 2007). Hydrography Polk County is the eighth most populous county in the State, and 2005 population estimates indicate that the popula- The upper reach of the Peace River, near the confluence tion is expected to increase in the foreseeable future (Office of the Peace Creek Drainage Canal and Saddle Creek, is of Economic and Demographic Research, 2005). The largest characterized by a narrow and shallow streambed that contains population in the upper Peace River basin occurs in the shifting sand and sluggish, tannic-colored streamflow. Pond northern part of the study area, with Lakeland and Winter cypress trees line the banks at the confluence, but after a Haven being the largest cities in the county. Urban growth short distance the banks are marked by large piles of mined is greatest around these cities, with development extending tailings from previous phosphate-mining operations. For the beyond the city boundaries. Municipalities located near next 13 mi downstream, numerous elevated clay-settling areas the upper Peace River include Bartow, Homeland, and Fort border the area alongside the floodplain, and surface-water Meade (fig. 7). drainage to the upper Peace River is limited to phosphate-mine Polk County had the second largest amount of agricul- outfalls, stormwater ditches, or reclaimed stream channels. tural land in the State in 2005, estimated at 626,634 acres (ac) Historically, a number of streams contributed to the flow (Polk County Farm Bureau, 2005). In 2004, Polk County in the upper reaches of the Peace River. However, much of the ranked first in the State in the amount of commercial citrus predevelopment drainage system has been altered by phos- groves and fourth in the number of beef and dairy cattle. In the phate mining and agricultural activities. Maps of the upper upper Peace River basin, more than 125,000 ac is designated Peace River basin created during 1850-1855 show the natural as agricultural land. The largest agricultural land-use catego- streams prior to their alteration by phosphate mining (fig. 5). ries include tree crops (citrus) and cropland and pastureland The original stream channels are shown for Saddle Creek, (Southwest Florida Water Management District, 2007) Peace Creek, Bear Branch, Sixmile Creek, Cedar Branch, About 15 percent of the area of Polk County has been Hamilton Branch, Barber Branch, and an unnamed tributary. mined for phosphate rock, and the county ranks first in These streams show dendritic drainage patterns and channels the State (2005) for phosphate production (Polk County that are longer than their current configurations. Department of Economic Development, 2005). Phosphate has Upper Peace River Basin Characteristics 11 been mined within the upper Peace River basin since the Phosphate mining for land pebbles involves using huge late 1800s. In 1881, the first discovery of phosphate deposits draglines and buckets to remove vegetation and overburden occurred in the Peace River bed near Fort Meade. This that is about 30 to 40 ft thick in the study area (Brown, 2005). discovery initiated the mining of the largest identified deposit Draglines and buckets are used to create cuts in the landscape of phosphate rock in the world, known as the “Bone Valley that are 200 to 300 ft wide and up to several thousand feet Deposit” (Florida Institute of Phosphate Research, 2006b). long (Yon, 1983). The dragline digs out what is known as the The phosphate deposits found in the river are called river matrix, which consists of phosphate rock, sand, and clay. The pebbles and were extracted from bars of coarse pebbles in matrix is then dumped in a pit where high-pressure water guns and along the upper Peace River during the late 1800s. When create a slurry by a process called beneficiation. This slurry is these deposits began to be depleted and its extraction became then pumped to the beneficiation plant for further processing too costly, prospecting for land-pebble deposits was initiated (Florida Institute of Phosphate Mine Research, 2006b). At the in 1890 along the headwaters of the Peace River near Bartow plant, the phosphate is separated from the sand and clay, the (Lanquist, 1955). clay is then pumped to a clay-settling area, and the sand is Phosphate mining for land pebbles played an important typically pumped back to the site during reclamation. The role in the development of many of the cities and towns postmined landscape is generally a combination of water- located along the upper Peace River, such as Bartow, Home filled troughs and steep-sloped piles of sand and clay. The land, and Fort Meade. During the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s, topography is often described as resembling a “moonscape” phosphate mining was concentrated near the cities of Bartow (Brinkmann and Koenig, 2007). and Fort Meade. Mining operations expanded to areas near Homeland by the 1950s, and to the Clear Springs and Kissengen Spring area by the 1960s. Much of the area around the upper Peace River was mined before the State of Florida required mandatory land reclamation in 1975; therefore, some of the land surrounding the upper Peace River has not been reclaimed (Michelle Harmeling, FDEP, Bureau of Mine Reclamation, written commun., 2008).
Slurry created by hydraulic pressure (above) then piped to beneficiation plant (below). Altered landscape created by phosphate mining.
Historical photos from the State Library and Archives of Florida; Department Phosphate mining for river pebbles along the Peace River, late 1800s. of Commerce collection. 12 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
Lake Ariana Lake
Lena eaRunLena
S a d d l e
C
r
e
e
k
Lake Hancock
Saddle Creek Peace Creek
Bear Branch P e a c e
R iv e r
Sixmile Cree Cedar Branch k N named Un Tr ib u ta r y
Branch
Barber
EXPLANATION 0 1 2 3 MILES WETLANDS AND FORESTED AREAS 0 1 2 3 KILOMETERS HISTORICAL HYDROGRAPHY (1850-1855)
Figure 5. Historical hydrography (1850-1855) of the upper Peace River basin (base maps from the Florida Department of Environmental Protection, 2003). Upper Peace River Basin Characteristics 13
Lake Ariana Lake Lena
Lena Run
S a d d
l e
C
r
e
e k
Lake Hancock
Saddle Creek Peace Canal Creek Drainage
Bear Branch P
e a c e
R iv
e r
Sixmi Cedar Branch le Creek named Un Tr ib u ta r y
Branch
Barber
EXPLANATION 0 1 2 3 MILES WETLANDS AND FORESTED AREAS 0 1 2 3 KILOMETERS HYDROGRAPHY ALTERED BY MINING PROCESSES HISTORICAL HYDROGRAPHY (1850-1855) HYDROGRAPHY 1985
Figure 6. Historical (1850-1855) and current (1985) hydrography of the upper Peace River basin (base maps from the Florida Department of Environmental Protection, 2003). 14 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
82°00’ 81°45’
" Lake Alfred
Lakeland " " Winter Haven 28°00’
Lake Hancock
" Lake " Wales Bartow Alturas "
Peace
EXPLANATION " LAND USE Homeland Agricultural and open land
River Industrial and commercial (includes transportation and utilities) 27°45’ " Fort Meade Mining Urban development (includes residential and recreational) Water Wetlands and forests
UPPER PEACE RIVER BASIN BOUNDARY 0 5 10 MILES
0 5 10 KILOMETERS HYDROGRAPHY Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 1:1000,000, 1985 Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 17
Figure 7. Land use in the upper Peace River basin, 2005. Upper Peace River Basin Characteristics 15
Within the upper Peace River basin, the dominant soils and evaporation is assumed to be the major avenue of reclaimed landforms produced during surface mining are water loss from these areas. Additionally, shrinkage of the clay-settling areas that can cover hundreds of acres and exceed consolidating clays can cause depressional surface features 40 ft in depth. Many of these clay-settling areas line both to form, increasing ponding and evaporation, and reducing sides of the upper Peace River floodplain from the cities of runoff (Lewelling and Wylie, 1993). During higher rainfall Bartow to Fort Meade. Typically, a reclaimed clay-settling events, however, water tends to run off as sheetflow. Additional area is built by constructing a high perimeter dam around a research is needed to understand how these altered soil charac- mined area, forming a containment to hold the clay-waste teristics affect drainage patterns in the upper Peace River basin. slurry (Lewelling and Wylie, 1993). During construction of the clay-settling area, most of the disturbed overburden that was removed from the mined pit is used to build the perim- Groundwater Use eter dam to provide more volume for clay storage. The clay slurry that is separated from the phosphate matrix during the The upper Peace River basin is located in the Southern beneficiation process is pumped into the clay-settling area West-Central Florida Groundwater Basin (SWCFGB), about 2 to dewater, settle, and consolidate. These clay-settling areas 5,000‑mi , which relies heavily on groundwater for water possess entirely different physical properties, in terms of water supply (Southwest Florida Water Management District, storage and transmission, than the landscape prior to mining 1988; Barcelo and Basso, 1993) (fig. 9A). During the study (Brickmann and Koenig, 2007). period, groundwater withdrawn for water supply from this groundwater basin ranged from about 480 (2005) to 642 (2006) Mgal/d (Mike Kelley, SWFWMD, written commun., Soils 2009) (fig. 9B). Groundwater use in Polk County totaled 212 Mgal/d in The surface soils of the upper Peace River basin are 2005, of which 98 percent was from the Upper Floridan aquifer composed of fine sands along the ridges and uplands, fine (Marella, 2009). The total groundwater withdrawn from the sands and loams along the riverine floodplain, mucky fine upper Peace River basin during 1992-2005 averaged about sand in depressional areas, altered soils in urban areas, and 113 Mgal/d (Mike Kelley, SWFWMD, written commun., 2007) sandy-clay soils in mined areas (Southwest Florida Water (fig. 9C). The greatest amount of groundwater withdrawn in Management District, 2002b; fig. 8). About 54 percent of the upper Peace River basin was during years of below-average the upper Peace River basin is underlain by upland soils rainfall in 1992, 1998, and 2000. The least amount of ground- that are moderately sloping and excessively to moderately water withdrawn was during years of above-average rainfall in well drained, which allows for rapid infiltration. Soils of the 2003-2005 (fig. 3B). riverine floodplain and in depressional areas are frequently The major groundwater-use categories for the 1992- flooded, have little to no slope, and have a high water 2005 period are shown in figure 9D. The largest average table (where present); these soils are moderately to poorly groundwater use during this period was for agriculture drained, providing moderate infiltration. The depressional and frequently flooded areas make up about 10 percent of the (44.7 Mgal/d), public supply (38.6 Mgal/d), industrial/ upper Peace River basin. commercial (19.0 Mgal/d), mining (6.7 Mgal/d), and Mined soils border both sides of the Peace River recreation (3.7 Mgal/d). Pumpage was constant for most floodplain and make up the remaining 36 percent of the upper purposes from year-to-year, except for agriculture and mining. Peace River basin (fig. 8). The sandy-clay soils of mined sites, Agriculture exceeded all other uses between 1992 and 2002, or arents, are less pervious because of the increase in clay reaching a maximum during 2000 because of a severe drought content at the surface horizons that tends to limit surface infil- that increased the need for irrigation. Agricultural water use tration (Lewelling and Wylie, 1993). Postmining areas contain declined from a high of 61 to 20 Mgal/d in 2000 and 2005, a large amount of clay waste byproduct, which typically occu- respectively, as a result of a number of wet years (2003-2005) pies about 40 to 60 percent of the postmined landscape (Yon, that reduced the need for irrigation. In addition, in 2004 1983). Arent soil types include haplaquents, hydraquents, Hurricanes Charley and Frances passed directly through the udorthents, gypsum-land complex, and urban-land complex. study area, causing citrus tree loss and the resultant decrease Because of the low hydraulic conductivity of clay, ground- in irrigation. Groundwater use for mining declined from water recharge and movement through a clay-settling area can 16.7 to less than 0.5 Mgal/d in 1992 and 2005, respectively be substantially less than soils under natural conditions. (fig. 9D) as operations moved to areas south and west of the The floodplain of the upper Peace River near the conflu- upper Peace River basin. ence of Saddle Creek and Peace Creek Drainage Canal, and In 2005, major use categories were public supply along sections of the river within the Clear Springs Mine area, (39 Mgal/d), agriculture (20 Mgal/d), industrial/commercial was mined before 1975 when mandatory reclamation was insti- (16 Mgal/d), recreational (3 Mgal/d), and mining (0.5 Mgal/d) tuted. Field observations indicate that during low- to- moderate (fig. 9D). The spatial distribution of this pumpage by rainfalls, water tends to pond on these unreclaimed impervious groundwater-use categories for the year 2005 is shown in 16 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
82°00’ 81°45’
" Lake Alfred
" Lakeland " Auburndale " Winter Haven 28°00’
Lake Hancock
Lake Wales "A’ A " Bartow ROMP 60 WELL ROMP 59 Alturas WELLS "
Peace
"
Homeland River
27°45’ " Fort Meade
0 5 10 MILES
0 5 10 KILOMETERS
Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 1:1000,000, 1985 Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 17 EXPLANATION SOIL TYPE UPPER PEACE RIVER BASIN BOUNDARY Fine sand A A’ LOCATION OF PROFILE LINE SHOWN IN Mucky fine sand FIGURE 21 Water Fine sand to sandy clay loam (frequently flooded) Urban land complex Arents (soil alterations due to urban and mining alterations which includes a sandy and clayey substratum, gypsum land, clayey haplaquants and hydraquents, excavated udorthents, and an urban land and water complex)
Figure 8. Generalized soil types in the upper Peace River basin. Upper Peace River Basin Characteristics 17
(A) (B) PASCO 900 Estimated groundwater use (excludes Charlotte, Glades, and Lee counties) HILLSBOROUGH 800 Estimated use Upper Peace River basin 700 10 year moving PINELLAS POLK average 600
MANATEE 500 HARDEE
GULF OF MEXICO 400
DESOTO 300 HIGHLANDS SARASOTA 200
Southern IN MILLION GALLONS PER DAY GLADES West-Central CHARLOTTE Florida 100
Groundwater USE, SOUTHERN GROUNDWATER ESTIMATED
Basin BASIN, FLORIDA GROUNDWATER WEST-CENTRAL 0 LEE 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 (Written communication Southwest Florida Water Management District, 2009) (C) (D) 160 70
140 60
120 50 Agriculture 100 40 Public supply 80 30 60 20 40 Industrial/Commerical
20 10 Mining/Dewatering Recreational
ESTIMATED GROUNDWATER USE IN THE UPPER GROUNDWATER ESTIMATED 0 0
GROUNDWATER USE, IN MILLION GALLONS PER DAY GROUNDWATER
PEACE RIVER BASIN, IN MILLION GALLONS PER DAY
2001
2001
1997
1998
1995 1996
2005
1993
2003
1999
2000
1997
1992
2002
1994
2004
1998
1995
1996
2005
1993
2003
1999
2000
1992
2002
1994
2004 (Written communication Southwest Florida Water Management District, 2007) (Written communication Southwest Florida Water Management District, 2007)
Figure 9. (A) Location of the Southern West-Central Florida Groundwater Basin, (B) estimated groundwater use in the Southern West-Central Florida Groundwater Basin and (C ) in the upper Peace River basin, and (D) estimated groundwater use by category in the upper Peace River basin, 1992 through 2005.
figure 10 (Mike Kelley, SWFWMD, written commun., 2007). all agricultural-use categories (row crops, sod and plant In addition, the amount of groundwater withdrawn during nursuries, and pasture). Groundwater withdrawals from 2005 for the individual wells is shown in figure 10. individual citrus irrigation wells ranged from 0.00001 to Public supply was the largest groundwater use during 0.40 Mgal/d in 2005. Industrial and commercial was the third 2005, because agricultural use was lower during this wet largest use category, with phosphate and citrus processing year. Public-supply wells are concentrated near larger cities using the majority of this water, and use ranged from 0.002 such as Lakeland, Bartow, Auburndale, and Winter Haven. to more than 5 Mgal/d. The largest amount of groundwater Public-supply wells usually are concentrated in clusters and withdrawn (5 Mgal/d) in the upper Peace River basin in 2005 pumpage for individual wells ranges from less than 0.0001 to 1.4 Mgal/d (fig. 10). Agriculture was the second largest was for a phosphate processing plant, which is considered groundwater user in 2005, with more than 600 wells used industrial use. Recreational groundwater use included lawn, for irrigation (2005) throughout the upper Peace River basin garden, and golf course irrigation and augmentation of lakes; (Mike Kelley, SWFWMD, written commun., 2007). Citrus water withdrawn from the individual wells ranged from irrigation dominates this groundwater use at 92 percent of 0.0002 to 0.23 Mgal/d in 2005. 18 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
82°00’ 81°45’
Lake Alfred "
Lakeland " Winter Haven"
28°00’
Lake Hancock
60 EXPLANATION " Lake " Wales Bartow MAJOR WATER-USE CATEGORIES " Agriculture Alturas Peace Industrial and commercial Mining Public supply Homeland " Recreation GROUNDWATER PUMPAGE River —In million gallons per day. Size of circle is proportional to the amount 27°45’ " of ground-water withdrawn Fort Meade Less than 0.1
0.1 to <0.5
0.5 to <1.0
1.0 to <5.0
0 5 10 MILES ³ 5.0
0 5 10 KILOMETERS UPPER PEACE RIVER Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 1:1000,000, 1985 (Written communication Southwest Florida Water Management District, 2007) BASIN BOUNDARY Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 17
Figure 10. Major water-use categories and pumpage distribution for groundwater withdrawn from the Upper Floridan aquifer in the upper Peace River basin, 2005. Geologic Framework 19
Geologic Framework The geologic units along the upper Peace River consist of sand, clay, marl, phosphate grains and pebbles, and carbonate rocks that were deposited primarily in an open or Many investigators have contributed to the understanding restricted marine environment. Deposition of each forma- of the geologic framework of the study area. Prior to this tion was followed by a period of erosion that resulted in the study, however, limited information was available about the development of solution cavities and formational surface geology immediately adjacent to the Peace River and how irregularities. Carbonates are susceptible to postdeposition the geology affects hydrologic conditions along the river. erosional processes that include weathering, dissolution, This investigation focuses on the geology that spans from and fracturing, which enhances the permeability within and the Eocene through Holocene ages, including from oldest between these units. Of particular interest to this study are the to youngest, the Avon Park Formation, Ocala Limestone, Suwannee Limestone, the Hawthorn Group, and undifferenti- Suwannee Limestone, Hawthorn Group, and undifferentiated ated surficial deposits, because these formations have the surficial deposits. The stratigraphic units, hydrogeologic greatest potential for interaction with the upper Peace River. units, and generalized lithologic descriptions are presented in A geologic cross section along the upper Peace River from figure 11. north to south is shown in figure 12.
SERIES STRATIGRAPHIC UNIT GEOLOGY AND LITHOLOGY HYDROGEOLOGIC UNIT
Holocene and Undifferentiated Pleistocene Sand and fossil fragments Surficial aquifer surficial deposits system Cypresshead (surficial aquifer) Pliocene Formation Sand, silt, and clay Confining unit
1 Bone Valley Member Zone 2, upper Arcadia aquifer Peace River Formation Sand, clay, marl, phosphate Hawthorn Confining unit Miocene grains and pebbles, Group Arcadia Formation limestone and dolostone. Fossils common. Zone 3, lower Arcadia aquifer Tampa Member Nocatee Intermediate aquifer system Confining unit Member Upper permeable Oligocene Suwannee Limestone zone Limestone, sandy limstone Ocala Limestone and sand. Phosphatic in part. Semiconfining unit Dolostone beds and fossils common. Lower permeable zone Eocene Avon Park Formation Upper Floridan aquifer Middle Middle Limestone and dolostone with semiconfining unit some intervals containing confining unit
Floridan aquifer system inclusions of gypsum Lower Oldsmar Formation and anhydrite Floridan aquifer
Limestone and dolostone with Paleocene Cedar Keys Formation Sub-Floridan beds of gypsum and anhydrite confining unit
1 A proposed revision by DeWitt and Mallams (2007) and Mallams and DeWitt (2007) replaces zone 2 and zone 3 from Knochenmus (2006) with the upper and lower Arcadia aquifers, respectively. This revision also proposes to rename the intermediate aquifer system in southwestern Florida to the Hawthorn aquifer system (excluding the upper and lower confining units). There is not a current consensus, however, on the use of “Hawthorn aquifer system,” so in this report only the proposed upper and lower Arcadia aquifer names are used.
Figure 11. Relation of stratigraphic and hydrogeologic units (modified from Barr, 1992; Tihansky and others, 1996; O’Reilly and others, 2002; Sepulveda, 2002; Basso and Hood, 2005; Knochenmus, 2006; DeWitt and Mallams, 2007; Mallams and DeWitt, 2007; and Spechler and Kroening, 2007). 20 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
NORTH SOUTH LW1P LW3P B well UNDIFFERENTIATED well LW4P B’ nest nest well FEET SURFICIAL DEPOSITS nest FEET
Gator Sink Geologic core LW3P Peace River Peace River Peace River
Peace River Geologic core LW1P 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
100 Geologic core LW4P 8 9 100 DRY 83.62 56.58 83.11 50 82.24 HAWTHORN GROUP 62.94 50
NGVD 57.88 NGVD 1929 1929
INTERMEDIATE
50 AQUIFER SYSTEM 50 62.66 100 SUWANNEE LIMESTONE 100
150 57.62 54.99 150
200 200
250 OCALA LIMESTONE 250
300 300
350 350
UPPER FLORIDAN AQUIFER
400 400
450 AVON PARK FORMATION 450
500 500
550 550 0 1.0 MILES Vertical scale greatly exaggerated
0 1.0 KILOMETERS EXPLANATION 1 WELL NUMBER AND WATER LEVEL– GATOR SINK SITE AND WATER LEVEL– Well number (1) refers to index number 56.58 Estimated depth is 40 feet below land in table 5. Water level in feet above surface. Water level in feet above 62.66 NGVD 1929. Gray section is open or NGVD 1929 screened interval for well. DIRECTION OF GROUNDWATER FLOW.
Figure 12. Geologic cross-section along the upper Peace River and water levels for study wells that indicate rechargingFigure 12. Geologicconditions cross-section (June 1, 2007). along the (Geologic upper Peace cross-section River and water line levelsshown for in study figure wells 13.) that indicate recharging conditions (June 1, 2007) (line of geologic section is shown in fig. 13B).
The lowermost geologic units of interest in the study area is composed of interbedded, sand-size limestone grains and are composed of a thick sequence of carbonate rocks that vary soft calcareous mud and sand. This limestone also is fossilif- in composition based on their depositional history (Randazzo erous and contains abundant bryozoans, small mollusks, and and Jones, 1997). The Avon Park Formation is characterized large echinoids (Stewart, 1966). by alternating layers of soft to well-indurated fossiliferous Overlying these carbonate units is a sequence formed limestone that typically is highly fractured and cavernous under a variety of depositional environments that produce a (Stewart, 1966). Above the Avon Park Formation is the Ocala complex geologic assemblage of carbonates and siliciclastic Limestone, which contains two distinct geologic units. The sediments during the late Oligocene to Miocene (Randazzo lower unit contains limestone and dolomite and is character- and Jones, 1997). These environments of deposition included ized as granular, well-indurated, dense, and fossiliferous. The open marine, shallow water, coastal marine, fluvial, and upper unit is composed of soft, pure limestone that contains estuarine (Gilboy, 1985). This complex sequence of sedimen- numerous fossils and is poorly indurated. The Suwannee tary deposits forms the highly heterogeneous Hawthorn Group Limestone of Oligocene age overlies the Ocala Limestone and (Missimer, 2002). Geologic Framework 21
Within the study area, the Hawthorn Group contains The top of the Avon Park Formation was detected at the Arcadia and the Peace River Formations. The Arcadia about 400 ft below land surface at the LW1P site and at 500 ft Formation underlies the Peace River Formation and consists below land surface at the LW4P (Kissengen Spring) site. The primarily of carbonates with some siliciclastic sediments top of Avon Park Formation consisted of medium-grained, (Scott, 1988). Carbonates of the Arcadia Formation are poorly indurated limestone in a calcilutite matrix. The domi- sandy, phosphatic, and in some places clayey. The Arcadia nant fossils identified in these rocks included the foraminifera Formation includes two members, the Tampa Member and Dictyoconus americanus and the echinoid Neolaganum dalli. the Nocatee Member. The Peace River Formation consists of Cores extended 105 ft into the Avon Park Formation at LW1P beds of green-gray clay and dolomitic clayey sand to sandy and 85 ft at LW4P, and the limestone varied from grainstone, clay that contain abundant pellets and fine pebble-sized packstone, mudstone, to wackestone. phosphate (Scott, 1988). The Peace River Formation includes The Ocala Limestone, as described from the cores, varied the Bone Valley Member, which is characterized by a mixture from highly weathered, poorly indurated, calcareous mud of phosphate gravel, sand-sized phosphate, quartz sand, and to moderate -to well-indurated mudstone and wackestone. clay (Scott, 1988). The sediments that overlie the Peace River The fossil that defines the Ocala Limestone, Lepidocyclina Formation consist of undifferentiated surficial deposits of the ocalana, was present in most core samples. Calcareous mud Pleistocene and Holocene series. These sediments consist of was more prevalent at the LW1P site than at LW4P site, where fine-to medium-grained quartz and phosphatic sands, silt, and the lower section contained many layers of well-indurated clay. Undifferentiated surficial deposits have been disturbed limestone (Gates, 2009). The average thickness of the Ocala over much of the upper Peace River basin during mining of Limestone, based on the two core sites (LW1P and LW4P), the phosphate-rich Bone Valley Member. was about 160 ft. Overlying the Ocala Limestone is the Suwannee Limestone, which Geologic Cores in cores was composed of highly weathered, friable limestone and Continuous geologic cores were dolostone that was poorly consoli- collected at three sites along the upper dated, calcareous and chalky, and Peace River within a span of about contained some clay stringers and 3.5 mi (figs. 12 and 13). The cores numerous fossils at varying depths. were collected by the wire-line coring A majority of the limestone identi- method; a detailed description of the fied in the Suwannee Limestone method is presented in Gates (2009). was rich in calcareous mud and was The three core sites are the LW1P site identified as mudstone and wacke- located at the Bartow Waste Water stone. The average thickness of the Treatment Plant (WWTP), the LW3P Suwannee Limestone, based on the site located at the Clear Springs Mine three cores, was about 130 ft. dragline crossing, and the LW4P site The Hawthorn Group that located near the historic Kissengen overlies the Suwannee Limestone is Spring. Continuous cores extended composed of the Arcadia and Peace into the Avon Park Formation at the River Formations. The Hawthorn LW1P and LW4P sites and into the Group contains less limestone and Geologic core samples. Ocala Limestone at the LW3P site. more siliclastic sediments than the Analysis of the cores indicates that the geology varies underlying Suwannee Limestone. The Hawthorn Group is along the upper Peace River, especially within the Hawthorn exposed at places along the streambed and is in direct connec- Group, which is in direct contact with the river. The multiple tion with the river. The cores that penetrated the Hawthorn interbedded layers of carbonate and siliciclastic sediments Group are described as sequences of weathered dolomite indicate a complex erosional and depositional history that that is fractured and contains pinpoint vugs, voids, and occurred during the late Oligocene and Miocene time period. numerous fossils casts and molds that aid in the development Cores show a wide variety of weathered carbonate rocks, of secondary porosity within this unit. Interspersed within the interlayered with siliciclastic sediments. The core lithologies Hawthorn Group are sequences of stiff clays, sands, phosphate include sand and clay, dolomite or dolostone, and limestone pebbles and grains, and thin layers of weathered limestone. that were further identified as packstone, mudstone, wacke- The Hawthorn Group has an average thickness of about stone, grainstone, and calcilutite. Most of the limestone 130 ft based on the three cores. The Arcadia Formation has identified was rich in calcareous mud and is classified as a an average thickness of about 120 ft, and is composed mostly mudstone and wackestone (Dunham, 1962). of fossiliferous dolostone that contained numerous fossil 22 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
(A) EXPLANATION 81°54’ 52’ 50’ 48’ 81°46’ MINED AREA
28°00’ HYDROLOGY ASSOCIATED WITH MINED AREAS 559 OPEN WATER B B’ LINE OF GEOLOGIC SECTION—section shown in figure 12 1 REACH AND REACH NUMBER 98 Lake CLEAR SPRINGS MINE BOUNDARY 58’ Hancock GEOLOGIC CORES AND MONITORING WELLS DRILLED DURING Highland 1-3 STUDY—number refers to table 5 City 17 KISSENGEN SPRING—dry 15 MONITORING SINK—number refers to table 5 10 MONITORING WELL—number refers to table 5 56’ Saddle Creek LOCATION OF GROUNDWATER SAMPLES Peace Creek Drainage Canal LOCATION OF SURFACE-WATER SAMPLES KARST FEATURE Bear BranchINSET (B) 60 Peace River USGS STREAMFLOW-GAGING STATION AND NAME Sixmile at Bartow Pit 54’ 60 Bartow Lakes Creek Wastewater (B) Treatment Plant 1 81°50’ 81°48’ (WWTP) Peace Peace River Bear Branch near Bartow 60 2 98 Peace River at Bartow 52’ Peace River at 27°54’ 1-3 Pit Lakes Clear Springs Bartow Sixmile 60 B LW1P P Creek River 11-12 ea Monitor c
e Kissengen ROMP 59 site 1 Spring (dry) Phosphate Mine Outfall CS-8 wells Peace River 555 near Bartow R Barber iv 50’ e Branch 3 98 r 17 Peace River at Homeland Area of inflow 2 640 13 Homeland when Peace River Gator Clear Springs Homeland Sink 14 well no. 4 stage is above IAS well 94 feet 15 10 Homeland Peace River at 4-7 Dover Sink 48’ well no. 9 Peace 27°52’ Clear Springs 16 LW3P Sixmile Creek Sixmile Monitor 17 Creek site 98 4
River 27°46’ 3 Fort 8-9 LW4P Monitor site Meade B’ Phosphate Mine 98 Otter Sink Outfall CS-8 630 Peace River Tom’s Sink 17 at Fort Meade Barber Kissengen Spring (dry) Branch Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 0 1 2 3 MILES Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 0 0.5 1 MILE 1:1000,000, 1985 1:1000,000, 1985 Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 17 0 1 2 3 KILOMETERS Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 17 0 0.5 1 KILOMETERS
Figure 13. Location of (A) stream gaging stations, (B) geologic cores, sinks, and groundwater monitoring and water-quality sampling sites. Geologic Framework 23 molds and casts. The Peace River Formation is thin, with an the movement of even larger volumes of water, which in average thickness of only 10 ft. This formation is composed turn dissolves more limestone and dolomite. Eventually, the mainly of limestone that contains vugs, fossil molds, and fossil openings and passageways coalesce to form conduits and or dissolution cavities. cavities that continue to enlarge by further solution develop- The undifferentiated surficial sediments are the upper- ment. Groundwater flow velocities typically are much greater most formation in the cores. These sediments consist of quartz in these karst conduit systems than in porous media (Ryder, and phosphatic sands, silt and organics, and varying amounts 1985). of clay. This unit is thin, with an average thickness of about Limestone starts to dissolve at a pH below 7.0, and acidic 6 ft (LW1P and LW3P). Surficial deposits were absent at the industrial wastewaters may have accelerated the dissolution LW4P site (Kissengen Spring). of the rocks underlying the upper Peace River during the early 1950s when some of the tributaries to the upper Peace River were contaminated by acid mine waste (Lanquist, 1955). Karst Development The Florida State Board of Health collected 156 samples for pH determinations from 1950 to 1953 at the Bear Branch Sinkholes are common throughout this mantled karst bridge on U.S. Highway 17, which flows into the Peace River landscape and contribute to the highly variable geologic about 326 ft above the State Road (SR) 60 bridge. The pH framework of the area. Sinkholes form when limestone values of the tributary water ranged from 2.2 to 4.9, and aver- dissolves and cavities develop in the subsurface limestone. aged 4.6 (Lanquist, 1955). The Florida State Board of Health As the cavities expand, the overlying sand and clay subside also collected 162 water samples for pH determinations from into the solution openings, forming a depression in the land the Peace River at Bartow during this same time period. The surface. The more than 90 sinkholes documented by Patton pH of the river water ranged from 4.8 to 7.7, averaging 6.5. (1981) were along about a 6‑mi reach of the high and low- The USGS collected 200 river samples at the Peace River at water channel of the upper Peace River, and most of the Bartow gage between 1963 and 1999. The pH of these samples sinkholes were located along the upper half of this reach. Over ranged from 5.6 to 10.0, averaging 6.9. half of these sinkholes were larger than 10 ft in diameter, with Important factors for determining the potential effects of 10 percent exceeding 40 ft in diameter. these acidic waters on the river and karst dissolution are the Although sinkholes develop naturally, their unusual residence time and the amount of flow in the river. During density along the upper Peace River can be explained, in part, one of the years when acid mine waste was discharged (1950 by the increased use of groundwater in the area (Kaufman, water year), rainfall was the lowest amount for the 107 years 1967; Patton, 1981; Sinclair, 1982; Newton, 1986; Shock of record (32 in.) and the discharge in the river was below and Wilson, 1996; Tihansky, 1999). Many of these sinkholes average for most of the year. When rainfall and discharge in may have been formed after abrupt declines in groundwater the river are low, there is an increased potential for limestone levels during the 1940s through 1975, when large volumes dissolution, because less discharge equates to less dilution of of groundwater were pumped for phosphate mining. A large the acidic waters. In addition, reduced discharge indicates that decline in groundwater levels removes the hydraulic support streamflow is slower in the upper Peace River, increasing the of overburden sediments lying above cavities, which results in time of contact with the dissolving limestone. Low pH water in the formation of sinkholes (Newton, 1986). Similar large-scale the river may have enhanced limestone dissolution during this clustered sinkhole developments have been documented near period, but the extent of this dissolution is difficult to quantify. well fields where large volumes of groundwater have been withdrawn for public supply (Sinclair, 1982; Tihansky, 1999; Metz and Sacks, 2002). In addition, changes in the Upper Limestone outcrop along the dry river bottom downstream from Floridan aquifer from discharge to recharge conditions may be Ledges Sink. Photo credit: P.A. Metz, USGS related to the increased karst activity. Karst solution features as described in this investigation consist of piping features, fissures, cracks, crevices, conduits, cavities, karst windows, sinks, and fractures in the limestone or dolomite bedrock. The two most important factors in development and expression of karst features are the amount of precipitation in the region and the solubility of the bedrock (Weary and others, 2008). Karst development occurs as a result of chemical dissolution of the soluble layers in the lime- stone and dolomite by slightly acidic water (a pH below 7.0). The karst landscape is formed by circulating acidic waters that enlarge the natural fractures and pores within the limestone or dolomite, thus increasing the permeability of the rock. This enhanced secondary porosity allows for 24 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
Hydrogeology Intermediate Aquifer System The intermediate aquifer system includes all water- The principal hydrogeologic units in the study area are, bearing units (aquifers) and confining units between the in descending order, the surficial aquifer, intermediate aquifer overlying surficial aquifer and the underlying Upper Floridan system, and Upper Floridan aquifer (fig. 11). The uppermost aquifer (Duerr and others, 1988). Within the study area, the unit, the surficial aquifer, is an unconfined sand and clayey intermediate aquifer system consists of three or more hydro- sand aquifer. Underlying this unit is the mixed carbonate and geologic units (fig. 11): (1) a clayey and pebbly sand, clay, siliciclastic intermediate aquifer system, which contains a and marl upper confining unit that separates the uppermost number of water-bearing units. The lowermost unit, the Upper water-bearing unit in the intermediate aquifer system from the Floridan aquifer, is a highly productive carbonate aquifer and surficial aquifer; (2) one to two water-bearing units composed is the principal source of freshwater in west-central Florida primarily of carbonate rocks, sand, and discontinuous beds (Miller, 1986). of sand and clay; and (3) a sandy clay and clayey sand lower confining unit that lies directly over the Upper Floridan aquifer (Ryder, 1985). The thickness of the intermediate Surficial Aquifer aquifer system from the three cores ranged from about 100 ft to less than 170 ft. The thickness of the intermediate aquifer The surficial aquifer is a permeable hydrogeologic unit, system in the upper Peace River basin ranges from about 100 contiguous with land surface, that principally consists of to 300 ft (Spechler and Kroening, 2007). unconsolidated to poorly indurated clastic deposits (fig. 11; Slug tests were performed to determine the horizontal Southeastern Geological Society, 1986). This unit is commonly hydraulic conductivity of the confining and water-bearing referred to as the surficial aquifer system where more than one units (aquifers) of the intermediate aquifer system. Slug tests permeable zone is present or where the deposits are interbedded. provide a localized estimate of hydraulic conductivity or trans- In this report, the deposits are considered to form a single missivity in the near vicinity of a well. Slug test procedures homogeneous aquifer, and are referred to as the surficial aquifer. and results are discussed in Gates (2009). Slug tests performed The surficial aquifer is recharged by rainfall that infil- on the upper confining unit indicate that the unit has a low trates the permeable deposits and percolates downward to the horizontal hydraulic conductivity value of about 0.3 foot per water table. The surficial aquifer is an important component day (ft/d) (Gates, 2009). of the groundwater system, because it provides the means Underlying the upper confining unit are two water-bearing for the temporary storage of infiltrating water that eventually units called the upper and lower Arcadia aquifers (DeWitt percolates down to the underlying aquifers or moves laterally and Mallams, 2007) (fig. 11). This aquifer nomenclature is a to areas of discharge. proposed revision by DeWitt and Mallams (2007) and Mallams In some areas of the upper Peace River basin, the and DeWitt (2007) that replaces zone 2 and zone 3 from surficial aquifer does not exist, because the surface sediments Knochenmus (2006) with the upper and lower Arcadia aquifers, have been removed by strip mining for phosphate. Where respectively. This revision also proposes to rename the interme- the surficial aquifer is present, the thickness is variable in diate aquifer system in southwestern Florida to the Hawthorn aquifer system (excluding the upper and lower confining the upper Peace River basin, ranging from less than 10 ft to units), in keeping with aquifer naming guidelines in Laney and more than 200 ft along the sandy Lake Wales Ridge (Spechler Davidson (1986). There is not a current consensus, however, on and Kroening, 2007). Beneath the ridges of the upper Peace the use of “Hawthorn aquifer system,” so in this report only the River basin (Lake Henry, Gordonville, Lakeland, and Lake proposed upper and lower Arcadia aquifer names are used. Wales Ridges; fig. 2), the surficial aquifer has a large storage Slug tests of these aquifers indicated an increase in the capacity and provides substantial recharge to the underlying horizontal hydraulic conductivity compared to the overlying aquifers. Along the Peace River floodplain, however, the confining unit that ranged from 2 to 42 ft/d. Transmissivities surficial aquifer is thin to nonexistent, limiting the amount of the upper Arcadia aquifer reported from aquifer perfor- of infiltration and recharge. Where the water table is present mance tests at wells LW1P and LW4P were 5,000 to 125,000 along the floodplain, the depth to the water table is about 5 feet squared per day (ft2/d), respectively (Gates, 2009). The to 10 ft below land surface. During extended dry periods, the wide range of transmissivity values for the intermediate surficial aquifer may go dry. The surficial aquifer has a low aquifer system indicates its formational heterogeneity. specific capacity along the upper Peace River floodplain. The area of greatest transmissivity occurs within A specific-capacity test was performed at the LW3P well on the upper Arcadia aquifer (zone 2; fig. 11) at the LW4P February 7, 2007. The well was constructed to a depth of (Kissengen Spring) well. During coring at this well, a large 12 ft below land surface with 7 ft of open screen. The well cavity was detected between 40 and 55 ft below land surface. was pumped dry during the test at a rate of less than 1 gallon This cavity also was encountered at approximately the same per minute (gal/min). The calculated specific capacity was depth while drilling two nearby monitor wells and a water- 0.3 gal/min per foot of drawdown (Gates, 2009). supply well. The cavity appears to be horizontally extensive Hydrogeology 25 across the 100-ft wide well site, which is located about 100 ft northeast of the historical Kissengen Spring site. The high transmissivity value of 125,000 ft2/d for the intermediate aquifer system occurred within the depth interval from 30 to 76 ft below land surface. The high transmissivity and presence of large conduits indicate an active cavernous flow system within the upper intermediate aquifer system in this part of the upper Peace River floodplain. Figure 14 shows a nearby outcrop of the Arcadia Formation that depicts the secondary porosity of the weathered carbonate unit. The lower confining unit lies at the base of the inter- mediate aquifer system and, to some extent, hydraulically separates the intermediate aquifer system from the Upper Floridan aquifer (fig. 11). The lower confining unit has a low vertical hydraulic conductivity and, consequently, retards interaquifer flow. Slug tests limited to the lower confining unit were performed at all three sites drilled for this study, and indicate horizontal hydraulic conductivity values that ranged Figure 14. Secondary porosity of the Arcadia Formation within the from about 0.003 to 0.7 ft/d (Gates, 2009). intermediate aquifer system (Gator Sink). Photo credit: P.A. Metz, Within the study area, the intermediate aquifer system USGS is used as a source of water for irrigation and public and domestic supply. Wells open to the intermediate aquifer system commonly yield less than 300 gallons per minute (gal/min) 1994). Some of the wells in the study area that are completed (Wilson, 1977). The yield to wells and total withdrawals of in the Upper Floridan aquifer also are open to the intermediate water from the intermediate aquifer system is much less than aquifer system (Metz and Brendle, 1996). those for the underlying Upper Floridan aquifer, and represents Aquifer performance tests were conducted at the LW1P only 1 percent of the groundwater withdrawn in Polk County. and LW4P wells to determine the hydraulic properties of the Upper Floridan aquifer. The aquifer performance tests were conducted in the open intervals between 95 to 235 ft below Upper Floridan Aquifer land surface at the LW1P well, and between 151 to 310 ft below land surface at the LW4P well. Both of these test The Floridan aquifer system, as defined by Miller (1986), intervals coincide with the Suwannee Limestone, which, as is a vertically continuous sequence of carbonate rocks of described from the cores, is composed of highly weathered, generally high permeability (fig. 11). In the study area, the poorly indurated, silt-size limestone and calcareous mud Floridan aquifer system consists of two aquifers: the Upper and sand. Transmissivity values within this unit ranged from Floridan aquifer, which generally contains freshwater, and 13,000 ft2/d at the LW4P well site to 56,000 ft2/d at the LW1P the Lower Floridan aquifer, which contains highly mineral- well site (Gates, 2009). ized water. The Upper Floridan aquifer consists of the The geophysical logs for the three monitor well sites Suwannee Limestone, the Ocala Limestone, and the Avon Park drilled for this project are shown in figures 15 through 17. Formation of the Oligocene and Eocene series. The top of the Analysis of the gamma log indicates high levels of gamma Upper Floridan aquifer in the study area coincides with the top activity in the Hawthorn Group within the intermediate of the Suwannee Limestone. The base of the aquifer is defined aquifer system because of the clay matrix that surrounds the as the first occurrence of vertically persistent intergranular dominate rock type within this unit. Below the intermediate evaporites in the Avon Park Formation (Miller, 1986). The aquifer system, there is a decrease in clay content and a thickness of the Upper Floridan aquifer is about 1,000 ft resultant decrease in gamma activity, which denotes the top within the study area (Basso, 2003). of the Upper Floridan aquifer. The top of the Upper Floridan The Upper Floridan aquifer consists of limestone and aquifer, as determined from the gamma logs, is about 105 ft dolomite that have solution-enlarged fractures. The Upper below land surface at the LW1P well (fig. 15), 170 ft below Floridan aquifer is the most productive and widely used aquifer land surface at the LW3P well (fig. 16), and 160 ft below land in the Southern West-Central Florida Groundwater Basin, surface at the LW4P well site (fig. 17). and supplies more than 10 times the amount of water that In addition to gamma logs, caliper and video logs were is pumped from the intermediate aquifer system (Metz and used to delineate the contacts between hydrogeologic units and Brendle, 1996). The Upper Floridan aquifer is used extensively locations of fractures and cavity zones. Contacts between units for irrigation, industrial and commercial, public, recreational, are generally more weathered and fractured than within units and domestic supplies; large capacity wells can yield up to and are commonly indicated by an increase in the borehole 5,000 gal/min (Southwest Florida Water Management District, diameter, as shown in the caliper log. The three caliper logs 26 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
FLOW, IN GALLONS PER MINUTE Ambient While pumping 25 gallons per minute -10 0 10 FLOW, IN GALLONS PER MINUTE Ambient TEMPERATURE, GAMMA, IN COUNTS While pumping 25 gallons per minute FLUID RESISTIVITY, IN DEGREES LITHOLOGY PER SECOND CALIPER, IN INCHES While pumping 56 gallons per minute IN OHM-METERS FAHRENHEIT 0 400 5 10 15 -5 0 5 21 22 23 68 69 70 0 Surficial Ambient flow Pumping aquifer (downward flow) (upward flow) Ambient Ambient 20 Intermediate Polyvinyl aquifer chloride (PVC) system casing to 17 40 feet
60
80
100
120
140
160
Upper Floridan DEPTH, IN FEET BELOW LAND SURFACE Aquifer 180
200
220
240
260 EXPLANATION Sand Vugs and pin point vugs
Dolostone Limestone (packstone and grainstone)
Fossils and fossil molds Calcareous limestone (mudstone and wackestone)
Figure 15. Geophysical logs for well site LW1P. Hydrogeology 27
FLOW, IN GALLONS PER MINUTE Ambient -0.25 0 0.25 FLUID CONDUCTIVITY, TEMPERATURE, GAMMA, IN COUNTS FLOW, IN GALLONS PER MINUTE IN MICROSIEMENS IN DEGREES LITHOLOGY PER SECOND CALIPER, IN INCHES While pumping 13 gallons per minute PER CENTIMETER FAHRENHEIT 0 400 5 10 15 18 -13 0 13 350 400 450 500 6970 71 72 0 Surficial aquifer Ambient flow Pumping (downward flow) (upward flow)
20
40
60
80
Intermediate aquifer 100 system
120 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) casing to 170 feet 140 Pumping Ambient
160
Ambient 180
200
DEPTH, IN FEET BELOW LAND SURFACE
220
240 Upper Floridan Aquifer 260
280
300
320 EXPLANATION Sand Clay Calcareous limestone (mudstone and wackestone) Dolostone Vugs and pin point vugs
Fossils and fossil molds Limestone (packstone and grainstone)
Figure 16. Geophysical logs for well site LW3P. 28 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
FLOW, IN GALLONS PER MINUTE Ambient -0.25 0 0.25 FLUID CONDUCTIVITY, TEMPERATURE, GAMMA, IN COUNTS FLOW, IN GALLONS PER MINUTE IN MICROSIEMENS IN DEGREES LITHOLOGY PER SECOND CALIPER, IN INCHES While pumping 100 gallons per minute PER CENTIMETER FAHRENHEIT 0 175 5 10 15 20 25 -100 0 100 400 450 500 71 72 0 Ambient flow Pumping Caliper log for (downward flow) (upward flow) the intermediate aquifer system 20 well; well depth 77 feet, cased depth 31 feet VOID 40
60
Intermediate aquifer 80 system
Ambient Caliper log for 100 a temporary Upper Floridan aquifer well; 120 depth 310 feet, cased depth feet150 Ambient Pumping Pumping 140
160
180
200
DEPTH, IN FEET BELOW LAND SURFACE
220 Upper Floridan Aquifer 240
260
280
300
320 EXPLANATION Sand Clay Calcareous limestone (mudstone and wackestone) Dolostone Vugs and pin point vugs
Fossils and fossil molds Limestone (packstone and grainstone)
Figure 17. Geophysical logs for well site LW4P. Hydrogeology 29
(A) 82°00’ 81°45’ indicate an increase in the caliper trace at the top of the Upper Floridan aquifer, which signifies a weathered fractured zone. A downhole video camera was used to verify these zones. Confirming the results of the drilling cores, the caliper Lakeland log for the intermediate aquifer system well at the LW4P Winter Haven site (fig. 17) indicated a large cavity at a depth of 38 to 53 ft 28°00’ Lake below land surface. A downhole video camera was then used Hancock to identify the extent of the pervasive cavity at a similar depth for three nearby temporary wells used during drilling and two 120 nearby monitor wells. All logs indicated that a cavity exists at Lake this depth over a distance of at least 100 ft. Near the LW4P site Bartow Wales is the extinct Kissengen Spring, the newly formed Otter Sink, Peace 110 and Tom’s Sink (fig. 13B), which may also be part of this Predevelopment fracture system. Numerous casts, molds, vugs, and fractures levels Homeland 100 River were visible in the video logs. Fort Meade Results from the flowmeter logs during ambient 27°45’ conditions indicate downward flow in the boreholes for the LW1P and LW3P wells, and no detectable flow in the LW4P 80 90 well borehole. Flowmeter logs during pumping conditions indicate that flow moved up the boreholes and exited the 0 5 10 MILES borehole at formation contacts. Results from EM flow logs 0 5 10 KILOMETERS at LW1P indicate that water moves downward within the Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 1:1000,000, 1985 borehole during non-pumping conditions. During pumping Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 17 conditions, flow was observed at permeable zones within (B) 82°00’ 81°45’ the hydrogeologic units. For example, EM flow logs at the LW1P well, which has an open interval of 17 to 235 ft below 120 land surface, indicate that most flow in the borehole occurs at discrete zones located 20 to 25, 60 to 70, and 90 to 100 ft Winter Lakeland Haven below land surface. A comparison of geologic cores and EM Lake 110 Hancock flow logs indicates that these flow zones are in areas where the 28°00’ carbonates are fractured and weathered. 100
90 Lake Wales Potentiometric Surface Bartow 80 70 100 Predevelopment water levels are considered to be the
Peace levels of the potentiometric surface of the Upper Floridan May 2007 aquifer prior to any groundwater usage (Johnston and others, Homeland 60 River 1980). Predevelopment levels ranged from 120 ft in the northern Fort Meade part of the upper Peace River basin to 80 ft in the southern 27°45’ part (fig. 18A). Prior to development, regional groundwater 50 flow through the upper Peace River basin was mostly from the north toward the south-southwest. Current potentiometric- surface levels (May 2007) indicate a range from 120 ft in the 0 5 10 MILES northern part to 50 ft in the southern part of the basin, with 0 5 10 KILOMETERS the largest declines occurring in the west-central part of the Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 1:1000,000, 1985 upper Peace River basin near Bartow (fig. 18B). The current Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 17 regional groundwater flow paths (May 2007) have shifted to EXPLANATION POTENTIOMETRIC SURFACE CONTOUR—Shows level that water would a more westerly direction through the basin compared to the have stood in tightly cased wells tapping the Upper Floridan aquifer. predominate north-south trending predevelopment flow paths. Interval 10 feet. Datum is NGVD 1929 Potentiometric-surface maps of the intermediate aquifer GROUNDWATER FLOW DIRECTION system are difficult to construct, because existing control UPPER PEACE RIVER BASIN BOUNDARY wells are finished in multiple aquifers producing composite potentiometric-surface levels. Water levels in the intermediate Figure 18. (A) Predevelopment (modified from Johnston and others, aquifer system in the study area also are more localized and 1980) and (B) May 2007 potentiometric-surface levels (modified from are influenced by the heterogeneous geology and by several Ortiz, 2008a) and regional groundwater flow patterns of the Upper topographic highs, including the Lake Wales Ridge to the east Floridan aquifer within the upper Peace River basin. area has declined, an increase in population and agricultural expansion since the 1970s has resulted in a redistribution of some of the pumping stresses (Spechler and Kroening, 2007). A hydrograph of the intermediate aquifer system ROMP 59 well also shows a continued steady recovery in water levels from the mid-1970s to 2007 (fig. 19C; loca- tion of well is shown in fig. 8). Water-level trends for the intermediate aquifer system, however, are not as dramatic as those observed in the Upper Floridan aquifer. The range of water-level fluctuations is about 8 to 10 ft for the less produc- tive intermediate aquifer system, whereas the Upper Floridan aquifer has a much larger range, fluctuating as much as 40 ft Otter at Otter Sink. Photo credit: P.A. Metz, USGS between wet and dry seasons because of nearby pumpage. Based on statistical analysis, water levels in the intermediate aquifer system experienced a recovery of about 10 ft from the mid-1970s to 2007. This rise is likely the result of decreased and Lakeland Ridge to the west (fig. 2). Based on wells open pumpage from the Upper Floridan aquifer, which in turn only to the lower Arcadia aquifer in the vicinity of the upper causes reduced leakage from the intermediate aquifer system Peace River, groundwater flow generally moves from the (Knochenmus, 2006). nearby ridges toward the river. The cumulative groundwater withdrawals in the 5,000‑mi2 Southern West-Central Florida Groundwater Basin Long-Term Trends in Groundwater Levels influence the groundwater levels in the upper Peace River basin because of the regional flow regime of the Upper In the upper Peace River basin, the groundwater levels Floridan aquifer. Water-level difference maps were created in the Upper Floridan aquifer have declined (currently about based on predevelopment minus the May 1975, May 2007, 50 ft) from predevelopment levels because of historical and September 2007 levels to evaluate the decline in ground- groundwater use. Long-term water-level records indicate that water levels across the regional Southern West-Central Florida the declines started in the late 1930s when large quantities of Groundwater Basin and the localized upper Peace River basin. groundwater were used for phosphate-mining processes (Peek, The May 1975 map was used, because groundwater pumpage 1951; Hutchinson, 1978; Lewelling and others, 1998). This for phosphate mining in the upper Peace River basin was large potentiometric-surface decline resulted in the cessa- at its highest level during this period. The 1975 difference tion of flow from Kissengen Spring and minor springs that maps of the regional groundwater basin show that the greatest discharged from the Upper Floridan aquifer and intermediate declines (greater than 50 ft) occurred in the central and southwestern half of the upper Peace River basin and extended aquifer system (Peek, 1951; Stewart, 1966; Lewelling and to Hillsborough, Manatee, and Hardee Counties (fig. 20A). others, 1998) (fig. 19A). In addition, artesian wells at the The May 2007 difference map of the regional Southern headwaters of the Peace River near Saddle Creek ceased to West-Central Florida Groundwater Basin shows a rise in flow in the late 1950s (Stewart, 1966). groundwater levels in the upper Peace River basin from the A hydrograph of the Upper Floridan aquifer Regional May 1975 levels. The lowest levels for the May 2007 differ- Observation Monitoring Program (ROMP) well ROMP 60 ence map (greater than 50 ft) are located in Hillsborough, shows that the long-term decline in water levels continued Manatee, and Hardee Counties (fig. 20B). Water-level differ into the mid-1970s (fig. 19B; location of well is shown in ence maps for the upper Peace River basin for the current fig. 8). The peak of phosphate production in the upper Peace May and September 2007 levels (fig. 20C, D), indicate that River basin occurred during the mid-1970s, when groundwater the greatest declines are centered on the upper reaches of the pumpage for phosphate mining was estimated to be about Peace River near Bartow to Fort Meade (May 2007). The 270 Mgal/d (Spechler and Kroening, 2007). An increase in September 2007 difference map shows a water-level rise of water levels after the mid-1970s coincided with the period about 10 to 20 ft from the May 2007 map near the Bartow to of time when the phosphate-mining industry started water- Fort Meade area. conservation practices (Spechler and Kroening, 2007). The decline in the potentiometric surfaces of the Upper Statistical analysis of the water levels in the Upper Floridan aquifer has affected the interactions between Floridan aquifer shows about a 20‑ft rise in levels from the the Peace River and the underlying groundwater system. mid-1970s to 2007. This rise may be a result of a combination Figure 21 illustrates the level of the potentiometric surface of factors that include the reduction in groundwater pumpage of the Upper Floridan aquifer above the riverbed eleva- for phosphate during the past decades, climatic conditions, and tion when the area had flowing wells and springs. The area improved conservation by agriculture. Although mining in the along the upper Peace River is now a recharge area where Streamflow 31
(A) 50 Discharge Streamflow KISSENGEN SPRING measurement 40 obtained in 1898 Data collected at 10 USGS continuous gaging stations 30 located along the upper Peace River and contributing tributaries (fig. 22) were used to (1) quantify flow under varying hydrologic 20
PER SECOND conditions; (2) determine historical changes in flow; (3) quantify 10 river flow losses and gains; (4) understand anomalies in flow
DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET conditions, such as reversals in flow, and (5) determine losses or 0 gains from any unknown sources. There were five main-channel 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 (B) stations along the upper Peace River (fig. 22); Peace River at 100 Bartow (site 1), Peace River near Bartow (site 7), Peace River at Estimated predevelopment levels 1975 Clear Springs (site 11), Peace River near Homeland (site 16), and 90 Peace River at Fort Meade (site 31). The inflow tributary gaging 80 stations were Saddle Creek at Structure P‑11 (site A), Peace Creek ROMP 60 WELL Drainage Canal near Wahneta (site B), and three phosphate-mine UPPER FLORIDAN AQUIFER 70 outfalls; Sixmile Creek (site 12), Phosphate Mine Outfall CS-8 (site 14), and Barber Branch (site 15) (fig. 22). 60
50 River Channel Characteristics Affecting Upper Peace River Flows 40 The upper Peace River was subdivided into four principal 30 study reaches based on their unique hydrologic and karst
WATER LEVEL, IN FEET ABOVE NGVD OF 1929 WATER characteristics (fig. 22). A physical description of the Peace 20 River channel and associated tributaries and distributaries 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 (C) along Reaches 1 through 4 follows. 100 Reach 1 begins at the Peace River at Bartow gaging ROMP 59 WELL station (site 1) at SR 60 and extends downstream 1.8 mi to 90 INTERMEDIATE AQUIFER SYSTEM the Peace River station near Bartow gaging station (site 7) 80 (fig. 22). Saddle Creek (site A) and Peace Creek Drainage Canal (site B) drain the headwaters of the upper Peace River
ABOVE NGVD OF 1929 WATER LEVEL, IN FEET WATER 70 watershed, and inflows from these creeks largely determine 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 the quantity of flow entering the upper part of Reach 1. The EXPLANATION lower part of Saddle Creek drains Lake Hancock, and has been Distance-weighted Least Squares fitting (McLain, 1974) completely channelized from the lake outfall to its confluence with the Peace River and the Peace Creek Drainage Canal. Figure 19. (A) Long-term discharge from Kissengen Spring, and A control structure (P‑11) that regulates discharge from Lake long-term water levels in observation wells tapping the (B) Upper Hancock is located about 2.3 mi upstream from the conflu- Floridan aquifer and (C ) intermediate aquifer system (location ence of Peace Creek Drainage Canal and Saddle Creek. Peace of Kissengen Spring and wells are shown in figs. 13 and 8, Creek Drainage Canal also has been channelized in areas for respectively). flood control and, during higher flows, water from this canal moves into low-lying overbank areas. The effect of these altered streams has the largest impact the potentiometric surface of the Upper Floridan aquifer is on Peace River flows during low-flow conditions, when the below the riverbed elevation, and river water flows downward tributary inflows are most needed to sustain flows in the river. through karst features to the underlying aquifers. During For example, when the control structure at Saddle Creek is May 1975, when groundwater use for mining processes was closed, backwater from the Peace Creek Drainage Canal can at its highest level, the potentiometric surface of the Upper flow up into the altered low-gradient channel of Saddle Creek. Floridan aquifer was as much as 50 ft below the riverbed Because of the large storage capacity of this 2.3‑mi dredged elevation near Bartow (fig. 21). The May and September channel, a substantial volume of water from the Peace Creek 2007 conditions indicate a rise in aquifer water levels above Drainage Canal is stored in the Saddle Creek channel when P‑11 the 1975 levels, but levels remain as much as 30 ft and 20 ft is closed. As a result of channelization and increased storage, below the riverbed elevation, respectively (fig. 21). flows from these creeks to Reach 1 have been reduced during 32 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
(A) 83° 82° 81° (B) 83° 82° 81° LAKE LAKE
PASCO Southern West-Central PASCO Southern West-Central POLK Florida Groundwater POLK Florida Groundwater Basin Basin HILLSBOROUGH HILLSBOROUGH 28° 28°
Peace OSCEOLA Peace OSCEOLA PINELLAS Upper PINELLAS Upper Peace Peace River River Basin Basin
River River MANATEE MANATEE MAY HARDEE MAY HARDEE 1975 2007 HIGHLANDS HIGHLANDS U FO MEXICO OF GULF MEXICO OF GULF
SARASOTA DE SOT0 SARASOTA DE SOT0 27° 27°
CHARLOTTE GLADES CHARLOTTE GLADES
HENDRY HENDRY LEE LEE
0 25 50 MILES 0 25 50 MILES COLLIER COLLIER 0 25 50 KILOMETERS 0 25 50 KILOMETERS
(C) 82°00’ 81°45' (D) 82°00’ 81°45' Upper Upper Peace Peace River River Basin Basin
Lakeland Winter Haven Lakeland Winter Haven
28°00’ 28°00’ Lake Lake Hancock Hancock
Lake Wales Lake Wales Peace Peace MAY Bartow SEPTEMBER Bartow 2007 2007
River River
Homeland Homeland
27°45' 27°45' Fort Meade Fort Meade
0 5 10 MILES 0 5 10 MILES
0 5 10 KILOMETERS 0 5 10 KILOMETERS
EXPLANATION Decrease in the potentiometric surface levels of the Upper Floridan aquifer based on predevelopment levels, in feet (Johnston and others, 1980)
Greater than 50 30 to 40 10 to 20 40 to 50 20 to 30 0 to 10
Figure 20. Changes in the potentiometric surface of the Upper Floridan aquifer between predevelopment (modified from Johnston and others, 1980) and (A) May 1975 (modified from Mills and Laughlin, 1976) and (B) May 2007 levels (modified from Ortiz 2008a) for the Southern West-Central Florida Groundwater Basin, and between predevelopment and (C ) May 2007 and (D) September 2007 levels (modified from Ortiz 2008b) for the Upper Peace River basin. Streamflow 33
West East Surface-water inflows into Reach 1 include two poorly A A’ 220 incised drainage channels located on the eastern side of the Peace River floodplain and immediately downstream from 200 the Peace River at Bartow station (site 1). These channels can drain to or receive water from a series of interconnected
LAKE WALES BARTOW Peace River Lake Garfield phosphate-mine pit lakes during high-flow conditions. During 150 dry periods when flows in the Peace River at the Bartow station are about 50 cubic feet per second (ft3/s) or less, these channels typically do not convey any water between 100 the pit lakes and the river. Two urban storm drainage ditches, one directly north and the other about 1,200 ft south of the Bartow WWTP, discharge flows into the Peace River. These 50 ditches discharge to the Peace River only during intense
ELEVATION, IN FEET ABOVE NGVD OF 1929 ELEVATION, 20 storm events. 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Reach 2 begins at the Peace River near Bartow gaging DISTANCE FROM WESTERN BOUNDARY OF THE UPPER PEACE RIVER BASIN, IN MILES station (site 7) and extends 1.9‑mi downstream to the Peace River at Clear Springs gaging station (site 11) (fig. 22). Except EXPLANATION GENERALIZED LAND SURFACE for several limited areas of limestone outcrops, most of the channel bed is overlain by a thick layer of shifting sand. The POTENTIOMETRIC SURFACE PROFILE Peace River consistently goes dry in Reach 2 during low- UPPER FLORIDAN AQUIFER –Predevelopment levels (Modified from Johnston and others, 1980) flow conditions because of a number of karst features in the UPPER FLORIDAN AQUIFER –SEPTEMBER, 2007 (Modified from channel that intercept and drain the surface-water flow. An Ortiz, 2008b) approximate 1,700-ft-long section of channel at the lower end UPPER FLORIDAN AQUIFER –MAY 2007 (Modified from Ortiz, of Reach 2 generally remains ponded. The ponding in this 2008a) section may indicate an impermeable sediment layer in the UPPER FLORIDAN AQUIFER –MAY 1975 (Modified from Mills channel bed or a lack of karst features that can drain surface- and Laughlin, 1976) water flow. Figure 21. Comparison of potentiometric-surface profiles of the There are no tributaries, channels, or ditches contributing Upper Floridan aquifer for predevelopment and recent conditions flow to the Peace River along Reach 2. The broad floodplain (location of section A-A’ is shown in fig. 8). of the Peace River along this reach is almost entirely bordered by elevated phosphate clay-settling landforms that confine high-flow discharge within the floodplain boundaries. low-flow conditions. Similar conditions have been observed at Located along Reach 2 are two distributary channels other Peace River tributary sites, where the flat, low-gradient (Dover Sink Distributary and Gator Sink Distributary) that ditches pond water rather than flow during low-flow conditions. drain river water from the main channel under certain hydro- Downstream from the confluence of these creeks, the logic conditions (fig. 22). The Dover Sink Distributary is an Peace River channel along Reach 1 is characterized as sandy approximate 500-ft-long channel that winds through the flood- and gently meandering, and varies in width from about 30 to plain and connects to Dover Sink. The poorly incised Gator 100 ft. This poorly incised channel transitions into a broad, Sink Distributary is about 200 ft upstream from the Peace heavily wooded high-water channel (floodplain) with banks River confluence with the Dover Sink Distributary. Gator Sink rising from about one to several feet in height. The extent Distributary winds through the wooded floodplain and drops of areal inundation of the high-water channel is generally several feet in elevation before it reaches Gator Sink, which restricted to a floodplain corridor, bordered on both sides is about 800 ft west of the river. Also located in Reach 2 are by elevated phosphate-mined landforms (Lewelling, 2003). two phosphate-mined pit lakes that accept backwater from the Numerous cypress trees line the edges of the low-water channel and, at several locations, the exposed roots of long- Peace River during high-flow conditions. decayed cypress trees are associated with observed cracks or Reach 3 begins at the Peace River at Clear Springs openings that drain river water into the underlying aquifer. gaging station (site 11) and extends 3.9 mi downstream to Karst features are located along this reach and have been the Peace River near Homeland gaging station on the SR observed to persistently drain river water to the underlying 640 bridge (site 16) (fig. 22). Reach 3 is defined by a poorly aquifers. Intermittent exposures of karstified limestone layers incised low-water channel, and this reach has not been are present in the channel bed along the lowermost sections of observed dry during low-flow conditions. The extent of areal the reach. During most low-flow conditions, flow is perennial inundation of the high-water channel is generally restricted along the upper section of Reach 1. The reach becomes dry to the broad floodplain corridor, bordered on both sides by only during prolonged droughts, such as in 2000-2002. elevated reclaimed phosphate-mined landforms. 34 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
81°54’ 52’ 50’ 48’ 81°46’ EXPLANATION
MINED AREA 28°00’ 559 HYDROLOGY ASSOCIATED WITH MINED AREAS OPEN WATER 1 REACH AND REACH NUMBER CLEAR SPRINGS MINE BOUNDARY 98 Lake 58’ Hancock KISSENGEN SPRING—dry Highland 1 LOCATION OF DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT SITES DURING City SEEPAGE RUNS AND NUMBER 17 KARST FEATURE
A USGS STREAMFLOW GAGING STATION 56’ Saddle Creek B Peace Creek Drainage Canal
Peace Bear Branch 60 Site River Location number mile Bartow 1 Pit 54’ 60 2 Lakes 3 4 Saddle Creek at Structure P-11 (gaging station) 5 A 1 6 B Peace Creek Drainage Canal (gaging station) 7 1 0 Peace River at Bartow (gaging station) Gator Sink and 8 Distributary 2 1 9 9a 2 0.8 Above Wabash Complex 10 3 0.9 Below Wabash Complex 52’ Sixmile 11 Dover Sink and Creek 12 Distributary 4 1.3 Upper dragline crossing; Cook’s Ripple 5 1.6 Above Ledges; Fricano Fracture Kissengen 6 1.7 Below Ledges Spring (dry) 13 Phosphate Mine 7 1.8 Peace River near Bartow (gaging station) 555 Otter Sink 14 Outfall CS-8 8 1.9 Below diffuse zone and Midway 15 Tom’s Sink 9 2.1 Below Elephant Graveyard 50’ Barber Branch 3 9a 2.6 Below Crevasses Homeland 16 10 2.8 Dover Sink and Dover Sink Distributary 640 17 11 3.7 Peace River at Clear Springs (gaging station) 18 12 3.8 Sixmile Creek (gaging station) 98 13 4.9 Above Kissengen Spring 48’ 17 14 5.2 Phosphate Mine OutfallCS-8 (gaging station) 15 5.7 Barber Branch (gaging station) 19 16 7.2 Peace River near Homeland (gaging station) 20 4 17 7.3 Department of Environmental Protection ditch 26 18 7.8 Below Juvenile Detention Center 19 9.5 Mobil Outfall 3W Cut Rocky 20 9.9 Camp Meeting Branch 27°46’ Branch Fort 29 26 10.8 Below Mobil bridge Meade Branch 30 Sink 29 11.9 Rocky Branch 98 630 31 30 12.6 Sink Branch 17 31 13.0 Peace River at Fort Meade (gaging station) 1 Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 0 1 2 3 MILES Site 2 used as alternate discharge measurement section for site 1 1:1000,000, 1985 during low-flow conditions Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 17 0 1 2 3 KILOMETERS
Figure 22. Locations of stream Reaches 1-4 and discharge measurement sites on the Peace River and tributaries during seepage runs.
Three phosphate-mine outfall gaging stations are dominated by interconnected, reclaimed linear pit lakes and located along Reach 3: Sixmile Creek (site 12), Phosphate clay-settling areas, which are surrounded by various types of Mine Outfall CS‑8 (site 14), and Barber Branch (site 15; reclaimed landforms. fig. 22). These outfalls generally supply water to Reach 3, Reach 4 begins near the Homeland gaging station (site 16) except under extremely dry conditions. These three channels at the SR 640 bridge, and extends 5.4 mi downstream to the have been altered by strip mining for phosphate. The chan- Peace River at Fort Meade gaging station (site 31) (fig. 22). nels have been generally reclaimed as broad linear ditches. The channel along Reach 4 is generally more incised than the The contributing drainage areas for these channels are upstream reaches and, during moderate-flow conditions, the Streamflow 35 reach can exhibit multiple braided channels in places. Most of of greatest observed streamflow losses. The discharge hydro- the riverbed is sandy, except for limited areas of karst outcrop- graphs illustrate the change in flow over varying hydrologic pings and remnants of phosphate-mining pebbles. Inflows into conditions and streamflow losses, and also indicate overbank Reach 4 are predominately from numerous reclaimed storage between Peace River gaging stations. Streamflow phosphate-mined channels and outfall structures associated statistics for the upper Peace River and the tributary sites for with the clay-settling landforms that border much of the flood- the 2002-2007 water years are shown in table 1. plain (high-water channel) corridor. Discharges from the largest Prior to the beginning of this study, a severe drought reclaimed channels, Rocky Branch and Sink Branch, generally affected most of Florida from 1998 to 2002 (Verdi and others, produce the largest inflows. Discharge at these outfalls was not 2006). During 2000 to 2002, the streamflow gage at the Peace monitored continuously, although periodic flow measurements River at Bartow (site 1) recorded periods of zero-flow for the were made on these tributaries. first time in its 68-year history. Zero-flow periods occurred for 37 days between May and June, 2000; 25 days between May Streamflow Conditions (2002-2007 Water Years) and June, 2001; and 6 days in May 2002. Although another severe drought during the 2006-2007 water years caused Streamflow conditions for the upper Peace River during below-average streamflow conditions in the study area, the this investigation (2002-2007 water years) can be summa- Peace River at Bartow gaging station did not reach zero flow. rized as a period of extremes, and climatic conditions were a During the study period (2002-2007 water years), the dominant control on these varying conditions. Rainfall deficits lowest annual mean discharge occurred during the 2007 water or excesses (measured from the long-term average rainfall of year, when a 2-year (2006-2007) cumulative rainfall deficit 54.12 in.) were a major influence on streamflow in the study of almost 29 in. reduced streamflow in the upper Peace River 3 area, as shown in figure 23. Below-average streamflow condi- (fig. 23). The annual mean discharge was only 18 ft /s for tions occurred during the 2002, 2006, and 2007 water years the 2007 water year, which was the lowest annual discharge for the 68-year period of record at the Peace River at Bartow gaging station. Rainfall for the 2007 water year was 37 in. and 400 40 was the third lowest in the 107 years of record, which accounts for the streamflow reductions in upper Peace River. Below- 300 30 average conditions also existed in the 2002 and 2006 water 200 20 years at this station, when the mean annual discharge was 110 and 99 ft3/s, respectively. For comparison, the period of record 100 10 mean discharge record at this station is 227 ft3/s. 0 0 A trend analysis of long-term streamflow data from the 2003 2004 2005
-100 -10 IN INCHES Bartow gaging station shows a significant decline in stream- 2002 2006 flow during the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s, and statistically -200 -20 2007 unchanged streamflow during the 1970s (Hammett, 1990).
IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND -300 -30 Another trend analysis conducted for 1970s to 2003 data indi-
DEPARTURE FROM AVERAGE RAINFALL, FROM AVERAGE DEPARTURE cates that a decline in streamflow continues through this time DEPARTURE FROM AVERAGE DISCHARGE, FROM AVERAGE DEPARTURE -400 -40 period (Spechler and Kroening, 2007). Over time, declines Departure from the average discharge of 227 cubic feet in streamflow have been influenced by a number of factors per day (Peace River at Bartow) attributed to (1) rainfall deficits that affect annual surface- and Departure from the long-term average rainfall of 54.12 groundwater storage conditions, (2) surface-water inflows inches (Bartow National Weather Service station) and baseflow declines, and (3) large groundwater withdrawals that have lowered the potentiometric surfaces of the interme- diate aquifer system and Upper Floridan aquifer beneath the Figure 23. Departure from the average discharge and rainfall riverbed, which results in a loss of river water to karst features for the 2002-2007 water years. that drain to the underlying aquifers. During below-average streamflow years (2002, 2006, and 2007 water years), flow was observed draining into when rainfall deficits occurred, and above-average streamflow various karst features as flow in the channel progressed conditions occurred during the 2003-2005 water years when downstream from the Peace River at Bartow station (site 1, rainfall excesses occurred. start of Reach 1). A comparison of discharge hydrographs Discharge hydrographs for four streamflow sites on between the upstream site (Peace River at Bartow; site 1) and the Peace River and at the three mine outfall stations for the downstream site (Peace River near Bartow; site 7), mostly the 2002-2007 water years are shown in figures 24 through showed lower discharge at the downstream site (figs. 24-29). 29 (locations of stations are shown on fig. 22). Three main- This difference reflects the loss of streamflow to the various channel sites, from the Peace River at Bartow to the Peace sinks in this reach. This condition was most pronounced River at Clear Springs gaging stations, are located in the area during periods when aquifer levels were low (figs. 24B-29B). 36 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
(A) Reaches 1 and 2 1,050 647 1,000 411 331 363 400 Shaded area 334 408 expanded below 100 153 34.8 97.1 40 24.4
10
September 4, 2002 4 September 10, 2002
3 1 Minimum discharge (20 ft /s) at Peace River at Bartow needed to 0.4 Symbol and value color correspond with site line color maintain flow in Reaches 1 and 2, 02294650 Peace River at Bartow (Site 1) but not necessarily past Dover Sink. 0.1 02294655 Peace River near Bartow (Site 7) 0.04 02294775 Peace River at Clear Springs (Site 11) 34.8 Discharge measurement (ft3 /s) No flow Peace River near Bartow DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 0.01 Seepage analysis date No flow Peace River at Clear Springs 0.004
0.001 Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep 2001 2002 (B) Reaches 1 and 2 600 400 318 Minimum discharge (20 ft 3/s) at Peace River at Bartow 126 100 needed to maintain flow in Reaches 1 and 2, but not 131 161 necessarily past Dover Sink. 28.1 40 19.2 18.3 10 7.34 12.6 15.1 4.5 7.95 4 4.77
1
0.4 June 11, 2002
June 25, 2002 Symbol and value color correspond with site line color May 17, 2002
June 14, 2002 0.1 02294650 Peace River at Bartow (Site 1) 0.04 02294655 Peace River near Bartow (Site 7) 02294775 Peace River at Clear Springs (Site 11) May 20, 2002 3 0.01 19.2 Discharge measurement (ft /s) Peace River near Bartow gage DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND Observation of no flow 0.004 No flow recorded May 15-June 23 Seepage analysis date Peace River at Clear Springs gage No flow recorded May 15-June 28 0.001 5 10 15 20 25 31 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 31 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 31 March April May June July 2002 (C) Reach 3 3,000 1,000 400 238
100 40 48.0 22.0 37.3
10 8.03 4 Symbol and value color correspond with site line color 3.84 02294747 Sixmile Creek (Site 12)* 1 02294760 Barber Branch (Site 15)* 02294781 Peace River near Homeland (Site 16) 0.4 3 0.51 0.51 Discharge measurement (ft /s) August 23, 2002 238 Rating discharge value
0.1 No Flow Seepage analysis date
DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 0.04 Peace River at Clear Springs *(continuous discharge data not available No Flow recorded May 15-June 28, 2002 during the 2002 water year) 0.0115 20 25 31 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 31 5 10 15 20 25 31 5 10 15 20 25 30 May June July August September 2002
Figure 24. Daily mean discharge for Reaches 1 and 2 for the (A) 2002 water year, (B) the 2002 low-flow period, and (C ) daily mean discharge for Reach 3 for the partial 2002 water year. Streamflow 37
(A) Reaches 1 and 2 3,000 2,200 2,000 2,048 1,865 Shaded area expanded below 1,000 1,811 769 870 666 630 500 707 646 497 268 209 148 226 200 201 187
183 January 7, 2003 217 164
100 July 9, 2003 153 50
20 Symbol and value color correspond with site line color October 29, 2002 02294650 Peace River at Bartow (Site 1)
10 02294655 Peace River near Bartow (Site 7) 3 Minimum discharge (20 ft /s) at September 23, 2003 02294775 Peace River at Clear Springs (Site 11) 3 Peace River at Bartow needed to 5 201 Discharge measurement (ft /s)
DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND maintain flow in Reaches 1 and 2, 209 Rating discharge value but not necessarily past Dover Sink. 2 Seepage analysis date 1 Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep 2002 2003 (B) Reaches 1 and 2 300 200 183
94.5 100 72.7 77.9 82.9 50 64.6 58.5
26.5 19.4 20 April 23, 2003
April 25, 2003
10 8.69 Symbol and value color correspond with site line color Minimum discharge (20 ft 3/s) at 5 02294650 Peace River at Bartow (Site 1) Peace River at Bartow needed to 02294655 Peace River near Bartow (Site 7) maintain flow in Reaches 1 and 2, 02294775 Peace River at Clear Springs (Site 11) 3 but not necessarily past Dover Sink.
May 13, 2003 DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 94.5 2 Discharge measurement (ft /s) Seepage analysis date
1 15 20 25 30 1 5 10 15 20 25 30 April May 2003 (C) Reach 3 3,000 1,000 897
400 188 131 100 95 158 80 72 51.8 40 37.0 42.9 24.8 17.2 10.6 10 11.7 5.90 4.90 7.74 4 4.86 2.52 1.26 2.18 1.06 2.10 1 0.93 0.72 1.92 02294747 Sixmile Creek (Site 12) 02294759 Phosphate Mine OutfallCS-8 (Site 14) 0.4 02294760 Barber Branch (Site 15) 0.24 0.1 Symbol and value color 02294781 Peace River near Homeland (Site 16) DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 1.92 Discharge measurement (ft3 /s) 0.04 correspond with May 13, 2003 site line color Seepage analysis date 0.01 0.01 Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep 2002 2003
Figure 25. Daily mean discharge for Reaches 1 and 2 for the (A) 2003 water year, (B) the 2003 low-flow period, and (C ) daily mean discharge for Reach 3 for the 2003 water year. 38 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
(A) Reaches 1 and 2 6,000 3,600 2,310 Shaded area 634 2,740 1,000 433 2,040 330 expanded below 609 1,540 142 201 152 100 145 57.4 114 30.9 46.2 25.4 10 22.8
3 Minimum discharge (20 ft /s) at August 19, 2004 1 Peace River at Bartow needed to maintain flow in Reaches 1 and 2,
0.1 November 6, 2003 but not necessarily past Dover Sink.
Symbol and value color correspond with site line color 0.01 02294650 Peace River at Bartow (Site 1)
Hurricane Charley August 9, 2004 02294655 Peace River near Bartow (Site 7)
Hurricane Frances September 5, 2004 0.001 02294775 Peace River at Clear Springs (Site 11) Hurricane Jeanne September 26, 2004
DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND Dotted line indicates transitional flow/no flow area 22.8 Discharge measurement (ft3 /s) 0.0001 No Flow Seepage analysis date 0.00001 Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep 2003 2004 (B) Reaches 1 and 2 600
86 38.1 100 80 63.1 30.1 47.8 68 39.3 25.2 14.3 10.9 37.4 10 4.36 9.70 18.0 8.44 3.98 4.40 1
March 9, 2004
June 29, 2004
0.1 3
Symbol and value color correspond with site line color May 19, 2004
April 27, 2004 Minimum discharge (20 ft /s) at
June 1, 2004 02294650 Peace River at Bartow (Site 1) Peace River at Bartow needed to 0.01 02294655 Peace River near Bartow (Site 7) maintain flow in Reaches 1 and 2, 02294775 Peace River at Clear Springs (Site 11) but not necessarily past Dover Sink. 0.001 Dotted line indicates transitional flow/no flow area 490 Discharge measurement, cubic feet per second (ft3 /s) 80 Rating discharge value DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 0.0001 Observation of no flow Seepage analysis date 0.00001 1 5 10 15 20 25 31 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 31 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 31 March April May June July 2004 (C) Reach 3 4,000 Symbol and value color correspond with site line color 02294747 Sixmile Creek (Site 12) 3,270 1,000 36.1 Discharge measurement, cubic feet per second (ft3 /s) 02294759 Phosphate Mine OutfallCS-8 (Site 14) 794 1.20 Rating discharge value 02294760 Barber Branch (Site 15) Observation of no flow 02294781 Peace River near Homeland (Site 16) 216 157 Seepage analysis date 62.0 100 35.3 64.6 36.1 23.7 44 22.4 33.0 12.3 22.2 17.5 13.2 5.61 10 4.60 3.80 3.86 4.57 1.52 2.21 3.06 1.83 0.59 1.29 1.61 1.49 1.93 1 0.77 1.20 0.87 0.50 0.17 0.28 August 19, 2004
DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 0.1 0.05 June 1, 2004
June 29, 2004
November 6, 2003
April 27, 2004 0.01 Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep 2003 2004
Figure 26. Daily mean discharge for Reaches 1 and 2 for the (A) 2004 water year, (B) the 2004 low-flow period, and (C ) daily mean discharge for Reach 3 for the 2004 water year. Streamflow 39
(A) Reaches 1 and 2 6,000 5,000 Shaded area expanded below 2,000 1,930 1,520 1,392 1,136 1,000 848 546 412 500 438 547 342 490 265248 218 243 192 200 225 Symbol and value color correspond with site line color 100 109 02294650 Peace River at Bartow (Site 1)
March 31, 2005 50 02294655 Peace River near Bartow (Site 7)
December 7, 2004 02294775 Peace River at Clear Springs (Site 11) 3
DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 109 Discharge measurement (ft /s) 20 342 Rating discharge value Seepage analysis date 10 Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep 2004 2005 (B) Reaches 1 and 2 3000 2000
1,136 1000 848 546 500 547 490
200
100 Symbol and value color correspond with site line color 02294650 Peace River at Bartow (Site 1) 02294655 Peace River near Bartow (Site 7) 50 02294775 Peace River at Clear Springs (Site 11) 490 Discharge measurement, cubic feet per second (ft 3/s)
DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 20
10 1 5 10 15 20 25 31 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 31 5 10 15 20 25 31 5 10 15 20 25 30 May June July August September 2005 (C) Reach 3 4,000 2,000 1,510 1,000 617 500 622 167 200 100 52.3 51.0 50 45.4 20 16.0 16.6 19.1 10 7.1 5 8.23 8.00 3.78 Symbol and value color correspond 1.78 2 1.73 Missing Data with site line color 1 02294747 Sixmile Creek 0.5 02294759 Phosphate Mine Outfall CS-8 02294760 Barber Branch 0.2 March 31, 2005 02294781 Peace River near Homeland 0.1 3 6.32 Discharge measurement (ft /s) DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 0.05 7.1 Rating discharge value 0.02 Seepage analysis date 0.01 Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep 2004 2005
Figure 27. Daily mean discharge for Reaches 1 and 2 for the (A) 2005 water year, (B) a high-flow period during 2005, and (C ) daily mean discharge for Reach 3 for the 2005 water year. 40 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
(A) Reaches 1 and 2 1,000 500 231 185 200 3 220 Minimum discharge (20 ft /s) at Peace River at Bartow 51.9 needed to maintain flow in Reaches 1 and 2, but not 100 52.6 50 65.9 necessarily past Dover Sink. 41.0 45.5 20 10 5 2
January 24, 2006 1 Symbol and value color correspond with site line color 0.5 02294650 Peace River at Bartow (Site 1) 0.2 02294655 Peace River near Bartow (Site 7) 0.1 02294775 Peace River at Clear Springs (Site 11) Dotted line indicates area of possible no flow DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND Shaded area 0.05 220 3 Discharge measurement (ft /s) expanded below 0.02 Seepage analysis date 0.01 Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep 2005 2006 (B) Reaches 1 and 2 300 200 3 Tropical Storm Alberto Minimum discharge (20 ft /s) at Peace River at Bartow June 12, 2006 100 63.0 needed to maintain flow in Reaches 1 and 2, but not 61.2 necessarily past Dover Sink. 50 50.1 28.0 18.5 22.7 11.3 20 13.8 17.1 12.0 15.8 11.0 10 8.73 6.12 4.50 5 March 2, 2006 4.62 2
June 23, 2006 1 March 13, 2006
March 30, 2006
April 11, 2006
0.5 June 8, 2006
May 30, 2006
0.2 Symbol and value color correspond with site line color 0.1 02294650 Peace River at Bartow (Site 1) 4.13 Discharge measurement (ft3 /s)
DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 0.05 02294655 Peace River near Bartow (Site 7) 4.50 Rating discharge value 02294775 Peace River at Clear Springs (Site 11) Observation of no flow 0.02 Dotted line indicates area of possible no flow Seepage analysis date 0.01 5 152010 25 31 5 152010 25 30 5 152010 25 31 5 152010 25 30 5 152010 25 31 5 15 2010 25 31 March April May June July August 2006 (C) Reach 3 1,000
400 234 90.4 100 74.6 58.6 40 14.6 10.9 10.6 7.21 10 5.93 9.90 6.51 4.72 4 6.32 3.32 3.05 2.99 6.23 Symbol and value color correspond 1.18 2.67 1 with site line color 1.93 02294747 Sixmile Creek 0.4 02294759 Phosphate Mine Outfall CS-8 02294760 Barber Branch 0.146 0.123 0.106 0.1 02294781 Peace River near Homeland 6.32 Discharge measurement (ft3 /s) January 24, 2006 DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 0.04 Seepage analysis date
0.01 Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep 2005 2006
Figure 28. Daily mean discharge for Reaches 1 and 2 for the (A) 2006 water year, (B) the 2006 low-flow period, and (C ) daily mean discharge for Reach 3 for the 2006 water year. Streamflow 41
(A) Reaches 1 and 2 150 100 3 58.8 49 46.4 37.1 Minimum discharge (20 ft /s) at Peace River at Bartow needed to 40 34 maintain flow in Reaches 1 and 2, but not necessarily past Dover Sink. 31.5 24.7 22.5 14.2 20.6 17 15.5 9.64 10 6.05 6.67 4.29 7.91 4 4.13 5.19
February 8, 2007
1 October 11, 2006
March 23, 2007
August 29, 2007
0.4 July 18, 2007
0.1 November 14, 2006 0.04 Symbol and value color correspond with site line color 0.01 02294650 Peace River at Bartow (Site 1) Observation of no flow
DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 02294655 Peace River near Bartow (Site 7) 17 Rating discharge value Shaded area 0.004 02294775 Peace River at Clear Springs (Site 11) Seepage analysis date expanded below 4.13 Discharge measurement (ft 3/s) 0.001 Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep 2006 2007 (B) Reaches 1 and 2 30 20 Minimum discharge (20 ft3 /s) at Peace River at Bartow 10 needed to maintain flow in Reaches 1 and 2, but not 8.11 7.37 necessarily past Dover Sink. 5 4.18 2.36 2 1.45 1 0.5
June 13, 2007
0.2 May 11, 2007 0.10e
0.1 Symbol and value color correspond 02294650 Peace River at Bartow (Site 1) with site line color 0.05 02294655 Peace River near Bartow (Site 7) e Estimated discharge
DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 02294775 Peace River at Clear Springs (site 11) May 15, 2007 Observation of no flow 0.02 7.37 Discharge measurement (ft 3/s) Seepage analysis date 0.01 1 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 301 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 April May June 2007 (C) Reach 3 100 61.6 40 27.6 13.7 10.7 9.54 10 7.38 3.66 4.83 3.79 3.74 4.37 4.67 4 4.08 2.73 1.55 1.34 1.65 1.43 2.52 2.20 1 1.34 1.22 0.4 Missing data 0.219 0.1
0.04 Symbol and value color correspond with site line color 3 0.01 02294747 Sixmile Creek 0.010 2.20 Discharge measurement (ft /s) 02294759 Phosphate Mine Outfall CS-8 Observation of no flow
November 15, 2006 DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 0.004 02294760 Barber Branch Rating discharge value 02294781 Peace River near Homeland Seepage analysis date 0.001 Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep 2006 2007
Figure 29.Figure Daily 29. mean Daily discharge mean discharge for Reaches for Reaches 1 and 12 and for (A)2 for the the 2007 (A) 2007water water year, year, (B) the(B) the2007 2007 low-flow low-flow period, period, and and (C) (C daily ) daily mean mean dischargedischarge forfor Reach 3 3 for for the the 2007 2007 water water year. year. 42 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
Table 1. Streamflow statistics for the upper Peace River and tributaries for the 2002-2007 water years.
[Streamflow statistics based on computed discharge from rating curves. ft3/s, cubic feet per second; e, estimated; –, missing or no data; *first zero flow day in year]
Number Number Annual Maximum daily mean Minimum daily mean of of Sites Water mean discharge discharge Station zero days (fig. 22) year discharge flow of (ft3/s) (ft3/s) Date (ft3/s) Date days record
Site A Saddle Creek at Structure P-11 2002 50 604 09-13-2002 0.00 01-03-2002* 183 365 Station number: 02294491 2003 190 936 01-04-2003 5.7 06-03-2003 0 365 Period of record: 44 years December 1963-September 2007 2004 131 1,620 09-11-2004 0.00 06-13-2004* 14 365 Period of record mean discharge: 65 ft3/s 2005 155 1,310 10-01-2004 0.00 02-18-2005* 9 365 Mean discharge for May 2002- 2006 23 238 11-04-2005 0.03 05-30-2006 0 365 September 2007: 101 ft3/s 2007 0.46 28 06-17-2007 0.00 08-11-2007* 25 365 Site B Peace Creek Drainage Canal 2002 51 283 10-01-2001 0.81 05-14-2002 0 365 Station number: 02293987 2003 202 705 01-03-2003 12 10-22-2002 0 365 Period of record: 16 years March 1991-September 2007 2004 113 977 09-10-2004 3.3 06-03-2004 0 365 Period of record mean discharge: 101 ft3/s 2005 288 892 10-01-2004 36 02-19-2005 0 365 Mean discharge for May 2002- 2006 63 528 10-26-2005 1.7 06-10-2006 0 365 September 2007: 132 ft3/s 2007 15 73 02-03-2007 3.1 05-14-2007 0 365 Site 1 Peace River at Bartow 2002 110 881e 09-14-2002 0.00 05-13-2002* 6 365 Station number: 02294650 2003 483 2,240 01-05-2003 21 05-17-2003 0 365 Period of record: 68 years October 1939-September 2007 2004 344 4,010 09-11-2004 2.9 06-04-2004 0 366 Period of record mean discharge: 227 ft3/s 2005 545 3,520 10-01-2004 83 02-25-2005 0 365 Mean discharge for May 2002- 2006 99 693 10-28-2005 1.8 06-10-2006 0 365 September 2007: 292 ft3/s 2007 18 62 10-01-2006 0.41 05-15-2007 0 365 Site 7 Peace River near Bartow 2002 – 820 09-15-2002 0.00 05-15-2002* 39 139 Station number: 02294655 2003 492 1,890 01-05-2003 14 05-17-2003 0 365 Period of record: 5.38 years Mean discharge for May 2002- 2004 324 4,090 09-12-2004 0.00 05-27-2004* 14 365 September 2007: 287 ft3/s 2005 545 3,530 10-01-2004 69 02-25-2005 0 365 2006 97 563 10-29-2005 0.23 06-06-2006 0 365 2007 12 115 10-01-2006 0.00 04-04-2007* 82 365 Site 11 Peace River at Clear Springs 2002 – 643 09-15-2001 0.00 05-15-2002* 45 139 Station number: 02294775 2003 444 1,850 01-06-2003 2.6 05-18-2003 0 365 Period of record: 5.38 years May 2002-September 2007 2004 264 2,950 09-12-2004 0.85 06-01-2004 0 365 Mean discharge for May 2002- 2005 545 2,870 10-01-2004 62 02-25-2005 0 365 September 2007: 263 ft3/s 2006 92 661 10-29-2005 0.00 03-17-2006* 119 365 2007 5 74 10-01-2006 0.00 10-23-2006* 175 365 Site 16 Peace River near Homeland 2002 112 893 09-16-2002 0.00 05-26-2002* 4 365 Station number 02294781 2003 503 2,380 01-06-2003 4.2 05-18-2003 0 365 Period of Record: 5.38 years May 2002-September 2007 2004 304 3,400 09-13-2004 1.6 06-01-2004 0 365 Mean discharge for May 2002- 2005 599 3,360 10-01-2004 73 02-25-2005 0 365 3 September 2007: 298 ft /s 2006 103 771 10-29-2005 0.73 05-15-2006 0 365 2007 11 65 10-01-2006 0.00 05-31-2007* 14 365 Site 31 Peace River at Fort Meade 2002 132 973 09-25-2002 0.19 05-18-2002 0 365 Station number: 02294898 2003 584 2,040 01-06-2003 8.8 05-18-2003 0 365 Period of record: 33.3 years June 1974-September 2007 2004 327 2,450 09-13-2004 4.2 06-07-2004 0 365 Mean discharge for May 2002- 2005 695 2,390 10-01-2004 43 02-24-2005 0 365 September 2007: 343 ft3/s 2006 119 850 10-30-2005 1.7 05-08-2006 0 365 2007 22 134 02-03-2007 0.01 06-01-2007 0 365 Streamflow 43
Table 1. Streamflow statistics for the upper Peace River and tributaries for the 2002-2007 water years—Continued
[Streamflow statistics based on computed discharge from rating curves. ft3/s, cubic feet per second; e, estimated; –, missing or no data]
Number Number Annual Maximum daily mean Minimum daily mean of of Sites Water mean discharge discharge Station zero days (fig. 22) year discharge flow of (ft3/s) (ft3/s) Date (ft3/s) Date days record
Site 12 Sixmile Creek 2002 – – – – – – Station number: 02294747 2003 – 181 01-04-2003 3.4 04-25-2003 0 304 Period of record: 4.83 years Mean discharge for December 2002- 2004 42 346 09-10-2004 1.7 03-27-2004 0 365 September 2007: 28 ft3/s 2005 40 267 10-01-2004 1.3 04-26-2005 0 365 2006 11 107 10-27-2005 0.00 05-04-2006* 14 365 2007 4 25 02-07-2007 0.00 05-29-2007* 16 365 Site 14 Phosphate Mine Outfall CS-8 2002 – – – – – – Station number: 02294759 2003 – 60 08-26-2003 0.01 05-15-2003 0 242 Period of record: 3.17 years Mean discharge for February 2003- 2004 6 82 09-12-2004 0.00 04-10-2004* 23 365 May 2005 and November 2006- 2005 – 79 10-01-2004 e0.17 04-23-2005 0 229 September 2007: 5.2 ft3/s 2006 – – – – – – 2007 – 19 07-23-2007 0.00 03-28-2007* 39 320 Site 15 Barber Branch 2002 – – – – – – Station number: 02294760 2003 – 114 01-01-2003 0.00 06-17-2003* 5 304 Period of record: 4.83 years Mean discharge for December 2002- 2004 20 253 09-12-2004 0.37 12-26-2003 0 365 September 2007: 13.2 ft3/s 2005 25 250 10-01-2004 1.3 04-17-2005 0 365 2006 8 66 10-24-2005 1.8 08-22-2006 0 365 2007 1 13 04-08-2007 0.03 05-31-2007 0 365
During this study, the Peace River near Bartow station (site 7) 26B, 28B, and 29B). During the 2006-2007 water years, the had more zero-flow days than the upstream Peace River at number of zero-flow days progressively increased, indicating Bartow (site 1), with 39 zero-flow days out of the 139 total a decline in floodplain storage along the upper Peace River. recorded days in 2002 (May 15 to September 30), 14 days in During these low-flow conditions, streamflow losses to the 2004, and 82 days in 2007 (table 1). In most cases, the zero- various karst features in the upper two reaches either reduced flow days recorded at the Peace River near Bartow (site 7) or eliminated the Peace River flow contributions into Reach 3. indicated that the flow in Reach 1 terminated at a large sink During the 2006-2007 water years, the Peace Creek (Ledges Sink), located about 700 ft upstream from the gaging Drainage Canal (site B, fig. 22) supplied the largest amount of station. tributary flow to the upper Peace River. The mean discharge Streamflow losses also occurred downstream from Peace for the Peace Creek Drainage Canal for those years was 63 River near Bartow gaging station (site 7) as flow progressed and 15 ft3/s, respectively, compared to the period of record into Reach 2. A comparison of streamflow hydrographs mean discharge of 101 ft3/s (table 1). The mean discharge for between the upstream Peace River near Bartow station (site 7) Saddle Creek (site A, fig. 22) during the 2006-2007 water with the downstream Peace River at Clear Springs gaging years was 23 and 0.46 ft3/s, respectively, compared to the station (site 11) indicated that discharge at the downstream period of record mean discharge of 65 ft3/s (table 1). Saddle site was reduced or absent, reflecting the loss of water through Creek had a number of zero-flow days during the study period the karst features in Reach 2 (figs. 24B-29B). Zero-flow days (2002, 2004, 2005, and 2007; table 1) which were often the were reported at the Peace River at Clear Springs (site 11) result of closing the gate at the P‑11 Structure. for 45 days in 2002, 119 days in 2006, and 175 days in 2007 Of the three phosphate mine outfalls sites, Sixmile Creek (table 1). (site 12) supplied the most flow to Reach 3. But during the During below-average streamflow and groundwater below-average 2006-2007 water years, Sixmile Creek supplied conditions, and when the discharge at the Peace River at only 11 and 4 ft3/s of mean discharge, respectively, compared Bartow (site 1) was about 20 ft3/s or less, all of the flow in to the period of record mean discharge of 28 ft3/s (table 1). the river drained into various karst features in the channel and During the 2006-2007 water years, Sixmile Creek and flow usually ended within Reach 2 (Dover Sink) (figs. 24B, Phosphate Mine Outfall CS-8 also had a number of zero-flow 44 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
days (table 1). Discharge hydrographs for the three outfall At higher river stages in Reach 2 (greater than 91.0 ft above tributaries and the Peace River near Homeland (site 16) are NGVD 1929) large storage losses occurred as river water shown in figures 25C-29C. Hydrographs of the phosphate- drained into pit lakes along the western floodplain. The small mine outfalls illustrate the limited amount of inflow to the size of the upper pit lake (about 14 ac) limits the amount of upper Peace River during low-flow conditions (figs. 28C water that can be stored, whereas the much larger lower pit and 29C). Discharge hydrographs for these sites indicate lake (about 40 ac) has the capacity to store large volumes of that the flows were “flashy” and that discharge receded river backwater (fig. 30). The backwater conditions to the pit rapidly after peak discharge events. lakes occurred during extreme high-water conditions in 2003, For the study period, streamflow was greatest during 2004, and 2005 (fig. 31). the 2003-2005 water years, when above-average precipita- tion fell in the study area. Most of the excess rainfall was during the 2003 water year when there was an increase of 29 in. above the long-term average (54 in.) rainfall (fig. 23). In addition to excess rain in 2003, three hurricanes crossed over the upper Peace River basin during a 6-week period from August through September 2004, producing about 24 in. of rain in the basin. The combined effects of two of these hurri- canes resulted in the second greatest discharge for the period of record at Peace River at Bartow (4,010 ft3/s) on September 11, 2004 (table 1). These storms caused considerable flooding, and high-to-medium streamflow persisted into the following 2005 water year. The greatest annual mean discharge (545 ft3/s) for the study period occurred during the 2005 water year, which is more than double the long-term mean discharge (227 ft3/s) (table 1). During the 2005 water year, Saddle Creek and Peace Creek Drainage Canal supplied a substantial amount of flow to the upper Peace River, with the annual mean discharges of 155 and 288 ft3/s, respectively. During high-flow periods, a large loss in flow was observed between the upstream and downstream gaging stations between Reaches 1 and 2 of the upper Peace River. This large volume loss between stations was typically the result of floodplain storage rather than losses to karst features. The upper Peace River channel is poorly incised along much of Reaches 1-2, and the transition of flow from the low-water to high-water channel generally occurs at a discharge of about 100 ft3/s at Peace River at Bartow (site 1). The land-surface elevation contours of 88, 90, 92, and 94 ft above NGVD 1929 (shown in (figs. 30A-D) reflect potentially inundated areas along the upper Peace River with increasing river-stage levels. The river-stage levels for Peace River at Bartow, Peace River near Bartow, and Discharge-Duration Hydrographs and Curves Peace River at Clear Springs for the study period are shown Daily discharge-duration hydrographs for the Peace River in figure 31, as well as the respective river level ranges for at Bartow gaging station for the 68 years of record (1940- when the Peace River is in the main channel. 2007 water years) are shown in figure 32. The 90th to 100th In Reach 1, when river levels were greater than about percentile (maximum discharge) reflect very wet conditions, 91.50 ft above NGVD 1929 at Peace River at Bartow, water the 25th to 75th percentiles indicate normal conditions, and the drained into a series of interconnected pit lakes by way of a 10th to 0th percentiles (minimum discharge) indicate very dry pair of small ditches along the eastern floodplain (fig. 30). conditions. The minimum, maximum, average, and median Streamflow 45
Low water levels hinder feasibility of canoeing and maintenance of healthy ecosystems. Note high water-level marks on trees located downstream of Peace River at Wabash (site 2). High water-level marks are the result of high flows during the 2005 water year. Photo credit: P.A. Metz, USGS
discharge values for the 0th suggest that most of the water may have been derived from through 100th percentiles floodplain storage (figs. 33B and D). Duration curves for the are shown in figure 32. The 2004 water year at the Peace River at Bartow station show a discharge-duration hydrographs mixed ranged of hydrologic conditions (fig. 33C). The rela- indicate that the greatest flows tively flat slope of the duration curve during 2007 water year generally occur during the indicates persistent and steady low flow that was confined rainy season in June, September, and October (fig. 32). to the low-water channel (fig. 33F). The steep slope and In addition, notable high flows occur in March. The abrupt ending at the low end of the duration curves indicates lowest flows occur at the end of the dry season from streamflow declines and periods of no flow. May into June. The 0th percentiles (zero flow periods) A comparison of duration curves for the three gaging for the 68 years of record occurred during May and stations along Reaches 1 and 2 (sites 1, 7, and 11; fig. 22) June of 2000-2002. shows streamflow gains, losses, or constant discharge The annual (2002-2007) discharge-duration curves conditions for the 2003-2007 water years (fig. 33B-F). obtained at the Peace River at Bartow station and their Duration curves for the 2004 water year show a mix of relations to the long-term 68-year discharge-duration curve hydrologic conditions, with flow losses and gains between indicate that the 2002, 2006, and 2007 water years were gaging stations. For the 2003 and 2005 water years, the below the long-term duration curve throughout most of three gaging stations showed constant discharge conditions the range of hydrologic conditions (figs. 33A, E, and F). for most of the water year, except at the low end of the Discharge-duration curves for the 2003 and 2005 water years duration curve. Duration curves for the 2006-2007 water at the Peace River at Bartow station indicate relatively high, years illustrate flow losses between sites, with flow losses in stable discharge throughout most of the range of flows and Reach 1 not as extensive as in Reach 2 (figs. 33E-F). 46 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
(A) 81°49’ 81°48 (B) 81°49’ 81°48
Peace River at Bartow Peace River at Bartow Pit Lakes Pit Lakes 27°54’ 27°54’
Peace Peace
River
Peace River 27°53’ 27°53’ Peace River near Bartow River near Bartow Pit Lakes Pit Lakes
Pit Lakes Pit Lakes 27°52’ 27°52’ Peace River at Clear Springs Peace River at Clear Springs
88 feet 90 feet
(C) 81°49’ 81°48 (D) 81°49’ 81°48
Peace River at Bartow Pit Lakes Pit Lakes 27°54’ 27°54’ Peace River at Bartow Peace Peace
27°53’ Peace River 27°53’ Peace River River near Bartow River near Bartow Pit Lakes Pit Lakes
Pit Lakes Pit Lakes 27°52’ 27°52’
Peace River at Clear Springs Peace River at Clear Springs 92 feet 94 feet EXPLANATION 0 1 MILE 0 1 KILOMETER ELEVATION CONTOUR— GAGING STATION in feet above NGVD 1929 Figure 30. Land-surface elevation contours along the upper Peace River at (A) 88 feet, (B) 90 feet, (C ) 92 feet, and (D) 94 feet above NGVD 1929. Streamflow 47
100 Peace River at Bartow 98 PeaceRiver near Bartow PeaceRiver at Clear Springs 96
94
92
90
88
86
WATER LEVEL, IN FEET ABOVE NGVD 1929 WATER
84 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 WATER YEAR EXPLANATION Figure 31. Approximate range of Range of elevations for which Peace River at Bartow is in the main channel water-level elevations for which Range of elevations for which Peace River near Bartow and Peace River the upper Peace River is within at Clear Springs are in the main channel the main channel.
10,000 PEACE RIVER AT BARTOW
1,000 Maximum
90th percentile 75th percentile 100 50th percentile
25th percentile 10th percentile 10
Minimum
Percent range in daily streamflow, in cubic feet per second
DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 1 Range Mimimum Maximum Average Median Maximum 427 4400 1545 1389 90th percentile 177 1497 572 501 75th percentile 67 692 293 239 50th percentile 25 335 123 98 0.1 25th percentile 11 164 52 37 10th percentile 5 74 23 19 Minimum 0 24 7 6
Statistics based on data collected for water years 1940-2007. 0.01 OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT
Figure 32. Daily flow-duration hydrographs for Peace River at Bartow, water years 1940 through 2007. 48 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
(A) 2002 Water Year (B) 2003 Water Year 10,000 10,000 Peace River at Bartow (site 1 ) 483 ft 3/s annual mean discharge 1,000 Peace River at Bartow (site 1) 1940-2007 1,000 227 ft 3/s long-term mean discharge
100 100 Peace River at Clear Springs ( 11 )site 444 ft 3/s annual mean discharge 10 Peace River at Bartow (site 1 ) 2002 10 3 110 ft /s annual mean discharge Peace River near Bartow ( 7 )site 1 1 492 ft 3/s annual mean discharge
0.1 0.1 Peace River at Bartow (site 1 ) 1940-2007 Data not available for Peace River near Bartow and 227 ft 3/s long-term mean discharge Peace River at Clear Springs for the 2002 water year 0.01 0.01 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 (C) 2004 Water Year (D) 2005 Water Year 10,000 10,000 Peace River at Bartow (site 1 ) 2004 344 ft 3/s annual mean discharge Peace River near Bartow (site 7 ) 1,000 Peace River at Bartow (site 1 ) 1940-2007 1,000 545 ft 3/s annual mean discharge 227 ft3 /s long-term mean discharge 100 100
10 Peace River near Bartow (site 7 ) 10 Peace River at Clear Springs (site 11 ) 324 ft 3/s annual mean discharge 545 ft3 /s annual mean discharge
1 1 Peace River at Bartow (site 1 ) 2005 Peace River at Clear Springs (site 11 ) 545 ft3 /s annual mean discharge 264 ft 3/s annual mean discharge 0.1 0.1 Peace River at Bartow (site 1 ) 1940-2007 227 ft3 /s long-term mean discharge 0.01 0.01 DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 (E) 2006 Water Year (F) 2007 Water Year 10,000 10,000 Peace River at Bartow (site 1 ) 1940-2007 Peace River at Bartow (site 1 ) 1940-2007 227 ft 3/s long-term mean discharge 227 ft 3/s long-term mean discharge 1,000 1,000 Peace River at Bartow ( 1 ) 2006site Peace River at Bartow ( 1 ) 2007site 99 ft3 /s annual mean discharge 18 ft 3/s annual mean discharge 100 100
10 10 Peace River near Bartow ( 7 )site 1 Peace River near Bartow (site 7) 1 3 3 12 ft /s annual mean discharge 97 ft /s annual mean discharge Peace River at 0.1 Peace River at Clear Springs ( 11 )site 0.1 240 days of Clear Springs ( 11 )site 80 days of 3 119 days of no flow 3 92 ft /s annual mean discharge no flow 5 ft /s annual mean discharge no flow 0.01 0.01 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 PERCENTAGE OF TIME DISCHARGE WAS EQUALED OR EXCEEDED
Figure 33. Discharge-duration curves for the Peace River at Bartow, Peace River near Bartow, and Peace River at Clear Springs gaging stations for the (A) 2002, (B) 2003, (C ) 2004, (D) 2005, (E ) 2006, and (F ) 2007 water years, with a long-term comparative curve for the Peace River at Bartow gaging station for the 1940-2007 water years. Streamflow 49
Effects of Karst Development on of a previous seepage run (May 28-29, 1996) conducted Streamflow Losses along Reaches 1-4 were used for comparison to the current seepage results. The area along the upper Peace River is characterized The May 1996 and May 2003 seepage analyses indicate as a carbonate karst terrain that has distinctive karst features that the largest streamflow losses occurred along Reaches and a hydrology defined by the combination of high rock 1 and 2 between Peace River at Wabash (site 2) and Clear solubility and well-developed secondary porosity (Ryder, Springs station (site 11) where the most prominent karst 1985). A number of prominent karst features are located along features are located. For the two seepage runs, the cumula- tive losses along Reaches 1 and 2 were similar (-17.3 ft3/s in the upper Peace River in the high-water floodplain and along May 1996 and -17.8 ft3/s in May 2003). Streamflow losses the existing low-water channel. Depending on Peace River in Reach 1 during May 1996 and May 2003 were -5.2 and stage and groundwater conditions, these karst features can act -7.1 ft3/s, respectively, and were -12.1 and -10.7 ft3/s in as conduits for flow to the underlying aquifers. Seepage runs, Reach 2, respectively (fig. 34A, B). A comparison of these two in conjunction with monitoring of aquifer levels, were used to temporally spaced, low-flow seepage runs suggests that the describe the timing, volume of water exchanged, and effects relation between the river and groundwater during low-flow of karst development on streamflow losses along the upper conditions did not change significantly over the 7-year period Peace River. along Reaches 1 and 2. Reach 3 had the largest measured seepage gains of Seepage Investigations all the reaches. Seepage gains in Reach 3 were 4.21, 1.40, and 6.08 ft3/s, for May 1996, May 2003, and January 2006, Seepage runs were conducted to determine where the respectively (fig. 34A-C). Tributary flow is greatest along this greatest streamflow losses occurred along the upper Peace reach, and some of these gains may be the result of ungaged River from Bartow to Fort Meade (Reaches 1-4; fig. 22). inflows or other lateral flows that drain slowly to the river Streamflow gains and losses, in cubic feet per second, along during low-flow conditions. Reach 3 ponds along most of the the Peace River were calculated using the following equation: reach during low-flow conditions, which may reflect the lack of karst features along this reach. Qs = Qd - Qu - Qt , (1) Reach 4 had streamflow losses of -3.13, -0.11 (loss where within measurement error and not considered significant), and 3 Qs = gain (positive) or loss (negative) in streamflow -2.46 ft /s during the May 1996, May 2003, and January 2006 between adjacent sites; seepage runs, respectively (fig. 34A-C). There are a number of Qd = streamflow at downstream site; mine outfalls and two tributaries (Rocky and Sink Branch) that Qu = streamflow at upstream site; and contribute flow to this section of the river. The losses during 3 3 Qt = total streamflow for all tributaries between May 1996 (-3.33 ft /s) and January 2006 (-2.46 ft /s) seepage upstream and downstream sites. runs may indicate the occurrence of karst features in this reach, but no discernable features were located. Seepage runs were performed during baseflow conditions, Results from the January 2006 (fig. 34C) seepage run when rainfall was at a minimum and most streamflow was indicated that in Reach 1, the river gained about 0.7 ft3/s, derived from groundwater seepage, rather than from runoff. but this gain was within the margin of error of the measure- During these seepage runs, a net increase in stream discharge ment and was not considered significant. This reach typically along the reach was interpreted as a gain in groundwater exhibits water losses during lower stream levels. Reach 1 discharge into the river. Conversely, a net reduction along has no natural tributaries, but receives flow from two poorly the reach was a loss of river water into the aquifers. If stream incised channels that can receive water from and lose water discharge remained constant along a particular reach, then to a series of phosphate-mining pit lakes (fig. 22). These pits the river neither gained water from, nor lost water to, the are located on the eastern side of the Peace River floodplain underlying aquifers. Figures 34 and 35 show the losses and and immediately downstream from the Bartow gaging station, gains during seepage investigations along Reaches 1-4 and and inflows were not monitored during this study. Flows to or Reaches 1 and 2, respectively. Table 2 indicates the computed from these pit lakes can occur when streamflow at the Peace and measured discharge at selected sites and total streamflow River at Bartow station is about 50 ft3/s or more. Discharge losses along Reaches 1 and 2 during below-average flow measured on January 24, 2006, at the Peace River at Wabash conditions. (site 2) and near Bartow (site 7) was 51.9 and 52.6 ft3/s, During this investigation, two seepage runs (May 13-14, respectively (table 2). The seepage loss in Reach 2 (between 2003, and January 24, 2006) were conducted along Reaches site 7 and site 11) was -11.6 ft3/s (fig. 34C). Losses in Reach 2 1-4 from Peace River at Bartow station (site 1) to Peace River were similar to the losses documented in May 1996 and May at Fort Meade station (site 31) (fig. 22). In addition, results 2003 (-12.1 and -10.7, respectively). 50 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
(A) Low baseflow seepage run, May 28-29, 1996 20 15
12.5
18.0
18.6 17.4
17.1 12.8 10 10.1
0.66
Site 11 ( )
Site 31 ( )
Site 1 ( )
Site 2 ( ) Site 3 ( )
Site 5 ( ) Site 7 ( ) 5 Site 8 ( ) Gain + 4.21 ft 3/s 0 3 3 Loss -5.2 ft3 /s Reach 3 Tributary inflow 7.43 ft /s Loss -3.13 ft /s 3 -5 Loss -12.1 ft 3/s Reach 4 Total Tributary Inflow 3.33 ft /s
12.3 -10 May 28, 1996 May 29, 1996
Site 16 ( ) -15 Reach 1 Reach 2 Reach 3 Reach 4 -20
(B) Low baseflow flow seepage run, May 13-14, 2003 20 15
17.7
26.5
24.4 24.5
24.8 18.3 19.4 10 20.0
3
Site 31 ( )
Site 1 ( )
Site 2 ( ) Site 3 ( )
Site 5 ( ) Site 9 ( ) 5 Site 7 ( ) Site 8 ( ) 3 Loss -0.11 ft /s
8.69
Site 11 ( ) Gain + 1.40 ft /s not significant– within measurement error 0 3 3 3 Reach 3 Tributary nflowi7.11 ft /s Loss -7.1 ft /s Reach 4 Total tributary inflow 3.81 ft /s
17.2 -5 Loss -10.7 ft 3/s 14.0 -10
Site 16 ( )
Site 16 ( ) May 13, 2003 May 14, 2003 -15 Reach 1 Reach 2 Reach 3 Reach 4 -20
(C) Medium-to-low baseflow seepage run, January 24, 2006 20 Not significant (within measurement error) 15
51.9 10 52.6
58.6
41.0
Site 16 ( )
Site 11 Gain ( ) 5 3 69.8
Site 2 ( )
Site 1 Site 31 ( ) Site 7 ( ) 3 +0.7 ft /s Gain + 6.08 ft /s 3 Loss -2.46 ft /s 0 Reach 3 Tributary nflow 11i.52 ft 3/s Reach 4 Total tributary inflow 13.66 ft 3/s -5 Loss -11.6 ft 3/s -10
SEEPAGE LOSSES (-) AND GAINS (+), IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND SEEPAGE -15 Reach 1 Reach 2 Reach 3 Reach 4 -20
(D) Low baseflow seepage run, June 23, 2006 20
PEACE RIVER 15 *Data obtained from rating curve
13.0*
9.3*
9.0
18.5
11.3
17.2 10 17.0
Site 31 ( )
0.0 5 Site 16 ( )
Site 2 ( )
Site 7 ( )
Site 10 ( )
Site 1 Site 11 ( )
Site 3 ( )
Site 5 ( ) Loss -1.43 ft 3/s 0 Loss Reach 3 Tributary nflow 10i.73 ft 3/s Reach 4 --tributary flow not measured -5 -7.2 ft3 /s Loss -11.3 ft 3/s -10
-15 Reach 1 Reach 2 Reach 3 Reach 4 -20 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 DISTANCE, IN MILES DOWNSTREAM FROM THE PEACE RIVER AT BARTOW GAGE (SITE 1) TO PEACE RIVER AT FORT MEADEGAGE (SITE 31)
EXPLANATION Site 2 ( 18.5 ) STREAMFLOW SITE NUMBER AND SEEPAGE DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT (IN RED )—Measurement sites are shown in figure 22.
Figure 34. Comparison of flow losses and gains for seepage runs conducted during (A) May 1996, (B) May 2003, (C ) January 2006, and (D) June 2006 from the Peace River at Bartow to the Peace River at Fort Meade gaging stations. Streamflow 51
(A) June 28, 2002 20 Total seepage loss between Reach 1 and 2 10 49.9 ft 3/s (32.2 Mgal/d) **Reverse flow of 8.88 ft3 /s *Estimated discharge from rating curve from Sixmile Creek 0
3 18.3 3
() -10 Site 7
Site 2
Site 11 (41.0*) Loss -22.7 ft /s Loss -27.7 ft /s
8.88**
( ) -20 Reach 1 Reach 2 -30 (B) April 23, 2003 20 Total seepage loss between Reach 1 and 2 3 10 Gain +16.6 ft /s 11.6 ft 3/s (7.5 Mgal/d) 0 Loss -11.6 ft 3/s
94.5 77.9 -10 82.9
Site 7 ( ) -20 Site 2 ( )
Reach 1 Reach 2 Site 11 ( ) -30 (C) April 25, 2003 20 Total seepage loss between Reach 1 and 2 10 3 3 13.9 ft /s (9.0 Mgal/d)
58.5
Site 11 Gain +8.1 ft /s ( ) 0 3
72.7 64.6 Loss -13.9 ft /s -10
Site 7 ( ) -20 Site 2 ( ) Reach 1 Reach 2 -30 (D) November 6, 2003 20 Total seepage loss between Reach 1 and 2 3 10 Gain +16.7 ft /s 26.1 ft 3/s (16.9 Mgal/d) 0
72.3
46.2
55.6
( )
( )
( )
Site 7 -10 Site 2 3 Loss -26.1 ft /s Site 11 -20 Reach 1 Reach 2 -30 (E) June 29, 2004 20 Total seepage loss between Reach 1 and 2 10 29.8 ft 3/s (19.3 Mgal/d)
37.4
47.8
( )
( )
Site 7 0 Site 2 3 Loss -10.4 ft /s 3
18.0 -10 Loss -19.4 ft /s ( )
Site 11 -20 Reach 1 Reach 2 -30 PEACE RIVER LOSSES (-) AND GAINS (+), IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND SEEPAGE (F) March 2, 2006 20 Total seepage loss between Reach 1 and 2 10 12.9 ft 3/s (8.3 Mgal/d) 0 Loss -1.8 ft3 /s Loss -11.1 ft 3/s
61.2 -10 63.0
50.1
-20 ( )
Site 7 ( )
Site 2 ( ) Reach 1 Reach 2 Site 11 -30 (G) March 30, 2006 20 Total seepage loss between Reach 1 and 2 10 14.4 ft 3/s (9.3 Mgal/d)
0 3 3 Loss -9.4 ft /s -10 Loss -5.1 ft /s
13.8
( )
Site 2
8.73
( )
-0.64
Site 7
()
-20 Site 11 Reach 1 Reach 2 -30 0.8 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 3.7 DISTANCE, IN MILES DOWNSTREAM FROM THE PEACE RIVER AT BARTOW GAGE (SITE 1) TO PEACE RIVER AT CLEAR SPRINGS GAGE (SITE 11) EXPLANATION Site 2 ( 13.8 ) STREAMFLOW SITE NUMBER AND SEEPAGE DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT (IN RED )—Measurement sites are shown in figure 22.
Figure 35. Streamflow losses along Reaches 1 and 2 from the Peace River at Wabash (site 2) to the Peace River at Clear Springs gaging stations (site 11). 52 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
Table 2. Computed and measured discharge at selected sites and total streamflow losses along Reaches 1 and 2 during below-average flow conditions. [Sites shown in fig. 22. Discharge in cubic feet per second (ft3/s). USGS discharge measurement error estimated at ±5 to 8 percent. Numbers shaded in blue represent instantaneous discharge obtained from the rating curve at Peace River at Bartow. Numbers shaded in yellow indicate flow reversal originating from Sixmile Creek. –, site not measured; e, estimated; 0, zero flow was observed. Below average flow conditions reflect periods when streamflow was less than 100 ft3/s at Peace River at Bartow. During below average conditions, streamflow measurements for the Peace River at Bartow (site 1) were made at Peace River at Wabash (site 2)]
Instantaneous and measured discharge (cubic feet per second) Date Total loss Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4 Site 5 Site 6 Site 7 Site 8 Site 9 Site 9a Site 10 Site 11
Reach 1 Reach 2 2002 Water Year 5/17/2002 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5/20/2002 – 7.34 2.52 0.22 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -7.34 6/11/2002 – 12.6 7.7 – 1.8 1.18 0 0 0 0 0 0 -12.6 6/14/2002 – 4.5 1.24 0.79 0.19 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -4.5 6/19/2002 7.7 – – – – – – – – – – 2.50 1-10.2 6/20/2002 9.8 – – – – 5.54 0 0 0 0 0 5.06 2-14.9 6/24/2002 24 – – – 12.2 4.71 0 0.85 0 0 0 2.91 3-26.9 6/25/2002 – 28.1 22.6 – – – 7.95 5.37 2.0 0 0 0 -28.1 6/26/2002 37 – – – – – 15.1 – – 3.02 0 0 -37.0 6/28/2002 41 – – – – – 18.3 – – – 3.82 8.88 4-49.9 2003 Water Year 4/23/2003 – 77.9 – – – – 94.5 – – – – 82.9 5-11.6 4/25/2003 – 64.6 – – – – 72.7 – – – – 58.5 6-14.2 5/13/2003 26.5 24.4 24.5 – 24.8 – 19.4 20.0 18.3 – – 8.69 -17.8 2004 Water Year 11/06/2003 57.4 55.6 – – – – – – – – – 46.2 -11.2 3/09/2004 81 – – – – – 86.3 – – – – 68.2 7-18.1 4/27/2004 – 14.3 – – – – 8.44 – – – – 0 -14.3 5/19/2004 – 10.9 – – – – 3.98 – – – – 0 -10.9 6/01/2004 – 4.36 – – – – 0 0 0 0 0 0 -4.36 6/29/2004 – 47.8 – – – – 37.4 – – – – 18.0 -29.8 2006 Water Year 1/24/2006 – 51.9 – – – – 53.7 – – – – 41.0 8-12.7 3/02/2006 – 63.0 – – – – 61.2 – – – – 50.1 -12.9 3/13/2006 – 28.0 – – – – 22.7 – – – – 15.8 -12.2 3/30/2006 – 13.8 – – – – 8.73 – – – – 0.64 9-14.4 4/11/2006 – 11.0 – – – – 4.62 – – – 1.44 0 -11.0 5/18/2006 17 – – – – – – – – – 2.34 0 -17.0 5/30/2006 – 6.12 – – – – – – – – – 0 -6.12 6/8/2006 4.4 – – 3.0e – 0.50e 0 0 0 0 0 0 -4.40 6/12/2006 27 – – – – – – – – – 16.1 0 -27.0 6/23/2006 – 18.5 17.2 – 17.0 – 11.3 – – – 9.00 0.83 10-19.3 2007 Water Year 10/11/2006 34 – – – – – 31.5 – – – – 22.5 -11.5 11/14/2006 – 9.64 – – – – 4.13 – – – 0.71 0 -9.64 2/08/2007 49 – – – – – 46.4 – – – – 37.1 -11.9 3/23/2007 – 14.2 – – – – 6.67 – – – 3.04 0 -14.2 5/11/2007 – 1.45 – – – – 0 – – – 0 0 -1.45 5/15/2007 – 0.10e 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -0.10e 6/13/2007 13 – – – – – 2.36 – – – 0 0 -13.0 7/18/2007 – 4.29 – – – 1.5e 0 0 0 0 0 0 -4.29 8/29/2007 17 – – – – – 7.91 – – – 2.5e 0 -17.0
1Flow loss of 7.7 ft3/s and reverse flow of 2.50 ft3/s from Sixmile Creek to Dover Sink for a total flow loss of -10.2 ft3/s for Reaches 1 and 2. 2Flow loss of 9.8 ft3/s and reverse flow of 5.06 ft3/s from Sixmile Creek to Dover Sink for a total flow loss of -14.9 ft3/s for Reaches 1 and 2. 3Flow loss of 24 ft3/s and reverse flow of 2.91 ft3/s from Sixmile Creek to Dover Sink for a total flow loss of -26.9 ft3/s for Reaches 1 and 2. 4Flow loss of 41 ft3/s and reverse flow of 8.88 ft3/s from Sixmile Creek to Dover Sink for a total flow loss of -49.9 ft3/s for Reaches 1 and 2. 5Gain of 16.6 ft3/s in Reach 1 and a flow loss of -11.6 in Reach 2. 6Gain of 8.1 ft3/s in Reach 1 and a flow loss of -14.2 in Reach 2. 7Gain of 5.3 ft3/s in Reach 1 and a flow loss of -18.1 in Reach 2. 8Gain of 1.8 ft3/s in Reach 1 and a flow loss of -12.7 in Reach 2. 9Flow loss of 13.8 ft3/s and reverse flow of 0.64 ft3/s from Sixmile Creek to Dover Sink for a total loss of -14.4 ft3/s for Reaches 1 and 2. 10Flow loss of 18.5 ft3/s and reverse flow of 0.83 ft3/s from Sixmile Creek to Dover Sink for a total loss of -19.3 ft3/s for Reaches 1 and 2. Streamflow 53
A comparison of seepage runs was conducted on May in the upper Peace River karst area are shown in figure 37. 1996 (fig. 34A) and June 2006 (fig. 34D) when the discharge After the initial survey, several more prominent features were in the river at the beginning of Reach 1 was 18.6 and 18.5, located, including Catfish Sink (Reach 2), Liz Sink (Reach 2) respectively. These seepage runs indicated that during below- and Tom’s Sink (Reach 3). Otter Sink, adjacent to Kissengen average streamflow and groundwater conditions, and when the Spring (Reach 3), developed and expanded during the course discharge at Peace River at Bartow was less than about 20 ft3/s of this investigation. The prominent karst features located (±5 to 8 percent error), all of the flow in the river drained into along Reach 3 are shown in figure 22. various karst features and flow usually ended within Reach 2. During this investigation, most karst features were altered During the 2007 water year, the annual mean discharge was to some degree due to depositional processes, such as scouring only 18 ft3/s and for most of the water year, the flow ended at and sediment infilling. During 2002, many karst features were various karst features in Reaches 1 and 2. exposed and could be easily identified. However, subse- A number of smaller seepage runs (about 3 mi) were quent field surveys after the 2004 hurricane season and the conducted once the area of greatest streamflow losses was high-water period of 2005 indicated that some karst features identified. Both streamflow losses and gains were noted in had silted in and had become unidentifiable. Midway Sink, Reach 1 during below-average conditions, whereas losses consistently occurred in Reach 2 (fig. 35; table 2). Flow losses Elephant Graveyard, Fricano Fracture, Harley, and Jackson for the combined reaches ranged from 0.1 to about 50 ft3/s Sinks were no longer exposed, and Ledges, Cook’s Ripple, and were dependent on the amount of discharge in the river and Crevasses Sink became partially silted in. Rainfall and and water levels in the aquifers. The greatest flow loss for streamflow were below average during the 2006-2007 water Reaches 1 and 2 of about 50 ft3/s (32 Mgal/d) was measured years, and the stream channel was dry during much of this on June 28, 2002 (fig. 35A; table 2). This large loss occurred time. This condition led to increased scouring by wind and the at the beginning of the summer rainy season when discharge energy from infrequent streamflow events, which removed in the river increased and large volumes of water were needed sediment and re-exposed some of the features. Dover Sink to replenish unfilled cavities and void spaces in the underlying has undergone the most significant changes, which will be aquifers. discussed in more detail in a later section.
Karst Features along the Upper Peace River Streamflow Losses to Karst Features
Based on the series of seepage runs, an approximate 2-mi The following section describes the characteristics of section of the upper Peace River was determined to be a highly karst features in Reaches 1 and 2 and the measured streamflow karstified region where numerous features were located that losses to the karst features. Streamflow losses to the karst were capable of draining the river water (fig. 36). Surveys features in Reaches 1 and 2 are listed in table 4. These karst were conducted when the riverbed was dry to locate the karst features are characterized in an upstream to downstream order, features. These surveys indicated that a number of prominent and streamflow losses are expressed as negative values (-), to karst features were located in both the low- and high-water contrast with gains to the river from tributary inflows, which channels (Knochenmus, 2004). Most of the high-water are expressed as positive values (+). Measurable streamflow (floodplain) karst features showed evidence of surface-water inflows. Locations of these karst features were documented and losses were not observed in the low-water channel along dimensions and surface orientations were measured. Not all of Reach 3, although a limited description of the high-water the karst features along the upper Peace River were located, channel karst features that are present along this reach is because they were inaccessible or covered by vegetation; there- included in table 4. Karst features were not identified in fore, additional buried features probably exist. Locations of the Reach 4. most prominent karst features for Reaches 1 and 2 are shown in Some of the most influential karst features located in figure 36, and the names, dimensions, and a brief description of and along the Reach 1 channel bed include the Wabash Sink, the karst features for Reaches 1 through 4 are listed in table 3. Cypress Root Sink, Cook’s Ripple, Fricano Fracture, Ledges The karst features that were located in Reaches 1 and 2 Sink, and the adjoining Catacombs Complex, which is located consist of a variety of erosional features, such as cracks in in the floodplain (fig. 38A-F). During different time periods of the river channel limestone bedrock (Crevasses and Ledges this investigation, flow in the river was observed terminating Sinks): a large conduit system at the base of a highly fractured at the following sinks: Wabash Sink, Cypress Root Sink, outcrop or swallet (Dover Sink); holes in the bedrock due to Cook’s Ripple, Fricano Fracture, and Ledges Sink. In Reach 1, cypress root growth (near Wabash Complex); a series of inter- the largest loss of water from the river to the groundwater connected karst windows (Catacombs Nos. 1-9); vertical pipes system persistently occurred at Ledges Sink, a fracture in the (Fricano Fracture, Wabash Sink, and Cook’s Ripple); and riverbed. buried sinks or collapsed channel bedrock that subsequently The Wabash Complex consists of several small karst infilled with sediments (Catfish, Midway, and Elephant features (Wabash Sink, Corbett Sink, and Cypress Root Sink), Graveyard Sinks). Some of the prominent karst features found and it is the first notable karst complex in the long series 54 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
81°49’ 81°48' of features that line the low-water channel along Reach 1 (fig. 36, site 2; fig. 38A-B). The complex spans a section of EXPLANATION Peace River at Bartow (1) about 450 ft along the Peace River channel, which is located Cook's KARST FEATURE— Name about 690 ft east of the Bartow Waste Water Treatment Ripple (4) and site number Plant. Wabash Sink, the most active sink in the complex, is KARST FEATURE 27°54’ ORIENTATION a vertical pipe karst feature located at the eastern edge of the Peace low-water channel. During low-flow conditions, river water Sixmile GAGING STATION— Name Creek (12) and site number that flows into this vertical pipe creates a circular whirlpool, River which formed this conduit into its round vertical shape. Wabash Sink (2) A number of flow measurements were made at this feature (used as alternate for 3 site1 for discharge during 2002-2006, and losses ranged from -0.30 to -5.50 ft /s measurement during Wabash Complex (table 4). low-water) Cook’s Ripple is a karst feature located in the western Cypress Root Corbett Sink (3) edge of the channel bed, about 0.5 mi downstream from Wabash Sink (fig. 36, site 4; fig. 38C). The feature is a vertical pipe that drains a relatively small amount of flow from the Peace River at low river stages. Flow in the low- water channel is diverted to Cook’s Ripple by a narrow Cook's distributary channel; however, under higher flow condi- Ripple (4) tions, the distributary channel and feature are inundated. Flow that enters this vertical pipe also creates a circular Fricano Fracture (5) whirlpool, indicating downward flow. Although this site Catacombs Ledges Sink (6) has been infilled with sand since the initial survey of 2002, REACH 1 Complex Harley Sink the amount of diffuse inflow into this sink does not appear 27°53' Jackson Sink to have diminished based on subsequent field observations. REACH 2 Peace River Midway near Bartow (7) Sink (8) In 2002, measured flow losses to this feature were -0.45 and -2.30 ft3/s (table 4). Fricano Fracture is a small vertical pipe located at the Elephant Graveyard (9) eastern edge of the low-water channel and 0.2 mi down- stream from Cook’s Ripple (fig. 36, site 5; fig. 38D). Water that flows down the pipe also creates a small circular whirl- pool, further indicating downward flow. This sink became Catfish Sink (9A) filled with silt following the 2004 hurricanes and subsequent Crevasses Sink (9B) high-water period. Two measurements were made at this Paternoster Complex (9C) sink in 2002 when the flow in the channel ended at this site; 3 Gator Sink (10B) Dover measured losses were -0.22 and -0.19 ft /s (table 4). Log Sink Sink (10) Ledges Sink is the most prominent karst feature along (10A) Liz Sink (10C) Reach 1 and, depending on hydrologic conditions, this sink can drain a large volume of water from the stream channel (fig. 36, site 6; fig. 38E). Ledges Sink is a fracture in the limestone bedrock that is exposed in the riverbed. This feature is located near the edge of the channel about 1.6 mi Area of river channel downstream from the SR 60 bridge at Bartow. The fracture 27°52’ that ponds and does not go dry is about 26 ft long and is oriented in a north-south direction. The fracture displaces the limestone bedrock slightly and Sixmile Creek (12) Peace River at Clear elevates it above the channel bed. This displacement allows Springs (11) Sixmile Creek river water to flow directly under this limestone bedrock ledge. Discharge measurements to this feature were made 0 0.5 MILE under various flow conditions from 2002 to 2006, and losses 3 0 0.5 KILOMETER ranged from -1.18 to -7.49 ft /s (table 4). Field observations indicated that when the flow at the Peace River at Bartow gaging station (site 1) was about 10 ft3/s, the upper Peace Figure 36. Location of karst features in Reaches 1 and 2. River flow typically terminated at this sink. Streamflow 55
Table 3. Location and description of major karst features along the upper Peace River.
[Features are listed from north to south, ddmmss.s, degrees, minutes, and seconds; No., number; ft, feet; E, east; W, west; N, north; S, south]
Latitude Longitude Length Width Karst feature1 ddmmss.s ddmmss.s (feet) (feet) Description
Wabash Sink 275336.2 814838.6 26 17 Vertical pipe; formed near cypress tree roots Cypress Root Sinks 275334.0 814836.0 5 5 Two sinks in channel; formed by cypress roots Corbett Sink 275334.0 814837.0 39 39 Sink located off the low-water channel about 50 ft Cooks Ripple 275315.0 814828.9 15 10 Vertical pipe; small channel diverts flow to feature Fricano Fracture 275307.0 814823.0 3 2 Vertical pipe located on eastern side of channel Harley Sink 275302.0 814821.0 4 4 Vertical pipe: infilled with sediments after 2004 hurricanes Ledges Sink 275300.2 814822.8 26 10 Crack in river channel bedrock; next to Catacombs Catacombs No. 1 275303.8 814824.4 38 30 Karst window; 8 ft deep; most noticeable flow Catacombs No. 2 275303.0 814825.7 35 20 Karst window; 4 ft deep; noticeable flow Catacombs No .3 275303.7 814824.4 36 24 Karst window; 7 ft deep; reduced flow Catacombs No. 4 275303.2 814825.3 28 17 Karst window; 4.5 ft deep Catacombs No. 5 275302.8 814826.8 16 14 Karst window; root formed sink; 6 ft deep Catacombs No. 6 275302.6 814825.8 17 18 Karst window; root formed sink; 5 ft deep Catacombs No. 7 275302.1 814826.7 15 15 Karst window; root formed sink; 4.5 ft deep Catacombs No. 8 275302.0 814827.2 22 15 Karst window; sounds of water in sink; about 12 ft deep Catacombs No. 9 275302.8 814826.8 14 16 Karst window; two sinks close together; about 15 ft deep Jackson Sink 275300.0 814822.0 5 3 Vertical pipe; infilled with sediments after 2004 hurricanes Midway Sink 275254.0 814806.0 22 9 Collapsed channel bedrock, infilled with sediments in 2005 Elephant Graveyard Sink 275248.0 814807.0 8 8 Collapsed channel bedrock, infilled with sediments in 2005 Catfish Sink 275236.6 814806.6 50 25 Buried sink; traps aquatic life during low-flow periods Crevasses Sink (E-W) 275229.0 814809.0 26 2 Crack in river channel bedrock; about 5 ft deep Crevasses Sink (N-S) 275229.0 814809.1 9 2 Crack in river channel bedrock; about 7 ft deep Paternoster Complex 275228.0 814805.0 70 62 Three sinks in high-water floodplain Gator Sink 275226.0 814819.0 90 72 Large round sinkhole; river water is diverted to sink during higher flows Log Sink 275223.0 814814.0 66 44 Drains river water during medium to high flows Dover Sink 275222.0 814806.0 91 55 Swallet; drains largest volume of flow of all sinks Liz’s Sink 275220.8 814808.7 23 60 Collapsed limestone in high-water channel; evidence of inflow Kissengen Spring 275033.3 814839.3 95 126 Dry; ponds during wet periods due to backwater from river Otter Sink 275032.7 814841.5 30 20 Next to Kissengen Spring; developed during study Tom’s Sink 275032.8 814830.1 50 50 Collapsed limestone in high-water channel; evidence of inflow
1Locations of features are shown in figs. 13B and 36.
During receding flow periods a large number of fish die off, as shown here at Dover Sink, August 2, 2007. Photo credit: Charles Cook, FDEP 56 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
(A) Crevasse or crack (Crevasses Sink) (B) Swallet or sink (Dover Sink)
Photo credit: Charles Cook, FDEP Photo credit: Charles Cook, FDEP (C) Root-filled cavity (near Wabash Complex) (D) Karst window (Catacombs No.3)
Photo credit: P.A.Metz, USGS Photo credit: P.A.Metz, USGS (E) Vertical pipe (Fricano Fracture) (F) Buried sink (Catfish Sink)
Photo credit: Lari Knochenmus, USGS Photo credit: Charles Cook, FDEP
Figure 37. Examples of karst features along the upper Peace River. Streamflow 57
Table 4. Discharge measurements of streamflow losses to karst Underlying Ledges Sink is a large cavity that receives features in Reaches 1 and 2 along the upper Peace River. the inflow from the river. Barr (1992) documented this [Discharge in cubic feet per second; –, no measurement; bold numbers indicate feature as an open swallow hole in the riverbed with an the difference in discharge measured upstream and downstream of a karst feature; underlying cavern large enough to accommodate several shaded numbers indicate that upstream flow ended at a karst feature] standing individuals. This open swallow hole is no longer visible in the riverbed because of infilling of channel Stream- Up- Down- flow sediments. Currently (2008), the water flows downward Site Karst Measure- Station stream stream loss or into the cavern and moves in a westerly direction through number feature ment number1 dis- dis- gain to (fig. 36) name date a series of contiguous karst features that are termed the charge charge karst Catacombs Complex. These features are located in the feature high-water channel and are composed of about 9 intercon- 2 Wabash 02294648 5/20/2002 7.34 2.52 -4.82 nected karst windows in which flow can be observed Complex moving from one sink to another. 6/11/2002 12.6 7.70 -4.90 The flow entering Ledges Sink reappears in the 6/14/2002 4.5 1.24 -3.26 floodplain about 75 ft west of the river edge within the 6/25/2002 28.1 22.6 -5.50 4/25/2003 64.6 65.2 2+0.60 Catacombs Complex (fig. 36; fig. 38F). Flow is often 5/13/2003 24.4 24.5 2+0.10 visible in a large cavernous area called Catacombs No. 1, 6/04/2003 52.2 51.9 -0.30 which is about 30 by 38 ft. The visible flow in the deepest 6/23/2006 18.5 17.2 -1.30 part of the karst window is about 8 ft below land surface, 4 Cook’s 02294665 5/20/2002 2.52 0.22 -2.30 and can be observed moving swiftly at a velocity of about Ripple 1 ft/s. The flow from Catacombs No. 1 moves in a west- 6/14/2002 1.24 0.79 -0.45 5 Fricano 02294670 5/20/2002 – – -0.22 erly direction to a series of smaller karst windows where Fracture velocities decline substantially. The length of the complex 6/14/2002 -0.19 from Catacombs No. 1 to the termination of the sinks is 6 Ledges 02294672 6/11/2002 – – -1.18 about 450 ft. The smaller sinkholes appear to have been Sink created by a loss of support of the underlying limestone, as 6/20/2002 – – -5.54 6/24/2002 12.2 4.71 -7.49 well as by tree roots that have broken through the lime- stone bedrock. All streamflow losses to the Catacombs 5/13/2003 24.8 19.4 -5.40 6/23/2006 17.0 11.3 -5.70 Complex are considered to be the same as the losses at 8 Midway 02294692 6/24/2002 – – -0.85 Ledges Sink, because these features are interconnected. Sink The most influential karst features located in 6/25/2002 5.37 2.0 -3.37 Reach 2 include the following: Midway, Elephant 9 Elephant 02294695 6/25/2002 – – -2.0 Graveyard, Catfish, Crevasses, Dover, and Gator Sinks Graveyard Sink (fig. 36). Some of the prominent karst features in 5/13/2003 20.0 18.3 -1.70 Reach 2 are shown in figure 39. During this investiga- 9B Crevasses 02294700 6/26/2002 – – -3.02 tion, Reach 2 experienced the greatest number of days Sink when the riverbed went dry, and the largest volume of 3 10B Gator Sink 2752260814819 7/03/2002 – – -1.38 streamflow losses recorded along the upper Peace River. 8/13/2002 – – 3-3.20 10 Dover 02294705 6/19/2002 – – 4-2.50 During different time periods in this investigation, flow in Sink Reach 2 was observed terminating at the following sinks: 6/20/2002 – – 4-5.06 Elephant Graveyard, Crevasses Sink, and Dover Sink. 6/24/2002 – – 4-2.91 Midway Sink and Elephant Graveyard are first in 6/28/2002 – – 5-12.7 the series of sinks located along Reach 2 (fig. 36, sites 8 6 5/18/2006 – – -2.34 and 9). Midway Sink and Elephant Graveyard are located 7 6/12/2006 – – -16.1 about 230 and 1,500 ft south of the Peace River near 6/23/2006 – – 8-9.83 Bartow gaging station, respectively. Midway Sink is a 1 Station number corresponds to downstream order number or latitude and collapsed feature located near the edge of the low-water longitude in degrees, minutes, and seconds. 2Streamflow gain most likely the result of inherent discharge measurement channel that contains small fractures at its base (fig. 39A). error of 5 to 8 percent. Elephant Graveyard is downstream from Midway Sink, and 3Discharge measured at Gator Sink Distributary. consists of a series of limestone outcrops and depressions 4Total discharge source is from Sixmile Creek. in the low-water channel bed. The area between these two 5 Discharge source is 8.88 ft3/s from Sixmile Creek and 3.82 ft3/s from the sinks also had observable diffuse seepage losses, but these Peace River. were not measured directly. Therefore, the diffuse losses 6Total discharge source is from the Peace River. 7Total discharge source is from the Peace River during Tropical Storm Alberto. were included in the flow losses for Elephant Graveyard. 8Discharge source is 0.83 ft3/s from Sixmile Creek and 9.00 ft3/s from the Measurements made at Midway Sink were -0.85 and Peace River. -3.37 ft3/s, and measurements made at Elephant Graveyard 58 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
(A) Wabash Sink (part of Wabash Complex) (B) Cypress Root Sink (part of Wabash Complex)
Photo credit: P. A. Metz, USGS Photo credit: Charles Cook, FDEP (C) Cook’s Ripple (D) Fricano Fracture
Photo credit: Lari Knochenmus, USGS Photo credit: Lari Knochenmus, USGS (E) Ledges Sink (F) Catacombs No. 1
Photo credit: P. A. Metz, USGS Photo credit: P. A. Metz, USGS
Figure 38. Karst features in Reach 1 along the upper Peace River. Streamflow 59
(A) Midway Sink (C) Crevasses Sink
Photo credit: Charles Cook, FDEP (B) Catfish Sink
Photo credit: Lari Knochenmus, USGS
Photo credit: P. A. Metz, USGS (D) Gator Sink (E) Gator Sink Distributary
Photo credit: P. A. Metz, USGS Photo credit: P. A. Metz, USGS
Figure 39. Karst features in Reach 2 along the upper Peace River. Photo credit: P.A. Metz, USGS
Vultures await their meal of snakes and fish stranded at Catfish Sink.
Photo credit: Charles Cook, FDEP were -1.70 and -2.0 ft3/s (table 4). Sediment deposition caused losses along this reach. During receding flow periods, a large by the high flows from the hurricanes of 2004 buried these accumulation of dead catfish and debris usually settles over sinks, and they could not be identified until 2008. Because of this feature. the deposition and high- or no-flow conditions, flow measure- The Crevasses Sink is a series of solution fractures in the ments were not conducted at these sites after 2003. limestone river bedrock located about 600 ft downstream from Located 0.4 mi south of Elephant Graveyard is a diffuse Catfish Sink (fig. 36, site 9b; fig. 39C). The longest fracture is about 26 ft long and is oriented in an east-west direction, seepage feature named Catfish Sink (fig. 36, site 9a; fig. 39B). spanning most of the low-water channel. An adjacent smaller This feature was discovered late in the investigation (2006), fracture, about 9 ft long and oriented in a north-south direc- and flow measurements were not obtained at this site. The tion, is located at the western edge of the channel. This feature large volume of water that flowed down the dry channel bed is similar to Ledges Sink, consisting of a large exposed from Tropical Storm Albert (June 12, 2006) filled this sink at fracture in the channel bed and a large underlying cavity that a rate of about 2 to 3 ft3/s within 30 minutes. However, typical receives flow from the river and drains into the underlying diffuse seepage losses are probably less than 1 ft3/s during aquifers. Crevasses Sink receives water from the stream varying hydrologic conditions based on measured streamflow channel on a continual basis, but at a lower rate than the Streamflow 61
Photo credit: P.A. Metz, USGS
Gator Sink—A strong current of flow enters the western wall of the sinkhole; note the movement of duck weed on the water surface from the inflow (above). Sinkhole wall, showing the sequence of sand, clay, dolomite, and limestone (right).
similar Ledges Sink. A number of field observations during 2006-2007 indicated that flow from the upper Peace River terminated at this sink. Measured flow loss at Crevasses Sink during June 26, 2002 was -3.02 ft3/s (table 4). Gator Sink is one of the largest of the documented sink- holes and has a “classic” circular shape. The sinkhole is 90 ft long, 72 ft wide and 40 ft deep (fig. 36, site 10b; fig. 39D). The beginning of the distributary to Gator Sink is located about 880 ft downstream from Crevasses Sink on the western edge of the floodplain. The sink is located about 800 ft west of the river’s edge, where a poorly incised distributary channel drains water from the Peace River at a river stage elevation of about 88 ft above NGVD 1929. As the river rises, flow in this distributary eventually drains into Gator Sink (fig. 39E).
Photo credit: P.A. Metz, USGS 62 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
When the storage capacity of Gator Sink is reached and the Other karst features located in the high-water channel of water level continues to rise, the sink overflows, inundating Reach 2 include the Paternoster Complex (consisting of three the surrounding floodplain. Two discharge measurements sinks), Log Sink, and Liz Sink (fig. 36). Evidence of seepage were made in July and August of 2002 at the Gator Sink flow has been observed around each of these sinks, but the Distributary, with flows draining into the sink at -1.38 and actual losses are unknown. A number of undiscovered sinks -3.20 ft3/s (table 4). probably exist within the high-water channel along Reach 2, The steep vertical walls of Gator Sink contain, from top but dense vegetation makes these sinks difficult to locate. to bottom, a sequence of sand, clay, dolomite, and limestone Dover Sink, located in the eastern floodplain about 0.6 mi of the Peace River and the Arcadia Formations (see photos on upstream from the Clear Springs gaging station (fig. 36, p. 61). The lower sequence of limestone and dolomite forms a site 10), had the largest streamflow losses of all the karst wall containing cracks, fractures, holes, and vugs. Depending on features along the upper Peace River. Flow from the Peace hydrologic conditions, these fractures and cavities occasionally River has eroded an approximate 500-ft-long distributary transmit water to the sink. During low-flow periods when the channel to Dover Sink (fig. 40A, 41D). The dimensions of bottom of the western wall of the sink was exposed, a strong Dover Sink are about 55 by 91 ft, and the size is continuously current of flow could be observed moving into the sink about changing because of depositional and erosional processes. 30 ft below the land surface. A dye test conducted during this The bottom elevation of Dover Sink is presently about 13 ft study indicates that some of the river water that flows into below the elevation of the confluence of the Peace River Ledges Sink and the Catacomb Complex moves southward and the distributary channel (fig. 40B). This steep elevation about 0.75 mi (in less than 1 day) within the shallow karst change allows large volumes of water to drain into the sink. floodplain geology to Gator Sink, then drains into the sink At the bottom of the sink, the flow moves through a horizontal through the eroded western wall. erosional crack in the wall of the Arcadia Formation.
Rhodamine dye, as seen through a karst window (Catacombs No. 1). Photo credit: P.A. Metz, USGS Streamflow 63
Observations made during this study indicate that an with Dover Sink Distributary. Over time, the erosion in the extensive interconnected series of cavities exists beneath the channel has aided in the diversion of flow from the Peace walls of Dover Sink that can store large volumes of water. River to Dover Sink. Elevation profiles of the Peace River During the dry season, large unfilled cavities exist in the karst channel and Dover Sink Distributary are shown in figure 42. system that is connected to Dover Sink. When the rainy season In addition to the erosion of the channel, sand also was returns, river water flows into Dover Sink and replenishes deposited downstream from the confluence of the distributary, these void spaces in the underlying aquifers. which aided in the diversion of flow to the sink. Based on The interconnected karst system associated with Dover elevation profiles, the extent of this erosional activity begins Sink is estimated to store more than 10 Mgal in a day before upstream near Crevasses Sink and ends about 200 ft down- the level in the sink stabilizes. This estimate was based on stream from the confluence of Peace River and Dover Sink (1) a discharge measurement of 16.1 ft3/s made on June 12, Distributary (fig. 42). 2006 (table 2; site 10) at Dover Sink Distributary after a About 0.7 mi downstream from Dover Sink is Sixmile storm event while aquifer levels were low; (2) a hydrograph Creek, which is a phosphate-mine outfall tributary to the Peace of water levels of Dover Sink during this time period; and River (fig. 36, site 12). The area around the confluence of (3) streamflow conditions at the downstream Peace River near Sixmile Creek and Peace River has never been observed to go Clear Springs gaging station. Once the local aquifer storage dry, but it does pond during low-flow conditions. As Sixmile volume was replenished, the pool surrounding Dover Sink and Creek discharges into this ponded area of the river, the river the distributary rose to the level of the Peace River at about rises enough for a gradient to form, causing an unusual case 87 ft above NGVD 1929, and aquifer levels of the underlying of flow reversal along the river. The water from this ponded interconnected aquifers were about 78 ft above NGVD 1929. area travels north about 1,500 ft and eventually discharges A number of discharge measurements were made in the Dover into Dover Sink. However, a fraction of the discharge in the Sink Distributary, and flow losses into Dover Sink ranged ponded area still flows in the southward downstream direction. from -2.34 to -16.1 ft3/s (table 4). Figure 43A is a photograph showing the input from Sixmile Dover Sink exhibited the most structural changes of all Creek flowing north and the Peace River flowing south, with the karst features observed during the period of investigation. both flows merging into Dover Sink Distributary. A number The series of photographs in figure 41 shows Dover Sink of discharge measurements were made to document this 3 over a range of hydrologic conditions. At the beginning of reversal of flow, which ranged from 0.83 to 8.88 ft /s (table 2). the study in 2002, the Dover Sink Distributary channel was A discharge hydrograph shows the periods when the discharge mostly a sand-filled waterway with small remnant lenses of at Sixmile Creek is greater than discharge from Peace River the Bone Valley Formation exposed in the distributary channel at Clear Springs (flatline indicates no flow; fig. 43B). During and exposed rocks of the Arcadia Formation in the main sink these peak discharge events for Sixmile Creek, flow was (fig. 41A). After the hurricanes in 2004 and high-water period observed moving north toward Dover Sink. in 2005, sediment accumulated in Dover Sink and covered Although there were no notable karst features in the low- much of the exposed rock (fig. 41B). Intermittent flows during water channel of Reach 3, there were several karst features of 2006-2007 caused greater flow velocities in the distributary interest in the high-water channel. These features are Otter and channel that washed away overlying sediments, exposing Tom’s Sinks, which are located near the historic Kissengen large limestone boulders of the Arcadia Formation (fig. 41C). Spring (fig. 22). Otter Sink formed in 2002 and drains river This erosional exposure created a cascading waterfall effect at water during periodic seasonal floodplain inundations. A small the approach to Dover Sink (fig. 41D). As a result of several amount of flow is lost when backwater from the Peace River high-water events at the end of the 2007 water year, sediment flows up the 0.5‑mi inactive spring run and floods the remnant again accumulated and covered some of the exposed rocks spring pool of Kissengen Spring. During the 1960s, a large (fig. 41E). The photograph in figure 41F shows Dover Sink clay plug was placed in Kissengen Spring to limit flow in a ponded condition after the interconnected karst aquifer exchange (Jackson, 2008). Currently (2009), flows travel up system was replenished. the inactive spring run and are scouring out a new channel At the beginning of this investigation (2002), water to Otter Sink where observed streamflow losses to this sink 3 entered the groundwater system from Dover Sink through a are about 2 to 3 ft /s (Charles Cook, FDEP, written commun., horizontal erosional crack at the bottom wall of Dover Sink. 2009). By the end of the study (2007), however, the force of moving Located in the floodplain about 800 ft east of Kissengen water had scoured and enlarged the opening in the wall, which Spring and 400 ft west of Peace River, Tom’s Sink was then measured about 3 ft in diameter. This enlarged opening discovered through aerial photo examination in 2008 (Tom allowed large quantities of water, sediment, aquatic life, and Jackson, written commun., 2008). The aerial photo indicates debris to flow into the conduits and cavities associated with that the flow to this sink has eroded an approximate 300-ft- the underlying aquifers. long distributary, extending from the sinkhole to the relict In addition to the erosion of sediment and carbonate Kissengen Spring run channel. During July 2008, flow was bedrock in the distributary channel, about 2 ft of erosion observed draining into Tom’s Sink (Charles Cook, FDEP, written commun., 2008). Flow losses to these high-water occurred along the Peace River channel bed at its confluence 64 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
(A) ±
Crevasses Sink Paternoster r Complex ve Ri Gator Sink e ac e P
Log Sink
Dover Sink
Liz Sink
0 200 400 Feet
0 50 100 Meters Images from U.S. Geological Survey digital orthophoto quadrangle data, photographed in 2004 Universal Transverse Mercator Projection, Zone 17 (B) EXPLANATION Elevation, in feet above NGVD 1929
68 to 70 >78 to 80
± >70 to 72 >80 to 82
>72 to 74 >82 to 84 Dover Sink >74 to 76 >84 to 86
>76 to 78
0 50 100 Feet Figure 40. (A) Elevation of sinks and riverbed 0 10 20 Meters channel along the lower end of Reach 2, and (B) detailed view of Dover Sink. Streamflow 65
(A) Exposed rocks, 2002 (B) Sediment and fish accumulation, 2006
Photo credit: Lari Knochenmus, USGS Photo credit: P. A. Metz, USGS (C) Storm event at Dover Sink, 2006 (D) Continued scouring of Dover Sink Distributary channel, 2007
Photo credit: P. A. Metz, USGS Photo credit: Charles Cook, FDEP (E) Infilling and scouring at Dover Sink, 2008 (F) Dover Sink ponded, 2008
Photo credit: P. A. Metz, USGS
Photo credit: Charles Cook, FDEP Photo credit: P. A. Metz, USGS
Figure 41. Changing hydrologic conditions at Dover Sink. 66 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
90 NORTH SOUTH
Water-surface elevation required in channel 84.3 FT to continue flow downstream FLOW 85
82.2 FT Land-surface elevation Peace River channel survey points
80 Confluence of Peace River Dover Sink Distributary channel and Dover Sink Distributary Crevasses Sink
75
ELEVATION, IN FEET ABOVE NGVD 1929 ELEVATION, 70 Dover Sink 68.9 FT
65 0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,300 DISTANCE ALONG SURVEYED CHANNEL ELEVATION PROFILE, IN FEET
Figure 42. Topographical profile of Peace River channel and Dover Sink Distributary.
(A) (B) 90
80 Peace River at Clear Springs Sixmile Creek 70
60
50 When Peace River discharge is low, inflow from Sixmile Creek will flow Flow from 40 upstream to Dover Sink downstream Sixmile Creek 30
20
Dover Sink 10 Distributary
DISCHARGE IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 0
Peace River -10 Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Photo credit: Charles Cook, FDEP 2006 2007
FigureFigure 4343. . (A)(A) Inflow Photograph to Dover of Sink inflow Distributary to Dover from Sink two Distributary sources—from from Peacetwo directions--from River flowing south Peace and River Sixmile flowing Creek southflowing and north— fromand (B) Sixmile comparison Creek offlowing discharge north from and Peace(B) comparison River at Clear of Springsdischarge and from Sixmile Peace Creek River (location at Clear of gages Springs shown and in Sixmile fig. 13). Creek. Streamflow 67
(A) channel sinks are currently unknown. Both Otter Sink and -35 Tom’s Sink recharge the underlying aquifer during periods of y = -0.1582x - 3.0984 REACH 1 2 floodplain inundation, and probably influence water levels in -30 r = 0.94 the Kissengen Spring area LW4P monitor wells (fig. 13B). -25
Effects of Groundwater Conditions on -20 Streamflow Losses -15 Within the upper Peace River karst area, streamflow losses are dependent on a number of hydrologic conditions. -10 The elevations of the potentiometric surfaces of the inter- mediate aquifer system and the Upper Floridan aquifer are -5 two of the most important factors that influence streamflow losses along the upper Peace River. As water-level differences STREAMFLOW LOSS, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 0 increase between aquifer units during dry periods because of -505101520253035 pumpage or hydrologic stresses, water stored in the interme- DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE ELEVATION OF THE RIVER BOTTOM AND THE HEADS IN THE INTERMEDIATE AQUIFER SYSTEM (LW1P), IN FEET diate aquifer system drains downward into the Upper Floridan (B) aquifer. This in turn creates a potential for river water to drain -35 y = -0.8386x - 7.4101 REACH 1 into empty void spaces or cavities in the intermediate aquifer 2 system. During these low-water periods, the small amount of -30 r = 0.81 water in the stream channel can be observed flowing into the various sinks until the upper reaches of the river become dry. -25 During high-water periods, as water-level differences decrease between the river and the underlying aquifers and the storage -20 in the aquifers is replenished, the potential for streamflow losses declines. -15 To understand these processes, analyses were made to determine if streamflow losses were proportional to the -10 decline in the potentiometric surface below the elevation of the riverbed. Groundwater conditions were analyzed sepa- -5 rately for Reaches 1 and 2 because of the different hydrologic STREAMFLOW LOSS, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 0 conditions that exist in these reaches. For Reach 1, ground- -505101520253035 water conditions were defined as the vertical distance of the DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE ELEVATION OF THE RIVER BOTTOM potentiometric surface below the riverbed elevation, using AND THE HEADS IN THE UPPER FLORIDAN AQUIFER (LW1P), IN FEET water levels from the Upper Floridan aquifer and the inter- (C) -35 mediate aquifer system measured at the LW1P site. Because y = -0.5655x - 6.1665 REACH 2 groundwater-level data were absent during much of the study 2 -30 r = 0.27 period near Reaches 1 and 2, data from the ROMP 59 Avon Park and Hawthorn wells were used to extrapolate water-level -25 conditions as necessary. For Reach 2, groundwater conditions were defined using only the Upper Floridan aquifer (LW3P), -20 because the Upper Floridan aquifer and the intermediate aquifer system are hydraulically connected along this reach. -15 Streamflow losses were calculated from discharge measurements made during the study period at the three -10 upstream gaging stations that spanned Reaches 1 and 2 (sites 1, 7, and 11; fig. 22). Discharge measurements selected -5 for this analysis included synoptic seepage run measurements made between these stations during baseflow conditions. STREAMFLOW LOSS, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 0 Under certain circumstances, continuous daily discharge data -505101520253035 could be used for this analysis, but much of the continuous DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE ELEVATION OF THE RIVER BOTTOM record is complicated by effects of overbank storage, rainfall AND THE HEADS IN THE UPPER FLORIDAN AQUIFER (LW3P), IN FEET and surface inflows, and zero-flow days. The continuous record was only used to determine streamflow losses when Figure 44. Relation of streamflow losses to aquifer water these complicating factors were not observed. levels in Reaches 1 and 2 during seepage measurements. 68 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
In Reach 1, the intermediate aquifer system is hydrauli- obtained from the SWFWMD, who continued monitoring cally connected to the river and streamflow losses during at these sites after September 2007. Table 5 lists the index baseflow conditions were strongly correlated to water-level number for each well, location by latitude and longitude (ID changes in this aquifer (r2 = 0.94; fig. 44A). During the number), well name, well depth and cased interval, hydrogeo- dry season when groundwater levels were at their lowest, logic unit, and the summary of data collected at each well. the water-level difference between the elevation of the Because well nests near the river were not installed until riverbed and the intermediate aquifer system was 14.5 ft, and later in the study, data from the ROMP 59 Avon Park and streamflow losses were greatest (-20 ft3/s). During the wet Hawthorn wells were used to help determine current and long- season when water levels in the intermediate aquifer system term trends in the study area (table 5, figs. 13 and 45). Linear were at their highest level, there was a reduced potential for regression analyses show a significant correlation between streamflow losses. During these increased water-level periods, water levels in Upper Floridan aquifer wells at the study sites streamflow gains were noted in the river. (LW1P, LW3P, and LW4P) and ROMP 59 Avon Park well In Reach 1, there also was a good relation between (fig. 45). Based on the record at the ROMP 59 Avon Park streamflow losses and the vertical distance between the well (1997-2007 water years), groundwater levels collected at riverbed elevation and the potentiometric surface of the LW1P from April 2005 through March 2006 were considered Upper Floridan aquifer during seepage runs (r2 = 0.81; above average (high-water analysis period; fig 45) whereas fig. 44B). This relation reflects the influence that the Upper water levels for the 2007 water year were considered below Floridan aquifer has on the intermediate aquifer system. average (low-water analysis period; fig. 45). As water levels decline in the Upper Floridan aquifer because Hydrographs that show the relations between water of pumpage or hydrologic stresses, these declines affect water levels in the river; the underlying aquifers at LW1P, LW3P, levels in the intermediate aquifer system and, consequently, and LW4P monitoring sites; and Dover Sink are shown in influence streamflow losses. figure 46A-F. Comparison between water levels in the upper In Reach 2, there was not a significant linear relation and lower aquifers within the intermediate aquifer system between streamflow losses and the vertical distance between show that the hydraulic connection between (and within) the riverbed and the Upper Floridan aquifer levels during these units varies between locations. Three wells were seepage runs (r2 = 0.27; fig. 44C). In Reach 2, the relation completed in the upper Arcadia aquifer (LW1P IAS UA, between streamflow losses and aquifer level declines is more LW3P IAS UA, and LW4P IAS UA), and one well was complex. In this reach, the upper Peace River is connected to completed in the lower Arcadia aquifer (LW3P IAS LA, both the intermediate aquifer system and the Upper Floridan fig. 46A). Water-level comparisons between sites for the aquifer through a large conduit system. Because this conduit upper Arcadia aquifer (LW1P IAS UA and LW3P IAS UA) system is very large, it can accommodate a large proportion of showed good agreement (r2 = 0.73; fig. 46A). Water-levels flow from the river at multiple river stages. in the lower Arcadia aquifer at the LW3P well site (LW3P IAS LA) and upper Arcadia aquifer at the LW4P well site (LW4P IAS UA) were strongly correlated (r2 = 0.98; Groundwater Flow Patterns Surrounding the fig. 46A), indicating a strong hydraulic connection between Upper Peace River aquifers. Comparison between the upper and lower Arcadia aquifer levels at the LW3P well site (LW3P IAS UA and The groundwater flow patterns surrounding the upper LW3P IAS LA) indicated a good connection (r2 = 0.73; Peace River are influenced by recharge conditions, inflow fig. 46A), although not as strong as the other sites. from the river, and regional groundwater withdrawals. Water Variable relations between aquifers within the levels collected from a network of wells, sinks, tributaries, and intermediate aquifer system and between well sites indicate phosphate-mine outfalls along an approximate 5-mi reach of the complexity of the geology in the intermediate aquifer the upper Peace River provide the basis for relating ground- system. The intermediate aquifer system contains interbedded water flow patterns to streamflow losses along the upper Peace carbonates and siliciclastic sediments that contribute to the River. To help define groundwater flow patterns, continuous heterogeneity of this unit, and localized differences in ground- water-level data were collected from a network of two surficial water levels. In addition, the Arcadia Formation contains aquifer wells, four intermediate aquifer system wells, three weathered dolomite that is fractured and has pinpoint vugs, Upper Floridan aquifer wells, and two major sinks (Gator and voids, and numerous fossils casts and molds that aid in the Dover Sinks) (fig. 13B). A well nest was installed at each of development of secondary porosity. This porosity strengthens the geologic core sites (LW1P, LW3P, and LW4P) to determine the hydraulic connection between these aquifers (fig. 14). the vertical component of flow within an aquifer or between Although the confining units of the intermediate aquifer aquifer units (fig. 13B). system impede downward flow into the Upper Floridan Groundwater data were collected by the USGS at the aquifer, the hydraulic connection between aquifers increases LW1P well nest site from May 2005 to September 2007 and at when the confining units are thinner, more permeable, the LW3P and LW4P well nest sites from July 2006 through breached by sinkholes, and contain sand-filled piping features, September 2007. Supplemental groundwater data also were or cavities and conduit systems. Streamflow 69
Table 5. Characteristics and data summary for wells and sinks located along the upper Peace River.
[BLS, below land surface; SWFWMD, Southwest Florida Water Management District; HTRN, Hawthorn; IAS, intermediate aquifer system; LA, lower Arcadia aquifer; LH, Lower Hawthorn, No.; number; NRSD, nonartesian sand aquifer; SA, surficial aquifer; SUW and SWNN, Suwannee; UA, upper Arcadia aquifer; UFA, Upper Floridan aquifer; UH, Upper Hawthorn; CON, continuous; REC, recorder; QW, water quality; –, no data]
Total cased USGS Total Index SWFWMD USGS Hydrogeologic interval Diameter, identification depth BLS Data summary No.1 well or sink name2 abbreviated name unit BLS (inches) No. (feet) (feet)
1 275336081484401 LW1P UFA WWTP-LW1P SWNN UFA 235 95 6 CON REC, QW 2 275336081484402 LW1P IAS UA WWTP-LW1P HTRN IAS (UA) 75 18 6 CON REC, QW 3 275336081484403 LW1P SA WWTP-LW1P NRSD SA 6 2 6 CON REC, QW 4 275156081481901 LW3P UFA Clear Springs SUW UFA 320 170 6 CON REC, QW 5 275156081481902 LW3P IAS LA Clear Springs LH IAS (LA) 140 67 6 CON REC, QW 6 275156081481903 LW3P IAS UA Clear Springs UH IAS (UA) 37 21 6 CON REC, QW 7 275156081481904 LW3P SA Clear Springs SA SA 12 2 6 CON REC, QW 8 275034081483901 LW4P UFA Kissengen Spring SUW UFA 310 151 6 CON REC, QW 9 275034081483902 LW4P UA Kissengen Spring UH IAS (UA) 76 31 6 CON REC, QW 10 275220081480101 Clear Springs IAS Clear Springs IAS IAS (LA) 143 62 6 CON REC, QW 11 275314081514201 ROMP 59 AP ROMP 59 Avon Park UFA 1,050 200 12 CON REC 12 275314081514202 ROMP 59 HTRN ROMP 59 HTRN IAS 142 122 6 CON REC 13 274908081480901 Homeland No. 4 Homeland No. 4 IAS (LA) 202 56 24 CON REC 14 274841081480901 Homeland No. 9 Homeland No. 9 UFA 746 – 6 CON REC 15 275226081481900 Gator Sink Gator Sink IAS (LA) – – – CON REC 16 02294705 Dover Sink Peace River Distributary IAS (LA) – – – CON REC, QW at Dover Sink
1Index numbers refer to wells and sinks shown in fig. 13B. 2Well name used in this study.
90 Highest level of 85.92 feet above NGVD 1929 on October 15, 2004 (85.92 ft is the highest level for the 1977-2007 period of record) 80 Average (ROMP 59 Avon Park) for the1997 to 2007 70 67.2 ft above NGVD 1929
60 LW1P UFA r 2= 0.99 50 LW3P UFA r 2= 0.97 2 High-water Low-water LW4P UFA r = 1.00 analysis analysis 40 ROMP 59 AVON PARK period period r2 Coefficient of determination for Lowest level of 36.16 feet above NGVD 1929 on relations between Upper Floridan 30 June 10, 2000 (33.33 ft. is the lowest level for the
WATER LEVEL, IN FEET ABOVE NGVD 1929 WATER aquifer water levels in ROMP 59 1977-2007 period of record on May 16, 1981) and study wells 20 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 WATER YEARS
Figure 45. Long-term hydrograph for ROMP 59 Avon Park Upper Floridan aquifer well and hydrographs for the study period for Upper Floridan aquifer wells at LW1P, LW3P, and LW4P monitor sites (location of wells shown in figs. 8 and 13B). 70 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
(A) (B) 95 90 LW1P IAS UA Periods when recharge waters 90 85 from Dover sink augment DOVER SINK, the water levels near dry when flatlined LW3P UFA well 85 80
80 LW3P IAS UA 75 LW1P UFA 75 LW4P IAS UA 70 LW3P UFA 70 65 r2 LW3P UFA andDover Sink = 0.87 2 65 2 60 r LW3P IAS UA and LW1PIAS UA = 0.73 r LW3P UFA and LW1P UFA = 0.98 2 r2 LW3P IAS UA and LW3P IAS LA = 0.73 r LW3P UFA and LW4P UFA = 0.98 60 LW3P IAS LA 55 2 LW4P UFA r2 LW3P IAS LA and LW4P IAS UA = 0.98 r LW1P UFA and LW4P UFA = 0.99 55 50 ONDJFMAMJJAS O NDJFMAMJJAS 2006 2007 2006 2007 (C) (D) 95 90 LW3P WELL SITE LW3P SA Peace River, LW4P WELL SITE Peace River 90 dry when flatlined 85
85 80
80 LW3P IAS UA 75 LW3P IAS LA LW4P IAS UA 75 70
70 65
65 2 2 r LW3P IAS LA andLW3P UFA = 1.00 LW3P UFA 60 rLW4P IAS UA andLW4P UFA = 0.97 LW4P UFA r2 LW3P IAS UA and LW3P UFA = 0.82 60 55
55 50 ONDJFMAMJJAS ONDJFMAMJJAS WATER LEVEL, IN FEET ABOVE NGVD 1929 WATER 2006 2007 2006 2007 (E) (F) 100 100 LW1P WELL SITE Peace River LW1P SA, dry when flatlined LW1P WELL SITE LW1PSA, dry when flatlined 95 95 Peace River
90 90
85 85
2 80 r Peace River andLW1P SA = 0.94 LW1P IAS UA 80 LW1P IAS UA r2 Peace River and LW1P IAS UA = 0.96 75 2 75 r Peace River and LW1P UFA = 0.22 2 r LW1P SA and LW1P IAS UA = 0.98 2 70 2 70 rLW1P IAS UA andLW1P UFA = 0.62 r LW1P IAS UA and LW1P UFA = 0.22 LW1P UFA r2 Peace River and LW1P UFA = 0.45 65 65 LW1P UFA High-water analysis period Low-water analysis period 60 60 AMJJASOND J FMAMJJAS ONDJFMAMJJAS 2005 2006 2006 2007 EXPLANATION r2 COEFFICIENT OF DETERMINATION BETWEEN UFA UPPER FLORIDAN AQUIFER UA UPPER ARCADIA AQUIFER WATER LEVELS (all regressions significant to SA SURFICIAL AQUIFER LA LOWER ARCADIA AQUIFER alpha level of 0.05) IAS INTERMEDIATE AQUIFER SYSTEM
Figure 46. Comparison of the Peace River stage and water levels in monitor wells completed at different depths in the intermediate aquifer system and Upper Floridan aquifer (location of wells are shown in fig. 13B and well depths and cased intervals are shown in table 5). Streamflow 71
A comparison of water levels in the three Upper Floridan In addition, a relatively large average water-level difference aquifer wells (LW1P UFA, LW3P UFA, and LW4P UFA) (15 ft) between the intermediate aquifer system and the Upper indicated significant relations between all well sites (r2 = 0.98- Floridan aquifer was noted at this site, which indicates more 0.99; fig. 46B). The significant relations between these well confinement. sites indicate a good lateral connection and the regional nature During above-average water-level conditions (high-water of this unit. The lateral head gradient in the Upper Floridan analysis period, April 26, 2005 to March 2, 2006; fig. 46E), aquifer decreases from north (LW1P) to south (LW4P), at the aquifers at the LW1P well site show different relations about 0.70 foot per mile (ft/mi). between one another and the river compared to below-average The differences between the elevation of the river bottom water-level conditions (low-water analysis period, October 1, and water levels in the underlying aquifers were greatest during 2006 to September 30, 2007; fig. 46F). During the high-water the dry season (May through June). The largest daily difference analysis period, there were significant relations between river between the river bottom elevation and the Upper Floridan levels and the surficial aquifer (r2 = 0.94), between the river aquifer water levels occurred on June 1, 2007, with differences levels and the upper Arcadia aquifer (r2 = 0.96), and between of 26.34 ft at well LW1P, 25.38 ft at well LW3P, and 26.01 ft the upper Arcadia aquifer and surficial aquifer (r2 = 0.98). at well LW4P. Substantial streamflow losses occur at the end The average river stage for this time period was 1.6 ft higher of the dry season, when large volumes of water are often than surficial aquifer levels, indicating lateral recharge to that required to replenish the underlying storage of the intermediate aquifer. The hydraulic connection between the river, surficial aquifer system and Upper Floridan aquifer. At the three well aquifer, and upper Arcadia aquifer can be attributed to the sites, recharge conditions existed for most of the study period widespread karstified geologic framework of the Arcadia (fig. 12). An exception to this overall pattern occurred at the Formation. Geologic cores from the LW1P well indicate that LW1P site when intermediate aquifer system levels were higher the Arcadia Formation contains sections of fractured dolomite than surficial aquifer levels for a brief period in 2005. at depths ranging from 16 to 26 ft and from 50 to 75 ft, which The water-level differences at the well sites and linear enhance the hydraulic connection between the river, the relations between aquifers yield insight into the degree of surficial aquifer, and the intermediate aquifer system. confinement or interconnection between the intermediate As water-level differences increase between units, there aquifer system and the Upper Floridan aquifer. Differences is an increased potential for downward recharge from the between these water levels may indicate the localized nature overlying hydrologic units at the LW1P site. During high- of the confining unit sediments or the influence of karst water analysis period (fig. 46E), there were no significant features. For example, permeable sediments or secondary relations between river stage and the Upper Floridan aquifer porosity associated with a karst environment will enhance the (r2 = 0.22), and between the intermediate aquifer system downward movement of recharge waters, resulting in a smaller and Upper Floridan aquifer (r2 = 0.22) at the LW1P well water-level difference between aquifers. site. In contrast, statistical relations indicate an increased At both LW3P and LW4P well sites (2007 water year) potential for downward flow during the low-water analysis a strong connection exists between the intermediate aquifer period (fig. 46F). During this time, water-level relations system and Upper Floridan aquifer, as indicated by significant between the river stage and the Upper Floridan aquifer 2 linear relations between water levels (r = 1.00 for LW3P wells improved slightly (r2 = 0.45) compared to the high-water 2 and r = 0.97 for LW4P wells; fig. 46C-D). In addition, the period (r2= 0.22). Relations also improved between the smaller average water-level differences between the interme- intermediate aquifer system and the Upper Floridan aquifer diate aquifer system and Upper Floridan aquifer at these sites at LW1P during the low-water period (r2 = 0.62) compared to (0.67 ft for LW3P wells, and 6.0 ft for LW4P wells) indicate a the high-water period (r2= 0.22), indicating a higher degree of better hydraulic connection between aquifer units. The LW3P interconnection during low-water periods. well site is in an area where prominent karst features (Dover Sink and Gator Sink) are located (fig. 13B), which is evidence of the cavernous karst conduit system that facilitates water Flow Patterns Derived from Chemical movement between the aquifer units. The LW4P well site also Constituents and Isotopic Tracers is in an area where an extensive cavernous system exists that is associated with the dry Kissengen Spring. Information on groundwater flow patterns along the In contrast, there is less connection between the interme- upper Peace River also can be derived using chemical and diate aquifer system and Upper Floridan aquifer at the LW1P isotope-tracing methods. Water quality in the river is influ- well site (2007 water year), as indicated by a weaker relation enced by rainfall, groundwater and surface-water inflows, and between water levels (r2 = 0.62; fig. 46F). This relation may land-use practices. Water quality in the underlying aquifers is indicate there is more confinement at this site, which limits controlled by the lithology and mineralogy of the particular the connection between the intermediate aquifer system and unit, residence time of water in contact with the aquifer Upper Floridan aquifer. Geologic cores and aquifer tests matrix, and recharge from the overlying aquifer and the analyzed during the study indicate that a thick, low perme- river. These variations in water chemistry between the river, ability layer exists between the two aquifers at the LW1P site. the intermediate aquifer system, and Upper Floridan aquifer 72 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
Milliequivalents per liter provided insight into the multiple flow processes occurring Cations Anions along the upper Peace River. Stiff diagrams of water-chemistry 10 5 5 10 data collected during this study show the variability of water in the river and the two aquifers (fig. 47). River samples collected north of Sixmile Creek, Sodium and Potassium Chloride Phosphate Mine Outfall CS-8, and Barber Branch had Calcium Bicarbonate lower concentrations of dissolved constituents than water Magnesium Sulfate collected downstream from these mine-outfall sites (fig. 13B). Peace River below Barber Branch gaging station As discussed in previous sections, the study area is lined by clay-settling ponds and mine-outfall sites, and water samples Surface Water 2007 collected during this study varied chemically depending on their proximity to these sites. A river sample was collected at Dover Sink Distributary the Dover Sink Distributary during a low-flow period (mean discharge of 14 ft3/s at Peace River at Bartow on March Ground Water 2007 23, 2007) when inflows to the upper Peace River were only Homeland 4 well derived from Peace Creek Drainage Canal. During this time, (lower Arcadia aquifer) the remaining flow from the upper Peace River drained into Dover Sink. The Stiff diagram of the Dover Sink Distributary indicates that the water was slightly enriched in sodium, potas- LW1P IAS UA well sium, chloride, and bicarbonate, and was not influenced by mine drainage (fig. 47). The river-water sample was character- ized by a high color content, and the specific conductance and LW4P IAS UA well pH were 397 microsiemens per centimeter (μS/cm) and 7.4, INTERMEDIATE AQUIFER SYSTEM respectively. (IAS) Water samples collected downstream from the Peace River below Sixmile Creek are influenced by mine outfalls. Clear Springs IAS well (lower Arcadia aquifer) During low-flow conditions, the mine outfalls are the primary source of inflows to this reach of the river. A surface-water sample collected downstream from Barber Branch had a higher LW3P IAS UA well ionic-strength than the upstream Dover Sink Distributary site. The water in this section of the river was influenced by the mine outfalls of Sixmile Creek, Phosphate Mine Outfall CS‑8, and Barber Branch. Measured specific conductance and pH values LW3P IAS LA well were 690 μS/cm and 7.9, respectively. River water downstream from Barber Branch contained significantly higher concentra- tions of calcium, sulfate, and magnesium than water collected at LW3P UFA well Dover Sink Distributary (fig. 47). When river water flows north from Sixmile Creek and drains into Dover Sink, this inflow water is more enriched in calcium, sulfate, and magnesium than UPPER FLORIDAN inflow water from Peace Creek Drainage Canal. AQUIFER (UFA) LW1P UFA well Stiff diagrams also show the variability in chemical constituents between the intermediate aquifer system and the Upper Floridan aquifer. The water chemistry of the inter- LW4P UFA well mediate aquifer system and the Upper Floridan aquifer was dominated by calcium carbonate. In addition, the intermediate Spring Water aquifer system had increased concentrations of magnesium 1959 Kissengen Spring due to the dissolution of dolomite in the carbonate aquifer. Both aquifers contain water that is predominantly a calcium- bicarbonate water type, but the intermediate aquifer system contains water with higher concentrations, on average, of sulfate, potassium, bicarbonate, and chloride than water in the Figure 47. Stiff diagrams for surface-water and groundwater underlying Upper Floridan aquifer. In some cases, the upper sites along the upper Peace River (location of sampling sites are Arcadia aquifer contained water with higher concentrations shown in fig. 13B and well depths and cased intervals are shown of calcium, bicarbonate, and sulfate than water in the lower in table 5). Arcadia aquifer.
StreamflowStreamflow 73
River and spring flow are influenced by groundwater conditions. Stages of riverflow, from flowing to dry (top and bottom); and mud puddle at inactive Kissengen Spring (center). Photo credit: P.A. Metz, USGS 74 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
There are several reasons for the chemical enrichment of to evaporate than does groundwater; therefore, the river water the shallower part of the intermediate aquifer system: (1) the will have a heavier signature (larger δ value) than ground- study wells are located in areas where the surficial aquifer water. The samples were collected during March 23-26, 2007 is thin or absent and recharge waters have been affected by when groundwater levels were declining and sink features mining practices; (2) the wells are located in an area where were draining the river water to the underlying aquifers. there is extensive karst development that provides preferential During this sampling, upper Peace River flow ended at Dover recharge pathways from the surface to the underlying aquifer; Sink and the estimated discharge to the sink was about 2 ft3/s. and (3) the wells are located near mine-outfall pits that There was little isotopic variability between samples breach the upper confining layers. Some or all of these factors from the LW3P UFA, Clear Springs IAS, and LW1P may influence the water chemistry of the intermediate aquifer UFA wells (fig. 48A), which may indicate that recharge system within the study area. waters in these areas were from a similar source and that the One of the wells sampled from the intermediate aquifer underlying aquifers are affected by the same flow processes system (Homeland No. 4 well; 650 ft west of Peace River) is (fig. 48A). Although isotopic samples were not collected at a located in an area that has previously been mined (near several surface-water site near the LW1P well, the isotopic composi- dredged pit lakes) but away from extensive karst development tion would probably be similar to that of samples from Dover (fig. 13A). A Stiff diagram for this well indicates that the water Sink Distributary because of the close proximity of the well is a calcium-bicarbonate type, but with lower levels of sulfate, magnesium, potassium, and chloride than wells closer to the and distributary (3.0 mi) and the short amount of time required river (fig. 47). This well is deeper (202 ft; table 5) than any of for a particle of water to travel (less than 1 day) from the well the other intermediate aquifer system wells sampled during to the distributary. this study, which also may explain the reduced influence of The percentage of river water in groundwater was used water from the mined areas. to help determine flow paths to the underlying aquifers. The Stiff diagrams of the three water samples collected from percentage of river water (x) in the groundwater near the river the Upper Floridan aquifer show similar chemical patterns. was calculated using d18O as the conservative tracer in the However, water samples at the LW4P UFA well had slightly following equation: higher magnesium and bicarbonate concentrations than samples from the other Upper Floridan aquifer wells, indica- x = ( δgw – δmw ) / ( δrw – δmw ), (2) tive of the chemical influence of water from the intermediate aquifer system (fig. 47). Hydrologic data, aquifer tests, and where δ is the oxygen-18 value for the groundwater sample geophysical logs indicate a strong connection between the (gw), meteoric water (mw), and river water (rw). The d18O intermediate aquifer system and the Upper Floridan aquifer for river water used in the calculations was from Dover Sink in this area, and the chemical data validates the downward Distributary (Peace River), and is assumed to be representa- movement of this water. For the LW3P well site, waters from tive of river water recharging the groundwater. The meteoric the intermediate aquifer system (LW3P IAS LA) and the water end member is water uninfluenced by recharge from the Upper Floridan aquifer (LW3P UFA) show almost identical river. Several meteoric end members were considered in the chemical signatures, indicative of a strong hydrologic connec- calculations: (1) volume-weighted mean d18O of rainwater at a tion between these sites. The relation between water levels in site in Polk County (Sacks, 2002); (2) water from the interme- these two wells corroborates the strong hydrologic connection 2 diate aquifer system unaffected by river recharge (ROMP 45 between aquifers (r = 1.00). Hawthorn; Sacks and Tihansky, 1996); and (3) water from the A Stiff diagram also was constructed from historical Upper Floridan aquifer unaffected by river recharge (ROMP 45 water-quality data collected at Kissengen Spring in 1959, and Suwannee; Sacks and Tihansky, 1996). is considered to represent the groundwater flow patterns in Results for the end member analysis using the rainwater the study area under discharging conditions. A water sample and the intermediate aquifer system water were similar, was collected when the spring flow was measured at 9 ft3/s, showing little variability (average difference less than just before the spring ceased to flow in 1960 (Stewart, 1961). The chemical signature of the spring water indicates a chemical 1 percent). A separate meteoric water end member analysis pattern similar to that of the water collected from the wells was conducted for the Upper Floridan aquifer, because tapping the Upper Floridan aquifer and the lower Arcadia groundwater in this area was recharged thousands of years aquifer (fig. 47). ago, under different climatic conditions, and can have natu- 18 The naturally occurring stable isotopes deuterium and rally elevated d O values (Plummer and Sprinkle, 2001). oxygen-18 also were measured in water samples collected Therefore, the meteoric water end member for Upper Floridan from the river and seven wells in the study area to help deter- aquifer samples influenced by Peace River recharge could mine flow paths between the river and the underlying aquifers. be a mix of this older groundwater and recent recharge. Differences in the enrichment of the isotopes by evaporation However, because of the current recharge setting, the deeper can give an indication of the water pathway. For example, groundwater was not considered to influence water from the river water derived from surface inflows has more opportunity intermediate aquifer system. Streamflow 75
(A) 10 wells. The lowest fraction (38 percent) of recharge water from Estimated error in measurement the Dover Sink was LW3P IAS UA (upper Arcadia aquifer). is + or - 5 percent This well is only completed to 37 ft and indicates that Dover 5 Sink is not as well connected to a shallow part of the aquifer. For Upper Floridan aquifer water, the percentage of river 0 water ranged from 52 to 89 percent, using the old groundwater meteoric end member, and from 77 to 98 percent, using the Peace River at Dover Sink Distributary recent rainwater meteoric end member. Regardless of the -5 Clear Spring IAS well LW3P UFA meteoric water end member, the river water is distinctly iden- LW1P IAS UA LW1P UFA tifiable in the deeper aquifer. Samples from LW3P UFA and LW4P UFA LW1P UFA contained the highest percentage of river water of -10 LW4P IAS UA all samples (98 to 94 percent, respectively; fig. 48B).
DELTA DEUTERIUM, IN PER MIL DELTA
-15 LW3P IAS UA Influence of Large Karst Features on Flow [ IAS, intermediate aquifer system; LA, lower Arcadia aquifer; Patterns and Streamflow Losses UA, upper Arcadia aquifer; UFA; Upper Floridan aquifer] -20 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 An important characteristic of the geology underlying DELTA OXYGEN-18, IN PER MIL the upper Peace River is the capacity to store large volumes EXPLANATION of water in the underground cavities within the floodplain and LOCAL METEORIC WATER LINE (Sacks, 2002) surrounding area. The geology of this area is highly karstified, LOCAL EVAPORATION TREND LINE (Sacks, 2002) as evidenced by numerous karst features and fractured carbon- GROUNDWATER SAMPLE ates and cavernous zones identified in geologic cores and SURFACE-WATER SAMPLE aquifer tests. Geologic logs, aquifer and dye tests, and video logs indicate that there are several layers within the floodplain (B) geology that are cavernous, highly transmissive, and have the 100 ability to transport large volumes of water at a rapid rate. The 90 following hydrograph analysis illustrates how karst features 80 provide the hydrologic connection between the river and the underlying aquifers. 70 Water levels at two sinks (Gator Sink and Dover Sink; 60 fig. 36), located in the floodplain of the highly karstic region 50 of Reach 2, were monitored to determine how these features influence groundwater flow patterns. Dover Sink is the most 40 influential karst feature within the upper Peace River karst 30 area, and accounts for the most streamflow losses from the 20 river. Gator Sink is less influential than Dover Sink in terms of streamflow losses, but accepts river flow during high stages.
BASED ON DELTA OXYGEN-18, IN PERCENT BASED ON DELTA 10 Gator Sink also receives groundwater flow from localized 0 LW1P LW1P LW3P LW3P CLEAR LW4P LW4P floodplain storage during low-flow conditions that travels
DOVER SINK DISTRIBUTARY WATER IN THE GROUNDWATER, WATER DOVER SINK DISTRIBUTARY IAS UA UFA IAS UA UFA SPRINGS IAS UA UFA through Ledges Sink and the Catacombs Complex. IAS A hydrograph of Clear Springs IAS well shows the simultaneous response of the intermediate aquifer system Figure 48. (A) Delta deuterium in relation to delta oxygen-18 in to recharge through Dover Sink (fig. 49A-B). This well Peace River surface water and groundwater at selected well is located 500 ft east of Dover Sink and is 143 ft deep, sites and (B) the percentage of river water in groundwater using cased to 62 ft. Water levels in the sink and well are highly delta oxygen-18 (location of sampling sites are shown in fig. 13B, correlated (r2 = 0.94, fig. 49A), indicating a good hydraulic and well depths and cased intervals are shown in table 5). connection between the two sites that is consistent with the fractured karst hydrology of the upper Peace River karst area. Prolonged dry periods deplete much of the water stored within Results of this analysis indicate that the percentage of the cavernous system that underlies the upper Peace River. river water in the intermediate aquifer system ranged from Recharge waters rapidly fill the cavities through localized 33 to 85 percent (fig. 48B). There was a high fraction of river sinks when rainfall occurs. water in the groundwater at the Clear Springs IAS well (85 Geophysical well logs and slug tests performed at the percent) and LW1P IAS UA (74 percent), indicating a direct nearby LW3P IAS LA well indicate that the Clear Springs IAS connection with the Peace River and the open interval of these well is open to geologic sections that are highly transmissive. 76 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida
(A) (B) 95 93 PEACE RIVER AT CLEAR SPRINGS, DOVER SINK, DOVER SINK, 90 90 dotted when ponded dotted when dry dry when flatlined Intermittent recharge events 85 87 84 80 CLEAR SPRINGS IAS LA 81 75 GATOR SINK 78 LW3P IAS LA 70 75 65 72 2 60 r Dover Sink and Clear Springs IAS LA = 0.94 69 CLEAR SPRINGS IAS LA LW3P UFA 55 66 S O NDJFMAMJJAS 312520151051 10 155 20 2530 10 155 20 25 31 2006 2007 October November December 2006 (C) (D) 90 90 LW3P IAS LA 85 85 GATOR SINK GATOR SINK CLEAR SPRINGS IAS LA 80 80 LW4P IAS UA
75 75 LW3P IAS LA
WATER LEVEL, IN FEET ABOVE NGVD 1929 WATER 70 70
65 LW1P UFA LW3P UFA 65 LW3P UFA 60 r2 Gator Sink and LW3P IAS LA = 0.93 60 r2 Gator Sink and LW3P UFA = 0.94 55 55 LW4P UFA 50 50 S O NDJFMAMJJAS 2 510 1520 25 31 5 10 15 20 2530 510 15 19 2006 2007 March April May 2008 EXPLANATION r2 COEFFICIENT OF DETERMINATION BETWEEN UFA UPPER FLORIDAN AQUIFER UA UPPER ARCADIA AQUIFER WATER LEVELS (all regressions significant to SA SURFICIAL AQUIFER LA LOWER ARCADIA AQUIFER alpha level of 0.05) IAS INTERMEDIATE AQUIFER SYSTEM
Figure 49. Comparison of water levels in wells and sinks within the upper Peace River karst area (location of wells and sinks are shown in fig. 13B and well depths and cased intervals are shown in table 5).
These sections are located in the intermediate aquifer system Dover Sink was detected in a water sample collected from an and are composed of fractured dolomite at depths of 30 to Upper Floridan aquifer well located about 1 mi south of the 60 ft and 90 to 100 ft below land surface. In addition to the injection site. The peak concentration of the dye arrived within fractured dolomite, large volumes of water have been observed 8 hours after injection, indicating a substantial hydraulic to drain into Dover Sink, suggesting that a large cavernous connection between Dover Sink and the Upper Floridan conduit system exists. Based on measurements presented aquifer well. During this dye test, water moved at a rate of previously, the cavernous system associated with Dover Sink can store up to 10 Mgal/d under certain conditions. about 0.25 ft/s, which is similar to the velocity of a slow The existence of a highly transmissive, cavernous moving stream. Estimated velocities of regional groundwater conduit system was documented during a dye test conducted flow in the Upper Floridan aquifer are substantially lower (2.0 by McQuivey and others (1981). A dye tracer injected into x 10-7 ft/s; Plummer, 1977). Summary and Conclusions 77
Summary and Conclusions Part of the water captured by Dover Sink migrates to the LW3P well site located about 1,000 ft south of the sink. The upper Peace River from Bartow to Fort Meade, Hydrographs in figures 46B and 49B indicate that the recharge Florida, is described as a groundwater recharge area, reflecting water from Dover Sink augments Upper Floridan aquifer a reversal from historical groundwater discharge patterns that water levels at the LW3P well site. The effects of recharge existed prior to the 1950s. Historically, the area along the water can be observed when aquifer levels at the LW3P river contained artesian wells and a second magnitude spring UFA well rise above those of the LW1P UFA well (fig. 46B). (Kissengen Spring) that discharged an average of 20 Mgal/d The LW1P well site is upgradient from the LW3P well site (31 ft3/s) into the Peace River. However, groundwater levels and, therefore, water levels are typically higher near the began to decline as early as the 1930s with an increase in LW1P well site. When Dover Sink is dry, the water levels in groundwater use for mining and agricultural purposes. Due to the LW3P UFA well return to more typical gradient condi- this increased water use, a 40‑ft decline in groundwater levels tions where they are lower than those in the LW1P UFA well. over a 20-year period has resulted in the cessation of flow of Water-level fluctuations in the wells near Dover Sink demon- the artesian wells and Kissengen Spring, and flow now moves strate the rapid movement and extent of the recharge waters. downward from the surface into the underlying aquifers. Hydrographs of Gator Sink, LW3P IAS LA, and LW3P Over time, declines in streamflow have been influenced by UFA wells indicate a high degree of interconnection between a number of factors, and these losses have been attributed to the the sink, the intermediate aquifer system, and the Upper following: (1) rainfall deficits; (2) large groundwater withdrawals Floridan aquifer (fig. 49C). For the May through July 2007 that have lowered the potentiometric surfaces of the intermediate period, figure 49C indicates that water levels at Gator Sink aquifer system and Upper Floridan aquifer beneath the riverbed; were higher and fluctuated more than those of the under- (3) changes in the natural drainage patterns of contributing streams to the Peace River; (4) altered surface sediments that lying aquifers, with water levels in the sink fluctuating as affect surface runoff, infiltration, and baseflow characteristics of much as 6 ft on an approximate weekly basis. During these the basin; and (5) numerous karst features found in the low-water water-level fluctuations, groundwater was observed seeping channel and floodplain that have enhanced the loss of streamflow. into the northwestern side of the sink through cracks and A trend analysis of long-term streamflow data from the USGS fissures. These unusual fluctuations were found to be related Bartow gaging station shows a significant decline in streamflow to streamflow losses that occurred at the upstream Ledges during the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s; during the 1970s, streamflow Sink and Catacombs Complex, as well as recharge water remained statistically unchanged. Another trend analysis from a sprayfield located 0.5 mi west of Gator Sink. Both conducted using 1970s to 2003 data indicates a continued decline of these recharge sources eventually drain into Gator Sink. in streamflow during this period. During low-flow conditions, Gator Sink is a low point in the The upper Peace River is located in a basin that has been surrounding floodplain that preferentially recharges the ground- substantially altered by phosphate mining. Phosphate-mined water system. land makes up the largest land-use category in the upper Peace Hydrographs from Gator Sink and a number of wells River basin. Previously mined areas contain a large amount along the river illustrate a large pulse of water that was of clay-waste byproduct, which typically occupies about 40 introduced into the groundwater system in response to a large to 60 percent of the postmined landscape. Because of the rain event that occurred on April 1, 2008 during the dry season low hydraulic conductivity of clay, groundwater recharge (fig. 49D). The elevation in the Peace River was high enough and movement through a clay-settling area, or other altered (greater than 88 ft above NGVD 1929) for river water to landscape associated with mining, is substantially less than it travel down Gator Sink Distributary and fill Gator Sink. The was during predevelopment conditions. The amount of flow derived from contributing tributaries hydrographs in figure 49D show the large rise in the water has declined in the upper Peace River, because much of the levels of Gator Sink, with this water eventually draining into natural drainage system of these tributaries has been altered by the underlying aquifers. Data from the nearby LW3P IAS phosphate mining or agricultural activities. One of the largest LA well indicate that water levels in the lower Arcadia aquifer tributaries is the Peace Creek Drainage Canal, which has been rose about 20 ft during this event (fig. 49D). The hydrographs greatly altered by mining, and urban and agricultural develop- also illustrate that, although the storage capacity of the ment. Other tributaries such as Saddle Creek, Six-Mile Creek, underground cavities in the intermediate aquifer system was Cedar, Bear, Hamilton, and Barber Branches, and Phosphate temporarily met, the water stored in these cavities continued Mine Outfall CS‑8 have all been altered as a result of phosphate to drain downward into the underlying Upper Floridan aquifer mining. The meandering reaches and sloping gradients were because of the large water-level difference between these two replaced by flat ditches and clay-settling ponds that could aquifers that created the potential for downward flow. store large quantities of water. Therefore, a component of the 78 Hydrologic Conditions that Influence Streamflow Losses in a Karst Region of the Upper Peace River, Florida inflow to the upper Peace River has been lost because of altered During this study (2002-2007 water years), streamflow drainage patterns, impoundment of water into clay-settling was influenced by climatic conditions. The discharge in areas, and losses from these ponds due to evaporation. the river was greatest for the 2005 water year as a result of The groundwater and surface-water interactions along above-average rainfall that occurred over a 3-year period the upper Peace River have been substantially altered because (2003-2005). Average annual discharge for the 2005 water of groundwater use. Groundwater use has created a long-term year at the Peace River at Bartow gaging station was 545 ft3/s, decline in the potentiometric surface of the Upper Floridan more than double the long-term average of 227 ft3/s for the 68 aquifer that has affected interactions between the Peace years of record. The discharge in the river was lowest during River and the underlying groundwater system. When the the 2007 water year when the cumulative rainfall deficit was potentiometric-surface levels of the underlying aquifers are almost 29 in. over a 2-year period. Average annual discharge 3 lower than the elevation of the Peace River channel bed and for the 2007 water year was only 18 ft /s, and was the lowest floodplain, the potential for downward flow or recharge is on record for Peace River at Bartow. initiated, which causes streamflow declines. When groundwater Streamflow losses were related to the decline in the use for mining processes was at its greatest during May 1975, potentiometric surfaces of the intermediate aquifer system and the potentiometric surface of the Upper Floridan aquifer was the Upper Floridan aquifer below the riverbed elevation during as much as 50 ft below the elevation of the riverbed along the below-average conditions along the upper Peace River. When upper Peace River. groundwater levels were at their lowest level at the end of the As mining extraction processes have changed and mine dry season (May and June), there was an increased potential operations have moved to areas south and west of the upper for streamflow losses. During this study, the largest streamflow Peace River basin, groundwater use for mining has declined. losses occurred at the beginning of the summer rainy season The May 2007 potentiometric-surface map of the Upper when discharge in the river increased and large volumes of Floridan aquifer indicates a rise in aquifer water levels from water were needed to replenish large unfilled cavities and void spaces in the underlying aquifers. the 1975 levels, but levels remain as much as 30 ft below the The response of the river to changing groundwater levels Peace River floodplain elevation. Although groundwater levels was different in Reach 1 than in Reach 2. In Reach 1, the have increased since the days of intense mining operations, intermediate aquifer system is hydraulically connected to the the levels have not fully recovered, because there has been a river, and streamflow losses during below-average conditions redistribution of some of the pumping stresses due to popula- were proportional to water-level changes in this aquifer. During tion growth and agricultural expansion in the Southern West- the dry season in Reach 1, there was an increased potential for Central Florida Groundwater Basin. streamflow losses as aquifer levels declined, and as aquifer The upper Peace River is in a region where the river and levels increased during the rainy season, streamflow gains floodplain are characterized by extensive karst development were noted in Reach 1. In Reach 2, the upper Peace River is with numerous fractures, crevasses, and sinks that have been connected to both the intermediate aquifer system and the eroded in the limestone bedrock. With the reversal in ground- Upper Floridan aquifer through a large conduit system that water head gradients, river water drainage into the underlying is associated with Dover Sink. Because this conduit system groundwater system through these karst features constitutes is very large, it can accommodate a large proportion of flow much of the streamflow loss in this region. Seepage runs were from the river at multiple river stages. conducted along a 13‑mi segment of the Peace River, from The underlying geology along the upper Peace River and Bartow to Fort Meade, to define where the greatest streamflow floodplain is highly karstified and aids in the movement and losses occurred. Based on these seepage runs, the greatest amount of streamflow that is lost to the groundwater system in streamflow losses occurred along an approximate 2-mi section this region. Numerous karst features and fractured carbonates of the river, located about 1 mi south of the Peace River at and cavernous zones observed in geologic cores and geophys- Bartow gaging station. About 10 karst features were respon- ical logs indicate an active, well-connected, groundwater sible for the greatest streamflow losses along these reaches. flow system. Aquifer and dye tests conducted along the upper Losses from individual karst features ranged from 0.22 to Peace River indicate the presence of cavernous and highly 3 16 ft /s based on measurements made between 2002 and 2007. transmissive layers within the floodplain area that can store Along the upper part of this 2‑mi section (in Reach 1), the and transport large volumes of water in underground cavities. largest and most consistent streamflow losses occurred at the A discharge measurement made during this study indicates Ledges Sink, with measured losses ranging from 1 to 8 ft3/s. that the cavernous system associated with Dover Sink can Located at the end of this 2‑mi section (in Reach 2) is Dover accept more than 10 Mgal/d (16 ft3/s) of streamflow before the Sink, which was the most influential karst feature along the localized aquifer storage volume is replenished and the level of upper Peace River and had measured losses ranging from 2 to the sink stabilizes. Dover Sink stabilized when the pool of the 16 ft3/s. The largest measured streamflow loss for all the karst sink rose to the level of the Peace River, which was about 87 ft features in Reaches 1 and 2 was about 50 ft3/s (32 Mgal/d) on above NGVD 1929, and water levels of the interconnected June 28, 2002. aquifers were about 78 ft above NGVD 1929. References Cited 79
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